title: Development of the New Testament canon

text: In the 2nd and 3rd centuries Eusebius's "Ecclesiastical History" 6.38 says the Elchasai "made use of texts from every part of the Old Testament and the Gospels; it rejects the Apostle (Paul) entirely"; 4.29.5 says Tatian the Assyrian rejected Paul's Letters and Acts of the Apostles; 6.25 says Origen accepted 22 canonical books of the Hebrews plus Maccabees plus the four Gospels, one epistle of Peter "perhaps also a second, but this is doubtful," the apocalypse of John, by John an "epistle of very few lines; perhaps also a second and third", and the epistles of Paul who "did not so much as write to all the churches that he taught; and even to those to which he wrote he sent but a few lines." In all, Origen's canon is suggested to be identical to that of Athanasius.


title: Development of the New Testament canon

text: Marcion may have been the first to have a clearly defined list of "New Testament" books, though this question of who came first is still debated. The compilation of this list could have been a challenge and incentive to emerging Proto-orthodoxy; if they wished to deny that Marcion's list was the true one, it was incumbent on them to define what the true one "was." The expansion phase of the "New Testament canon" thus could have begun in response to Marcion's proposed "limited canon".


title: Development of the New Testament canon

text: The Muratorian fragment is the earliest known example of a defined list of mostly New Testament books. It survives, damaged and thus incomplete, as a bad Latin translation of an original, no longer extant, Greek text that is usually dated in the late 2nd century, although a few scholars have preferred a 4th-century date. This is an excerpt from Metzger's translation:


title: Development of the New Testament canon

text: This is evidence that, perhaps as early as 200, there existed a set of Christian writings somewhat similar to what is now the 27-book NT, which included four gospels and argued against objections to them.


title: Development of the New Testament canon

text: There were those who rejected the "Gospel of John" (and possibly also "Revelation" and the "Epistles of John") as either not apostolic or as written by the Gnostic Cerinthus or as not compatible with the Synoptic Gospels. Epiphanius of Salamis called these people the Alogi, because they rejected the Logos doctrine of John and because he claimed they were illogical. There may have also been a dispute over the doctrine of the Paraclete. Gaius or Caius, presbyter of Rome (early 3rd century), was apparently associated with this movement.


title: Development of the New Testament canon

text: It has recently been suggested that Origen (c. 184 – c. 253) has an identical or nearly identical canon to that of Athanasius in 367. Origen writes in his "Homilies on Joshua":


title: Development of the New Testament canon

text: Matthew first sounded the priestly trumpet in his Gospel; Mark also; Luke and John each played their own priestly trumpets. Even Peter cries out with trumpets in two of his epistles; also James and Jude. In addition, John also sounds the trumpet through his epistles, and Luke, as he describes the Acts of the Apostles. And now that last one comes, the one who said, 'I think God displays us apostles last' [1 Cor 4:9], and in fourteen of his epistles, thundering with trumpets, he casts down the walls of Jericho and all the devices of idolatry and dogmas of philosophers, all the way to the foundations.


title: Development of the New Testament canon

text: The list does not specify Revelation, but Origen elsewhere expresses confidence in the canonicity of Revelation. The list also does not specify the number of Johannine epistles as three.


title: Development of the New Testament canon

text: The Apocalypse of John, also called Revelation, is counted as both accepted (Kirsopp. Lake translation: "Recognized") and disputed, which has caused some confusion over what exactly Eusebius meant by doing so. The disputation perhaps attributed to Origen (see also ). adds further detail on Paul: "Paul's fourteen epistles are well known and undisputed. It is not indeed right to overlook the fact that some have rejected the Epistle to the Hebrews, saying that it is disputed by the Church of Rome, on the ground that it was not written by Paul." mentions the Diatessaron: "But their original founder, Tatian, formed a certain combination and collection of the Gospels, I know not how, to which he gave the title Diatessaron, and which is still in the hands of some. But they say that he ventured to paraphrase certain words of the apostle [Paul], in order to improve their style."


title: Development of the New Testament canon

text: The Codex Claromontanus , c. 303–67, a page found inserted into a 6th-century copy of the Epistles of Paul and Hebrews, has the Old Testament, including Tobit, Judith, Wisdom, Sirach, 1–2,4 Maccabees, and the New Testament, plus "Acts of Paul", "Apocalypse of Peter", Barnabas, and Hermas, but missing Philippians, 1–2 Thessalonians, and Hebrews.


title: Development of the New Testament canon

text: Zahn and Harnack were of the opinion that the list had been drawn up originally in Greek at Alexandria or its neighborhood ~300 AD. According to Jülicher the list belongs to the 4th century and is probably of western origin.


title: Development of the New Testament canon

text: In 331, Constantine I commissioned Eusebius to deliver fifty Bibles for the Church of Constantinople. Athanasius ("Apol. Const. 4") recorded Alexandrian scribes around 340 preparing Bibles for Constans. Little else is known, though there is plenty of speculation. For example, it is speculated that this may have provided motivation for canon lists, and that Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus may be examples of these Bibles. Together with the Peshitta and Codex Alexandrinus, these are the earliest extant Christian Bibles.


title: Development of the New Testament canon

text: , notes the following list of "New Testament" books from Cyril of Jerusalem (c. 350) from his "Catechetical Lectures" 4.36:


title: Development of the New Testament canon

text: The Council of Laodicea, "c." 363, was one of the first councils that set out to judge which books were to be read aloud in churches. The decrees issued by the thirty or so clerics attending were called canons. Canon 59 decreed that only canonical books should be read, but no list was appended in the Latin and Syriac manuscripts recording the decrees. The list of canonical books, Canon 60, sometimes attributed to the Council of Laodicea is a later addition according to most scholars and has a 22-book OT and 26-book NT (excludes Revelation).


title: Development of the New Testament canon

text: In his Easter letter of 367, Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, gave a list of exactly the same books as what would become the 27-book NT canon, and he used the word "canonized" (kanonizomena) in regard to them. This canon was the first time a list agreed with the current canon although the order differed with the letters of Paul being last among the letters unlike the current version.


title: Development of the New Testament canon

text: The Cheltenham List, c. 365–90, is a Latin list discovered by the German classical scholar Theodor Mommsen (published 1886) in a 10th-century manuscript (chiefly patristic) belonging to the library of Thomas Phillips at Cheltenham, England. The list probably originated in North Africa soon after the middle of the 4th century.


title: Development of the New Testament canon

text: It has a 24-book Old Testament and 24-book New Testament which provides syllable and line counts but omits Jude and James, and perhaps Hebrews, and seems to question the epistles of John and Peter beyond the first.


title: Development of the New Testament canon

text: In "c." 380, the redactor of the Apostolic Constitutions attributed a canon to the Twelve Apostles themselves as the 85th of his list of such apostolic decrees:


title: Development of the New Testament canon

text: Bishop Amphilochius of Iconium, in his poem "Iambics for Seleucus" written some time after 394, discusses debate over the inclusion of a number of books that should be received, and seems uncertain about the later Epistles of Peter and John, Jude, and Revelation.


title: Development of the New Testament canon

text: Pope Damasus's commissioning of the Latin Vulgate edition of the Bible to Jerome, c. 383, was instrumental in the fixation of the canon in the West. Pope Damasus I is often considered to be the father of the Catholic canon, since what is thought as his list corresponds to the current Catholic canon. Purporting to date from a "Council of Rome" under Pope Damasus I in 382, the so-called "Damasian list" which some attributed to the "Decretum Gelasianum" gives a list identical to what would be the Canon of Trent, and, though the text may in fact not be Damasian, it is at least a valuable 6th century compilation.


title: Development of the New Testament canon

text: The so-called "Decretum Gelasianum de libris recipiendis et non recipiendis", is traditionally attributed to Pope Gelasius I, bishop of Rome 492–496 AD. However, upon the whole, it is probably of South Gallic origin (6th century), but several parts can be traced back to Pope Damasus and reflect Roman tradition. The 2nd part is a canon catalogue, and the 5th part is a catalogue of apocryphal writings which are to be rejected. The canon catalogue gives all 27 books of the "Catholic New Testament".


title: Development of the New Testament canon

text: Augustine of Hippo declared that one is to "prefer those that are received by all Catholic Churches to those which some of them do not receive. Among those, again, which are not received by all, he will prefer such as have the sanction of the greater number and those of greater authority, to such as are held by the smaller number and those of less authority." (On Christian Doctrines 2.12, chapter 8).


title: Development of the New Testament canon

text: The first council that accepted the present canon of the books of the New Testament may have been the Synod of Hippo in North Africa (393). A brief summary of the acts was read at and accepted by the Synod of Carthage (397) and Council of Carthage (419). These councils were convened under the authority of St. Augustine, who regarded the canon as already closed. This North African canon was reaffirmed at the Council of Trent of 1546.


title: Development of the New Testament canon

text: In c. 405, Pope Innocent I sent a list of the sacred books to a Gallic bishop, Exsuperius of Toulouse, identical with that of Trent. It states "fourteen" Epistles of Paul, but F.F. Bruce prefers "thirteen" excluding the Hebrews. According to the "Catholic Encyclopedia", by the turn of the 5th century, the Western Church under Pope Innocent I recognized a biblical canon including the four gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, which was previously established at a number of regional Synods, namely the Council of Rome (382), the Synod of Hippo (393), and two Councils of Carthage (397 and 419).


title: Development of the New Testament canon

text: The Eastern Churches had, in general, a weaker feeling than those in the West for the necessity of making a sharp delineation with regard to the canon. They were more conscious of the gradation of spiritual quality among the books that they accepted (e.g. the classification of Eusebius, see also Antilegomena) and were less often disposed to assert that the books which they rejected possessed no spiritual quality at all. Similarly, the New Testament canons of the Syriac, Armenian, Georgian, Egyptian Coptic and Ethiopian Churches all have minor differences.


title: Development of the New Testament canon

text: In the 4th century, the Doctrine of Addai lists a 17-book NT canon using the Diatessaron and Acts and 15 Pauline epistles (including 3rd Corinthians). The Syriac Doctrine of Addai (c. 400) claims to record the oldest traditions of the Syriac Christianity, and among these is the establishment of a canon: members of the church are to read only the Gospel (meaning the Diatessaron of Tatian), the Epistles of Paul (which are said to have been sent by Peter, from Rome), and the Book of Acts (which is said to have been sent by John the son of Zebedee, from Ephesus), and nothing else.


title: Development of the New Testament canon

text: By the 5th century, the Syriac Bible, called the Peshitta, was formalized, accepting Philemon, along with James, 1 Peter and 1 John, but excluding 2 John, 3 John, 2 Peter, Jude and Revelation. After the Council of Ephesus, the Church of the East became separated, and retained this canon of only 22-books (the Peshitta) up to the present day. The Syriac Orthodox Church uses this text as well (known in the West Syriac dialect as the Peshitto), but with the addition of the other books normally present in the New Testament canon.


title: Development of the New Testament canon

text: The late-5th or early-6th century Peshitta of the Syriac Orthodox Church includes a 22-book NT, excluding II Peter, II John, III John, Jude, and Revelation. The "Lee Peshitta" of 1823 follows the Protestant canon.


title: Development of the New Testament canon

text: The Syriac Peshitta, used by all the various Syriac Churches, originally did not include 2 Peter, 2 John, 3 John, Jude and Revelation (and this canon of 22 books is the one cited by John Chrysostom (~347–407) and Theodoret (393–466) from the School of Antioch). It also includes Psalm 151 and Psalm 152–155 and 2 Baruch. Western Syrians have added the remaining 5 books to their NT canons in modern times (such as the "Lee Peshitta" of 1823). Today, the official lectionaries followed by the Malankara Syrian Orthodox Church, with headquarters at Kottayam (India), and the Chaldean Syrian Church, also known as the Church of the East (Nestorian), with headquarters at Trichur (India), still present lessons from only the 22-books of the original Peshitta.


title: Development of the New Testament canon

text: The Armenian Bible introduces one addition: a third letter to the Corinthians, also found in the Acts of Paul, which became canonized in the Armenian Church, but is not part of the Armenian Bible today. The Book of Revelation was not accepted into the Armenian Bible until c. 1200 AD when Archbishop Nerses arranged an Armenian Synod at Constantinople to introduce the text. Still, there were unsuccessful attempts even as late as 1290 AD to include in the Armenian canon several apocryphal books: Advice of the Mother of God to the Apostles, the Books of Criapos, and the ever-popular Epistle of Barnabas.


title: Development of the New Testament canon

text: The Armenian Apostolic church at times has included the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs in its Old Testament and the Third Epistle to the Corinthians, but does not always list them with the other 27 canonical New Testament books.


title: Development of the New Testament canon

text: The New Testament of the Coptic Bible, adopted by the Egyptian Church, includes the two Epistles of Clement. The canon of the Tewahedo Churches is somewhat looser than for other traditional Christian groups, and the order, naming, and chapter/verse division of some of the books is also slightly different.


title: Development of the New Testament canon

text: The Ethiopian "narrow" canon includes 81 books altogether: The 27 book New Testament; those Old Testament books found in the Septuagint and accepted by the Orthodox; as well as Enoch, Jubilees, 2 Esdras, Rest of the Words of Baruch and 3 books of Meqabyan (these three Ethiopian books of Maccabees are entirely different in content from the four Books of Maccabees known elsewhere).


title: Development of the New Testament canon

text: The "broader" Ethiopian New Testament canon includes four books of "Sinodos" (church practices), two "Books of Covenant", "Ethiopic Clement", and "Ethiopic Didascalia" (Apostolic Church-Ordinances). However, these books have never been printed or widely studied. This "broader" canon is also sometimes said to include, with the Old Testament, an eight-part history of the Jews based on the writings of Flavius Josephus, and known as "Pseudo-Josephus" or "Joseph ben Gurion" ("Yosēf walda Koryon").


title: Development of the New Testament canon

text: The "Encyclopedia of Theology" says that the 27 books which make up the New Testament canon of Scripture are not based on a Scriptural list that authenticates them to be inspired, thus their legitimacy is considered impossible to be distinguished with certainty without appealing to another infallible source, such as the Magisterium of the Catholic Church which first assembled and authenticated this list at the Council of Rome. Catholicism considers the Magisterium, i.e. the teaching authority, has equal position and linked together with Sacred Tradition and Sacred Scripture, each acts in its own way for the goodness of the Church. Rejecting these, Protestant reformers focused on the doctrine of "sola scriptura", i.e. the supreme authority of Scripture alone. "Sola scriptura" is one of the five "sola"s, considered by some Protestant groups to be the theological pillars of the Protestant Reformation.


title: Development of the New Testament canon

text: Martin Luther was troubled by four books, referred to as Luther's Antilegomena: Jude, James, Hebrews, and Revelation; while he placed them in a secondary position relative to the rest, he did not exclude them. He did propose removing them from the canon, echoing the consensus of several Catholics such as Cardinal Cajetan and Erasmus, and partially because they were perceived to go against certain Protestant doctrines such as sola gratia and sola fide, but this was not generally accepted among his followers. However, these books are ordered last in the German-language Luther Bible to this day.


title: Development of the New Testament canon

text: The Council of Trent on April 8, 1546, approved the enforcement of the present Roman Catholic Bible Canon including the Deuterocanonical Books as an article of faith, and the decision was confirmed by an anathema by vote (24 yea, 15 nay, 16 abstain). This is said to be the same list as produced at the Council of Florence (Session 11, 4 February 1442), Augustine's 397-419 Councils of Carthage, and probably Damasus' 382 Council of Rome. Because of its placement, the list was not considered binding for the Catholic Church, and in light of Martin Luther's demands, the Catholic Church examined the question of the Canon again at the Council of Trent, which reaffirmed the canon of previous councils and added the anathema against attempts to change the contents of the canon.


title: Development of the New Testament canon

text: The First Vatican Council on April 24, 1870, approved the additions to Mark (v. 16:9–20), Luke (22:19b–20, 43–44), and John (7:53–8:11), which are not present in early manuscripts but are contained in the Vulgate edition.


title: Development of the New Testament canon

text: Pope Pius XII on 3 September 1943 issued the encyclical "Divino afflante Spiritu", which allowed translations based on texts other than the Latin Vulgate.


title: Development of the New Testament canon

text: The Synod of Jerusalem in 1672 decreed the Greek Orthodox Canon which is similar to the one decided by the Council of Trent. They "call[ed] Sacred Scripture all those [books] which Cyril collected from the Synod of Laodicea, and enumerated, adding to Scripture those which he foolishly and ignorantly, or rather maliciously, called Apocrypha; specifically, [List of deuterocanonical books...]."


title: Development of the New Testament canon

text: But it is to be noted that this was simply an affirmation of tradition, not a new canonization. As the Confession goes on to state, "ancient custom, or rather the Catholic Church, which has delivered to us as genuine the Sacred Gospels and the other Books of Scripture, has undoubtedly delivered these [deuterocanonical books] also as parts of Scripture... And if, perhaps, it seems that not always have all of these been considered on the same level as the others, yet nevertheless these also have been counted and reckoned with the rest of Scripture, both by Synods and by many of the most ancient and eminent Theologians of the Catholic Church. All of these we also judge to be Canonical Books, and confess them to be Sacred Scripture..."


title: 12.7×55mm STs-130

text: The 12.7×55mm cartridge is used in some Russian firearms such as VKS bullpup sniper rifle and ShAK-12 bullpup battle rifle and RSh-12 revolver. The cartridge can carry a projectile weighing between from 108 grains and 1173 grains and is predominantly used to fire heavy subsonic loads. The high penetration VKS round can penetrate up to of steel at or body armor up to GOST 5 or NIJ III at . The accuracy of this cartridge when loaded with precision VKS bullets is claimed to be one MOA at up to the effective range limit of .


title: 12.7×55mm STs-130

text: Despite being chambered in the same cartridge, the ShAK-12 (and RSh-12) would not be able to feed or chamber rounds designed for the VKS due to significant length differences in the bullet component of the cartridge and thus requires its own, shorter, loads. The ShAK-12 rounds have less range compared to the VKS with the maximum effective range of the loads reaching in between .


title: Vladimir, Russia

text: Vladimir () is a city and the administrative center of Vladimir Oblast, Russia, located on the Klyazma River, east of Moscow. It is served by a railway and the M7 motorway. Population:


title: Vladimir, Russia

text: Vladimir was one of the medieval capitals of Russia, with significant buildings surviving from the 12th century. Two of its Russian Orthodox cathedrals, a monastery, and associated buildings have been designated as among the White Monuments of Vladimir and Suzdal, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. In the past, the city was also known as Vladimir-on-Klyazma () and Vladimir-Zalessky (), to distinguish it from another Vladimir in Volhynia (modern Ukraine).


title: Vladimir, Russia

text: The founding date of Vladimir is disputed between 990 and 1108. In the "Novgorod First Chronicle", Vladimir is mentioned under the year 1108, and during the Soviet period, this year was decreed to be its foundation year with the view that attributes the founding of the city, and its name, to Vladimir Monomakh, who inherited the region as part of the Rostov-Suzdal Principality in 1093. It is named there as "Volodimer". The chronicles also describe how inhabitants from neighbouring towns, namely Suzdal and Rostov, alluded to Vladimir as a young town. Accordingly, the 850th anniversary of the city foundation was celebrated in 1958, with many monuments from the celebrations adorning the city; this enabled Nikita Khrushchev, who recently took power in the Soviet Union, to link his administration with early Russian history.


title: Vladimir, Russia

text: In the 1990s, a new opinion developed that the city was instead founded in 990 by Vladimir the Great, with local historians supporting the alternative foundation date and citing various chronicle sources. Scholars reinterpreted certain passages in the "Hypatian Codex," which mentions that the region was visited by Vladimir the Great, the "father" of Russian Orthodoxy, in 990, so as to move the city foundation date to that year. The Charter of Vladimir, the basic law of the city passed in 2005, explicitly mentions 990 as the date of the city's foundation. The city administration officially recognizes 990 as the foundation date.


title: Vladimir, Russia

text: The city's most historically significant events occurred after the turn of the 12th century. Serving its original purpose as a defensive outpost for the Rostov-Suzdal Principality, Vladimir had little political or military influence throughout the reign of Vladimir Monomakh (1113–1125), or his son Yury Dolgoruky ("Far-Reaching") (1154–1157).


title: Vladimir, Russia

text: Under Dolgoruky's son, Andrey Bogolyubsky (1157–1175) (also known as Andrew the Pious), the city became the center of the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality. It had a Golden Age, which lasted until the Mongol invasion of Rus' in 1237. During this time, Vladimir enjoyed immense growth and prosperity. Andrey oversaw the building of the city's Golden Gates and the Dormition Cathedral. In 1164, Andrey attempted to establish a new metropolitanate in Vladimir, separate from that of Kiev. He was rebuffed by the Patriarch of Constantinople.


title: Vladimir, Russia

text: Scores of Russian, German, and Georgian masons worked on Vladimir's white stone cathedrals, monastery, towers, and palaces. Unlike any other northern buildings, their exterior was elaborately carved with high relief stone sculptures. Only three of these edifices stand today: the Dormition Cathedral, the Cathedral of Saint Demetrius, and the Golden Gate. They are included among the White Monuments of Vladimir and Suzdal, designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.


title: Vladimir, Russia

text: During Andrey's reign, a royal palace in Bogolyubovo was built, as well as the world-famous Church of the Intercession on the Nerl, now considered one of the jewels of ancient Russian architecture. Andrey was assassinated at his palace at Bogolyubovo in 1175.


title: Vladimir, Russia

text: Vladimir was besieged by the Mongol-Tatars of the Golden Horde under Batu Khan. It was finally overrun on February 8, 1238. A great fire destroyed thirty-two limestone buildings on the first day alone, while the grand prince's family perished in a church where they sought refuge from the flames. The grand prince escaped, but was killed at the Battle of the Sit River the following month.


title: Vladimir, Russia

text: After the Mongols, Vladimir never fully recovered. The most important Rus prince (usually the Prince of Moscow, but sometimes a Tver or another principality) was styled the Grand Prince of Vladimir, but the title had become an honorific symbol of majesty. From 1299 to 1325, the city was seat of the metropolitans of Kiev and All Rus', until Metropolitan Peter moved the See to Moscow in 1325.


title: Vladimir, Russia

text: The Grand Princes of Vladimir were originally crowned in Vladimir's Assumption Cathedral, but when Moscow superseded Vladimir in the 14th Century as the seat of the Grand Prince, the Assumption Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin became the site of their coronation. The Moscow cathedral was loosely copied by the Italian architect Aristotele Fioravanti from Vladimir's original.


title: Vladimir, Russia

text: After the rise of Moscow, Grand Princes of Moscow continued to build several new churches in Vladimir. Notable examples include the Annunciation Church at Snovitsy (ca. 1501), three kilometers northwest of the city, and a church in the Knyaginin Nunnery (ca. 1505), which today includes murals dating from 1648.


title: Vladimir, Russia

text: Remains of the prince-saint Alexander Nevsky were kept in the ancient Nativity Abbey of Vladimir until 1703, when Peter the Great had them transferred to the Monastery (now Lavra) of Alexander Nevsky in St. Petersburg. The Nativity Church (built from 1191 to 1196) collapsed several years later, after workmen tried to fashion more windows in its walls in an effort to brighten the interior.


title: Vladimir, Russia

text: The city was the center of , part of Moscow Governorate from its establishment by Peter the Great in 1708. Vladimir was separated from Moscow Governorate and made the center of a new by a ukase of Catherine the Great in 1778. In 1796, Paul I's administrative reform transformed the viceroyalty into the in the same borders.


title: Vladimir, Russia

text: In the years 1838-1840, Alexander Herzen was exiled in Vladimir, passing through the city on the infamous "Vladimirka".


title: Vladimir, Russia

text: In December 1858 the city began to operate telegraph. On June 14, 1861, the began to operate through Vladimir. In 1866, construction of a running water supply was completed, with telephone lines being put up in 1887 and the first electrical power lines on December 5, 1908.


title: Vladimir, Russia

text: After the establishment of Soviet power, many streets were renamed in Vladimir; most of the parish churches were closed and condemned to be demolished.


title: Vladimir, Russia

text: In the first decades of Soviet rule industrialization occurred in Vladimir. On January 14, 1929, the Vladimir Governorate was abolished and the city became part of the newly formed Ivanovo Industrial Oblast.


title: Vladimir, Russia

text: On August 14, 1944, Vladimir became the administrative center of a new Vladimir Oblast carved from Ivanovo Oblast. In 1950 from the basis of the teachers' institute the Vladimir Pedagogical Institute was created. On November 5, 1952 the first trolleybus line began to operate in the city.


title: Vladimir, Russia

text: In 1958 the was created, composed of a group of unique architectural monuments of Russian defense and church architecture. The monuments are located in three cities—Vladimir, Suzdal and Gus-Khrustalny—as well as villages of Bogolyubovo and Kideksha.


title: Vladimir, Russia

text: Architecture of the Soviet period is represented by such structures as building complexes and polytechnic colleges, the Torpedo Stadium (built 1952), a reinforced concrete arch bridge over the river Klyaz'ma (1960), the Hotel Vladimir (1956), the Drama Theatre (1971) and others. In 1971 the city was awarded the Order of Red Banner of Labor.


title: Vladimir, Russia

text: Vladimir is the administrative center of the oblast. Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is, together with seventeen rural localities, incorporated as the City of Vladimir—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the City of Vladimir is incorporated as Vladimir Urban Okrug.


title: Vladimir, Russia

text: Vladimir is home to several electrical and chemical factories, several food processing plants and two large thermal power stations. Tourism related to the historical sites is a major contributor to the city economy.


title: Vladimir, Russia

text: The headquarters of the 27th Guards Rocket Army of the Strategic Missile Troops is located in the city. During the Cold War, Vladimir was host to the Dobrynskoye air force base.


title: Vladimir, Russia

text: Since 1861, there has been a railway connection between Vladimir and Moscow. Vladimir is also linked to Moscow and Nizhny Novgorod by the M7 highway. Local transport includes buses, trolleybuses, fixed-route minivans, and taxis.


title: Vladimir, Russia

text: Vladimir bus service links the city to all the district centers of Vladimir Oblast, as well as Moscow, Ivanovo, Kostroma, Nizhny Novgorod, Ryazan, Yaroslavl and other cities.


title: Vladimir, Russia

text: At least 20 pairs of long-distance trains pass daily through Vladimir station, giving Vladimir year-round direct rail links to Moscow (Kursk Station), St. Petersburg and Nizhny Novgorod. Since the summer of 2010 Vladimir (on the Nizhny Novgorod line) is a stopping point for the "Peregrine Falcon" high-speed train.


title: Vladimir, Russia

text: Developed suburban rail: Vladimir was the only city in Russia with concurrent commuter trains two Russian cities with subways.


title: Vladimir, Russia

text: Vladimir experiences a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification "Dfb") with long, cold winters and short, warm summers.


title: Vladimir, Russia

text: Modern Vladimir is a part of the Golden Ring of ancient Russian cities and a popular tourist destination. Its three chief monuments, White Monuments of Vladimir and Suzdal, inscribed by UNESCO on the World Heritage List, are the following:


title: Vladimir, Russia

text: Other remarkable monuments of pre-Mongol Russian architecture are scattered in the vicinity. For more information on them, see Suzdal, Yuriev-Polsky, Bogolyubovo, and Kideksha.


title: Vladimir, Russia

text: The city association football team, FC Torpedo Vladimir, currently plays in the second tier of Russian football having entered the league after seventeen years of competing in Russian third and fourth tiers.


title: Vladimir, Russia

text: Vladimir VC (previously known as Skat and Dinamo Vladimir) represents the city in Volleyball Major League B – Zone Europe. Vladimir is also home to Polaris-Vladimir ice hockey club, which competes in regional hockey competitions and Russian minor leagues, and Luch, which has both male and female table-tennis teams.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: Arabidopsis thaliana, the thale cress, mouse-ear cress or arabidopsis, is a small flowering plant native to Eurasia and Africa. "A. thaliana" is considered a weed; it is found along the shoulders of roads and in disturbed land.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: A winter annual with a relatively short lifecycle, "A. thaliana" is a popular model organism in plant biology and genetics. For a complex multicellular eukaryote, "A. thaliana" has a relatively small genome around 135 megabase pairs. It was the first plant to have its genome sequenced, and is a popular tool for understanding the molecular biology of many plant traits, including flower development and light sensing.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: "Arabidopsis thaliana" is an annual (rarely biennial) plant, usually growing to 20–25 cm tall. The leaves form a rosette at the base of the plant, with a few leaves also on the flowering stem. The basal leaves are green to slightly purplish in color, 1.5–5 cm long, and 2–10 mm broad, with an entire to coarsely serrated margin; the stem leaves are smaller and unstalked, usually with an entire margin. Leaves are covered with small, unicellular hairs called trichomes. The flowers are 3 mm in diameter, arranged in a corymb; their structure is that of the typical Brassicaceae. The fruit is a siliqua 5–20 mm long, containing 20–30 seeds. Roots are simple in structure, with a single primary root that grows vertically downward, later producing smaller lateral roots. These roots form interactions with rhizosphere bacteria such as "Bacillus megaterium".


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: "A. thaliana" can complete its entire lifecycle in six weeks. The central stem that produces flowers grows after about 3 weeks, and the flowers naturally self-pollinate. In the lab, "A. thaliana" may be grown in Petri plates, pots, or hydroponics, under fluorescent lights or in a greenhouse.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: The plant was first described in 1577 in the Harz Mountains by (1542–1583), a physician from Nordhausen, Thüringen, Germany, who called it "Pilosella siliquosa". In 1753, Carl Linnaeus renamed the plant "Arabis thaliana" in honor of Thal. In 1842, German botanist Gustav Heynhold erected the new genus "Arabidopsis" and placed the plant in that genus. The generic name, "Arabidopsis", comes from Greek, meaning "resembling "Arabis"" (the genus in which Linnaeus had initially placed it).


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: Thousands of natural inbred accessions of "A. thaliana" have been collected from throughout its natural and introduced range. These accessions exhibit considerable genetic and phenotypic variation, which can be used to study the adaptation of this species to different environments.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: "A. thaliana" is native to Europe, Asia, and Africa, and its geographic distribution is rather continuous from the Mediterranean to Scandinavia and Spain to Greece. It also appears to be native in tropical alpine ecosystems in Africa and perhaps South Africa. It has been introduced and naturalized worldwide, including in North America around the 17th century.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: "A. thaliana" readily grows and often pioneers rocky, sandy, and calcareous soils. It is generally considered a weed, due to its widespread distribution in agricultural fields, roadsides, railway lines, waste ground, and other disturbed habitats, but due to its limited competitive ability and small size, it is not categorized as a noxious weed. Like most Brassicaceae species, "A. thaliana" is edible by humans in a salad or cooked, but it does not enjoy widespread use as a spring vegetable.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: Botanists and biologists began to research "A. thaliana" in the early 1900s, and the first systematic description of mutants was done around 1945. "A. thaliana" is now widely used for studying plant sciences, including genetics, evolution, population genetics, and plant development. Although "A. thaliana" has little direct significance for agriculture, several of its traits make it a useful model for understanding the genetic, cellular, and molecular biology of flowering plants.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: The first mutant in "A. thaliana" was documented in 1873 by Alexander Braun, describing a double flower phenotype (the mutated gene was likely "Agamous", cloned and characterized in 1990). Friedrich Laibach (who had published the chromosome number in 1907) did not propose "A. thaliana" as a model organism, though, until 1943. His student, Erna Reinholz, published her thesis on "A. thaliana" in 1945, describing the first collection of "A. thaliana" mutants that they generated using X-ray mutagenesis. Laibach continued his important contributions to "A. thaliana" research by collecting a large number of accessions (often questionably referred to as "ecotypes"). With the help of Albert Kranz, these were organised into a large collection of 750 natural accessions of "A. thaliana" from around the world.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: In the 1950s and 1960s, John Langridge and George Rédei played an important role in establishing "A. thaliana" as a useful organism for biological laboratory experiments. Rédei wrote several scholarly reviews instrumental in introducing the model to the scientific community. The start of the "A. thaliana" research community dates to a newsletter called "Arabidopsis" Information Service, established in 1964. The first International "Arabidopsis" Conference was held in 1965, in Göttingen, Germany.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: In the 1980s, "A. thaliana" started to become widely used in plant research laboratories around the world. It was one of several candidates that included maize, petunia, and tobacco. The latter two were attractive, since they were easily transformable with the then-current technologies, while maize was a well-established genetic model for plant biology. The breakthrough year for "A. thaliana" as a model plant was 1986, in which T-DNA-mediated transformation and the first cloned "A. thaliana" gene were described.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: Due to the small size of its genome, and because it is diploid, "Arabidopsis thaliana" is useful for genetic mapping and sequencing — with about 157 megabase pairs and five chromosomes, "A. thaliana" has one of the smallest genomes among plants. It was long thought to have the smallest genome of all flowering plants, but that title is now considered to belong to plants in the genus "Genlisea", order Lamiales, with "Genlisea tuberosa", a carnivorous plant, showing a genome size of approximately 61 Mbp. It was the first plant genome to be sequenced, completed in 2000 by the Arabidopsis Genome Initiative. The most up-to-date version of the "A. thaliana" genome is maintained by the Arabidopsis Information Resource.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: The genome encodes ~27,600 protein-coding genes and about 6,500 non-coding genes. However, the Uniprot database lists 39,342 proteins in their "Arabidopsis" reference proteome. Among the 27,600 protein-coding genes 25,402 (91.8%) are now annotated with "meaningful" product names, although a large fraction of these proteins is likely only poorly understood and only known in general terms (e.g. as "DNA-binding protein without known specificity"). Uniprot lists more than 3,000 proteins as "uncharacterized" as part of the reference proteome.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: The plastome of "A. thaliana" is a 154,478 base-pair-long DNA molecule, a size typically encountered in most flowering plants (see the list of sequenced plastomes). It comprises 136 genes coding for small subunit ribosomal proteins ("rps", in yellow: see figure), large subunit ribosomal proteins ("rpl", orange), hypothetical chloroplast open reading frame proteins ("ycf", lemon), proteins involved in photosynthetic reactions (green) or in other functions (red), ribosomal RNAs ("rrn", blue), and transfer RNAs ("trn", black).


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: The mitochondrial genome of "A. thaliana" is 367,808 base pairs long and contains 57 genes. There are many repeated regions in the "Arabidopsis" mitochondrial genome. The largest repeats recombine regularly and isomerize the genome. Like most plant mitochondrial genomes, the "Arabidopsis" mitochondrial genome exists as a complex arrangement of overlapping branched and linear molecules "in vivo".


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: Genetic transformation of "A. thaliana" is routine, using "Agrobacterium tumefaciens" to transfer DNA into the plant genome. The current protocol, termed "floral dip", involves simply dipping flowers into a solution containing "Agrobacterium" carrying a plasmid of interest and a detergent. This method avoids the need for tissue culture or plant regeneration.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: The "A. thaliana" gene knockout collections are a unique resource for plant biology made possible by the availability of high-throughput transformation and funding for genomics resources. The site of T-DNA insertions has been determined for over 300,000 independent transgenic lines, with the information and seeds accessible through online T-DNA databases. Through these collections, insertional mutants are available for most genes in "A. thaliana".


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: Characterized accessions and mutant lines of "A. thaliana" serve as experimental material in laboratory studies. The most commonly used background lines are L"er" (Landsberg "erecta"), and Col, or Columbia. Other background lines less-often cited in the scientific literature are Ws, or Wassilewskija, C24, Cvi, or Cape Verde Islands, Nossen, etc. (see for ex.) Sets of closely related accessions named Col-0, Col-1, etc., have been obtained and characterized; in general, mutant lines are available through stock centers, of which best-known are the Nottingham Arabidopsis Stock Center-NASC and the Arabidopsis Biological Resource Center-ABRC in Ohio, USA.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: The Col-0 accession was selected by Rédei from within a (nonirradiated) population of seeds designated 'Landsberg' which he received from Laibach. Columbia (named for the location of Rédei's former institution, University of Missouri-Columbia) was the reference accession sequenced in the "Arabidopsis" Genome Initiative. The Later (Landsberg erecta) line was selected by Rédei (because of its short stature) from a Landsberg population he had mutagenized with X-rays. As the L"er" collection of mutants is derived from this initial line, L"er"-0 does not correspond to the Landsberg accessions, which designated La-0, La-1, etc.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: Trichome formation is initiated by the GLABROUS1 protein. Knockouts of the corresponding gene lead to glabrous plants. This phenotype has already been used in gene editing experiments and might be of interest as visual marker for plant research to improve gene editing methods such as CRISPR/Cas9.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: In 2005, scientists at Purdue University proposed that "A. thaliana" possessed an alternative to previously known mechanisms of DNA repair, producing an unusual pattern of inheritance, but the phenomenon observed (reversion of mutant copies of the "HOTHEAD" gene to a wild-type state) was later suggested to be an artifact because the mutants show increased outcrossing due to organ fusion.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: The plant's small size and rapid lifecycle are also advantageous for research. Having specialized as a spring ephemeral, it has been used to found several laboratory strains that take about 6 weeks from germination to mature seed. The small size of the plant is convenient for cultivation in a small space, and it produces many seeds. Further, the selfing nature of this plant assists genetic experiments. Also, as an individual plant can produce several thousand seeds, each of the above criteria leads to "A. thaliana" being valued as a genetic model organism.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: "Arabidopsis" is often the model for study of SNAREs in plants. This has shown SNAREs to be heavily involved in vesicle trafficking. Zheng et al. 1999 found an "Arabidopsis" SNARE called is probably essential to Golgi-vacuole trafficking. This is still a wide open field and plant SNAREs' role in trafficking remains understudied.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: The DNA of plants is vulnerable to ultraviolet light, and DNA repair mechanisms have evolved to avoid or repair genome damage caused by UV. Kaiser et al. showed that in "A. thaliana" cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPDs) induced by UV light can be repaired by expression of CPD photolyase.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: On May 12, 2022, NASA announced that specimens of "Arabidopsis thaliana" had been successfully germinated and grown in samples of lunar regolith. While the plants successfully germinated and grew into seedlings, they were not as robust as specimens that had been grown in volcanic ash as a control group, although the experiments also found some variation in the plants grown in regolith based on the location the samples were taken from, as "A. thaliana" grown in regolith gathered during Apollo 12 & Apollo 17 were more robust than those grown in samples taken during Apollo 11.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: "A. thaliana "has been extensively studied as a model for flower development. The developing flower has four basic organs - sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels (which go on to form pistils). These organs are arranged in a series of whorls, four sepals on the outer whorl, followed by four petals inside this, six stamens, and a central carpel region. Homeotic mutations in "A. thaliana" result in the change of one organ to another—in the case of the "agamous" mutation, for example, stamens become petals and carpels are replaced with a new flower, resulting in a recursively repeated sepal-petal-petal pattern.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: Observations of homeotic mutations led to the formulation of the ABC model of flower development by E. Coen and E. Meyerowitz. According to this model, floral organ identity genes are divided into three classes - class A genes (which affect sepals and petals), class B genes (which affect petals and stamens), and class C genes (which affect stamens and carpels). These genes code for transcription factors that combine to cause tissue specification in their respective regions during development. Although developed through study of "A. thaliana" flowers, this model is generally applicable to other flowering plants.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: Studies of "A. thaliana" have provided considerable insights with regards to the genetics of leaf morphogenesis, particularly in dicotyledon-type plants. Much of the understanding has come from analyzing mutants in leaf development, some of which were identified in the 1960s, but were not analysed with genetic and molecular techniques until the mid-1990s. "A. thaliana" leaves are well suited to studies of leaf development because they are relatively simple and stable.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: Using "A. thaliana", the genetics behind leaf shape development have become more clear and have been broken down into three stages: The initiation of the leaf primordium, the establishment of dorsiventrality, and the development of a marginal meristem. Leaf primordia are initiated by the suppression of the genes and proteins of class I "KNOX" family (such as "SHOOT APICAL MERISTEMLESS"). These class I KNOX proteins directly suppress gibberellin biosynthesis in the leaf primordium. Many genetic factors were found to be involved in the suppression of these class I "KNOX" genes in leaf primordia (such as "ASYMMETRIC LEAVES1," "BLADE-ON-PETIOLE1", "SAWTOOTH1", etc.). Thus, with this suppression, the levels of gibberellin increase and leaf primordium initiate growth.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: The establishment of leaf dorsiventrality is important since the dorsal (adaxial) surface of the leaf is different from the ventral (abaxial) surface.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: "A. thaliana" is well suited for light microscopy analysis. Young seedlings on the whole, and their roots in particular, are relatively translucent. This, together with their small size, facilitates live cell imaging using both fluorescence and confocal laser scanning microscopy. By wet-mounting seedlings in water or in culture media, plants may be imaged uninvasively, obviating the need for fixation and sectioning and allowing time-lapse measurements. Fluorescent protein constructs can be introduced through transformation. The developmental stage of each cell can be inferred from its location in the plant or by using fluorescent protein markers, allowing detailed developmental analysis.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: The photoreceptors phytochromes A, B, C, D, and E mediate red light-based phototropic response. Understanding the function of these receptors has helped plant biologists understand the signaling cascades that regulate photoperiodism, germination, de-etiolation, and shade avoidance in plants. The genes "FCA", "fy", "fpa", "LUMINIDEPENDENS" ("ld"), "fly", "fve" and "FLOWERING LOCUS C" ("FLC") are involved in photoperiod triggering of flowering and vernalization. Specifically Lee et al 1994 find "ld" produces a homeodomain and Blazquez et al 2001 that "fve" produces a WD40 repeat.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: "A. thaliana" was used extensively in the study of the genetic basis of phototropism, chloroplast alignment, and stomal aperture and other blue light-influenced processes. These traits respond to blue light, which is perceived by the phototropin light receptors. "Arabidopsis" has also been important in understanding the functions of another blue light receptor, cryptochrome, which is especially important for light entrainment to control the plants' circadian rhythms. When the onset of darkness is unusually early, "A. thaliana" reduces its metabolism of starch by an amount that effectively requires division.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: Light responses were even found in roots, previously thought to be largely insensitive to light. While the gravitropic response of "A. thaliana" root organs is their predominant tropic response, specimens treated with mutagens and selected for the absence of gravitropic action showed negative phototropic response to blue or white light, and positive response to red light, indicating that the roots also show positive phototropism.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: In 2000, Dr. Janet Braam of Rice University genetically engineered "A. thaliana" to glow in the dark when touched. The effect was visible to ultrasensitive cameras.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: Multiple efforts, including the Glowing Plant project, have sought to use "A. thaliana" to increase plant luminescence intensity towards commercially viable levels.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: On January 2, 2019, China's Chang'e-4 lander brought "A. thaliana" to the moon. A small microcosm 'tin' in the lander contained "A. thaliana", seeds of potatoes, and silkworm eggs. As plants would support the silkworms with oxygen, and the silkworms would in turn provide the plants with necessary carbon dioxide and nutrients through their waste, researchers will evaluate whether plants successfully perform photosynthesis, and grow and bloom in the lunar environment.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: is an "Arabidopsis" root triterpene. Potter "et al.", 2018 finds synthesis is induced by a combination of at least 2 facts, cell-specific transcription factors (TFs) and the accessibility of the chromatin.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: Understanding how plants achieve resistance is important to protect the world's food production, and the agriculture industry. Many model systems have been developed to better understand interactions between plants and bacterial, fungal, oomycete, viral, and nematode pathogens. "A. thaliana" has been a powerful tool for the study of the subdiscipline of plant pathology, that is, the interaction between plants and disease-causing pathogens.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: The use of "A. thaliana" has led to many breakthroughs in the advancement of knowledge of how plants manifest plant disease resistance. The reason most plants are resistant to most pathogens is through nonhost resistance - not all pathogens will infect all plants. An example where "A. thaliana" was used to determine the genes responsible for nonhost resistance is "Blumeria graminis", the causal agent of powdery mildew of grasses. "A. thaliana" mutants were developed using the mutagen ethyl methanesulfonate and screened to identify mutants with increased infection by "B. graminis". The mutants with higher infection rates are referred to as" PEN "mutants due to the ability of "B. graminis" to penetrate "A. thaliana" to begin the disease process. The "PEN" genes were later mapped to identify the genes responsible for nonhost resistance to "B. graminis".


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: In general, when a plant is exposed to a pathogen, or nonpathogenic microbe, an initial response, known as PAMP-triggered immunity (PTI), occurs because the plant detects conserved motifs known as pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). These PAMPs are detected by specialized receptors in the host known as pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) on the plant cell surface.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: The best-characterized PRR in "A. thaliana" is FLS2 (Flagellin-Sensing2), which recognizes bacterial flagellin, a specialized organelle used by microorganisms for the purpose of motility, as well as the ligand flg22, which comprises the 22 amino acids recognized by FLS2. Discovery of FLS2 was facilitated by the identification of an "A. thaliana" ecotype, Ws-0, that was unable to detect flg22, leading to the identification of the gene encoding FLS2. . Both flagellin and UV-C act similarly to increase homologous recombination in "A. thaliana", as demonstrated by Molinier et al. 2006. Beyond this somatic effect, they found this to extend to subsequent generations of the plant.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: A second PRR, EF-Tu receptor (EFR), identified in "A. thaliana", recognizes the bacterial EF-Tu protein, the prokaryotic elongation factor used in protein synthesis, as well as the laboratory-used ligand elf18. Using "Agrobacterium"-mediated transformation, a technique that takes advantage of the natural process by which "Agrobacterium" transfers genes into host plants, the EFR gene was transformed into "Nicotiana benthamiana", tobacco plant that does not recognize EF-Tu, thereby permitting recognition of bacterial EF-Tu thereby confirming EFR as the receptor of EF-Tu.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: Both FLS2 and EFR use similar signal transduction pathways to initiate PTI. "A. thaliana" has been instrumental in dissecting these pathways to better understand the regulation of immune responses, the most notable one being the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAP kinase) cascade. Downstream responses of PTI include callose deposition, the oxidative burst, and transcription of defense-related genes.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: PTI is able to combat pathogens in a nonspecific manner. A stronger and more specific response in plants is that of effector-triggered immunity (ETI), which is dependent upon the recognition of pathogen effectors, proteins secreted by the pathogen that alter functions in the host, by plant resistance genes (R-genes), often described as a gene-for-gene relationship. This recognition may occur directly or indirectly via a guardee protein in a hypothesis known as the guard hypothesis. The first R-gene cloned in "A. thaliana" was "RPS2" (resistance to "Pseudomonas syringae" 2), which is responsible for recognition of the effector avrRpt2. The bacterial effector avrRpt2 is delivered into "A. thaliana" via the Type III secretion system of "P. syringae" pv. "tomato" strain DC3000. Recognition of avrRpt2 by RPS2 occurs via the guardee protein RIN4, which is cleaved. Recognition of a pathogen effector leads to a dramatic immune response known as the hypersensitive response, in which the infected plant cells undergo cell death to prevent the spread of the pathogen.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: Systemic acquired resistance (SAR) is another example of resistance that is better understood in plants because of research done in "A. thaliana". Benzothiadiazol (BTH), a salicylic acid (SA) analog, has been used historically as an antifungal compound in crop plants. BTH, as well as SA, has been shown to induce SAR in plants. The initiation of the SAR pathway was first demonstrated in "A. thaliana" in which increased SA levels are recognized by nonexpresser of PR genes 1 ("NPR1") due to redox change in the cytosol, resulting in the reduction of "NPR1. NPR1", which usually exists in a multiplex (oligomeric) state, becomes monomeric (a single unit) upon reduction. When NPR1 becomes monomeric, it translocates to the nucleus, where it interacts with many TGA transcription factors, and is able to induce pathogen-related genes such as "PR1". Another example of SAR would be the research done with transgenic tobacco plants, which express bacterial salicylate hydroxylase, nahG gene, requires the accumulation of SA for its expression


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: Although not directly immunological, intracellular transport affects susceptibility by incorporating - or being tricked into incorporating - pathogen particles. For example, the "Dynamin-related protein 2b/drp2b" gene helps to move invaginated material into cells, with some mutants increasing "PstDC3000" virulence even further.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: Plants are affected by multiple pathogens throughout their lifetimes. In response to the presence of pathogens, plants have evolved receptors on their cell surfaces to detect and respond to pathogens. "Arabidopsis thaliana" is a model organism used to determine specific defense mechanisms of plant-pathogen resistance. These plants have special receptors on their cell surfaces that allow for detection of pathogens and initiate mechanisms to inhibit pathogen growth. They contain two receptors, FLS2 (bacterial flagellin receptor) and EF-Tu (bacterial EF-Tu protein), which use signal transduction pathways to initiate the disease response pathway. The pathway leads to the recognition of the pathogen causing the infected cells to undergo cell death to stop the spread of the pathogen. Plants with FLS2 and EF-Tu receptors have shown to have increased fitness in the population. This has led to the belief that plant-pathogen resistance is an evolutionary mechanism that has built up over generations to respond to dynamic environments, such as increased predation and extreme temperatures.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: This pathway uses benzothiadiazol, a chemical inducer, to induce transcription factors, mRNA, of SAR genes. This accumulation of transcription factors leads to inhibition of pathogen-related genes.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: Plant-pathogen interactions are important for an understanding of how plants have evolved to combat different types of pathogens that may affect them. Variation in resistance of plants across populations is due to variation in environmental factors. Plants that have evolved resistance, whether it be the general variation or the SAR variation, have been able to live longer and hold off necrosis of their tissue (premature death of cells), which leads to better adaptation and fitness for populations that are in rapidly changing environments. In the future, comparisons of the pathosystems of wild populations + their coevolved pathogens with wild-wild hybrids of known parentage may reveal new mechanisms of balancing selection. In life history theory we may find that "A. thaliana" maintains certain alleles due to pleitropy between plant-pathogen effects and other traits, as in livestock.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: Research in "A. thaliana" suggests that the immunity regulator protein family EDS1 in general co-evolved with the CC family of nucleotide-bindingleucine-rich-repeat-receptors (NLRs). Xiao et al. 2005 have shown that the powdery mildew immunity mediated by "A. thaliana"s RPW8 (which has a CC domain) is dependent on two members of this family: "EDS1" itself and "PAD4".


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: "RESISTANCE TO PSEUDOMONAS SYRINGAE 5/RPS5" is a disease resistance protein which guards "AvrPphB SUSCEPTIBLE 1/PBS1". "PBS1", as the name would suggest, is the target of "AvrPphB", an effector produced by "Pseudomonas syringae" pv. "phaseolicola".


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: Ongoing research on "A. thaliana" is being performed on the International Space Station by the European Space Agency. The goals are to study the growth and reproduction of plants from seed to seed in microgravity.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: Plant-on-a-chip devices in which "A. thaliana" tissues can be cultured in semi-"in vitro" conditions have been described. Use of these devices may aid understanding of pollen-tube guidance and the mechanism of sexual reproduction in "A. thaliana."


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: Researchers at the University of Florida were able to grow the plant in lunar soil originating from the Sea of Tranquillity.


title: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: "A. thaliana" is a predominantly self-pollinating plant with an outcrossing rate estimated at less than 0.3%. An analysis of the genome-wide pattern of linkage disequilibrium suggested that self-pollination evolved roughly a million years ago or more. Meioses that lead to self-pollination are unlikely to produce significant beneficial genetic variability. However, these meioses can provide the adaptive benefit of recombinational repair of DNA damages during formation of germ cells at each generation. Such a benefit may have been sufficient to allow the long-term persistence of meioses even when followed by self-fertilization. A physical mechanism for self-pollination in "A. thaliana" is through pre-anthesis autogamy, such that fertilisation takes place largely before flower opening.


title: Minsara Kanavu

text: Minsara Kanavu () is a 1997 Indian Tamil-language musical romantic drama film that was co-written and directed by Rajiv Menon. The film stars Arvind Swamy, Prabhu Deva, and Kajol in her Tamil debut, and revolves around Priya (Kajol), a convent student who wants to become a nun. Having returned to India from his studies overseas, Thomas (Swamy)—Priya's childhood friend—falls in love with her following their first meeting at her convent. With the help of hairstylist Deva (Prabhu Deva), who is known for his ability to change woman's minds, Thomas tries to dissuade Priya from her ambition but both of them fall in love with her.


title: Minsara Kanavu

text: AVM Productions wanted to make a film to celebrate their golden jubilee in 1997. The project, which would be titled "Minsara Kanavu", was produced by M. Saravanan, M. Balasubramanian, and M. S. Guhan. Menon responded to an advertisement for a director and cinematographer, and made his directorial debut with the film. Venu and Ravi K. Chandran completed the principal photography, and Prabhu Deva choreographed the film. A. R. Rahman composed the soundtrack, which received positive reviews, and the songs "Mana Madurai", "Strawberry", "Thanga Thamarai", and "Vennilave" became popular.


title: Minsara Kanavu

text: "Minsara Kanavu" premiered on 14 January 1997 during the Pongal festival and ran in theatres for over 175 days. The film was a commercial success in Tamil, though it initially opened to mediocre box-office earnings, but performed poorly in North India and Andhra Pradesh. Critical reception to the film was mixed-to-positive; the plot, the cast's performances—particularly that of the lead actors—the screenplay, the cinematography, and the soundtrack were praised. The film won several accolades, including two Cinema Express Awards, one Filmfare Awards South, four National Film Awards, one Screen Awards, and three Tamil Nadu State Film Awards.


title: Minsara Kanavu

text: Priya is a young student at a convent; she is known for her friendly, bubbly, and precocious nature. Priya's father Amalraj is a widower and a clothing industrialist who expects Priya to look after his business but her main ambition is to become a nun. Amalraj tries to stop this by unsuccessfully trying to arrange a marriage for Priya. Thomas, a non-resident Indian, returns to India after his studies to look after his father James' business. James, a former associate of Amalraj, had set up his clothing business opposite Amalraj's factory. Amalraj dislikes James due to his boorish and clumsy attitude, even though Thomas and Priya are childhood friends.


title: Minsara Kanavu

text: Priya, after several years at the convent, unexpectedly meets Thomas, who is visiting his aunt, the Mother Superior of the convent. He takes Priya's help in surprising his aunt with a gift on her birthday, and falls in love with Priya but is unable to tell her. Thomas is shocked when he finds out about Priya's ambition to become a nun; he approaches a hairstylist named Deva, who is known for his ability to change women's minds, to stop her ambition. Deva is hesitant but accepts. Deva and his friend, a blind, aspiring musician named Guru, befriend Priya and persuade her to join their music troupe. Priya's singing talent helps the troupe gain recognition and they are approached to audition for a film. Deva, Guru, and the rest of the troupe play tricks to make Priya fall in love with Thomas. Deva soon realises that he is also falling in love with Priya.


title: Minsara Kanavu

text: Complications arise when Priya reciprocates Deva's love and Thomas, with the help of Deva, declares his love to Priya. Priya finds out about Deva's reason for his association with her and, feeling betrayed, decides to return to the convent to undergo nun training and fulfil her ambition. She quits Deva's and Guru's troupe. Deva tries to persuade Priya to remain with the troupe but he gets into a serious accident and falls into a coma. Priya undergoes the training but cannot forget Deva. Deva recovers from his coma and is visited by Thomas, who is upset and angry but realises Deva and Priya are meant for each other. Thomas rushes to the convent on the day Priya is to become a nun and, with the help of the Mother Superior, changes her mind and persuades her to marry Deva.


title: Minsara Kanavu

text: Thomas, now a priest, baptises the daughter of Deva and Priya, who are married. Deva is looking after his father-in-law's business and Priya is working as a full-time singer. Guru has become a renowned music director but is facing charges of plagiarism; James redistributes his wealth to everyone.


title: Minsara Kanavu

text: AVM Productions wanted to make a film commemorating their 50th anniversary in 1997. They wanted the film "Minsara Kanavu", which was produced by M. Saravanan, M. Balasubramanian, and M. S. Guhan, to revolve around young people. Before choosing a director, the three producers approached Prabhu Deva to play the male lead and A. R. Rahman to compose the music. Rahman suggested his friend Rajiv Menon, then an advertisement director and film cinematographer, to direct the project. Menon thought about the offer for two months, saying he was not "mentally prepared" to direct a film. Initially reluctant, he was persuaded to direct the project by Rahman and filmmaker Mani Ratnam, and so this became his directorial debut. Menon wrote "Minsara Kanavu" story, which is based on Robert Wise's 1965 film "The Sound of Music"; he also co-wrote the screenplay with V. C. Guhanathan in English.


title: Minsara Kanavu

text: Arvind Swamy was cast as Thomas, a non-resident Indian who, after returning from his studies abroad, meets and falls in love with his childhood friend Priya; he had earlier been Menon's replacement for the lead role in the 1992 film "Roja". Menon's wife Latha suggested the Bollywood actor Kajol to play Priya, making "Minsara Kanavu" one of her only two appearances in Tamil cinema—the other being in "Velaiilla Pattadhari 2" (2017). He originally wanted Aishwarya Rai for the role but felt she was "too stylish" and that he wanted a woman "who looked Indian". He recommended her to Ratnam, whom he thought was better than him; she would instead star in Ratnam's "Iruvar" (1997), her acting debut. Another actress, Madhuri Dixit, was chosen but she rejected the offer due to her busy acting schedule. Kajol said working on "Minsara Kanavu" was an "unforgettable experience", and that she was happy Menon gave her the part immediately after the earlier choices rejected it. Kajol, a non-Tamil speaker, had her voice dubbed by Revathi.


title: Minsara Kanavu

text: Prabhu Deva, the first actor to be cast in the film, played the hairstylist Deva and also choreographed the film. The producers chose Vikram to dub him; Menon said they "wanted a new voice for Prabhu Deva". Nassar, playing the aspiring musician Guru, found the part fun and working in the film to be a "delightful experience". He described the character as high-spirited and added that "it was like, going through my youth again. Dancing, for instance—I never thought I could dance, but in this film I did it and loved it too." Janaki Sabesh, who was later known for portraying mother roles, made her acting debut in "Minsara Kanavu" by playing a nun. S. P. Balasubrahmanyam was chosen to play Thomas' father James. In his obituary published by "The Hindu" in 2020, Menon said Balasubrahmanyam was "so enthusiastic and joyous on [the] set", noting that it was interesting to see him acting opposite Girish Karnad, who played Priya's father Amalraj.


title: Minsara Kanavu

text: Venu and Ravi K. Chandran did the principal photography on "Minsara Kanavu", and Chandran was credited with providing additional cinematography. Asked on his decision to not handle the cinematography, Menon said working as a director and cinematographer simultaneously could make him not "pay attention to both the departments equally". Saravanan's brother Palu's daughter Lakshmipriya, who had returned from her costume design studies in Singapore, designed the costumes. Thota Tharani finished the art direction, Vikram Dharma was the action director, and Prabhu Deva, Farah Khan, and Saroj Khan did the choreography. Filming took place at Lawrence School, Lovedale; in preparation, Menon interacted with several Christian priests. The song "Thanga Thamarai" was filmed at an artificial waterfall, while the filming for "Poo Pookkum Osai" took place as AVM's studios in Madras (now Chennai) and Ooty, Kullu, and Manali. Filming took between 70 and 75 days, and the footage was edited by Suresh Urs.


title: Minsara Kanavu

text: "Minsara Kanavu" soundtrack album includes six songs that were composed by A. R. Rahman with lyrics by Vairamuthu. Recording of the tracks took place at Panchathan Record Inn. The film used different ragas (melodic modes) throughout the soundtrack, with the choral music being written in Sankarabharanam, and the song "Anbendra Mazhayile in Anandabhairavi. In an interview to "Frontline" Balasubrahmanyam said of the recording session of "Thanga Thamarai": "[I]t required a tone that reflected the feelings of someone totally smitten and intoxicated by love. The character singing the song in the film is on a high after finding his girl." He said he tried to imitate the composer, who helped to record vocals for the singer. Rahman chose K. S. Chithra for the song "Mana Madurai", which is also known as "Ooh La La La". He advised Chithra not to sing as she usually does but to completely open her voice to sing the track. The re-edited version of the track was featured on the international musical "Bombay Dreams".


title: Minsara Kanavu

text: The soundtrack album was released on 25 December 1996, with the cast and crew attending the event and M. K. Stalin, the then-Mayor of Chennai, as the chief guest. Lyrics for the dubbed-Telugu soundtrack were written by Vennelakanti. Javed Akhtar wrote lyrics for the Hindi version of the soundtrack and a new song titled "Teri Meri Baat" was added.


title: Minsara Kanavu

text: "Minsara Kanavu" was released on 14 January 1997 during the Pongal festival released at the same time as Ratnam's "Iruvar", with which it competed. On its opening, "Minsara Kanavu" drew mediocre box-office earnings but it was eventually a success after running for 216 days in Chennai. On 3 August 1997, an event was held to celebrate its silver jubilee. "Minsara Kanavu" Telugu-dubbed version "Merupu Kalalu", which was also released on 14 January, was a commercial disappointment. "Screen" suggested the possibility of the film, whose themes are intended for youths, being rejected by youths themselves. The magazine also thought that this was due to the producers, who took "a gamble in acquiring the rights of the films without knowing anything of their story or content". "Minsara Kanavu" was dubbed into Hindi as "Sapnay", which premiered on 2 May 1997 and also failed commercially. The result of the Hindi version caused Menon to stop dubbing his films into that language.


title: Minsara Kanavu

text: "Minsara Kanavu" received mixed response from critics. S. R. of "Kalki" praised the film's cinematography and music but criticised the plot and found the climax tiring. K. N. Vijiyan, who reviewed the film for the "New Straits Times", likened its plot with that of a Hollywood film, finding it to be "vaguely similar. But even so, it has been adapted well to suit Indian culture." Calling the film "good entertainment", he lauded its screenplay and Kajol's performance, adding that she was at her best when she is "her naughty self or belting out songs" such as "Manna Madurai". Writing for "The Indian Express", M. S. M. Desai was ambivalent about the film, saying it is filled with many songs and dances that make "the pace of the narrative dull and drab".


title: Minsara Kanavu

text: Initial responses to the soundtrack were unfavourable; "The Indian Express" said Rahman "fails miserably to come up with catchy numbers", but reception improved in the 21st century. The songs "Mana Madurai", "Strawberry", "Thanga Thamarai", and "Vennilave" became popular. A critic from "Behindwoods" stated Rahman's work is "an electrifying effort", noting it as one of the rarest albums in which all of the songs were chartbusters.


title: Mike Post

text: Mike Post (born Leland Michael Postil, September 29, 1944) is an American composer, best known for his TV theme music for various shows, including "Law & Order"; ""; "The A-Team"; "NYPD Blue"; "Renegade;" "The Rockford Files"; "L.A. Law"; "Quantum Leap"; "Magnum, P.I."; and "Hill Street Blues".


title: Mike Post

text: Post's first credited work in music was cutting demos using two singing sisters, Terry and Carol Fischer. With Sally Gordon, they went on to become The Murmaids. Their first single, "Popsicles and Icicles" (written by David Gates), was a number 3 hit song in January 1964.


title: Mike Post

text: Post also provided early guidance for the garage rock band The Outcasts while in recruit training in San Antonio, Texas. He was the songwriter and producer for both songs on the band's first single, released in 1965, and also arranged a local concert where they served as the back-up band.


title: Mike Post

text: He won his first Grammy Award at age 23 for Best Instrumental Arrangement on Mason Williams' "Classical Gas", a number 2 hit song in 1968. He is also credited as the record producer for Williams' LP that included that song, "The Mason Williams Phonograph Record".


title: Mike Post

text: Billed as the Mike Post Coalition, their track "Afternoon of the Rhino" became a sought-after Northern soul track. The single peaked at number 47 in the UK Singles Chart in August 1975.


title: Mike Post

text: Post also worked with Kenny Rogers and produced the first three albums he recorded with his country/rock group Kenny Rogers and The First Edition (between 1967 and 1969). Post also produced Dolly Parton's hit album "9 to 5 and Odd Jobs" in 1981. In 1997, he produced Van Halen's "Van Halen III" album.


title: Mike Post

text: One of his first jobs in television started when he was 24, as the musical director on "The Andy Williams Show". Another early job was writing the theme music for the short-lived detective series "Toma" in 1973, but his big breakthrough (together with co-composer Pete Carpenter) came in the following year with his theme song for "The Rockford Files", another series by producer Stephen J. Cannell. The theme also got cross-over Top 40 radio airplay and earned a second Grammy for Post.


title: Mike Post

text: "The Rockford Files" theme became a Top 10 hit in both the U.S. (number 10) and Canada (number 8). It ranks as the 85th biggest U.S. hit of 1975, and the 84th biggest Canadian hit of 1975.


title: Mike Post

text: Post subsequently won Grammys for Best Instrumental Composition for the themes of the television shows "Hill Street Blues" in 1981 and "L.A. Law" in 1988 as well as another Grammy in 1981 for Best Instrumental Performance for the "Hill Street Blues" theme, which also reached number 10 in the U.S.


title: Mike Post

text: Post won an Emmy for his "Murder One" theme music, and had previously been nominated for "NYPD Blue", among others. He has won Broadcast Music, Inc. Awards for the music for "L.A. Law", "Hunter", and the various "Law & Order" series. The theme for "The Greatest American Hero" (co-written with Stephen Geyer) is one of the few television themes to reach as high as number 2 as a single record on the "Billboard" Hot 100. The "dun, dun" sound effect he created for the Law & Order franchise has entered popular culture.


title: Mike Post

text: At the peak of his career, Post was the go-to composer for all of the series created by Donald P. Bellisario, Steven Bochco, Stephen J. Cannell and Dick Wolf. Due to the considerable amount of music to be created, Post operated an office with multiple staff composers, among them Walter Murphy, Velton Ray Bunch, Frank Denson, Jerry Grant and Greg Edmonson, all composing side by side in cubicles. Each would write music cues to complement specific scenes from each show in Post's signature style.


title: Mike Post

text: Other TV music works include "The A-Team", "Baa Baa Black Sheep", "Blossom", "The Commish", "Doogie Howser, M.D.", "The Greatest American Hero", "Hardcastle and McCormick", "Hooperman", "Hunter", "Magnum, P.I.", "NewsRadio", "Profit", "Quantum Leap", "Renegade", "Riptide", "Silk Stalkings", "Stingray", "Tales of the Gold Monkey", "Tenspeed and Brown Shoe", "The White Shadow", "Wiseguy", the BBC series "Roughnecks", and "Philly".


title: Mike Post

text: In 1994, Post scored the "" episode "How To Murder Your Lawyer," designed as a backdoor pilot for a lawyer series.


title: Mike Post

text: In 2014, Post composed the score for the fake TV pilot "Caged Heat" in the "All Hail the King" short film for Marvel Studios.


title: Mike Post

text: In 1994, Post released a CD, called "Inventions from the Blue Line". The CD contained several of his well-known themes, featuring "NYPD Blue" and also including "Law & Order", "Silk Stalkings" and "Renegade". In the liner notes, he discussed his late father, Sam Postil, and the admiration for law enforcement officers that Sam instilled in Mike. He also referred to police in the traditional nickname of "blues", as in "The Thin Blue Line" (referring to the police in general and to police camaraderie). One of the tracks is called "The Blue Line", which Post calls "the comradery theme".


title: Mike Post

text: The Pete Townshend song "Mike Post Theme", which alludes to the ubiquity of Post's work in television theme music, appears on The Who's 2006 album, "Endless Wire".


title: Mike Post

text: In 1989, Broadcast Music, Inc. Foundation and Mike Post established "The Pete Carpenter Fellowship" in memory of the late Pete Carpenter, who was Post’s co-composer of television scores and themes including "The Rockford Files" (for which they won a Grammy), "Hunter", "Riptide", "Hardcastle and McCormick", "Magnum P.I." and "The A-Team". "The Pete Carpenter Fellowship" is an annual, competitive residency for aspiring television, film and video game composers.


title: Mike Post

text: The following singles credited to Mike Post charted on the U.S. "Billboard" Hot 100 chart and/or on the Adult Contemporary chart:


title: BBC America

text: BBC America is an American basic cable network that is jointly owned by BBC Studios and AMC Networks. The channel primarily airs sci-fi and action series and films, as well as selected programs from the BBC (such as its nature documentary series).


title: BBC America

text: Unlike the BBC's domestic channels in the United Kingdom, BBC America does not receive funding from the British license fee (which is the principal funding for the BBC's channels within the United Kingdom), as the BBC cannot fund any of its channels that are available outside the United Kingdom. Consequently, BBC America operates as a commercial-supported channel and accepts traditional advertising. It is also funded by television subscription fees.


title: BBC America

text: As of September 2018, BBC America is available to about 80.9 million television households (87.8% of pay television customers) in the United States.


title: BBC America

text: BBC America was launched on March 29, 1998, presenting a mixture of comedy, drama and lifestyle programs from BBC Television and other British television broadcasters including ITV and Channel 4. In the channel's early days, it focused on repeats of popular lifestyle shows such as "Changing Rooms" and "Ground Force". BBC America's head of television programming later stated that the channel needed to establish a niche, since non-British viewers found the lifestyle shows appealing. Most of the newer programs appeared as part of BBC America's evening schedule.


title: BBC America

text: The network removed the British soap opera "EastEnders" from its schedule in 2003 due to low ratings; however, the program's removal from BBC America provoked complaints from viewers, which caught media attention.


title: BBC America

text: After CEO Paul Lee was appointed president of ABC Family in 2009, the network appointed Bill Hilary from Comedy Central to serve as its chief executive officer. Hilary appointed Kathryn Mitchell to the new position of general manager. Under Hilary's tenure, BBC America was restructured; it moved its main offices to New York City and had its programming budget increase substantially. The channel was led by Garth Ancier, who served as the president of BBC Worldwide Americas from February 2007 until 2010, when he was succeeded by former MTV Networks executive Herb Scannell. Meanwhile, Perry Simon serves as general manager.


title: BBC America

text: In 2014, AMC Networks acquired a 49.9% equity stake in BBC America for $200 million, and replaced Discovery Communications as its managing partner. As part of the deal, AMC Networks also took on the responsibility of negotiating U.S. broadcast and advertising sales for the BBC World News channel. AMC Networks CEO Josh Sapan stated that the deal gave his company "a powerful collection of networks that are among the most critically acclaimed, with distinct dramas and other potent content that creates a deep connection with viewers", while BBC Worldwide CEO Tim Davie considered it "an opportunity to grow the creative quality and ambition from an already high base."


title: BBC America

text: AMC Networks is also a partner in the US operations of BritBox, an over-the-top subscription service focused on British television operated by BBC Studios and ITV plc.


title: BBC America

text: Some of the programs on the channel are edited either for adult content or to allow for commercials. Occasionally, comedy shows are run in specially formatted 40-minute blocks and a few first-run drama programs are broadcast in a longer block that allows them to run to their original broadcast length. Additional series that has been previously broadcast may periodically return to the schedule as part of the network's rotation of daytime programming.


title: BBC America

text: In the mid-2000s, BBC America produced a few of its own shows along with some joint productions, including "Sharpe's Challenge", part of the "Sharpe" series of made-for-television movies and co-produced with ITV; and "The State Within" and "Jekyll", which were co-productions with the BBC. The first original series produced solely by the channel was "Copper", which premiered in the summer of 2012.


title: BBC America

text: BBC America has also branched into co-producing British series, including "Robin Hood", "The Musketeers, Killing Eve", Mood and from its fourth series, the revival of "Doctor Who" (until 2022). They also co-produced the Canadian series "Orphan Black".


title: BBC America

text: BBC America used to broadcast "BBC World News" each Monday through Friday morning from 6:00 to 8:00 am Eastern and Pacific Time. All news programs now air exclusively on the BBC World News channel, also distributed by AMC Networks in the United States.


title: BBC America

text: The weekday morning (6:00–9:00 am Eastern) simulcast used to include "BBC World News" bulletins, "World Business Report", "Sport Today", "Asia Today", and a one-hour bulletin called "World News Today". Most of these were removed from the schedule without any announcement on April 6, 2009. The weekend morning (6:00–6:30 am ET) simulcast was also abruptly dropped on April 4, 2009. According to BBC America, the simulcast was dropped because of disappointing ratings.


title: BBC America

text: From 2007 to 2011, BBC America broadcast "BBC World News America", a live Washington, DC–based program anchored by Matt Frei. Katty Kay served as a Washington-based correspondent. On February 18, 2011, network management announced that "BBC World News America" would be dropped from BBC America and would instead be broadcasting only on the BBC World News channel and PBS member stations in the United States.


title: BBC America

text: The network was in discussions to unveil a weekly news program fronted by "Newsnight" host Jeremy Paxman, who was to introduce a synopsis of "Newsnight" items with an international aspect and was expected to bring his brash interviewing style to bear on American politicians. An international edition of "Newsnight" debuted on February 29, 2008, in the 10-pm time slot. This program was cancelled in November 2008, but the announcement of the program's cancellation was not made until April 2009.


title: BBC America

text: During major breaking news events, the network sometimes replaces scheduled programs with coverage from BBC World News; the London bombings in July 2005 was one example. BBC World News's American coverage started out sparse, but has expanded within the last decade on several providers throughout the United States, generally alongside BBC America as part of AMC Networks' retransmission consent negotiations (one previous example is New York City-based Cablevision, which did not carry BBC America until August 2011) or "BBC World News America", an American-focused news program presented by Katty Kay and usually from Washington, DC, mainly carried by American public television stations through a distribution agreement with Washington PBS member station WETA-TV.


title: BBC America

text: BBC America has carried coverage of the PDC World Darts Championship in simulcast with Sky Sports, with preliminary rounds streaming, and the finals airing on television.


title: BBC America

text: BBC America is available in Caribbean countries, such as Bermuda on One Communications's cable service, and the World on Wireless service, as well as the Bahamas on REVTV, in Barbados on Flow, in the Cayman Islands on Logic TV, Grenada on Flow, Telbo MiTV in Bonaire, in Curaçao on Flow and on SXM Cable & Data in Sint Maarten. It is also available in the Pacific in the US territory of Guam on DoCoMo Pacific and GTA Teleguam's IPTV service, as well as in the Northern Marianas on DoCoMo Pacific.


title: Tina Turner discography

text: The following is a comprehensive discography of the American-born Swiss singer Tina Turner. Turner's overall discography consists of ten studio albums, two live albums, two soundtracks, and five compilation albums.


title: Tina Turner discography

text: Turner's career spans over five decades beginning with her first recording "Boxtop" in 1958. Widely recognized as the ""Queen of Rock & Roll"", Turner has sold more than 100 million records worldwide, making her one of the best-selling female artists in music history. "Rolling Stone" ranked her as the 17th Greatest Singer of all time and 63rd Greatest Artist of all time. She was the first artist to have a top 40 hit in seven consecutive decades in the UK. "Private Dancer" remains her career's biggest seller with 10 million copies sold worldwide. According to Recording Industry Association of America, Turner has sold 10 million certified albums in the US. She is also one of the best-selling female artists in the UK (9.6m) & Germany (6.3m).


title: Tina Turner discography

text: After joining Ike Turner's band as a background vocalist, the pair formed the duo, Ike & Tina Turner in 1960 and married in 1962. They released a series of major hits on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and R&B charts, including "A Fool In Love," "Proud Mary" and "Nutbush City Limits." Tina Turner's first credited single as a solo artist, "Too Many Ties That Bind" was released from Ike Turner's Sonja Records label in 1964. Ike & Tina Turner remained intact until 1976 when their musical partnership ended, subsequently divorcing in 1978. By this time, Tina Turner had already released two solo albums, "Tina Turns the Country On" (1974) and "Acid Queen" (1975), on United Artists Records to which she and Ike Turner were signed. She then continued as a solo artist with the albums "Rough" (1978) and "Love Explosion" (1979). However, none of these releases were commercially successful, and Turner left the label at the end of the decade. After collaborating with the British electronic group, B.E.F. in 1982, Turner signed a new contract with EMI Records in the UK, and released the single "Let's Stay Together" (a cover of the Al Green song) in late 1983. Produced by B.E.F., the single was a UK Top 10 hit. Import copies began to sell well in the US which prompted Capitol Records (a subsidiary of EMI) to sign Turner and release the single there themselves, which made the Billboard Top 30 in Spring 1984. By this time, Turner had begun work on a full album, "Private Dancer", which was released in May 1984 and became a worldwide hit. It spawned a string of hit singles, including "What's Love Got to Do with It", which still stands as Turner's biggest hit, peaking at No. 1 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 for three weeks. The success of the album established Turner as a major solo artist earning her a comeback that is widely regarded as one of the most successful of all time.


title: Tina Turner discography

text: Following her success in 1984, Turner co-starred with Mel Gibson in the 1985 film, "Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome". She recorded two songs for the film's soundtrack, with "We Don't Need Another Hero (Thunderdome)" giving her another huge international hit. She then released her second album for Capitol in 1986, "Break Every Rule", which also spawned major hits on the US Hot 100, including "Typical Male" (No. 2) and "What You Get Is What You See" (No. 13). Turner embarked on a large scale world tour in 1987, and released her first live album, "Tina Live in Europe", in 1988. She returned with her next studio album, "Foreign Affair", in 1989. Its lead single, "The Best" was a worldwide hit that year and the album sold over 1.5 million copies in the United Kingdom alone.


title: Tina Turner discography

text: Her first compilation album, "Simply the Best", was released in 1991 and was another huge seller in the UK, selling over 2.4 million copies. Turner switched from the US Capitol label to Virgin Records (both were subsidiaries of EMI, and would later be merged by EMI to become the Capitol Music Group in 2007). In 1993, she recorded the soundtrack to the film about her life, "What's Love Got to Do with It", producing the hit single, "I Don't Wanna Fight", her first US Top 10 hit since 1986. In 1995, she performed the title song for the "James Bond" film "GoldenEye". Her next studio album was 1996's "Wildest Dreams", followed by 1999's "Twenty Four Seven", her last studio album to date.


title: Tina Turner discography

text: On July 16, 2020, Turner released "Foreign Affair: Deluxe Edition," which is a reissue of the original 1989 album and will include the original LP, a 1990 concert performance, B-sides, remixes, and more.


title: Opinion polling for the next Australian federal election

text: In the run-up to the next Australian federal election, it is expected a number of polling companies will conduct regular opinion polls for various news organisations. These polls will collect data on parties' primary vote, and likely contain an estimation of the two-party-preferred vote.


text: The following graphical summaries illustrate results from opinion polling for preferred Prime Minister and their respective approval ratings based on data below that is documented in the tables.


title: Seattle Underground

text: The Seattle Underground is a network of underground passageways and basements in the Pioneer Square neighborhood of Seattle, Washington, United States. They were located at ground level when the city was built in the mid-19th century but fell into disuse after the streets were elevated. In recent decades, they have become a tourist attraction, with guided tours taking place around the area.


title: Seattle Underground

text: After the Great Seattle Fire of June 6, 1889, new construction was required to be of masonry, and the town's streets were regraded one to two stories higher. Pioneer Square had originally been built mostly on filled-in tidelands and often flooded. The new street level also kept sewers draining into Elliott Bay from backing up at high tide.


title: Seattle Underground

text: For the regrade, the streets were lined with concrete walls that formed narrow alleyways between the walls and the buildings on both sides of the street, with a wide "alley" where the street was. The naturally steep hillsides were used and, through a series of sluices, material was washed into the wide "alleys", by raising the streets to the desired new level, generally higher than before, in some places nearly .


title: Seattle Underground

text: At first, pedestrians climbed ladders to go between street level and the sidewalks in front of the building entrances. Brick archways were constructed next to the road surface, above the submerged sidewalks. Vault lights (a form of walk-on skylight with small panes of clear glass which later became amethyst-colored) were installed over the gap from the raised street and the building, creating the area now called the Seattle Underground.


title: Seattle Underground

text: When they reconstructed their buildings, merchants and landlords knew that the ground floor would eventually be underground and the next floor up would be the new ground floor, so there is very little decoration on the doors and windows of the original ground floor, but extensive decoration on the new ground floor.


title: Seattle Underground

text: Once the new sidewalks were complete, building owners moved their businesses to the new ground floor, although merchants carried on business in the lowest floors of buildings that survived the fire, and pedestrians continued to use the underground sidewalks lit by the vault lights (still seen on some streets) embedded in the grade-level sidewalk above.


title: Seattle Underground

text: In 1907, the city condemned the Underground for fear of bubonic plague, two years before the 1909 World Fair in Seattle (Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition). The basements were left to deteriorate or were used as storage. Some became illegal flophouses for the homeless, gambling halls, speakeasies, and opium dens.


title: Seattle Underground

text: Only a small portion of the Seattle Underground has been restored and made safe and accessible to the public on guided tours. In 1965, local citizen Bill Speidel formally created "Bill Speidel's Underground Tour", which continues to operate from the Pioneer Building and adjacent buildings. The tour route passes disused storefronts, artifacts, and multiple tunnel entrances.


title: Seattle Underground

text: A second tour, Beneath the Streets, was created in 2013 and uses other sections of the Underground network.


title: Open Door Policy

text: The Open Door Policy () is the United States diplomatic policy established in the late 19th and early 20th century that called for a system of equal trade and investment and to guarantee the territorial integrity of Qing China. The policy was enunciated in US Secretary of State John Hay's Open Door Note, dated September 6, 1899 and circulated to the major European powers. In order to prevent them from "carving of China like a melon," as they were doing in Africa, the Note asked the powers to keep China open to trade with all countries on an equal basis and called upon all powers, within their spheres of influence to refrain from interfering with any treaty port or any vested interest, to permit Chinese authorities to collect tariffs on an equal basis, and to show no favors to their own nationals in the matter of harbor dues or railroad charges. The policy was accepted only grudgingly, if at all, by the major powers, and it had no legal standing or enforcement mechanism. In July 1900, as the powers contemplated intervention to put down the violently anti-foreign Boxer uprising, Hay circulated a Second Open Door Note affirming the principles. Over the next decades, American policy-makers and national figures continued to refer to the Open Door Policy as a basic doctrine, and Chinese diplomats appealed to it as they sought American support, but critics pointed out that the policy had little practical effect.