title: Rodina (political party)

text: On 6 November 2005, Rodina was barred from taking part in the December elections to the Moscow Duma following a complaint filed by the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia that Rodina's advertising campaign incited racial hatred. The advertisement in question showed Caucasian immigrants tossing watermelon rinds to the ground and ended with the slogan "Let's clear our city of trash", calling for Russians to clean their cities of rubbish. It garnered much controversy and opinion polls predicted that Rodina would come second with close to 25% in the December vote. Rogozin appealed the decision, but the ban was upheld on 1 December 2005.


title: Rodina (political party)

text: Rodina's difficulties continued into 2006, when it failed to obtain permission to contest local elections in a number of regions. However, the party did come third in the regional elections in Altai Republic. Rogozin unexpectedly stepped down as party leader in March 2006 and was replaced by the less known businessman Alexander Babakov. Many suspected this was a tactical decision on Rodina's part to ease pressure from the Kremlin, although a small number of party members in Moscow had been vocal in their criticism of Rogozin's more outlandish nationalist rhetoric. On 28 October 2006, Rodina merged with the Russian Party of Life and the Russian Pensioners' Party into a new party called A Just Russia. Many of Rodina's parliamentary faction joined the new party, except for Rogozin, Andrey Savelyev and Glazyev, who at present does not belong to any party. In 2007, Rogozin was appointed Russian Ambassador to NATO.


title: Rodina (political party)

text: Rodina was reinstated on 29 September 2012 and Aleksey Zhuravlyov, formally a member of the ruling United Russia, was unanimously voted to lead the party. Rodina endorsed outgoing President Vladimir Putin in the 2018 Russian presidential election.


title: Rodina (political party)

text: In July 2017, the chairman of Rodina announced that the only candidate whom the party will support is current President Vladimir Putin for the 2018 presidential election.


title: Rodina (political party)

text: The party was described as "far-right" by Timothy Snyder in "The New York Review of Books" in March 2014.


title: Rodina (political party)

text: "Novaya Gazeta" journalist Anna Politkovskaya stated that Rodina was a chauvinistic organisation that had been "created by the Kremlin's spin doctors" for the 2003 election and the "aim was to draw moderately nationalist voters away from the more extreme National Bolsheviks". "The Guardian" claims that Rodina was "set up by President Vladimir Putin's allies" in 2003 "to leach votes from the Communist party".


title: Rodina (political party)

text: Rodina and its leader Dmitry Rogozin has made illegal immigration and a "Moscow for Muscovites!" platform a centerpiece of their election campaign. While initially including left-wing factions (that later split away and merged into A Just Russia), the party is currently anti-communist and supports the decommunization of Russia.


title: Paper Mario: The Origami King

text: Paper Mario: The Origami King is a 2020 action-adventure role-playing video game developed by Intelligent Systems and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo Switch console. It is the sixth game in the "Paper Mario" series, which is part of the larger "Mario" franchise. The story follows Mario and his friends as he sets out on a journey to prevent the Mushroom Kingdom from being transformed into origami. To do so, Mario must free Princess Peach's castle from five decorative streamers that extend across the kingdom.


title: Paper Mario: The Origami King

text: "The Origami King" features cross-genre gameplay, blending elements of action-adventure, role-playing (RPG), and puzzle games. Controlling Mario, the player explores a large overworld and fights enemies in a turn-based style that uses a ring-based puzzle system. In combat, enemies are scattered on a circle stylized like a dartboard separated into four rings and additional columns. The player can rotate the rings horizontally and vertically to organize the enemies into patterns that result in being able to clear them more quickly.


title: Paper Mario: The Origami King

text: "The Origami King"s development team emphasized innovation to a greater extent than previous games in the series. Anticipating an inability to satisfy every fan, Intelligent Systems gravitated towards creating entirely new concepts. Origami and confetti were used as new variants of paper-themed concepts. The developers changed the traditional linear gameplay to an open world format and used enemies uninvolved with the "Mario" franchise. Nintendo intended to announce the game at E3 2020 as part of the 35th anniversary of "Super Mario Bros." (1985), but due to the cancellation of the expo, the game was revealed separately from the anniversary celebrations. The ROM file of the game would also be leaked ahead of launch.


title: Paper Mario: The Origami King

text: The game received generally positive reviews, with critics praising the game's writing, design, characters, music, and game mechanics, and criticized it for straying from the series' original role-playing style. Critical reception of the combat system was mixed; while praised for its innovation, there was criticism for its lack of difficulty and purpose. The game had sold three million copies by September 2020, two months after release, making it the fastest-selling game in the series and also one of the best-selling games on the Nintendo Switch. The game was nominated for three awards and was listed among the best games of 2020 by multiple critics.


title: Paper Mario: The Origami King

text: "The Origami King" is a cross-genre video game, containing elements from action-adventure, RPG, and puzzle games. The player controls a two-dimensional paper version of Mario and explores a linear open world designed to look like paper and cardboard. The player's goal is to destroy five decorative origami streamers created by King Olly, the game's main antagonist. Throughout the game, the player sets out to follow each of five streamers, which occupy wide open areas for exploration. These areas contain puzzles the player will need to complete to proceed.


title: Paper Mario: The Origami King

text: Along the way, Mario can collect coins used to purchase items for use in combat, and hidden treasures to display at a museum. Among these hidden collectibles are Toads, which are either folded into origami or creased and crumpled. Mario can interact with non-player characters, some of which will join the player's party temporarily and can assist Mario in combat or interact with obstacles in the overworld. In certain areas of the game, Mario can use an ability known as the "1000-Fold Arms", that can tear back parts of the paper environment to reveal secrets. Mario can fill holes in the environment using a bag of confetti.


title: Paper Mario: The Origami King

text: The player fights enemies using a turn-based battle system. When Mario encounters one or more enemies in the overworld, the game transitions to a battle screen. During battle, Mario stands at the center of a dartboard-like arena divided into four ring-shaped sections with 12 radial slots; each enemy occupies a different slot. At the start of the player's turn, they can slide the rings horizontally or vertically to position enemies so that several of them can be attacked at once. The player is allotted a limited amount of time and number of rotations. Once the player has finished shifting the enemies, they can attack with a hammer, which targets enemies in a two-by-two section of the grid adjacent to the center, or with boots, which target a one-by-four line of enemies. The player can use items with varying power to attack enemies, or increase their heart points. Their attack power is boosted during a turn if the number of enemies targeted is maximized. If the player needs additional help, any Toads Mario saves from being folded will either deal some damage or help with the puzzle by partially rotating the rings. The amount of help they provide varies based on how much money Mario gives them. Any remaining enemies will then attack Mario before the game switches back to the player's turn. If the player wins the battle, they are awarded coins.


title: Paper Mario: The Origami King

text: Boss battles follow a similar pattern of ring-style combat but place the enemy in the center and Mario on the outside. Players can rotate the rings horizontally or vertically; arrows on the ground mark the path Mario is going to follow. Mario starts with the arrow placed in front of him and will follow the rings until reaching an endpoint, which are attack tiles or magic circle tiles. The player can activate battle tiles by passing over them, while magic circle tiles need to be activated by passing an "ON" tile. Additional items are scattered on vacant tiles, such as health points and coins. To defeat each boss, the player must follow specific rules. These vary depending upon the enemy Mario is fighting. For example, the Earth Vellumental has five exposed body parts, and Mario needs to attack each one and cause them to retract before being able to do major damage.


title: Paper Mario: The Origami King

text: Princess Peach invites Mario and Luigi to an Origami Festival near her castle in Toad Town, which has mysteriously been abandoned. When they enter Peach's Castle to find where everyone went, they discover that she has been turned into origami and brainwashed by King Olly, a sentient origami figure. Having met a similar fate, many of Bowser's minions have been transformed into origami enemies called Folded Soldiers. Bowser has been folded and stapled into a square. Mario rescues Olly's sister Olivia (who was imprisoned for her betrayal) and eventually Bowser, and the three attempt to escape. However, Olly wraps the castle in five multicolored streamers and rips it off its foundations, transporting it to a nearby volcano. Mario, Olivia, and Bowser barely escape but a streamer strikes them, causing them to separate. Landing in Whispering Woods, a forest near Toad Town, Mario and Olivia find many of the Toads have been folded into origami by the Folded Soldiers. They rescue Luigi, who sets off to find the key to Peach's Castle.


title: Paper Mario: The Origami King

text: Mario and Olivia must follow and destroy each streamer until they reach the end. At the end of the red streamer, they discover Colored Pencils, a member of Olly's "Legion of Stationery", a group of six anthropomorphic office supplies working for him, five of which guard each streamer. The two head to unravel the blue streamer, and along the way, they meet an amnesiac Bob-omb without a fuse that Olivia nicknames "Bobby". Celebratory fireworks are launched after they defeat Rubber Band and clear the blue streamer, causing Bobby to regain his memory.


title: Paper Mario: The Origami King

text: The three head to Scorching Sandpaper Desert to unravel the yellow streamer but soon encounter Olly, who blocks the path with a giant boulder, trapping Olivia under it. To save her, the two travel to the ocean liner "The Princess Peach", where Bobby retrieves an item which is later revealed to be a fuse. He lights it so he can sacrifice himself to destroy the boulder pinning Olivia. A distraught Olivia breaks down, but Mario is able to cheer her up.


title: Paper Mario: The Origami King

text: After defeating Hole Punch, Tape, and Scissors, clearing the yellow, purple, and green streamers, they rescue Bowser from Scissors before the three head to Peach's Castle. Luigi returns, sadly claiming he could not find the key, but soon discovers that it was stuck in his car. As they enter, Olly refolds Peach's Castle into the Origami Castle; the trio, excluding Luigi, traverse through it, defeating Stapler and returning Bowser to his original form.


title: Paper Mario: The Origami King

text: The three confront King Olly, who reveals he has folded 999 paper cranes, one away from the 1,000 needed to grant him ultimate power to create his origami kingdom and turn all Toads into blank paper. He says that his hatred of Toads comes from the Origami Craftsman who created him by using a forbidden "Fold of Life" technique, which Olly himself later used to bring Olivia to life. However, the Craftsman wrote words on Olly's paper, which Olly took as a disrespect of the art. A fight ensues, and Mario, Olivia, and Bowser defeat Olly.


title: Paper Mario: The Origami King

text: As he dies, Olly apologizes for his actions. Olivia reads the writing on his body, which reveals the Toad was only giving Olly his blessing to rule as King. Olly realizes his mistake, and at his request, Olivia folds him into the 1,000th crane after his death. She uses her ultimate wish to undo all the origami King Olly has folded, which unfortunately includes herself. The game closes with a celebration of the Origami Festival.


title: Paper Mario: The Origami King

text: Intelligent Systems, the creators behind the earlier "Paper Mario" games, developed "The Origami King". While Shigeru Miyamoto was involved initially with the "Paper Mario" series, producer Kensuke Tanabe claimed he was barely involved in its creation, and that Nintendo gave the developers "almost complete control" over the game's direction. Producers also included Atsushi Ikuno and assistant producer Risa Tabata. Masahiko Nagaya served as the lead director, who originally worked as an artist for "." Lead designers also included Yukio Morimoto and Shingo Igata, programmer Tadao Nakayama, artists Isamu Kamikokuryo and Benoit Ferrière, and writer Taro Kudo. The lead composers and sound designers were Yoshito Sekigawa, Shoh Murakami, Yoshiaki Kimura, Hiroki Morishita, and Fumihiro Isobe. According to "Eurogamer", Nintendo had intended to announce the game at E3 2020 as part of a presentation celebrating the "Super Mario" series' 35th anniversary.


title: Paper Mario: The Origami King

text: Nintendo's Kensuke Tanabe, the game's producer, said he, "challenge[d himself] to create something new" by innovating different concepts than those used in other games in the series. He explained that "The Origami King"s gameplay differed from "Color Splash" because he did not believe in repeating identical concepts from a previous game. He would use the same concept, but would develop it until it eventually reached its maximum potential. To establish a new non-"Mario" direction for the game, confetti and origami became "The Origami King"s two major themes. Tanabe thought of paper-based ideas that had not been used in the series, and came up with origami, while Intelligent Systems had the idea for confetti.


title: Paper Mario: The Origami King

text: Since the release of "", new characters in the "Paper Mario" series could not be modified versions of existing characters, such as a change in age or gender, and any original characters had to have had no previous involvement with the "Mario" universe. Character designs went through a critical review by Nintendo's intellectual property team, although the designers were allowed to give Toads different outfits. On June 12, 2020, Nintendo released another trailer revealing partners that will join Mario on his adventure and help complete tasks, such as aiding in combat. Although the feature had remained absent from the games since "Sticker Star", critics were still disappointed that the allies did not seem to have much functionality; some were hoping for partners that would help solve puzzles and progress in skill alongside Mario.


title: Paper Mario: The Origami King

text: Tanabe intended the origami Princess Peach to have an inhuman aura which he used to appeal to a more adult audience. He visualized her approaching Mario while she turned into an origami form; the game's opening sequence eventually used this action. To ensure characters would still be recognizable in their origami form, the artists analyzed each character to determine "whether a side-on or front-on view would be best to bring out their individuality". They created real-life mock-ups to make sure the in-game forms would be similarly realistic.


title: Paper Mario: The Origami King

text: The Legion of Stationery is an example of the concept of having characters not involved with the "Mario" franchise. The developers chose "objects that everyone will have interacted with at some point in their lives" for these roles. Tanabe referenced his childhood to develop these characters imagining what their weaknesses would be based on their function, such as hitting the backside of the hole punch during its boss battler to knock out previously punched paper. He also conceptualized their attacks based on childhood imagination and how children pretend what objects could do. For example, colored pencils act as missiles in-game because of their shape.


title: Paper Mario: The Origami King

text: Mario's first partner conceptualized for the game was Bobby. He was conceived with the intention of providing more memorable events tied to specific areas, rather than having a complicated story. "The Origami King" established characters that would appear alongside Mario and Olivia as the game progressed. In an interview with "Video Games Chronicle", Tanabe claimed Bobby became just as memorable as Olivia. Deciding upon other additional characters, he added "we chose the characters that would be the best fit for the events in each stage of the game". Bowser Jr. "was an exception"; the team added him as a character before they had figured out what role he would play because Masahiko Nagaya, an Intelligent Systems director, "had strong feelings about including a storyline where a son sets out to save his father".


title: Paper Mario: The Origami King

text: When developing Olivia, the creators aimed to give her as much personality as possible. Tanabe said most characters that aid the protagonist tend to be guides or teachers and have little personality. He wanted to have a female character with as much of an outgoing personality as possible. He modeled her on "a certain Japanese actress". Initially it took a lot of effort to write her dialogue, but toward the end of development, it became rather easy. Tanabe felt she was almost "writing her own lines".


title: Paper Mario: The Origami King

text: The world design and the game's locations were created before the writers produced any dialogue. During the development of a scene, and the events that were unique to each section, the creators determined the emotion these should evoke in the player such as "astonishment or enthusiasm". They decided whether a scene should be shown as a "cutscene, dialogue or as a playable mini-game". The creators worked closely with Nintendo as they produced the game's many mini games so that the rules and the degree of difficulty matched the game's intended "emotional flow".


title: Paper Mario: The Origami King

text: Tanabe spoke with the director of "Color Splash", Naohiko Aoyama, who wanted "a battle system in which the enemies surround Mario to attack from all sides". They collaborated to form the game's ring-based combat, and Tanabe later implemented the idea of being able to slide enemies across the circles. He compared the idea to a Rubik's Cube saying, "it worked well. That is the moment I was convinced we'd be able to build our battle system." To demonstrate his idea for boss battles, Tanabe "drew concentric circles on a whiteboard, put mock-ups of some panels using magnets with arrows and other things drawn on them". He noted boss battles were designed to be "the opposite of regular battles" and worked with Tabata to simulate how the battles would work in-game, then proposed the idea to Intelligent Systems.


title: Paper Mario: The Origami King

text: "The Origami King" uses open world navigation, as opposed to the linear-based style of previous "Mario" games. Tanabe recalled the design team were "careful [...] to make sure there is always something in the player's field of vision to catch their attention". When asked if they had considered using a party-based system in "The Origami King" like the first three "Paper Mario" games, Tanabe replied that he never considered the idea. "[W]e chose the characters that would be the best fit for the events in each stage of the game". He felt that having partners exclusive to certain areas "create[s] more memorable moments".


title: Paper Mario: The Origami King

text: Responding to criticism over the game's lack of several RPG elements, Tanabe commented on the difficulty of being able to satisfy fans who prefer the RPG genre. Not wanting to ignore casual players, he implemented several puzzle solving elements hoping to satisfy the franchise's core fans. He explained that "players need to guess the weak points of bosses based on their characteristics and search for the solution to defeat them, otherwise they won't be able to win these battles. This is an adventure game after all, so it wouldn't be right if the battles didn't also have some kind of puzzle solving element!" When asked if he was aware of the criticisms of the previous games, Tanabe replied that he could not address every fan suggestion. Instead, he challenged himself to move towards new and innovative concepts, and focus on them so a large audience can enjoy them. He said he had not decided whether the series will return to the original RPG style.


title: Paper Mario: The Origami King

text: The game was leaked online a week prior to the game's launch, where players started spreading unannounced content, such as other characters and dialogue, with other people playing the game using PC emulators. Nintendo released a trailer announcing "The Origami King" on May 14, 2020, alongside promotional pamphlets produced exclusively for Japan, before they released the game on July 17. The trailer announcement, released on YouTube, appeared without the traditional two-day notice that Nintendo had given previously. "VentureBeat" wrote that the sudden announcement came because Nintendo was still adjusting to the transition of having employees working from home. Alongside the physical copy, pre-purchases of the game at the Nintendo UK store came with a bonus pack of origami sheets and magnets. After release, players discovered multiple glitches in the game that prevented the player from progressing; Nintendo resolved these on August 5. On August 28, Nintendo added Olivia, King Olly, and Origami Princess Peach as collectible spirits in "Super Smash Bros. Ultimate".


title: Paper Mario: The Origami King

text: In the game, the first trapped Toad Mario and Olivia discover complains that they have been poorly treated. The character says, "What do they have against Toads! It's not fair! Toads have rights! This is Toad abuse!" When translated into Traditional Chinese and Simplified Chinese, the quotes about rights and freedom were removed and replaced with, "Return the smooth appearance to Toads! Give back the easy life to Toads!", referring to his paper body. People who responded to the discovery on Twitter considered the change "unspeakably strange", and some wondered if Nintendo had made these changes because of the Hong Kong national security law. The original poster of the comment has received some criticism from people arguing that China could not have interfered and the translation could be a pun. Nintendo released no comments about the situation.


title: Paper Mario: The Origami King

text: "Paper Mario: The Origami King" received "generally favorable reviews", according to review aggregator website Metacritic. The website calculated an 80/100 score based upon 114 reviews.


title: Paper Mario: The Origami King

text: Critics praised the game for its unique writing, appreciating each character's unique, comedic dialogue. Some critics praised Olivia in particular for her personality and humor. Bobby has received critical attention for his role in the game. Beth Elder of "Gizmodo" noted the strength of storytelling in video games; she said they "can make us truly connect with their characters". "Electronic Gaming Monthly" praised each Toads' witty dialogue, noting how it kept the overall hunt fresh. However, Suriel Vazquez's "GameSpot" review criticized the game's character designs for being less charming than early entries in the series.


title: Paper Mario: The Origami King

text: In addition, critics praised the world design and mechanics for their innovation. Many of them enjoyed the paper-style worldbuilding, saying it topped the game off and paired well with the storyline. The game's linear open world design was compared to the likes of "The Legend of Zelda" series. Some critics appreciated how the world is interactive, with characters, collectible treasures, and that it seems there is something interactive almost everywhere. Critics found it fun to explore and discover hidden Toads in the environment, calling the experience entertaining on its own. Reviewers called the soundtrack calming and catchy and appreciated the gradual change during progression throughout each world.


title: Paper Mario: The Origami King

text: The game was praised for its design and concept, but criticized for dropping the role-playing elements present in previous "Paper Mario" titles. Critics indicated that the game was a new and unique experience, but thought the action-adventure style of gameplay did not reach the heights of previous games, such as "". The game was commonly criticized for lacking an experience point (XP) system. "ESPN"s Sean Morisson missed the "satisfying progression" from XP, but considering other good concepts from the game, was split on "whether it mattered all that much."


title: Paper Mario: The Origami King

text: The combat mechanics' reception was mixed. Many reviewers described the fighting style as innovative, a fun twist on basic formats, with boss battles being particularly praised. "GameSpot" called the new combat system clever, stating how it "[turned] the series' Achilles' heel into one of its biggest strengths". Multiple reviewers from "Famitsu" enjoyed the combat, appreciating how the style was a strong puzzle element. However, several critics judged the combat to be unrewarding, and at times, either frustrating or lacking any challenge. Although Cam Shea of "IGN" thought the new concept was innovative, he felt the combat lacked meaning, an inconvenience rather than challenging. Chris Kohler agreed in his review on "Kotaku", appreciating how the reward of coins sometimes made battles worth it, but that they did not amount to much compared to XP.


title: Paper Mario: The Origami King

text: "The Origami King" launched at number two in the United Kingdom behind "Ghost of Tsushima", and sold 109,092 copies in its first week in Japan, making it the second best-selling game in the nation. The game placed third on the July 2020 NPD charts, setting a launch month sales record for the series, and doubling the physical launch sales of "Super Paper Mario" in the U.S. In July 2020, the game became the bestselling Nintendo Switch game on Amazon. By December 2020, the game had sold 3.05 million copies, becoming the fastest selling game in the series and one of the best-selling games on the Switch. By March 2021, the game has sold 3.12 million copies. As of December 2021, the game has sold 3.34 million copies.


title: Paper Mario: The Origami King

text: In 2020, the game was nominated for Best Family Game and Nintendo Game of the Year categories in the Golden Joystick Awards, but lost to "Fall Guys" and "" respectively. In addition, the game lost to "New Horizons" in the Best Family Game category in The Game Awards. "VentureBeat", "Polygon", "Kotaku", and "EGM" listed the game as one of the best releases of 2020. "Nintendo Life" and "IGN" rated the game among the best Nintendo exclusives of 2020. The game was one of the best RPGs of 2020 by score, according to "GameSpot".


title: Jataka tales

text: The Jātakas (meaning "Birth Story", "related to a birth") are a voluminous body of literature native to India which mainly concern the previous births of Gautama Buddha in both human and animal form. According to Peter Skilling, this genre is "one of the oldest classes of Buddhist literature." Some of these works are also considered great works of literature in their own right.


title: Jataka tales

text: In these stories, the future Buddha may appear as a king, an outcast, a deva, an animal—but, in whatever form, he exhibits some virtue that the tale thereby inculcates. Often, Jātaka tales include an extensive cast of characters who interact and get into various kinds of trouble - whereupon the Buddha character intervenes to resolve all the problems and bring about a happy ending. The Jātaka genre is based on the idea that the Buddha was able to recollect all his past lives and thus could use these memories to tell a story and illustrate his teachings.


title: Jataka tales

text: For the Buddhist traditions, the jātakas illustrate the many lives, acts and spiritual practices which are required on the long path to Buddhahood. They also illustrate the great qualities or perfections of the Buddha (such as generosity) and teach Buddhist moral lessons, particularly within the framework of karma and rebirth. Jātaka stories have also been illustrated in Buddhist architecture throughout the Buddhist world and they continue to be an important element in popular Buddhist art. Some of the earliest such illustrations can be found at Sanchi and Bharhut.


title: Jataka tales

text: According to Naomi Appleton, Jātaka collections also may have played "an important role in the formation and communication of ideas about buddhahood, karma and merit, and the place of the Buddha in relation to other buddhas and bodhisattvas." According to the traditional view found in the Pali "Jātakanidana", a prologue to the stories, Gautama made a vow to become a Buddha in the future, in front past Buddha Dipankara. He then spent many lifetimes on the path to Buddhahood, and the stories from these lives are recorded as Jātakas.


title: Jataka tales

text: Jātakas are closely related to (and often overlap with) another genre of Buddhist narrative, the avadāna, which is a story of any karmically significant deed (whether by a bodhisattva or otherwise) and its result. According to Naomi Appleton, some tales (such as those found in the second and fourth decade of the "Avadānaśataka") can be classified as both a jātaka and an avadāna.


title: Jataka tales

text: Jātaka tales may be quite ancient. The term appears as part of a schema of Buddhist literary forms called the nine component genres of the Buddha's teaching ("navaṅga-buddhasāsana"), and depictions of them appear in early Indian art (as early as the second century BCE). They are also widely represented in ancient Indian inscriptions. According to Straube, "the presumably oldest specimens of fully elaborated narratives are dispersed throughout the Vinayapiṭakas and Sūtrapiṭakas of the canonical collections of the different Buddhist schools. These texts are transmitted in various Indian dialects and stem from a prior oral tradition."


title: Jataka tales

text: Furthermore, while these texts cannot be dated in a precise manner, "the fact that many narratives are passed on in almost identical form within the canons of the different schools shows that they date back to the time before the schisms between the schools took place." Sarah Shaw, writing on the Pali Jātakas, states that the earliest part of the Jātakas, the verse portions, are "considered amongst the very earliest part of the Pali tradition and date from the fifth century BCE" while "the later parts were incorporated during the period up to the third century CE."


title: Jataka tales

text: According to A. K. Warder, jātakas are the precursors to the various legendary biographies of the Buddha, which were composed at later dates. Although many jātakas were written from an early period, which describe previous lives of the Buddha, very little biographical material about Gautama's own life has been recorded. Jātaka tales also assimilate many traditional Indian fables and folklore that are not specifically Buddhist. As the genre spread outside of India, it also drew on local folk tales.


title: Jataka tales

text: The Mahayana author Asaṅga provides a working definition of jātaka in his "Śrāvakabhūmi":What is jātaka? That which relates the austere practices and bodhisattva practices of the Blessed One in various past births: this is called jātaka.The idea that jātakas are taught in order to illustrate the bodhisattva path is an ancient one and is contained in sources like the "Mahavastu", which states: "the supreme ones [Buddhas], who are skilled in jātakas and other doctrines, teach the course of practice of a bodhisattva."


title: Jataka tales

text: In the jātakas found in the "Suttapitaka", which are almost always in prose, the Buddha is almost always depicted as a person of high rank in a past life (and not an animal). Some of these also include past lives of some of the Buddha's disciples. One famous example is the Pali "Mahāparinirvāṇasūtra", which includes the story of Mahāsudarśana. Unlike Sutra collections, Vinaya sources like the "Vinayavastu" contain more varied jātakas, including ones in which the Buddha is depicted as an animal.


title: Jataka tales

text: Many jātakas contain elements of both verse and prose. According to Martin Straube "the division into canonical verses and postcanonical prose points to the old Indian narrative form of ākhyāna, which has a fixed wording of the stanzas only, whereas the actual story is to be shaped anew during each oral performance." The plots of the jātakas range from simpler Aesopic style animal tales to longer more complex dramas which resemble epics or novels with intricate dialogue, characters and poetry. Despite the diversity of the plots and characters, they are all unified by the character of the heroic bodhisatta Gautama (whose identity is generally only revealed at the end of the story) and his struggles on the quest for awakening. In spite of this, Gautama is not always the central character of all these stories and sometimes only plays a minor role. Other recurring characters include important disciples of the Buddha, Devadatta (generally as an villain) and members of Gautama's family, like his wife Yasodharā and son Rāhula.


title: Jataka tales

text: Another important element of the stories are the various Buddhist virtues, called perfections, that were cultivated by the bodhisattva Gautama throughout his previous lives, and which serve as the lessons taught by the jātakas. Other jātakas, such as those found in the "Buddhavaṃsa" ("Chronicle of Buddhas"), focus on Gautama's meeting, serving and venerating past Buddhas and serve to place his bodhisattva path in a chronology of past Buddhas. These stories generally focus on acts of devotion to past Buddhas and how this generates much merit which many positive outcomes in the future. A smaller number of jātakas illustrate various mistakes or bad actions that the bodhisattva committed in a past life (and the subsequent karmic retribution) and thus demonstrate the bodhisattva's past imperfections.


title: Jataka tales

text: Regarding the intended audience of these texts, Martin Straube notes that even though there is a widespread view that jātakas arose due to monks "catering to the needs and tastes of the illiterate lay practitioners of Buddhism as propagandistic means of preaching or converting" there is no historical evidence for this. Instead, the opposite might be true, since "the prose portions of the Pali jātakas not infrequently have as their audience monks and nuns, who sometimes reach high levels of spiritual realization after listening to a jātaka story." Naomi Appleton, in her analysis of the second and fourth decade of the "Avadānaśataka", notes that both sets of stories "assume a monastic audience." Likewise, Kate Crosby writes that "the format of the Jātaka in fact suggests that their original inclusion in the canonical collection was primarily for the benefit of monks." Crosby notes that many of these stories are connected with monastic behavior and decorum, some of them are also meant to illustrate specific rules in the Vinaya. In spite of this main intended audience, their simple format also made them easily adaptable for other uses. Thus, they were repackaged as artistic entertainment and teaching devices for laypersons, as parittas (protective chants) and as chronicle (vamsa) literature.


title: Jataka tales

text: Straube also notes that the rock caves of Ajanta and Bagh were inhabited by monks and it was them who ordered and directed the jātaka murals found there. There is also evidence from inscriptions on old stūpas at various Indian sites (such as Sanchi and Bharhut) with jātaka motifs which indicate that they were build due to the patronage of monks and nuns, some of them of high rank such as bhāṇaka (reciter). Some scholars have also concluded that Jātaka reciters were part of their own division of reciters.


title: Jataka tales

text: Jātakas were originally transmitted in prakrit languages and various forms of sanskrit (from classical to Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit). They were then translated into central asian languages (such as Khotanese, Tocharian, Uighur, and Sogdian)"." Various jātaka stories and source texts were also translated into Chinese and Tibetan for the Tibetan and Chinese Buddhist canons. They were some of the first texts to be translated into Chinese. Kāng Sēnghuì (who worked in Nanking c. 247) was one of the first Chinese translators of Jātakas. Perhaps his most influential translation is the "Scripture of the Collection of the Six Perfections."


title: Jataka tales

text: The various Indian Buddhist schools had different collections of jātakas. The largest known collection is the "Jātakatthavaṇṇanā" of the Theravada school. In Theravada Buddhism, the Jātakas are a textual division of the Pāli Canon, included in the "Khuddaka Nikaya" of the "Sutta Pitaka". The term "Jātaka" may also refer to a traditional commentaries ("Atthakatha") on this book. The tales are dated between 300 BCE and 400 CE.


title: Jataka tales

text: The Mahāsāṃghika Caitika sects from the Āndhra region also had Jātakas as part of their canon and they are known to have rejected some of the Theravāda Jātakas which dated past the time of King Ashoka. The Caitikas claimed that their own Jātakas represented the original collection before the Buddhist tradition split into various lineages.


title: Jataka tales

text: In the Northern Buddhist tradition, Jātakas eventually came to be composed in classical Sanskrit. Perhaps the most influential and important Sanskrit Jātaka text is the "Jātakamālā" ("Garland of Jātakas") of Āryaśūra which includes 34 Jātaka stories. This work differs from earlier sources in that it is a highly sophisticated poem which makes use of various Sanskrit literary devices. The "Jātakamālā" was quite influential and was imitated by later authors who wrote their own jātakamālās"," mainly Haribhaṭṭa and Gopadatta. These works are all written in a classical Sanskrit genre known as campū, which is a blend of prose and verse in various meters. The jātakamālās all also use the six perfections (pāramitā) as their main framework. The influence of the "jātakamālās" can be seen in the Ajanta Cave complex, where illustrations of Jātakas are inscribed with quotes from Āryaśūra, with script datable to the sixth century. The "Jātakamālā" was also translated into Chinese in 434 CE. Borobudur, a massive 9th century Buddhist site in Java, contains depictions of all 34 Jatakas from the "Jātakamālā".


title: Jataka tales

text: Two other sanskrit authors associated with the jātaka genre are Kumāralāta (2nd century CE), author of the "Kalpanāmaṇḍitikā Dṛṣṭāntapaṅkti" ("Collection of Examples, Adorned with an Artistic Arrangement") and Saṅghasena's (date unknown) "Pusa benyuan jing" (菩薩本縁經; "Sūtra of the Bodhisattva’s Avadānas"). Both works exist only in Chinese translation (but there are sanskrit fragments). These texts are a kind of predecessor to the "Jātakamālā" and are less poetically sophisticated.


title: Jataka tales

text: Later sanskrit authors continued to write in the genre. One such late text is Kṣemendra’s (c. 1036–1065) "Bodhisattvāvadānakalpalatā (Wish-Fulfilling Creeper Consisting in Avadānas of the Bodhisattva)," a unique jātaka text written completely in verse. This work was influential on the Tibetan tradition.


title: Jataka tales

text: Jātaka are also important in Tibetan Buddhism. They were one of the main sources of teaching and study for the popular Kadam school and later Tibetan authors produced abridged collections such as Karmapa Rangjung Dorje's "Hundred Births" and Padma Chopel's summary of the "Avadānakalpalatā."


title: Jataka tales

text: Within the Pali tradition, there are also many non-canonical Jātakas of later composition (some dated even to the 19th century) but these are treated as a separate category of literature from the "official" Jātaka stories that have been more or less formally canonized from at least the 5th century — as attested to in ample epigraphic and archaeological evidence, such as extant illustrations in bas relief from ancient temple walls. Apocryphal Jātakas of the Pali Buddhist canon, such as those belonging to the "Paññāsa Jātaka" collection, have been adapted to fit local culture in certain South East Asian countries and have been retold with amendments to the plots to better reflect Buddhist morals. According to Kate Crosby, "there is also a collection of Jātaka of ten future Buddhas, beginning with Metteyya, which though less well-known today clearly circulated widely in the Theravada world."


title: Jataka tales

text: There are also late compositions based on classic Jātakas, such as the "Kavsiḷumiṇa," a poem based on the Kusa Jātaka in archaic Sinhala written King Parākkamabāhu II (13th century) and the "Mahachat kham luang", the ‘royal version' of the "Vessantara jātaka," which was composed at the court of King Paramatrailokanātha (c. 1482). The art of putting classic Jātakas into Thai verse remains a living tradition to this day.


title: Jataka tales

text: The Theravāda Jātakas comprise 547 poems, arranged roughly by an increasing number of verses. According to Professor von Hinüber, only the last 50 were intended to be intelligible by themselves, without commentary. The commentary gives stories in prose that it claims provide the context for the verses, and it is these stories that are of interest to folklorists. Alternative versions of some of the stories can be found in another book of the Pali Canon, the "Cariyapitaka", and a number of individual stories can be found scattered around other books of the Canon. Many of the stories and motifs found in the Jātaka such as the Rabbit in the Moon of the Śaśajātaka (Jataka Tales: no.316), are found in numerous other languages and media.


title: Jataka tales

text: For example, The Monkey and the Crocodile, The Turtle Who Couldn't Stop Talking and The Crab and the Crane that are listed below also famously featured in the Hindu Panchatantra, the Sanskrit "niti-shastra" that ubiquitously influenced world literature. Many of the stories and motifs are translations from the Pali but others are instead derived from vernacular oral traditions prior to the Pali compositions. At the Mahathupa in Sri Lanka all 550 Jataka tales were represented inside of the reliquary chamber. Reliquaries often depict the Jataka tales.


title: Jataka tales

text: In Southeast Asia, the most important and widely known stories are the 10 stories of the "Mahānipāta jātaka" ("Ten Great Birth Stories)". These tales are considered to be the ten final lives of the bodisattva Gautama and are said to have been the completion of the 10 paramis or perfections. Of these, the Vessantara is the most popular. According to Peter Skilling, part of the reason for its popularity "was the pervasive belief, spread through the Māleyya-sutta and related literature, that by listening to this jātaka one could be assured of meeting the next Buddha, Metteya."


title: Jataka tales

text: Āryaśūra's "Jātakamālā", a very influential Sanskrit work that was depicted throughout the Buddhist world, contains the following Jātakas (which teach various virtues):


title: Jataka tales

text: Jātakas have been important as a way to spread Buddhist teachings and they were widely used as part of sermons, rituals, festivals, and various forms of art. Kate Crosby writes that they have been depicted in such varied forms as "apocryphal literature, vernacular retellings, performance, temple art, temporary street and festival art, films, comics, and cartoons." The sponsorship of Jātaka recitations, copyings and art eventually grew to be seen as an act which generated merit for lay Buddhists. These acts are more common around important festivals like Vesak.


title: Jataka tales

text: The earliest archeological findings which depict Jātakas are the illustrations found in the on the Bharhut stupa railing as well as at Sanchi (c. late 2nd - 1st century BCE), which also include inscriptions. After this, Jātakas appear at many Buddhist sites, like at Ajanta. Similar Jātaka tales are found in murals of Silk Road sites of the pre-Tang period (ca. 421–640 C.E.), such as at Kucha. They are also found in early Southeast Asian sites, especially at Bagan sites. Burmese Buddhism has an extensive tradition of Jātaka illustration, one of the best examples being the illustrations found at Ananda Temple (which depicts 554 tales).


title: Jataka tales

text: Jātaka tales are often associated with specific locations. Originally, this applied to specific places in India, which served as Buddhist pilgrimage sites. Later traditions expanded this to include other places throughout the Buddhist world. According to Naomi Appleton, the fact that Jātaka tales lack specific references to specific places allowed them to be easily transported and re-localized. This flexibility contributed to the lasting popularity of the Jātakas. This tradition of associating Jātaka tales with regions outside of India played an important part in the promotion and legitimisation of Buddhism in these regions.


title: Jataka tales

text: Thus, many stupas in Nepal and northern India are said to mark locations from the Jātaka tales. Chinese pilgrims like Xuanzang and Faxian reported several of these and discussed the stories connected with them. Sites discussed by these figures include the "four great stupas" as well as stupas in Pushkalavati, Mangalura, Hadda Mountain, and Sarvadattaan.


title: Jataka tales

text: According to Naomi Appleton, the "four great stupas" visited by Faxian (337–422 CE) are: the first (in ‘So-ho-to’) was where the Buddha ransomed the life of a dove with his own flesh; the second (in Gandhāra) was where he gave away his eyes to a blind beggar; and the third and fourth (in Takshaśilā) were where he gave away his head to a man and his whole body to a starving tigress who was about to eat her own cubs, and where ‘kings, ministers, and peoples of all the kingdoms around vie with one another in making offerings’. A century later, Songyun writes of the same four sites and also mentions a whole area associated with the "Vessantara-jātaka".


title: Jataka tales

text: Numerous Indian Buddhist archeological sites contain illustrations of Jātakas, and thus they are important artistic sources for Jātakas. Some of the main sites include:


title: Jataka tales

text: Other ancient sites outside of India which contain Jataka illustrations include Borobudor, Dunhuang (the Mogao caves), Polonnoruwa, Anuradhapura, Bagan city, and Nakhon Pathom. Jataka illustrations (especially of the last 10 stories of the canonical Pali collection) are widespread in the Theravada Buddhist world, adorning many temples, wats and key sites.


title: Jataka tales

text: According to the Chinese pilgrim Yijing, who visited India in the 7th century, jātaka plays were performed ‘throughout the five countries of India’. This culture of performance spread to other regions as well.


title: Jataka tales

text: In Tibet, the "Viśvāntara-jātaka" was transformed into a popular play called the "Dri med kun ldan". Other popular jataka plays include Nor bzaṅ or Sudhana and the story of Prince Maṇicūḍa (Lokānanda).


title: Jataka tales

text: In Theravada countries, several of the longer tales such as "The Twelve Sisters" and the "Vessantara Jataka" are still performed in dance, theatre, puppetry, and formal (quasi-ritual) recitation. Such celebrations are associated with particular holidays on the lunar calendar used by Thailand, Myanmar, Sri Lanka and Laos. The recitation of the "Vessantara Jataka" remains an important ceremony remains an important ceremony in Theravada countries today.


title: Jataka tales

text: The standard Pali collection of jātakas, with canonical text embedded, has been translated by E. B. Cowell and others, originally published in six volumes by Cambridge University Press (1895-1907) and reprinted in three volumes, by the Pali Text Society (Bristol). There are also numerous English translations of selections and individual stories from various sources.


title: Jataka tales

text: Stories which are similar to the jātakas are also found in Jainism, which has stories focused on Mahavira's path to enlightenment in previous lives. The Jain stories include Mahavira's numerous forms of rebirth, such as animals as well as encounters with past liberated beings (jinas) which predict Mahavira's future enlightenment. However, a major difference here is that, while Mahavira gets a prediction of future enlightenment, he does not make a vow to become a jina in the future, unlike the bodhisattva Gautama. There is also no equivalent idea of a bodhisattva path in Jainism, in-spite of the existence of some narratives about Mahavira's past lives.


title: Jataka tales

text: A similar collection of Indian animal fables is the Hindu "Pañcatantra", which has been dated to around 200 BCE.


title: Jataka tales

text: Some Buddhist jātakas were also adopted and retold by Islamic (and later Christian) authors, such as the 10th century Shia scholar Ibn Bābūya, who adapted a jātaka into a story titled Balawhar wa-Būdāsf, which became the Christian narrative of Barlaam and Joasaph.


title: Saturday Night Massacre

text: The Saturday Night Massacre was a series of events that took place in the United States on the evening of Saturday, October 20, 1973, during the Watergate scandal. U.S. President Richard Nixon ordered Attorney General Elliot Richardson to fire Special Prosecutor Archibald Cox; Richardson refused and resigned effective immediately. Nixon then ordered Deputy Attorney General William Ruckelshaus to fire Cox; Ruckelshaus refused, and also resigned. Nixon then ordered the third-most-senior official at the Justice Department, Solicitor General Robert Bork, to fire Cox. Bork carried out the dismissal as Nixon asked. Bork stated that he intended to resign afterward, but was persuaded by Richardson and Ruckelshaus to stay on for the good of the Justice Department.


title: Saturday Night Massacre

text: The political and public reactions to Nixon's actions were negative and highly damaging to the president. The impeachment process against Nixon began ten days later, on October 30, 1973. Leon Jaworski was appointed as the new special prosecutor on November 1, 1973, and on November 14, 1973, United States District Judge Gerhard Gesell ruled that the dismissal had been illegal. The Saturday Night Massacre marked the turning point of the Watergate scandal as the public, while increasingly uncertain about Nixon's actions in Watergate, were incensed by Nixon's seemingly blatant attempt to end the Watergate probe, while Congress, having largely taken a wait-and-see policy regarding Nixon's role in the scandal, quickly turned on Nixon and initiated impeachment proceedings that would end in Nixon's resignation.


title: Saturday Night Massacre

text: U.S. Attorney General Elliot Richardson had appointed Cox in May 1973 after promising the House Judiciary Committee that he would appoint a special prosecutor to investigate the events surrounding the break-in of the Democratic National Committee's offices at the Watergate Hotel in Washington, D.C., on June 17, 1972. The appointment was created as a career reserved position in the Justice Department, meaning it came under the authority of the attorney general, who could only remove the special prosecutor "for cause", e.g., gross improprieties or malfeasance in office. Richardson had, in his confirmation hearings before the U.S. Senate, promised not to use his authority to dismiss the Watergate special prosecutor unless for cause.


title: Saturday Night Massacre

text: When Cox issued a subpoena to Nixon, asking for copies of taped conversations recorded in the Oval Office, the president refused to comply. On October 12, 1973, the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit upheld the subpoena, rejecting Nixon's claims of executive privilege. On Friday, October 19, Nixon offered what was later known as the Stennis Compromise – asking the infamously hard-of-hearing Senator John C. Stennis of Mississippi to review and summarize the tapes for the special prosecutor's office. Cox refused the compromise that same evening, and it was believed that there would be a short rest in the legal maneuvering while government offices were closed for the weekend.


title: Saturday Night Massacre

text: However, on the following day (Saturday), Nixon ordered Attorney General Richardson to fire Cox. Richardson refused and resigned in protest. Nixon then ordered Deputy Attorney General William Ruckelshaus to fire Cox. Ruckelshaus also refused and resigned.


title: Saturday Night Massacre

text: Nixon then ordered the Solicitor General of the United States, Robert Bork, as acting head of the Justice Department, to fire Cox. Both Richardson and Ruckelshaus had given personal assurances to Congressional oversight committees that they would not interfere, but Bork had not. Although Bork later claimed he believed Nixon's order to be valid and appropriate, he still considered resigning to avoid being "perceived as a man who did the President's bidding to save my job". Nevertheless, having been brought to the White House by limousine and sworn in as acting attorney general, Bork wrote the letter dismissing Cox.


title: Saturday Night Massacre

text: Initially, the Nixon White House claimed to have fired Ruckelshaus, but as an article published the next day by "The Washington Post" pointed out, "The letter from the President to Bork also said Ruckelshaus resigned", catching Nixon lying.


title: Saturday Night Massacre

text: The night he was fired, Cox's deputy prosecutor and press aides held an impassioned news briefing and read the following statement from him, "Whether ours shall continue to be a government of laws and not of men is now for Congress and ultimately the American people [to decide]."


title: Saturday Night Massacre

text: On November 14, 1973, federal district judge Gerhard Gesell ruled firing Cox was illegal absent a finding of extraordinary impropriety as specified in the regulation establishing the special prosecutor's office. Congress was infuriated by what it saw as a gross abuse of presidential power – as were many Americans, who sent an unusually large number of telegrams to the White House and Congress in protest.


title: Saturday Night Massacre

text: Less than a week after the Saturday Night Massacre, an Oliver Quayle poll for NBC News indicated that, for the first time, a plurality of U.S. citizens supported impeaching Nixon, with 44% in favor, 43% opposed, and 13% undecided, with a sampling error of 2 to 3 per cent. In the days that followed, numerous resolutions of impeachment against the president were introduced in Congress, and the impeachment process against Richard Nixon was underway.


title: Saturday Night Massacre

text: However, the House Judiciary Committee did not approve its first article of impeachment until July 27 the following year – more than nine months after the Saturday Night Massacre – when it charged Nixon with obstruction of justice. Two more articles of impeachment quickly followed.


title: Saturday Night Massacre

text: Within two weeks, Nixon had made the decision to resign; following a televised speech in which he announced his intentions, he did so on August 9, 1974.


title: Saturday Night Massacre

text: The actual origin of the phrase is unknown; it first appeared in writing two days after the events, in a "Washington Post" article by David S. Broder on October 22, but even in that article, Broder writes that the events were already "being called" the Saturday Night Massacre. In a 2017 article in "The Washington Post", Amy B. Wang attributed the phrase to humorist Art Buchwald, based on the recollection of Sally Quinn.


title: Saturday Night Massacre

text: Nixon felt political pressure to allow Bork to appoint a new special prosecutor, and Bork chose Leon Jaworski. There was a question whether Jaworski would limit his investigation to the Watergate break-in or follow Cox's lead and look into other corrupt activities, such as those involving the "White House Plumbers". Continuing Cox's investigation, Jaworski did look at broader corruption involving the White House.


title: Saturday Night Massacre

text: While Nixon continued to refuse to turn over the tapes, he agreed to release transcripts of a large number of them. Nixon said he did so partly because any audio pertinent to national security would have to be redacted from the tapes. There was further controversy on November 7 when an 18½-minute portion of one tape was found to have been erased. Nixon's personal secretary, Rose Mary Woods, said she had accidentally erased the tape by pushing the wrong foot pedal on her tape player while answering the phone. Later forensic analysis determined that the tape had been erased in several segments – at least five, and perhaps as many as nine.


title: Saturday Night Massacre

text: Nixon's presidency succumbed to mounting pressure resulting from the Watergate scandal and its cover-up. Faced with almost certain impeachment and conviction, Nixon resigned.


title: Saturday Night Massacre

text: In his posthumously published memoirs, Bork said Nixon promised him the next seat on the Supreme Court following Bork's role in firing Cox. Nixon was unable to carry out that promise, but President Ronald Reagan nominated Bork for the Supreme Court in 1987; his nomination nevertheless failed in the Senate.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: The Ethiopian National Defense Force (ENDF) () is the military force of Ethiopia. Civilian control of the military is carried out through the Ministry of Defense, which oversees the Ground Forces, Air Force, Naval Force as well as the Defense Industry Sector.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: The Ethiopian army's origins and military traditions date back to the earliest history of Ethiopia. Due to Ethiopia's location between the Middle East and Africa, it has long been in the middle of Eastern and Western politics and has been subject to foreign invasion and aggression. In 1579, the Ottoman Empire's attempt to expand from a coastal base at Massawa during the Ottoman conquest of Habesh was defeated. The Army of the Ethiopian Empire was also able to defeat the Egyptians in 1876 at Gura, led by Ethiopian Emperor Yohannes IV. Clapham wrote in the 1980s that the "Abyssinians [had suffered] from a 'superiority complex' which may be traced to Gundet, Gura and Adwa".


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: Following the order of the emperor of Ethiopia, Nikolay Leontiev directly organized the first battalion of the regular Ethiopian army in February 1899. Leontiev formed the first regular battalion, the kernel of which became the company of volunteers from the former Senegal shooters, which he chose and invited from Western Africa, with the training of the Russian and French officers. The first Ethiopian military band was organized at the same time.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: The Battle of Adwa is the best-known victory of Ethiopian forces over foreign invaders. It maintained Ethiopia's existence as an independent state. Fought on 1 March 1896 against the Kingdom of Italy near the town of Adwa, it was the decisive battle of the First Italo–Ethiopian War. Assisted by all of the major nobles of Ethiopia, including Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam, Ras Makonnen, Ras Mengesha Yohannes, Mikael of Wollo, and Menelik II struck a powerful blow against the Italian army.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: The Ethiopian army had been able to execute the strategic plan of Menelik's headquarters, despite a feudal system of organization and adverse circumstances. A special role was played by the Russian military advisers and the volunteers of Leontiev's mission.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: Secondly, the Ethiopian army was based on a feudal system of organization, and as a result, nearly the entire army was a peasant militia. Russian military experts advising Menelik II suggested trying to achieve full battle collision with Italians, to neutralize the superior firepower of their opponent and potentially nullify their problems with arms, training, and organization, rather than engaging in a campaign of harassment. In the battle that ensued wave upon wave of Menelik's warriors successfully attacked the Italians.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: During the Scramble for Africa, Ethiopia remained the only nation that had not been colonized by European colonial powers, due in part to their defeat of Italy in the First Italo-Ethiopian War. However, with Ethiopia surrounded by European colonies, the necessity of ensuring that the Ethiopian army was well-maintained became apparent to the Ethiopian government. The Ethiopian government trained its troops to a very high degree, with Russian military officer Alexander Bulatovich writing thus:


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: "Many consider the Ethiopian army to be undisciplined. They think that it is not in any condition to withstand a serious fight with a well-organized European army, claiming that the recent war with Italy doesn't prove anything. I will not begin to guess the future and will say only this. Over the course of four months, I watched this army closely. It is unique in the world. And I can bear witness to the fact that it is not quite so chaotic as it seems at first glance, and that on the contrary, it is profoundly disciplined, though in its own unique way. For every Abyssinian, war is normal business, and military skills and rules of army life in the field enter in the flesh and blood of each of them, just as do the main principles of tactics. On the march, each soldier knows how to arrange necessary comforts for himself and to conserve his strength; but on the other hand, when necessary, he shows such endurance and is capable of action in conditions which are difficult even to imagine.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: You see remarkable expediency in all the actions and skills of this army, and each soldier has an amazingly intelligent attitude toward managing the mission of the battle.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: Despite such qualities, because of its impetuousness, it is much more difficult to control this army than a well-drilled European army, and I can only marvel at and admire the skill of its leaders and chiefs, of which there is no shortage."


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: In obedience to the agreement with Russia and the order of Menelik II, First Ethiopian officers began to be trained at the First Russian cadet school in 1901. 30 to 40 Ethiopian officers were trained in Russia from 1901 until 1913.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: Modernization of the army took place under the regency of Tafari Mekonnen, who later reigned as Emperor Haile Selassie I. He created an Imperial Bodyguard, the "Kebur Zabagna", in 1917 from the earlier "Mahal Safari" who had traditionally attended the Ethiopian Emperor. Its elite was trained at the French military academy at Saint-Cyr or by Belgian military advisers. He also created his own military school at Holeta in January 1935.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: Ethiopian military aviation efforts were initiated in 1929 when Tafari Mekonnen hired two French pilots and purchased four French biplanes. By the time of the Italian invasion of 1935, the air force had four pilots and thirteen aircraft.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: However, these efforts were not sufficient nor instituted in enough time to stop the rising tide of Italian fascism. Ethiopia was invaded and occupied by Italy during the Italian invasion of Ethiopia of 1935–36, marked for Ethiopia's first time being occupied by a foreign power. Ethiopia's patriots managed to resist and defeat the fascist Italian force after the 1941 East African Campaign of World War II with the help of British, South African and Nigerian forces. This made Ethiopia the only country in Africa that has never been colonized. After the Italians had been driven from the country, a British Military Mission to Ethiopia (BMME), under Major General Stephen Butler, was established to reorganize the Ethiopian Army. The Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement of 1944 removed the BMME from the jurisdiction of East Africa Command at Nairobi and made it responsible to the Ethiopian Minister of War.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: Ethiopia bought twenty AH-IV tankettes from Czechoslovakia in the late 1940s. They were based on the Romanian R-1 variant and arrived in Djibouti on 9 May 1950 after which they were carried by rail to Addis Ababa. They were used until the 1980s when they participated in the fighting against Somalia.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: In keeping with the principle of collective security, for which Haile Selassie was an outspoken proponent, Ethiopia sent a contingent under General Mulugeta Buli, known as the Kagnew Battalion, to take part in the Korean War. It was attached to the American 7th Infantry Division, and fought in several engagements including the Battle of Pork Chop Hill. 3,518 Ethiopian troops served in the war, of which 121 were killed and 536 wounded.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: On May 22, 1953, a U.S.-Ethiopian Mutual Defense Assistance Agreement was signed. A U.S. Military Assistance Advisory Group was dispatched to Ethiopia and began its work by reorganizing the army into three divisions. On 25 September 1953, Selassie created the Imperial Ministry of National Defense that unified the Army, Air Force, and Navy. By 1956, the First Division had its headquarters at Addis Ababa (First, Second, Third Brigades, 5,300 strong); the Second Division was headquartered at Asmara, with the Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth, and Twelfth Brigades (4,500 strong); and Third Division Harar (with the Fourth, Ninth, Tenth, and Eleventh Brigades, 6,890 strong) respectively. The three divisions had a total of 16,832 troops. In May 1959, the Emperor established the Imperial Territorial Army as a reserve force that provided military training to civil servants.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: In 1960 the U.S. Army Area Handbook for Ethiopia described the very personalized command arrangements then used by the Emperor:


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: The Emperor is by constitutional provision Commander-in-Chief, and to him are reserved all rights respecting the size of the forces and their organization and command, together with the power to appoint, promote, transfer and dismiss military officers. He seeks the advice and consent of Parliament in declaring war. Traditionally, he assumes personal command of the forces in time of war.'


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: The Office of the Chief of Staff of the Imperial Ethiopian Armed Forces directed the Commanders of the Army, Air Force, and Navy, and the three army divisions were directly responsible to the Commander of the Army. The three divisions seemingly included the Third Division in the Ogaden, seen as a hardship post. While technically the Imperial Bodyguard (Kebur Zabagna) was responsible to the Army Commander, in reality, its commander received his orders directly from the Emperor.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: "Balambaras" Abebe Aregai was one of the noted patriotic resistance leaders of Shoa (central Ethiopia) that rose to preeminence in the post-liberation period. He became "Ras," a general and minister of defense of the Imperial Ethiopian Armed Forces until his death in the 1960 Ethiopian coup attempt.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: Ethiopia contributed troops for the United Nations operation in the Congo – the United Nations Operation in the Congo - from July 1960. By 20 July 1960, 3,500 troops for ONUC had arrived in the Congo. The 3,500 consisted of 460 troops from Ethiopia (later to grow into the Tekil Brigade) as well as troops from Ghana, Morocco and Tunisia. Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie raised some 3,000 Imperial Bodyguard personnel- about 10 percent of the Ethiopian army's entire strength at that time-and made it part of the UN peacekeeping force in the Congo, along with an air force squadron. This volunteer battalion from the Imperial Bodyguard were authorized by the Emperor. The Tekil (or “Tekel”) Brigade was stationed in Stanleyville.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: Aman Mikael Andom commanded the Third Division during the 1964 Ethiopian–Somali Border War. He later became chief of staff of the Armed Forces in July 1974, and then Minister of Defense. He then became chairman of the Derg from September to December 1974.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: Emperor Haile Selassie divided the Ethiopian military into separate commands. The US Army Handbook for Ethiopia notes that each service was provided with training and equipped from different foreign countries "to assure reliability and retention of power." The military consisted of the following: Imperial Bodyguard (also known as the "First Division", 8,000 men); three army divisions; services which included the Airborne, Engineers, and Signal Corps; the Territorial Army (5,000 men); and the police (28,000 men).


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: Among reported U.S. equipment deliveries to Ethiopia were 120 M59 and 39 M75 armored personnel carriers.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: The Coordinating Committee of the Armed Forces, Police, and Territorial Army, or the Derg (Amharic "Committee"), was officially announced 28 June 1974 by a group of military officers to maintain law and order due to the powerlessness of the civilian government following widespread mutiny in the armed forces of Ethiopia earlier that year. Its members were not directly involved in those mutinies, nor was this the first military committee organized to support the administration of Prime Minister Endelkachew Makonnen: Alem Zewde Tessema had established the Armed Forces Coordinated Committee on 23 March. However, over the following month's radicals in the Ethiopian military came to believe he was acting on behalf of the hated aristocracy, and when a group of notables petitioned for the release of several government ministers and officials who were under arrest for corruption and other crimes, three days later the Derg was announced.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: The Derg, which originally consisted of soldiers at the capital, broadened its membership by including representatives from the 40 units of the Ethiopian Army, Air Force, Navy, Kebur Zabagna (Imperial Guard), Territorial Army and Police: each unit was expected to send three representatives, who were supposed to be privates, NCOs, and junior officers up to the rank of major. According to Bahru Zewde, "senior officers were deemed too compromised by close association to the regime."


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: The committee elected Major Mengistu Haile Mariam as its chairman and Major Atnafu Abate as its vice-chairman. The Derg was initially supposed to study various military units' grievances, investigate abuses by senior officers and staff, and root out corruption in the military. In the months following its founding, the power of the Derg steadily increased. In July 1974 the Derg obtained key concessions from the Emperor, Haile Selassie, which included the power to arrest not only military officers but government officials at every level. Soon both former Prime Ministers Tsehafi Taezaz Aklilu Habte-Wold, and Endelkachew Makonnen, along with most of their cabinets, most regional governors, many senior military officers, and officials of the Imperial court found themselves imprisoned.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: When the Derg gained control of Ethiopia, they lessened their reliance on the West. Instead, they began to draw their equipment and their sources for organizational and training methods from the Soviet Union and other Comecon countries, especially Cuba. During this period, Ethiopian forces were often locked in counter-insurgency campaigns against various guerrilla groups. They honed both conventional and guerrilla tactics during campaigns in Eritrea, and by repelling an invasion launched by Somalia in the 1977–1978 Ogaden War.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: The Ethiopian army grew considerably under the Derg (1974–1987), and the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia under Mengistu (1987–1991), especially during the latter regime. The Library of Congress estimated forces underarms in 1974 at 41,000. By July 1975 the International Institute for Strategic Studies was listing a mechanised division in addition to three infantry divisions. Ayele writes that in November 1975, the "Nabalbal" ("Flame") force was created, subdivided into battalion-sized units of 400. Each battalion-sized unit was known as a "hayl" (force), and 20 were created within sixteen months. The "Nabalbal" units entered combat in 1977. When Ethiopian intelligence sources discovered Somali planning to seize the Ogaden, militia brigades were also created; first 30, then a total of 61 brigades totaling 143,350 by 1977–78. It appears that there were five regular line divisions active by the time of the 1977 Ogaden War, and the Library of Congress estimated the force size at the time as 53,500. With significant Soviet assistance, after that point the army's size grew rapidly; in 1979 it was estimated at 65,000. The 18th and 19th Mountain Infantry Divisions were then established in 1979-80 originally to seize Nakfa, in the Sahel Mountains, one of the remaining strongholds of the Eritrean insurgents. By the beginning of 1981 recruitment for the 21st and 22nd Mountain Infantry Divisions was underway; soon afterward, preparations for the large Operation Red Star were stepping up.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: In April 1988 the Derg reorganized the army. The restoration of relations with Somalia meant that forces could be transferred from the First Revolutionary Army in the Ogaden, to the Second and Third Revolutionary Armies, the Third (TRA) being responsible for the provinces of Assab, Tigray, Wello, Gondar, and Gojjam. The very small Fourth Revolutionary Army became responsible for protecting the border with Kenya and those with Somalia and Sudan. In the place of the previous commands, thirteen corps were established instead, distributed amongst the army headquarters. Intensive efforts were made to enlist additional personnel. Total manpower after the reorganization reached a reported 388,000.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: In May 1988 the Derg decided that before it could concentrate on destroying the EPLF, it would have to first eliminate the TPLF. Thus Operation Adwa was devised to seize the main TPLF base at Adi Ramets in Gondar Province. The Third Revolutionary Army's 603rd and 604th Corps were to play the main role, while the 605th Corps secured the rear, in Wello. The TRA's command structure was disrupted when Major General Mulatu Negash, the army commander, was supplanted by the arrival of Mengistu's favorite, Captain Lagesse Asfaw.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: Cuba provided a significant influx of military advisors and troops over this period, with the largest escalation during the Ogaden War with Somalia, supported by a Soviet airlift:


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: Gebru Tareke listed Ethiopian ground forces in 1990 as comprising four revolutionary armies organized as task forces, eleven corps, twenty-four infantry divisions, and four mountain divisions, reinforced by five mechanized divisions, two airborne divisions, and ninety-five brigades, including four mechanized brigades, three artillery brigades, four tank brigades, twelve special commandos and para commandos brigades – including the Spartakiad, which became operational in 1987 under the preparation and guidance of North Koreans – seven BM-rocket battalions, and ten brigades of paramilitary forces.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: Forces underarms were estimated at 230,000 in early 1991. Mengistu's People's Militia had also grown to about 200,000 members. The mechanized forces of the army comprised 1,200 T-54/55, 100 T-62 tanks, and 1,100 armored personnel carriers (APCs), but readiness was estimated to be only about 30 percent operational, because of the withdrawal of financial support, lack of maintenance expertise and parts from the Soviet Union, Cuba, and other nations.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: Ethiopian soldiers have also committed many atrocities in the region of Tigray. They have used food and rape as weapons of war.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: In 1991 Mengistu's government was overcome by the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), People's Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ, former EPLF), Oromo Liberation Front (OLF) and other opposition factions. After the defeat of the military government, the provisional government disbanded the former national army and relied on its own guerrilla fighters. In 1993, however, the Tigrayan-led government announced plans to create a multi-ethnic defense force. This process entailed the creation of a new professional army and officer class and the demobilization of many of the irregulars who had fought against the military government. With the collapse of the Soviet Union Ethiopia again turned to the Western powers for alliance and assistance. However, many Tigrayan officers remained in command positions. This transformation was still underway when war with Eritrea broke out in 1998, a development that saw the ranks of the armed forces swell along with defense expenditures.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: Although the armed forces have significant battlefield experience, their militia orientation has complicated the transition to a structured, integrated military. Ranks and conventional units were only adopted in 1996. A United States-assisted effort to restructure the armed forces was interrupted by mobilization for the war with Eritrea.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: The former allies EPRDF and PFDJ (former EPLF) led their countries Ethiopia and Eritrea, respectively, into the Eritrean-Ethiopian War of 1998. The war was fought over the disputed region of Badme. During the course of the war, some commanders and pilots from the former army and air force were recalled to duty. These officers helped turn the tide decisively against Eritrea in 2000. Following the war's end, the Eritrea-Ethiopia Boundary Commission, a body founded by the UN, established that the Badme region had in fact belonged to Eritrea. Although the two countries are now at peace, Ethiopia rejected the results of the international court's decision, and continued to occupy Badme. Most observers agree that Ethiopia's rejection of international law, coupled with the high numbers of soldiers maintained on the border by each side – a debilitatingly high number, particularly for the Eritrean side – means that the two countries are effectively still in conflict.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: After the September 11 attacks in 2001, the Ethiopian army began to train with the U.S. Combined Joint Task Force - Horn of Africa (CJTF-HOA) established in Djibouti. Ethiopia allowed the US to station military advisors at Camp Hurso. Part of the training at Camp Hurso has included U.S. Army elements, including 4th Battalion, 31st Infantry, training the 12th, 13th and 14th Division Reconnaissance Companies, which from July 2003 were being formed into a new Ethiopian anti-terrorism battalion.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: Government forces have been engaged in a battle against Ogaden insurgents led by the Ogaden National Liberation Front.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: In December 2006, the ENDF entered Somalia to confront the Islamic Courts Union, initially winning the Battle of Baidoa. This led to the seizure of Mogadishu by Ethiopian troops and TFG militias and subsequent heavy fighting there. After the Islamists split into two groups, moderate Islamists led by Sharif Sheikh Ahmed signed a UN backed peace deal with the TFG and established a larger government in Mogadishu. Ethiopian troops withdrew as part of the terms of the peace deal. Gabre Heard commanded the forces in Somalia.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: The force of about 3,000 Ethiopian troops faced war crimes allegations by rights groups. The Transitional Federal Government who invited them were also accused of human rights abuses and war crimes including murder, rape, assault, and looting by human rights groups


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: In their December 2008 report 'So much to Fear' Human Rights Watch warned that since the Ethiopians had intervened in 2006 Somalia was facing a humanitarian catastrophe on a scale not witnessed since the early 1990s. They went on to accuse the TFG of terrorizing the citizens of Mogadishu and the Ethiopian soldiers for increasing violent criminality.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: Analysts suggested that the move was primarily motivated by financial considerations, with the Ethiopian forces' operational costs now slated to be under AMISOM's allowance budget. It is believed that the Ethiopian military's long experience in Somali territory, its equipment such as helicopters, and the potential for closer coordination will help the allied forces advance their territorial gains. As of 2014, the Ethiopian troops in Somalia have been integrated into the AMISOM peacekeeping force. According to Ethiopian Ministry of Foreign Affairs spokesperson Ambassador Dina Mufti, the Ethiopian military's decision to join AMISOM is intended to render the peacekeeping operation more secure.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: On 8 November 2020, ENDF troops backed by militias from the Amhara and the Eritrean Defence Forces regions were deployed to the Tigray Region in response to a coordinated 'preemptive strike' by TPLF against the Northern Command of ENDF. Since the beginning of the conflict, ENDF personnel has been accused of involvement in alleged war crimes against civilians in the Tigray Region. These mere accusations include rape and other gender based violence, as well as extrajudicial killings in Hagere Selam, Hitsats, Humera, Debre Abbay, and other areas where the conflict is ongoing. The prime minister of Ethiopia, Abiy Ahmed, has publicly acknowledged the possibility of war crimes taking place within the Tigray Region. Abiy did not however link these actions to the Ethiopian military, and instead cited such reports were likely "propaganda of exaggeration" by the Tigray People's Liberation Front, currently opposing federal forces in the northern region.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: The Italian weekly magazine Panorama published a graphic video in which Amharic-speaking ENDF soldiers killed a group of 9 people in Humera in August 2021 and then put their bodies on fire. The video also shows torturing of one man by soldiers, then tying him up, preparing to throw him in the river.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: The size of the ENDF has fluctuated significantly since the end of the Ethiopia-Eritrea war in 2000. In 2002 the Ethiopian Defense Forces had a strength of approximately 250,000-350,000 troops. This was roughly the same number maintained during the Derg regime that fell to the rebel forces in 1991. However, that number was later reduced, and in January 2007, during the War in Somalia, Ethiopian forces were said to comprise about 300,000 troops. In 2012, the IISS estimated that the ground forces had 135,000 personnel and the air force 3,000.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: As of 2012, the ENDF consists of two separate branches: the Ground Forces and the Ethiopian Air Force. Ethiopia has several defense industrial organizations that produce and overhaul different weapons systems. Most of these were built under the Derg regime which planned a large military industrial complex. The ENDF relies on voluntary military service of people above 18 years of age. Although there is no compulsory military service, armed forces may conduct call-ups when necessary and compliance is compulsory.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: Modern day Ethiopia, being a landlocked country, has no active navy. Ethiopia reacquired a coastline on the Red Sea in 1950 and created the Ethiopian Navy in 1955. Eritrean independence in 1991 left Ethiopia landlocked again, but the Ethiopian Navy continued to operate from foreign ports until it finally was disbanded in 1996.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: Ethiopia has served in various United Nations and African Union peacekeeping missions. These have included Ivory Coast, on the Burundi border, and in Rwanda.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: Two major previous Ethiopian missions were in Liberia and Darfur. The United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) was established by United Nations Security Council Resolution 1509, of 19 September 2003, to support the implementation of the ceasefire agreement and the peace process, protect United Nations staff, facilities and civilians, support humanitarian and human rights activities; as well as assist in national security reform, including national police training and formation of a new, restructured military. In November 2007, nearly 1,800 Ethiopian troops serving with the United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) were presented with UN Peacekeeping medals for their "invaluable contribution to the peace process." Up to three Ethiopian battalions used to constitute Sector 4 of the UN Mission, covering the southern part of the country. The mission ended in 2018.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: Many thousands of Ethiopian peacekeepers were also involved in the hybrid United Nations–African Union Mission in Darfur (UNAMID) in western Sudan. The Security Council authorized a force of about 26,000 uniformed personnel. The Darfur mission was shut down in 2020–21.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: Ethiopia also provides the entire force for the UN's Abyei mission, the United Nations Interim Security Force for Abyei. An Ethiopian officer commands the force.


title: Ethiopian National Defense Force

text: National Defence Day is celebrated annually on 14 February, and serves as the holiday of the ENDF. It was first celebrated for the first time in 2013. It is celebrated for four days. It celebrates the establishment, on 14 February 1996, of the military.


title: Jaida Essence Hall

text: Jared Johnson (born December 9, 1986), best known by the stage name Jaida Essence Hall, is an American drag queen and reality television personality best known for winning the twelfth season of "RuPaul's Drag Race", and later returning to compete on the seventh season of "RuPaul's Drag Race All Stars", an all-winners season. Since her season aired in 2020, Hall has been a staple of several domestic and international tours that feature "Drag Race" contestants, including Werq the World, A Drag Queen Christmas, and Drive 'N Drag. In October 2020, Johnson was a featured performer in Rihanna's "Savage X Fenty Fashion Show Vol. 2".


title: Jaida Essence Hall

text: Johnson was born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. He is the third contestant from the city to compete on "RuPaul's Drag Race" and the second winner after Trixie Mattel (winner of All Stars Season 3). He cites Milwaukee's sense of community and diversity of drag as major influences, especially its country tongue. He performed for a period of time at Hamburger Mary's.


title: Jaida Essence Hall

text: Johnson began drag in the early 2010s. Her name is a product of personal anecdotes and experiences that hold meaning. A friend called her "Jaida" when she put on a wig for the first time, and the name stuck. "Essence" came from her boyfriend, who called her "the essence of beauty" in a text message. "Hall" is the name of her drag family; her mothers are Tajma Hall and Prada Diamond, and her drag sisters are Mercedes Iman Diamond, Dida Ritz, and Kahmora Hall.


title: Jaida Essence Hall

text: She rose to prominence in the drag scene through pageantry, winning titles such as Miss Five, Miss Gay Madison, Miss Wisconsin Club, and Miss City of the Lakes. She also performed a halftime show at a 2019 Milwaukee Bucks game.


title: Jaida Essence Hall

text: Jaida is known for her design eye and makes many of her own outfits; her boyfriend makes her jewelry. She is also a makeup artist and painted Silky Nutmeg Ganache's face for the season eleven finale of "RuPaul's Drag Race".


title: Jaida Essence Hall

text: In July and August 2020, Hall on toured with Drive 'N Drag, a drive-in drag show held outdoors to accommodate social distancing restrictions imposed due to COVID-19. Johnson was featured on the cover of the September issue of Attitude magazine in 2020. In October 2020, Johnson was a featured performer in Rihanna's "Savage X Fenty Fashion Show Vol. 2".


title: Jaida Essence Hall

text: In September 2021, she performed alongside Christina Aguilera at LadyLand Festival. The following month, she performed at "PridetoberFest" at Henry Maier Festival Park in Milwaukee, and the 10th annual "Night of the Living Drag: The North American Halloween Tour". In December, she will perform at the 2021 "A Drag Queen Christmas" event, produced by Murray & Peter.


title: Jaida Essence Hall

text: In January 2022, Jaida Essence Hall was added to the rotating cast of a dozen "Drag Race" queens in "RuPaul's Drag Race Live!", a Las Vegas show residency at the Flamingo Las Vegas. In March, Jaida Essence Hall, alongside the rest of the "RuPaul's Drag Race Live!" cast, performed with Katy Perry during her Play concert residency at Resorts World Las Vegas. In April 2022, she will host a Grammy-inspired Fashion Show sponsored by TikTok.


title: Jaida Essence Hall

text: Jaida was announced as a contestant on the twelfth season of "RuPaul's Drag Race" on January 23, 2020. During her time on the show, she won three main challenges, including the Fosse-style number on episode two, the political debate on episode nine, and the makeover on episode ten. She also had one appearance in the bottom two, after a shaky performance in the one-woman show on episode eleven. Jaida ultimately sent fan favorite, and eventual Miss Congeniality winner, Heidi N Closet, home after a lip sync showdown to Prince's hit song "1999". She was crowned the winner (virtually) on May 29, 2020 after winning a three-way lip sync against Crystal Methyd and Gigi Goode to "Survivor" by Destiny's Child. This performance earned Jaida a nomination for the 2020 People's Choice Awards, in the Competition Contestant category.


title: Jaida Essence Hall

text: She returned in the eleventh episode of the sixth season of "RuPaul's Drag Race All Stars" as a "Lip Sync Assassin", where she lipsynced against Eureka! to Little Richard's "Good Golly Miss Molly".


title: Jaida Essence Hall

text: In April 2022, Jaida Essence Hall was announced as one of the eight returning winners that would be competing in seventh season of "RuPaul's Drag Race All Stars", the first ever all-winners season of "Drag Race". She won the third episode, and successfully lipsynced against Trinity the Tuck to Beyonce's "Green Light".


title: Compartmentalization (psychology)

text: Compartmentalization is a form of psychological defense mechanism in which thoughts and feelings that seem to conflict are kept separated or isolated from each other in the mind. It may be a form of mild dissociation; example scenarios that suggest compartmentalization include acting in an isolated moment in a way that logically defies one's own moral code, or dividing one's unpleasant work duties from one's desires to relax. Its purpose is to avoid cognitive dissonance, or the mental discomfort and anxiety caused by a person having conflicting values, cognitions, emotions, beliefs, etc. within themselves.


title: Compartmentalization (psychology)

text: Compartmentalization allows these conflicting ideas to co-exist by inhibiting direct or explicit acknowledgement and interaction between separate compartmentalized self-states.


title: Compartmentalization (psychology)

text: Psychoanalysis considers that whereas isolation separates thoughts from feeling, compartmentalization separates different (incompatible) cognitions from each other. As a secondary, intellectual defense, it may be linked to rationalization. It is also related to the phenomenon of neurotic typing, whereby everything must be classified into mutually exclusive and watertight categories.


title: Compartmentalization (psychology)

text: It has been said that when thinking about death people end up compartmentalizing, and they are in a mode of denial and acceptance about it, but they both have the result of making the thinking individual very passive.


title: Compartmentalization (psychology)

text: Otto Kernberg has used the term "bridging interventions" for the therapist's attempts to straddle and contain contradictory and compartmentalized components of the patient's mind.


title: Compartmentalization (psychology)

text: Compartmentalization may lead to hidden vulnerabilities related to self-organization and self-esteem in those who use it as a major defense mechanism.


title: Compartmentalization (psychology)

text: Conflicting social identities may be dealt with by compartmentalizing them and dealing with each only in a context-dependent way.


title: Compartmentalization (psychology)

text: In his novel, "The Human Factor", Graham Greene has one of his corrupt officials use the rectangular boxes of Ben Nicholson's art as a guide to avoiding moral responsibility for bureaucratic decision-making—a way to compartmentalize oneself within one's own separately colored box.


title: Compartmentalization (psychology)

text: Doris Lessing considered that the essential theme of "The Golden Notebook" was "that we must not divide things off, must not compartmentalise. 'Bound. Free. Good. Bad. Yes. No. Capitalism. Socialism. Sex. Love...'".


title: Offspring (TV series)

text: Offspring is an Australian television comedy-drama program that aired Network Ten from 2010 to 2017. "Offspring" is centred on 30-something obstetrician Nina Proudman and her family and friends as they navigate the chaos of modern life. Filmed in Melbourne's inner north, the series mixes conventional narrative drama and comedy with flashbacks, graphic animation, and fantasy sequences.


title: Offspring (TV series)

text: Debra Oswald wrote the series with John Edwards and Imogen Banks producing with Southern Star Entertainment. "Offspring" was originally conceived as a two-hour telemovie for Ten, but was spun off into a 13 episode series after television executives were impressed by the quality of the telemovie. The second season began on 16 May 2011 with a double episode premiere.


title: Offspring (TV series)

text: On 3 October 2014, shortly after the fifth series finale aired, John Edwards confirmed that "Offspring" would not return for a sixth series due to Ten's cost-cutting measures in its production division. In 2015, the series was picked up for another series, with production commencing on 25 April 2016 and running through to June 2016. Most of the original cast returned alongside new cast members.


title: Offspring (TV series)

text: In November 2017, Network Ten chose not to renew the show as part of its 2018 season, although did not officially cancel the program.


title: Offspring (TV series)

text: The series was filmed in Melbourne's inner-north around the suburb of Fitzroy and was produced by John Edwards and Imogen Banks, who also co-produced "Tangle". John Edwards was responsible for such successes as "Police Rescue", "The Secret Life of Us", "Love My Way", and "Dangerous" - also produced with Imogen Banks - and "Rush" for Seriously Ten.


title: Offspring (TV series)

text: A web series titled "Offspring: The Nurses" began in 2010 on the official "Offspring" website. It follows nurses Kim (Alicia Gardiner) and Zara (Jane Harber) from the original series, and also stars Benedict Hardie, Julia Grace, Laura Gilham, Carl Nilsson Polias, Jodie Sheehy, and Matthew Heyward as fellow staff members of the hospital. Some cast members from the original series have also starred as well.


title: Offspring (TV series)

text: A second web series follows Zara (Jane Harber), and this time Justina Noble as Nurse Tyra. Series 2 also starred Benedict Hardie, Harry Milas, Josh Price, Natalie Kaplan, Sonja Kowanjko, and Kate Hopkins, while Richard Davies and Lachy Hulme also made guest appearances.


title: Offspring (TV series)

text: The entire series of "Offspring" has been released on Region 4 DVD via Madman Entertainment. The first and second seasons were released in 2010 and 2011 respectively in box set packaging. In 2012, both sets received a re-release in standard-case packaging, which became the norm for each subsequent season set. Multiple season sets have additionally been made available from Madman Entertainment.


title: Offspring (TV series)

text: "Offspring" is in broadcast in several countries around the world, including New Zealand, where it was screened since 2010 on TV One Sundays at 8:30pm. In 2012, it appeared on the GNT network in Brazil and both HOT VOD and HOT3 in Israel, while it was included on Netflix in the United States in 2017.