title: Royal Rumble (2002)

text: The main event was the Royal Rumble match. The Undertaker, the eighth entrant, dominated upon entering the match, and eliminated all four of the remaining participants. Matt Hardy entered next and Lita, who accompanied Matt, entered the ring to help. The next entrant was Jeff Hardy, and all three attacked The Undertaker. The Undertaker eventually eliminated them both. The Hardys returned, and continued their attack, but were thrown out again. This distraction allowed Maven, the following entrant, to eliminate The Undertaker. The Undertaker returned, beat down Maven, and eliminated him. The Undertaker assaulted Scotty 2 Hotty during his entrance, and continued his attack on Maven into the crowd, and to the backstage area, including smashing his head into a popcorn machine. The match continued with Christian and Scotty 2 Hotty battling it out, and the ring began to fill with more wrestlers. Austin, the nineteenth entrant, dominated upon his entrance, and eliminated all three of the remaining participants. While he waited for the next entrant, he brought Christian and Chuck, whom he had eliminated, back in, and beat them down. Austin then eliminated the next two entrants, leaving him the only man in the ring. Triple H made his in-ring return from injury at No. 22, brawling with Austin. Mr Perfect returned as the twenty-fifth entrant to a loud ovation. The Big Show, the twenty-seventh entrant, dominated upon entering until Kane entered next. Kane eliminated The Big Show, and Kane was eliminated by Austin and Kurt Angle, the twenty-sixth entrant. Rob Van Dam made his Royal Rumble debut by entering the ring at No. 29, taking down nearly everyone with a variety of high-flying moves, until Triple H delivered the Pedigree to him. Booker T, also making his Royal Rumble debut, entered at No. 30 and eliminated Van Dam. He then did the Spin-a-Roonie, and was quickly eliminated from the Rumble after receiving a Stone Cold Stunner from Austin.


title: Royal Rumble (2002)

text: The final four remaining were Austin, Triple H, Angle and Perfect. Angle executed an Angle Slam on Triple H and three German suplexes on Austin. Austin hit a low blow on Angle, but Perfect and Angle double-teamed him. Angle eliminated Austin as he was trying to eliminate Perfect. Austin pulled Perfect outside and attacked him before Angle attacked Austin from behind. Back in the ring, Perfect and Angle attacked Triple H. Austin entered the ring and hit Perfect, Angle and Triple H with a steel chair before leaving. Angle attacked Perfect with a clothesline by accident, and Perfect executed a Perfect-Plex on Angle. Triple H then eliminated Perfect with a clothesline, leaving only Angle and Triple H. It went back and forth before Angle sent Triple H over the top rope with a back body drop, but Triple H held on. Angle thought he had won, and celebrated. Triple H took advantage, and executed a facebuster knee smash on Angle, followed by a clothesline over the top rope to win the Royal Rumble match.


title: Royal Rumble (2002)

text: In 2011, Jack Bramma of 411Mania gave the event a rating of 7.5 [Good], writing, "Despite the super hot crowd, this is a great rumble but only a good show altogether. The Rock-Jericho match is mildly disappointing knowing what they are capable of and the Flair-Vince match is nowhere near the level of even Vince’s best garbage matches. The Edge-Regal match is a good title match but easily missable. [Not] overwhelmingly outstanding, but still a solid recommendation."


title: Royal Rumble (2002)

text: Austin won a number one contender's match against Kurt Angle on the January 28 episode of "Raw" to earn a match for the Undisputed WWF Championship at No Way Out. A feud between Austin and Chris Jericho started with Jericho interfering in Austin's match by attacking him with his title belt.


title: Royal Rumble (2002)

text: The Undertaker continued his feud with Maven over the elimination during the Royal Rumble match, which grew to include The Rock after he mocked Undertaker for his quick elimination. The Undertaker's interference led to The Rock losing to Kurt Angle in the tournament to challenge for the Undisputed championship at No Way Out. On the February 4 episode of "Raw", during a tag team match, The Undertaker grabbed a steel lead pipe from his motorcycle and nailed The Rock in the head with it, allowing Chris Jericho to score the pinfall win. The Rock retaliated by hitting him with a chair and helping Maven win the WWF Hardcore Championship that Undertaker had won at Vengeance; however The Undertaker performed a Tombstone Piledriver on The Rock onto the hood of a limousine in revenge. A match was made between the two at No Way Out.


title: Royal Rumble (2002)

text: Kurt Angle started a feud with Triple H, unhappy about how he lost the Royal Rumble match, and attacked Triple H after a confrontation. During Triple H's match with Booker T, Angle interfered and attacked Triple H. Angle then had Vince McMahon make a match between the two at No Way Out for Triple H's title shot at WrestleMania X8. Triple H and his on-screen wife Stephanie McMahon were having problems, so she faked a pregnancy and demanded that they renew their wedding vows. Triple H discovered the truth, and ended their marriage. Stephanie McMahon then announced herself as the guest referee in the match at No Way Out.


title: Royal Rumble (2002)

text: The 2002 Royal Rumble was the last Royal Rumble held under the WWF name, as in May 2002, the promotion was renamed to World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). It was also the last Royal Rumble until 2014 in which there was only one world championship for the Rumble winner to challenge for as in March 2002, the promotion introduced the first brand extension, which split the roster into two distinct brands, Raw and SmackDown!, where the wrestlers were exclusively assigned to perform. At first, the Undisputed Championship was available to both brands, but in September, it became exclusive to SmackDown! and renamed to WWE Championship after Raw introduced the World Heavyweight Championship as their top title. Additionally, King of the Ring was discontinued as a PPV following its 2002 event, thus the Royal Rumble, along with WrestleMania, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series, reverted to being called the "Big Four" until October 2021 when Money in the Bank was recognized as one of the "Big Five".


The 2021 Assam Legislative Assembly election was the 15th quinquennial legislative assembly election held in the Indian state of Assam from March 27 to April 6 in three phases, to elect 126 MLAs to the 15th Assam Legislative Assembly. The votes were counted and the result declared on Sunday, 2 May. The term of the previous Fourteenth Legislative Assembly of Assam ended on 31 May 2021.


title: 2021 Assam Legislative Assembly election

text: The election saw the incumbent BJP-led National Democratic Alliance (NDA) retaining power with 75 seats, which marks the first time a non-INC alliance winning consecutive terms in the state. The "Mahajot" led by INC won 50 seats, increasing its tally from 26 in 2016. Jailed activist and Raijor Dal founder and President Akhil Gogoi contested the election as an independent candidate and won the Sibsagar seat by a margin of 11,875 votes.


text: The election in 2016 brought a change of power as the Indian National Congress (INC), which had formed the government under Tarun Gogoi since 2001, lost its majority to the Bharatiya Janata Party led by Sarbananda Sonowal.


text: According to the 2011 census, 61.5% were Hindus, 34.22% were Muslims. Christian minorities (3.7%) are mostly among some of the Scheduled Castes and Tribes (SC/ST) population.


text: The six communities in Assam – Maran, Matak, Tai Ahom, Chutia, Koch Rajbongshi and the tea tribes have been demanding grant of ST status since a long time. These six communities are numerous and would play a major role in the elections. The Scheduled Tribe population (both ST(Plains) and ST(Hills) combined in Assam is around 13% of which the Bodo people (an indigenous Assamese community) account for 40% and the Scheduled Caste population is about 7.4% of which the Kaibarta and Jal Keot (both indigenous Assamese & migrant Bengali communities) combined account for about 36%.


text: Out of 32 districts of Assam, 11 are Muslim majority according to the 2011 census. These districts are Dhubri, Goalpara, Barpeta, Morigaon, Nagaon, Hojai, Karimganj, South Salmara–Mankachar, Hailakandi, Darrang and Bongaigaon. Bodos have a population share of 12% and the Kaibarta and Jal Keot have a total share of about 10% (all of which are a part of the indigenous Assamese community). The share of the indigenous Assamese communities in Assam was about 47% in the 2001 census which has reduced to about 40-45% in 2016 as predicted by the experts. Indigenous Assamese Muslims, also known as Khilonjia Muslims, include ethnic groups such as Goria and Moria, and are estimated to be around 40 lakhs in population out of a total 1 crore (4 million out of 10 million) muslims in Assam.


text: According to the CEO office, 23,374,087 General electors were eligible to vote in the Assam Assembly election. Of these, 132,081 voters had disabilities, 289,474 voters were above the age of 80, 1,281,918 were newly enrolled voters, and 505,874 voters were in the age group of 18–19 years. Apart from these, there were also 63,074 service voters. More than 1.08 lakh D-voters were barred from casting their votes in this election.


text: The Election commission suspended four polling officials after a polled Electronic Voting Machine (EVM) in Ratabari constituency in Karimganj district was transported to the strong room through a car belonging to relative of Krishnendu Paul, BJP candidate from neighbouring Patharkandi, after polling party's own car broke down during heavy rain on 9:00pm April 1, 2021. The commission also ordered for a repoll at the polling place where the EVM was taken from, despite all machines were packed and untouched. The vehicle was stopped after a mob was informed and they spotted the EVMs in another vehicle reaching strong room. The video of the incident went viral.


text: On 10 April 2021, the Election Commission of India (ECI) declared the polling held on 1 April 2021 at four polling stations across three Assembly constituencies as 'void' under Section 58(1)(b) of the Representation of the People Act, 1951. The Commission also ordered a repoll in these booths to be held on 20 April 2021.


text: Soon after the election results were declared and the BJP led NDA emerged victorious, it faced the dilemma of who they should make the Chief Minister. While most of the top leaders in the BJP state unit favored incumbent Chief Minister Sarbananda Sonowal, speculations suggested that Himanta Biswa Sarma had more number of elected MLAs of the BJP on his side. Due to prolonged discontent between the two leaders, a BJP legislature party meeting could not be called.


text: Due to the post poll violence in West Bengal, the BJP top brass delayed decision regarding the chief ministership issue it faced in Assam. After six days of declaration of the results, the BJP central leadership on 8 May called both the leaders to New Delhi to sort out the differences and prevent a factionalism within the party. It held a meeting at BJP national president JP Nadda's house where Home Minister Amit Shah was also present. They met with Sonowal and Himanta separately first and then held another meeting where both of them were present. The meetings lasted for over four hours. At the end, they left the place and told reporters that the a BJP legislature party meeting will be held the day after, where the name of the next Chief Minister will be announced.


text: The next day Sarbananda Sonowal tendered his resignation letter to Governor Jagdish Mukhi at his residence. In the Library Planetarium in Guwahati, the BJP legislative party meeting was constituted where Sarbananda Sonowal himself proposed the name of Dr. Himanta Biswa Sarma for Chief Minister and he was unanimously elected as the head of the BJP legislative party. Then in the evening, Himanta Biswa Sarma met the Governor at the latter's residence and showed him the letter of support of his MLAs and sought claim to form the next government. The Governor appointed him as Chief Minister-elect and announced that he would take oath on 10 May, Monday.


text: The next day at Sankardev Kalakhetra in Guwahati, Himanta Biswa Sarma took oath as the 15th Chief Minister of Assam. Along with him 13 other MLAs of the NDA coalition also took oath as ministers in his cabinet.


text: On 28 September 2021, the Election Commission of India announced the dates of By-election to five assembly constituencies of Assam to be held on 30 October and the results will be counted on 2 November.


text: By-polls to 'Gossaigaon' and 'Tamulpur' have been necessitated due to the death of the sitting MLAs, while the incumbents of 'Bhapanipur', 'Mariani' and 'Thowra' resigned to join the ruling BJP.


text: On 10 February 2022, the Election Commission of India announced the date of By-election to Majuli Assembly constituency of Assam to be held on 7 March and the results will be counted on 10 March. By-polls to Majuli constituency have been necessitated as the seat was vacated by Union Minister for Shipping, Ports and AYUSH Sarbananda Sonowal who was elected unopposed to the Rajya Sabha on 27 September 2021.


title: Big Iron

text: "Big Iron" is a country ballad written and performed by Marty Robbins, originally released as an album track on "Gunfighter Ballads and Trail Songs" in September 1959, then as a single in February 1960 with the song "Saddle Tramp" as the B-side single. Members of the Western Writers of America chose it as one of the Top 100 Western songs of all time.


title: Big Iron

text: It tells the story of an Arizona Ranger's duel with an outlaw named Texas Red in the "town of Agua Fria". The townspeople predict the death of the ranger; an unconcerned Texas Red having already killed "one and nineteen" men, but at the moment they meet, the ranger kills Texas Red with the "big iron on his hip." The ranger's draw was so swift, that Texas Red had not even "cleared leather," killing the outlaw in one shot.


title: Big Iron

text: Robbins's version of the song reached number 5 on the Billboard Country chart and number 26 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart in April 1960. The B-side, "Saddle Tramp" was not included on "Gunfighter Ballads", but was later placed on Robbins' 1966 LP "The Drifter".


title: Big Iron

text: The song is also featured in the 2010 video game "" on the in-game radio stations, 'Mojave Music Radio', ‘Black Mountain Radio’ and 'Radio New Vegas'. The popularity of the game helped spur a revival of interest in Robbins' music in the 21st century. In the decade following the video game's release, "Big Iron" became an Internet meme, gaining popularity through remixes and Photoshop parodies as well as its use on YouTube.


title: Big Iron

text: The eponymous "Big Iron" was built by Andy Anderson in his Fast Draw Holster shop from parts. It was on a Great Western frame with a 12" barrel made from an 1892 Winchester rifle or carbine barrel in .44 WCF. Andy was 6'4" with large hands. He put Colt 1860 Army grips on his personal SA revolvers, and this gun has an original grip frame from an 1860 Army. The cylinder is a Great Western cylinder chambered for .44 Magnum.


title: Big Iron

text: Robbins happened to be in the shop the day a customer bought the gun. The customer was also a very large man, and Robbins was fascinated by his fast drawing the Buntline. One week later, Andy Anderson received in the mail a record of Big Iron; Robbins wrote the song after seeing this gun. Andy Anderson additionally had a personal gun he called Big Iron, a Colt S.A. .44 Special with 7 1/2" barrel out of his own favorite rig, the "AA", a high rise version of his Walk & Draw Western.


title: Big Iron

text: The ranger referenced is based on a ranger named Joseph Pearce, who was an Arizonan Ranger born in 1873. On November 23, 1903, Joe enrolled in the Arizona Rangers in Douglas, Arizona. He worked with the Rangers for a brief but illustrious career before quitting in 1905. Following his service, he worked as a line rider for six years before being appointed chief of Apache police on the Fort Apache Reservation. He was a skilled trailer, and because he preferred to work alone, the Indians called him "Lone Wolf", much like the ranger in the song.


title: Big Iron

text: Michael Martin Murphey covered the song on his 1993 album "Cowboy Songs III". With the Robbins family's blessing, the song was recorded as a duet with Robbins. It was released as a single and peaked at number 62 on the "RPM" Country Tracks chart in Canada.


title: Nervous tissue

text: Nervous tissue, also called neural tissue, is the main tissue component of the nervous system. The nervous system regulates and controls body functions and activity. It consists of two parts: the central nervous system (CNS) comprising the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) comprising the branching peripheral nerves. It is composed of neurons, also known as nerve cells, which receive and transmit impulses, and neuroglia, also known as glial cells or glia, which assist the propagation of the nerve impulse as well as provide nutrients to the neurons.


title: Nervous tissue

text: Nervous tissue is made up of different types of neurons, all of which have an axon. An axon is the long stem-like part of the cell that sends action potentials to the next cell. Bundles of axons make up the nerves in the PNS and tracts in the CNS.


title: Nervous tissue

text: Functions of the nervous system are sensory input, integration, control of muscles and glands, homeostasis, and mental activity.


title: Nervous tissue

text: Nervous tissue is composed of neurons, also called nerve cells, and neuroglial cells. Four types of neuroglia found in the CNS are astrocytes, microglial cells, ependymal cells, and oligodendrocytes. Two types of neuroglia found in the PNS are satellite cells and Schwann cells. In the central nervous system (CNS), the tissue types found are grey matter and white matter. The tissue is categorized by its neuronal and neuroglial components.


title: Nervous tissue

text: Neurons are cells with specialized features that allow them to receive and facilitate nerve impulses, or action potentials, across their membrane to the next neuron. They possess a large cell body (soma), with cell projections called dendrites and an axon. Dendrites are thin, branching projections that receive electrochemical signaling (neurotransmitters) to create a change in voltage in the cell. Axons are long projections that carry the action potential away from the cell body toward the next neuron. The bulb-like end of the axon, called the axon terminal, is separated from the dendrite of the following neuron by a small gap called a synaptic cleft. When the action potential travels to the axon terminal, neurotransmitters are released across the synapse and bind to the post-synaptic receptors, continuing the nerve impulse.


title: Nervous tissue

text: Neuroglia encompasses the non-neural cells in nervous tissue that provide various crucial supportive functions for neurons. They are smaller than neurons, and vary in structure according to their function.


title: Nervous tissue

text: The function of nervous tissue is to form the communication network of the nervous system by conducting electric signals across tissue. In the CNS, grey matter, which contains the synapses, is important for information processing. White matter, containing myelinated axons, connects and facilitates nerve impulse between grey matter areas in the CNS.


title: Nervous tissue

text: In the PNS, the ganglion tissue, containing the cell bodies and dendrites, contain relay points for nerve tissue impulses. The nerve tissue, containing myelinated axons bundles, carry action potential nerve impulses.


title: Hate Story 3

text: Hate Story 3 is a 2015 Indian Hindi-language erotic thriller film directed by Vishal Pandya. Produced by T-Series, it stars Sharman Joshi, Karan Singh Grover, Zareen Khan and Daisy Shah, with Priyanshu Chatterjee in a pivotal role. Written by Vikram Bhatt, Anupam Saroj and Madhuri Banerji, the film is part of the "Hate Story" film series. The film was released on 4 December 2015 and was a box office success.


title: Hate Story 3

text: The movie begins with rich businessman Aditya Dewan (Sharman Joshi) and his wife Siya (Zarine Khan) inaugurating a hospital in memory of his elder brother, Vikram Dewan (Priyanshu Chatterjee). He shares a touching story of Vikram donating half of his liver to his friend Karan who had a liver issue during childhood.


title: Hate Story 3

text: Out of the blue, a businessman named Saurav Singhania (Karan Singh Grover), gifts Aditya an expensive car and invites him and his wife for lunch. At lunch, Saurav makes an absurd deal of having sex with Siya in return for giving Aditya's company a big profit. Aditya angrily rejects the offer. Saurav starts plotting to destroy Aditya's business. He bribes one of Aditya's factory workers to mix pesticides in his cola factory, forcing Aditya to shut down and leading him to put all the blame on his trusted employee Kaya (Daisy Shah).


title: Hate Story 3

text: Kaya flies to Malaysia where Saurav relates a fake story of how his sister committed suicide because of Aditya. Kaya and Saurav have sex and she agrees to help him. Aditya asks Kaya to deliver money to a politician but this is revealed to be a trap and Kaya is accused. To help her Saurav asks her to call Aditya and tell him that she no longer wants to be his pawn. When Kaya is upset at having falsely implicated Aditya, Saurav kills her and puts the blame on Aditya. Seeing all the evidence go against Aditya, Siya decides to have sex with Saurav. It is revealed that Vikram was killed by his brother Aditya so he could become chairman of the company. Siya poisons Saurav and leaves with proof of Aditya's innocence in Kaya's death.


title: Hate Story 3

text: Aditya gets ready to start a new project. Saurav is revealed to be alive. He confronts Aditya and they engage in a physical fight with both of them getting injured. In the end, Saurav kills both Siya and Aditya and collapses afterwards.


title: Hate Story 3

text: It is revealed that, Vikram survived the plane crash but was handicapped. It is also revealed that Saurav is actually Karan (Vikram's best friend) who had decided to avenge the injustice done to his friend. The movie ends with Saurav recovering and the dialogue "Relationships are made from the heart, not by blood."


title: Hate Story 3

text: With the success of "Hate Story 2", producer Bhushan Kumar signed director Vishal Pandya for a three-picture deal with T-Series Studios. Early casting included actor Sharman Joshi, but he was replaced by Gurmeet Choudhary for a brief period of time due to conflicts with Joshi's schedule. 26 February 2015, Joshi reported that he was prepared for scenes where he would be nude, and on 1 March, he reported that he was enjoying shooting his explicit scenes. Actress Daisy Shah was brought aboard the project through Salman Khan's insistence that producer Bhushan Kumar speak with her about joining the project. Filming ended on 16 October 2015.


title: Hate Story 3

text: The music for "Hate Story 3" is composed by Amaal Mallik, Meet Bros and Baman, while lyrics are written by Kumaar, Manoj Muntashir, Rashmi Virag and Shabbir Ahmed. The music rights for the film have been acquired by T-Series. The first song titled ""Tumhe Apna Banane Ka"" was released on 21 October 2015, followed by ""Tu Isaq Mera"" which released on 29 Oct 2015. The full music album was released on 4 November 2015.


title: Hate Story 3

text: Bollywood hungama gave the film 3.5 stars. Meena Iyer of The Times of India gave the film 3 stars. Rohit Vats of Hindustan Times gave the film 1.5 stars. Shubhra Gupta of Indian Express gave it 1 star. Koimoi gave it 1 star.Subhash K. Jha of SKJ Bollywood News gave the film 2 stars.


title: Hate Story 3

text: On its second day the film collected nett. Oneindia (Filmi Beat) declared the film a Super Hit after it collected in its opening weekend. According to Oneindia (Filmi Beat) the movie collected in 4 days The film collected nett on its fifth day to take its total to . The film collected nett on its second Friday. The movie made by the end of week 1 at the box office. The film collected nett in its second weekend to take its total to nett after ten days. The film collected in 12 days. The movie finished its run with approx..


title: Jaguar X-Type

text: The Jaguar X-Type is a front-engine, all-wheel/front-wheel drive compact executive car manufactured and marketed by Jaguar Cars from 2001 to 2009 under the internal designation "X400", for a single generation, in sedan/saloon and wagon/estate body styles. In addition to offering Jaguar's first station wagon/estate in series production, the X-Type would ultimately introduce its first diesel engine, four-cylinder engine and front-wheel drive configuration.


title: Jaguar X-Type

text: The X-Type was developed during the period when Jaguar was owned by Ford as a division of its Premier Automotive Group (PAG) (1999-2009) — and marked Jaguar's entry into the critical compact executive segment. The programme aimed to double the marque's worldwide sales — requiring expansion of engineering resources, factory capacity, marketing capability, sales support and service. At launch, Autocar called the X-Type "the most important Jaguar ever."


title: Jaguar X-Type

text: With annual projections of 100,000 sales, the X-Type recorded a production of 350,000 over its eight year manufacturing run.


title: Jaguar X-Type

text: The X-Type, codenamed "X400", launched in 2001 to compete in the compact executive class dominated by the rear-wheel drive BMW 3 Series and Mercedes-Benz C-Class despite Ford/Jaguar having no directly competitive platform.


title: Jaguar X-Type

text: Instead, the X-type used a modified version of the front-drive Ford CD132 platform shared with the contemporary Ford Mondeo — with the addition of all-wheel drive (marketed as "Jaguar Traction" or "Jaguar Traction 4") and handling and steering engineered to minimise front-wheel drive torque-steer. Initially, the X-Type was available only with all wheel drive, using a centre differential and a compact, maintenance-free viscous coupling with a default split of 60 percent torque to the rear wheels, 40 percent to the front wheels. Under loss of traction front or rear, the coupling could vary the front/rear torque split and could fully transfer torque to either front or rear wheels to ensure grip. From 2005-on, X-Types used an electronically controlled transfer cases rather than the centre viscous coupling.


title: Jaguar X-Type

text: Despite the X-Type's importance to Jaguar and Ford's Premier Automotive Group, extensive engineering development, a different wheelbase and track, body styling and significant testing the X-Type was often described as just a "reshelled Ford Mondeo". Although in the end, just 19% of the cars origins were shared, much of which were perfectly suited components such as HVAC units hidden from view and which in no way detracted from the X400’s Jaguar heritage.


title: Jaguar X-Type

text: As Jaguar's first compact executive car since the Jaguar Mark 2 of 1959, the X-Type was the last Jaguar styled under the supervision of Geoff Lawson, with Wayne Burgess and Simon Butterworth as principal designers.


title: Jaguar X-Type

text: The four door saloon launched in 2001, and the five door estate followed in January 2004, with production of both ending in July 2009. The estate offered a Cd of 0.32 in standard form and 0.33 in Sport trim.


title: Jaguar X-Type

text: Engines included either of two V6 petrol engines: 2.5 litre or 3.0 litre. In 2002, an entry level 2.1 litre V6 front wheel drive model was added. All three engines were available with either five- speed automatic or five speed manual gearboxes. The X-Type grille was slightly modified for both the 2004 and 2006 model years. The base petrol engine was a Jaguar tweaked (Ford Duratec V6) derived from the 2.5-litre that served in the Ford Mondeo, and the 3.0-litre V6 is essentially an adaptation of the base engine from the Jaguar S-Type and Lincoln LS.


title: Jaguar X-Type

text: Eventually, the X-Type would become available with front-wheel drive and a 2.1-litre petrol or 2.0 Turbo diesel engine. In July 2009, Jaguar Land Rover announced the end of X-Type production by the end of 2009.


title: Jaguar X-Type

text: Both saloon and estate configurations were manufactured at the Halewood Assembly Facility near Liverpool, renovated at a cost of $450 million.


title: Jaguar X-Type

text: The X-Type was based on a modified version of the Ford CD132 platform shared with the Ford Mondeo. The X-Type was initially offered as all-wheel drive only and mated to a 2.5 litre and 3.0 litre AJ-V6 petrol engine.


title: Jaguar X-Type

text: One notable addition to AJ-V6 engine design is the use of variable valve timing. The X-Type's petrol engine is also set apart by the use of SFI fuel injection, four valves per cylinder and featured fracture split forged powder metal connecting rods, plus a one piece cast camshaft, and has direct acting mechanical bucket (DAMB) tappets.


title: Jaguar X-Type

text: In 2003, the X-Type was also offered in front-wheel drive with the introduction of Jaguar’s first four-cylinder diesel engines (based on the Ford Duratorq ZSD unit from the Mondeo and Transit), and with the smaller 2.1 litre petrol V6. The six speed automatic transmission supplied on the later 2.2 litre diesel models includes Jaguar Sequential Shift.


title: Jaguar X-Type

text: At the X-Type's launch, standard equipment included automatic climate control; leather upholstery; eight-way power driver's seat; 70/30 split folding rear seats; Sapele wood interior trim; tilt-and-telescope steering wheel; six-speaker, 120-watt AM/FM/CD stereo; power locks; one-touch power windows; a power tilt-and-slide glass sunroof; automatic headlights; and 16-inch alloy wheels. Later trim configurations would introduce carbon fibre dash panels Alcantara seat surfaces.


title: Jaguar X-Type

text: All interior wood was genuine, manufactured with veneers for the rest of the Jaguar line-up at Browns Lane’s Veneer Manufacturing Centre, including the door trim pieces on higher models, increasing the development and production costs.


title: Jaguar X-Type

text: The estate adds a 320-watt premium Alpine sound system, wood-and-leather steering wheel, 10-way power adjustable seats for driver and front-seat passenger, electrochromic mirrors inside and out, rain-sensing windshield wipers, a programmable garage-door opener, message centre and trip computer, Reverse Park Control, and 17-inch alloy wheels.


title: Jaguar X-Type

text: The estate was the first Jaguar model designed by Ian Callum. From its saloon counterpart, the design revised 420 tooled parts and 58 stampings for all components rearward of the windscreen, adding 150-pounds.


title: Jaguar X-Type

text: The design used a tailgate with independently-opening, strut-supported rear window, operable by key fob or dashboard located switch; roof-mounted luggage rails in chrome or black; interior luggage tie-downs; removable luggage cover; cargo net and a cargo compartment under the rear floor with a 12-volt power outlet and below that, storage for a full-size spare tyre. The rear seats could be lowered without removing their headrests, and the cargo compartment offered 16 cubic feet up to the side windows or 24 cubic feet to the headliner, with the rear seats up — or a total of 50 cubic feet with the rear seats folded.


title: Jaguar X-Type

text: The X-Type facelift debuted at the 2007 Canary Wharf Motorexpo and went on sale internationally during 2008, with United Kingdom sales from March.


title: Jaguar X-Type

text: The facelift featured revised front and rear fascias, new door mirrors with integrated turn indicator repeaters, the choice of a 2.2 litre diesel with particulate filter, and a new six speed automatic transmission with Jaguar Sequential Shift. The range continued to offer the 2.0 litre diesel, and two V6 petrol engines; 2.5 and 3.0 litre. In some European markets, the petrol engines were no longer marketed.


title: Jaguar X-Type

text: In 2004, the "Spirit" limited model based on the 2.5 litre V6, featured the 'Sports Collection' pack with new spoilers and rear valance. It was followed in 2005 by the "XS" limited edition, which continued the sports theme, but available with a wider range of engines.


title: Jaguar X-Type

text: The X-Type was tested by Thatcham's New Vehicle Security Ratings (NVSR) organisation and achieved the following ratings:


title: Jaguar X-Type

text: In November 2000, managing director Jonathan Browning said Jaguar's objective was to achieve annual sales of 100,000 with the car, partly by taking market share from established German rivals and partly by expanding the market segment in Jaguar's key markets.


title: Jaguar X-Type

text: The X-Type was Jaguar's best selling model during almost all its production run, but sales did not meet projections, peaking at 50,000 in 2003. In the United States, the car's primary market, sales dropped from 21,542 in 2004 to 10,941 in 2005. In the same year, Audi sold 48,922 A4s, BMW sold 106,950 3 Series and Mercedes-Benz sold 60,658 C-Class.


title: Jaguar X-Type

text: The X-Type's sharing of a modified Ford Mondeo platform (shared with the Land Rover Freelander, a small offroader which was also produced at Halewood) wasn't well received by Jaguar "purists." Notably, the Volkswagen Passat shared its platform with its compact executive class rival, the B5 Audi A4. The X-Type's limited powertrain choices affected its initial press reception.


title: Jaguar X-Type

text: Initially, the X-Type was only available with six cylinder petrol engines, coupled to an all-wheel drive system, resulting in poor fuel economy, while its key German rivals, the BMW 3 Series, Audi A4 and Mercedes C-Class were sold predominantly in two wheel drive form, with four cylinder petrol or diesel engines, a critical offering in the economy conscious European market. A four cylinder diesel option (only available with front wheel drive) was not offered in the X-Type until two years after its launch.


title: Jaguar X-Type

text: Jeremy Clarkson, then of BBC's "Top Gear," lauded the X-Type, especially the 4×4 and sport versions. In two episodes, he demonstrated its capabilities in the snow, declaring that it "laughs in the face of the weatherman, the police and the AA, with their advice to stay at home". With regards to the sharing of the Ford Mondeo platform, Clarkson states that this should not put you off, stating that "genetically you are 98% identical to a halibut, but it's the 2% that makes the difference".


title: Jaguar X-Type

text: Other car magazine and website reviews were largely positive for the X-Type, especially during its introduction.


title: Jaguar X-Type

text: The X-Type used only 19% of Ford Mondeo's components, while a variety of Ford platforms, engines and components were being used by all models of the Ford Motor Company's luxury brands in that period, namely Aston Martin, Jaguar and Lincoln. In January 2008, Jaguar director of design Ian Callum said that the X-Type “was essentially designed in Detroit and presented as close as a "fait accompli" to reluctant designers and engineers at Jaguar's Whitley design centre."


title: Jaguar X-Type

text: Noted automotive designer Robert Cumberford called the X-Type's styling "an unimaginable pastiche of many past Jaguars" in the June 2001 issue of Car and Driver magazine.


title: Jaguar X-Type

text: The Jaguar X-Type won "AutoWeek"'s "Editors Choice Award" as the "Most Significant Car" at the Geneva Motor Show of 2001.


title: Jaguar X-Type

text: In January 2011, Jaguar said plans for successor for the X-Type were under consideration, to compete with models such as the BMW 3 Series, and to be positioned below the current XF.


title: Jaguar X-Type

text: The project, codenamed "X760", was set to be launched in 2015. In March 2014, Jaguar confirmed that the X-Type's replacement would be named the Jaguar XE.


title: United States Secretary of Education

text: The United States secretary of education is the head of the U.S. Department of Education. The secretary serves as the principal advisor to the president of the United States, and the federal government, on policies, programs, and activities related to all education in the United States. As a member of the Cabinet of the United States, the secretary is sixteenth in the line of succession to the presidency.


title: United States Secretary of Education

text: The current secretary of education is Miguel Cardona, who was confirmed by the Senate on March 1, 2021.


title: United States Secretary of Education

text: The United States secretary of education is a member of the president's Cabinet and is the fifteenth in the United States presidential line of succession. This secretary deals with federal influence over education policy, and heads the United States Department of Education.


title: United States Secretary of Education

text: The secretary is advised by the National Advisory Committee on Institutional Quality and Integrity, an advisory committee, on "matters related to accreditation and to the eligibility and certification process for institutions of higher education."


title: United States Secretary of Education

text: Prior to the creation of the Department of Education in 1979, Education was within the ambit of the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.


title: Kick the bucket

text: To kick the bucket is an English idiom considered a euphemistic, informal, or slang term meaning "to die". Its origin remains unclear, though there have been several theories.


title: Kick the bucket

text: A common theory is that the idiom refers to hanging, either as a method of execution or suicide. However, there is no evidence to support this. Its earliest appearance is in the "Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue" (1785), where it is defined as "to die". In John Badcock's slang dictionary of 1823, the explanation is given that "One Bolsover having hung himself from a beam while standing on a pail, or bucket, kicked this vessel away in order to pry into futurity and it was all UP with him from that moment: "Finis"".


title: Kick the bucket

text: The theory favoured by the OED relates to the alternative definition of a bucket as a beam or yoke that can be used to hang or carry things on. The "bucket" may refer to the beam on which slaughtered pigs are suspended. The animals may struggle on the bucket, hence the expression. The word "bucket" still can be used today to refer to such a beam in the Norfolk dialect. It is thought that this definition came from the French word or , meaning "balance". William Shakespeare used the word in this sense in his play "Henry IV Part II" where Falstaff says:


title: Kick the bucket

text: It has also been speculated that the phrase might originate from the Catholic custom of holy-water buckets:


title: Kick the bucket

text: Alternatively, in the moment of death a person stretches their legs ( means "to die") and so might kick the bucket placed there.


title: Kick the bucket

text: Yet another theory seeks to extend the saying beyond its earliest use in the 16th century with reference to the Latin proverb , the goat that is said to kick over the pail after being milked (920 in Erasmus' Adagia). Thus a promising beginning is followed by a bad ending or, as Andrea Alciato phrased it in the Latin poem accompanying the drawing in his "Emblemata" (1524), "Because you have spoilt your fine beginnings with a shameful end and turned your service into harm, you have done what the she-goat does when she kicks the bucket that holds her milk and with her hoof squanders her own riches." Here it is the death of one's reputation that is in question.


title: Kick the bucket

text: At one time the American and Caribbean expression "kickeraboo" used to be explained as a deformed version of "kick the bucket". The expression occurs as the title of a mid-19th-century American minstrel ballad with the ending "Massa Death bring one bag and we Kickeraboo". However, it is now thought that it may have derived from a native word in one of the West African creoles. The expression "kek(e)rebu" is first recorded in 1721 with the meaning "to die" in the Krio language of Sierra Leone. Earlier still "Kickativoo" is recorded in Ghana (then known as the Gold or Slave Coast). In 1680 it referred to the capsizing of a canoe but also had the meaning "to die".


title: Kick the bucket

text: Whatever African American usage might have been in the 19th century, by the 20th century they were using the idiom "kick the bucket". It occurs in the jazz classic "Old Man Mose", recorded by Louis Armstrong in the United States in 1935, and in the West Indies it figured in the title of the reggae hit “Long Shot kick de bucket”, recorded by The Pioneers in 1969. In the case of the latter, the song refers to the death of a horse.


title: Kick the bucket

text: In North America, a variation of the idiom is "kick off". A related phrase is to "hand in one's dinner pail", a bucket that contains a worker's dinner. Another variation, "bucket list", or a list of things to do before one dies, is derived from "to kick the bucket".


title: Steve Priest

text: Stephen Norman Priest (23 February 1948 – 4 June 2020) was an English musician who was the bassist (and, later, lead vocalist) of the glam rock band The Sweet.


title: Steve Priest

text: Priest was born in Hayes, Middlesex. He made his own bass guitar and began playing in local bands as a young teenager, after being influenced by artists such as Jet Harris of the Shadows, the Rolling Stones and The Who.


title: Steve Priest

text: In January 1968, Priest was invited to form a four-piece band with vocalist Brian Connolly, drummer Mick Tucker, and guitarist Frank E. Torpey (b. 30 April 1947, Kilburn, North West London) – the band that was to become The Sweet. Torpey was replaced by Mick Stewart in July 1969. Guitarist Andy Scott joined in August 1970, following Stewart's departure and the classic line-up was established.


title: Steve Priest

text: The Sweet was a band that went through many ups and downs. Initial success for The Sweet began in 1971, after the band teamed up with songwriters Nicky Chinn and Mike Chapman. However, The Sweet would pen a number of their own hits. Priest often directly backed up Brian Connolly's vocals and took distinctive short high pitched vocal leads which was a key to their musical style at that time. He adopted a camp image, wearing heavy make-up and outrageous costumes.


title: Steve Priest

text: Priest recalled talking to David Bowie backstage on "Top of the Pops": “I was plastering this make-up on, and Bowie's going: 'Oh no, no, no. You've got to be subtle.' Bowie just didn't get it. It isn't supposed to be subtle. I'm supposed to look like an old tart."


title: Steve Priest

text: Some controversy arose after the band's performance of the hit song "Block Buster!" on the BBC's "Top of the Pops" on 25 December 1973, for which Priest wore a swastika arm band. He appeared in German military uniform on the 1973 Christmas edition of the show. The song was named after the Allied blockbuster bomb. In 2010 Priest said: "It's amazing how everyone still talks about the Nazi uniform... Good old BBC wardrobe department. People always want to know if I was serious. I mean, a gay Hitler. Hello?!"


title: Steve Priest

text: After Brian Connolly left The Sweet in early 1979, Priest became the main singer. This continued until 1982, when the original Sweet disbanded. By this time, Priest had divorced his first wife, Pat, and moved to New York City. On 18 June 1981, he married his second wife Maureen (née O'Connor), who was then East Coast Director of Publicity and Artist Relations for Capitol/EMI Records in New York. While in New York, he formed a band called the Allies with guitarist Marco Delmar and drummer Steve Missal. Success was elusive, although their composition "Talk To Me" was featured in a film, "Fast Food."


title: Steve Priest

text: Invited in 1985 by former bandmate Andy Scott to reform the Sweet, Priest declined. Shortly thereafter, Priest and his family relocated to Los Angeles.


title: Steve Priest

text: During this period, Priest largely reverted to private life but made occasional forays into production and session work, as well as collaborations with other artists such as David Arkenstone and future bandmate Stuart Smith.


title: Steve Priest

text: Priest had a demo session in Los Angeles with the other members of the original Sweet in 1988, with Mike Chapman producing, to see if a studio album and reformation were possible. The band did not agree on terms and the project failed. Despite the difficulties of the late '70s, Priest continued his friendship with former Sweet lead singer Connolly, who was by now in poor health.


title: Steve Priest

text: In 1994, Priest published his autobiography, "Are You Ready Steve?", the title of which is taken from the intro to the Sweet's "The Ballroom Blitz" when Brian Connolly counts in the song with "Are you ready Steve? ...Andy? ...Mick? ...Alright fellas, let's gooooo!", and in 2006, he released a CD titled "Priest's Precious Poems". In January 2008, Priest formed a new version of the Sweet, not related to Andy Scott's version of the band.


title: Steve Priest

text: This new band played mainly festivals and venues in the U.S. and Canada. In early 2009, the band released a live CD, recorded in August 2008 at the Morongo Casino in Cabazon, California.


title: Steve Priest

text: In his later years, Priest lived with his wife Maureen O'Connor and daughters Danielle and Margaret in La Cañada Flintridge, California.


title: Spanish protectorate in Morocco

text: The Spanish protectorate in Morocco was established on 27 November 1912 by a treaty between France and Spain that converted the Spanish sphere of influence in Morocco into a formal protectorate.


title: Spanish protectorate in Morocco

text: The Spanish protectorate consisted of a northern strip on the Mediterranean and the Strait of Gibraltar, and a southern part of the protectorate around Cape Juby, bordering the Spanish Sahara. The northern zone became part of independent Morocco on 7 April 1956, shortly after France ceded its protectorate (French Morocco). Spain finally ceded its southern zone through the Treaty of Angra de Cintra on 1 April 1958, after the short Ifni War. The city of Tangier was excluded from the Spanish protectorate and received a special internationally controlled status as Tangier International Zone.


title: Spanish protectorate in Morocco

text: Since France already held a protectorate over most of the country and had controlled Morocco's foreign affairs since 30 March 1912, it also held the power to delegate a zone to Spanish protection. The surface area of the zone was about , which represents 4.69% of modern-day Morocco.


title: Spanish protectorate in Morocco

text: At a time when most European nations were stepping up the acquisition of vast colonial empires, Spain was losing the last remnants of hers. Yet within a few years after the disastrous war of 1898 with the United States, which had forced Spaniards to acknowledge their secondary status among European military powers, their government found it necessary to show an active interest in expansion in northern Morocco. That country, if only because of its geographical position and the presence of the cities of Ceuta and Melilla, could not be ignored by the Spaniards despite their lack of enthusiasm for new colonial enterprises. During the last decades of the 19th century, Spain observed with apprehension the increasing influence of other European powers in the region. The most coherently expressed reason for intervention was fear for the strategic security of Spain. Among others, the Liberal leader Montero Ríos stated that if northwestern Morocco were to come under the civil or military protectorate of France, Spain would see itself besieged perpetually in the north and south by the same power. Furthermore, recent finds of iron ore near Melilla convinced many that Morocco contained vast mineral wealth.


title: Spanish protectorate in Morocco

text: The key motivation for intervention, although less openly stated, was the belief that Morocco was Spain's last chance to maintain its position in the Concert of Europe, as it was the one area in which it could claim sufficient interest to generate some diplomatic strength with respect to the European powers. There was also the widespread belief, in Spain as elsewhere in Europe at the turn of the 20th century, that the possession of colonies increased the prestige of a nation. Such beliefs made Spanish politicians more receptive to the adoption of a forward policy in Morocco.


title: Spanish protectorate in Morocco

text: In a convention dated 27 June 1900, France and Spain agreed to recognize separate zones of influence in Morocco, but did not specify their boundaries. In 1902, France offered Spain all of Morocco north of the Sebou River and south of the Sous River, but Spain declined in the belief that such a division would offend Britain. The British and French, without any Spanish insistence, acknowledged Spain's right to a zone of influence in Morocco in Article 8 of the of 8 April 1904:


title: Spanish protectorate in Morocco

text: What exactly "special consideration" meant was dealt with in the secret third and fourth articles, specifying that Spain would be required to recognise Articles 4 and 7 of the treaty but could decline the "special consideration" if she wished:


title: Spanish protectorate in Morocco

text: The British goal in these negotiations with France was to ensure that a weaker power (Spain) held the strategic coast opposite Gibraltar in return for Britain ceding all their influence in Morocco. France began negotiating with Spain at once, but the offer of 1902 was no longer on the table. Since France had given up her ambitions in Ottoman Libya in a convention with Italy in 1903, she felt entitled to a greater share of Morocco. On 3 October 1904, France and Spain concluded a treaty that defined their precise zones. Spain received a zone of influence consisting of a northern strip of territory and a southern strip. The northern strip did not reach to the border of French Algeria, nor did it include Tangier, soon to be internationalized. The southern strip represented the southernmost part of Morocco as recognized by the European powers: the territory to its south, Saguia el-Hamra, was recognized by France as an exclusively Spanish zone. The treaty also recognized the Spanish enclave of Ifni and delimited its borders.


title: Spanish protectorate in Morocco

text: In March 1905, the German "Kaiser", Wilhelm II, visited Tangier, a city of international character in northern Morocco. There he loudly touted Germany's economic interests in Morocco and assured the Sultan of financial assistance in the event of a threat to Moroccan independence. At Wilhelm's urging, Sultan Abd el Aziz called for an international conference. The final act of the Algeciras Conference (7 April 1906) created the State Bank of Morocco, guaranteed the attending powers equal commercial rights in Morocco and created a native Moroccan police force led by French and Spanish officers.


title: Spanish protectorate in Morocco

text: The final Spanish zone of influence consisted of a northern strip and a southern strip centred on Cape Juby. The consideration of the southern strip as part of the protectorate back in 1912 eventually gave Morocco a solid legal claim to the territory in the 1950s. While the sparsely populated Cape Juby was administered as a single entity with Spanish Sahara, the northern territories were administered, separately, as a Spanish protectorate with its capital at Tetuán.


title: Spanish protectorate in Morocco

text: The Protectorate system was established in 1912. The Islamic legal system of qadis was formally maintained.


title: Spanish protectorate in Morocco

text: Following the First World War, the Republic of the Rif, led by the guerrilla leader Abd el-Krim, was a breakaway state that existed from 1921 to 1926 in the Rif region, when it was subdued and dissolved by joint expedition of the Spanish Army of Africa and French forces during the Rif War.


title: Spanish protectorate in Morocco

text: The Spanish lost more than 13,000 soldiers at Annual in July–August 1921. Controversy in Spain over the early conduct in the war was a driving factor behind the military coup by General Miguel Primo de Rivera in 1923 which foreshadowed the Spanish Civil War of 1936–39.


title: Spanish protectorate in Morocco

text: After the successful 1925 Alhucemas landing, the French–Spanish alliance ended up achieving victory and putting an end to the war.


title: Spanish protectorate in Morocco

text: Before 1934, the southern part of the protectorate (Tekna) had been governed from Cape Juby (within the same southern strip) since 1912; Cape Juby was also the seat of Spanish West Africa. Then, in 1934, the southern part began to being managed directly from Tetuán (in the northern part of the protectorate) and the seat of Spanish West Africa was moved from Cape Juby to the territory of Ifni (not a part of the protectorate), which had been occupied by the Spaniards that year.


title: Spanish protectorate in Morocco

text: The Spanish Civil War started in 1936 with the partially successful coup against the Republican Government, which began in Spanish Morocco by an uprising of the Spanish Army of Africa stationed there, although within a day uprisings in Spain itself broke out. This force, which included a considerable number of Moroccan troops (regulares), was under the command of Francisco Franco (who spent much time in Morocco) and became the core of the Spanish Nationalist Army. The Communist Party of Spain and Workers' Party of Marxist Unification (POUM), advocated anti-colonial policies, and pressured the Republican government to support the independence of Spanish Morocco, intending to create a rebellion at Franco's back and cause disaffection among his Moroccan troops. The government – then led by the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) — rejected that course of action as it would have likely resulted in conflict with France, the colonial ruler of the other portion of Morocco.


title: Spanish protectorate in Morocco

text: Because the locally recruited Muslim regulares had been among Franco's most effective troops, the protectorate enjoyed more political freedom and autonomy than Francoist Spain-proper after Franco's victory. The area held competing political parties and a Moroccan nationalist press, which often criticized the Spanish government.


title: Spanish protectorate in Morocco

text: Spanish troops provisionally occupied Tangier during World War II, on the pretext that an Italian invasion was imminent.


title: Spanish protectorate in Morocco

text: In 1956, when France ended its protectorate over Morocco, Spain discontinued the protectorate and retroceded the territory to the newly independent kingdom, while retaining the "plazas de soberanía" which were part of Spain prior to the colonial period, Cape Juby, Ifni, and other colonies (such as Spanish Sahara) outside of Morocco. Unwilling to accept this, the Moroccan Army of Liberation waged war against the Spanish forces. In the 1958 Ifni War, which spread from Sidi Ifni to Río de Oro, Morocco gained Tarfaya (the southern part of the protectorate) and reduced the Spanish control of the Ifni territory to the perimeter of the city itself. Morocco and Spain negotiated for over a year over Ifni, with Morocco also wanting control of Ceuta and Melilla, while Spain was only willing to give up control of Ifni. On 5 January 1969 Morocco and Spain signed the treaty ceding Ifni to Morocco.


title: Spanish protectorate in Morocco

text: As of , Morocco still claims Ceuta and Melilla as integral parts of the country, and considers them to be under foreign occupation, comparing their status to that of Gibraltar. Spain considers both cities integral parts of the Spanish geography, since they were part of Spain for centuries.


title: Spanish protectorate in Morocco

text: The iron mines in the Rif were one of the sources of income. Their exploitation led to an economic boom in Melilla.


title: Spanish protectorate in Morocco

text: After the Treaty of Algeciras signed in April 1906, where the northern part of Morocco was placed under Spanish administration, the Spanish started to develop this mineral-rich area, and numerous narrow gauge railways were built.


title: Spanish protectorate in Morocco

text: The administrative regime of the Protectorate is derived from the concept of protectorate itself, with a formal duality of authorities. On the one hand, there is a Moroccan administration, headed by a "Khalifa" (), who exercised, by delegation of the Sultan, all his powers, mainly the legislative, which he exercised through the "dahir" (decree). He was also the highest religious authority. This government led by the Khalifa received the name of "Makhzen" and was divided into departments, like ministries, coordinated by the Grand Vizier. The ministers were the "qadi al-qudat" (chief or judge of judges), the Vizier of the "Habus" (inalienable patrimony whose income is destined to a pious or religious work or institution), the "amin al-amlak" and the "amin al-umana" (minister of Finance). It had an advisory council made up of two representatives from each of the five regions. The "Khalifa" was chosen by the Sultan from a pair proposed by the Spanish government. The first "Khalifa" was Mohammed Mehedi Ould Ben Ismael. Ishmael was the brother of Sultan Hassan I and later Sultan Hassan I was the great-uncle of the second "Khalifa". The first "Khalifa" took office in Tetouan on 27 April 1913. Only two Khalifas held office until the independence of Morocco, Muley el Mehdi (between 1913 and 1923) and his son Muley el Hassán bin el Mehdi (who took office at the age of thirteen, ruling between 1925 and 1941 and 1945 and 1956).


title: Spanish protectorate in Morocco

text: The Spanish administration was led by a High Commissioner, formally accredited to the Khalifa but in fact the highest authority in the Protectorate. The High Commissary directed the political action of Spain in the Protectorate, and orders and instructions emanated from it. The high commissioner was assisted by various departments (Indigenous Affairs Development and Finance). There was a territorial controller in each of the regions, directly represented to the Delegation of Indigenous Affairs. Subordinate to him, there was a next level, with regional auditors and, finally, local auditors. The maintenance of order was in charge of the Regulares (forces of the Spanish army with "indigenous" Rif people) and the Indigenous Police. On the military side, the high commissioner was assisted by three commanders based in Ceuta, Melilla and Larache .


title: Spanish protectorate in Morocco

text: The administrative organization was arranged, at a general level, in this way: The High Commissioner was responsible for the direction of the Spanish action in the entire area and all the authorities (including the military) were subordinate to him. Among its activities were to intervene in the acts of the Khalifa, the regime of the cities in which the consuls acted as controllers, to dictate the general policy and to approve or direct, where appropriate, military operations. The Indigenous services departmentwas entrusted with the General Secretariat and advising on all matters relating to relations with the Kabyles, the inspection of the Islamic Justice Administration, relations with the Consular Jurisdiction for the protection of the natives and with the Sheriff for everything related to real estate and the vindication of property, the inspection of schools and health care centers and the Spanish missions in educational work.


title: Spanish protectorate in Morocco

text: In Morocco, there was no prior organization to ensure public health, except in Tangier, and the Spanish tried to remedy this deficiency, creating in 1916 the Health Inspectorate, within the Office of Indigenous Affairs. The Spanish had to overcome the distrust that Moroccans felt towards their healers and home remedies, carrying out large vaccination campaigns that contributed to the prestige of the protecting country. Along with health action, culture was the other pending subject for Moroccans, since teaching was closely linked to religion and consisted of memorizing the Koran. Spain entrusted the task of educating the population to the Delegation of Indigenous Affairs, which depended on a Board of Education that was created on 3 April 1913. This Board was born with the purpose of training the personnel who would be dedicated to this task and as an instrument to learn about geography, literature, history and the Moroccan law. To this end, a Center for Moroccan Studies was organized in the Free Institute of Diplomatic and Consular Careers and Arabic chairs were created in some business schools and an Arabic board was created in the Board for the Extension of Studies.


title: Spanish protectorate in Morocco

text: Subsequently, Indigenous Affairs offices were created in Melilla and Ceuta that exercised surveillance functions, somewhat similar, in the occupied regions. In 1937, in the middle of the Spanish Civil War, the territorial organization of Spanish Morocco was in charge of the High Commisoner of the Territory and a Lieutenant Colonel responsible for civil and military affairs.


title: Spanish protectorate in Morocco

text: The High Commissioner and the Khalifa had their respective residences in two adjacent palaces in Tétouan, which following Morocco's independence in 1956 have been merged into a single compound and repurposed as the Royal Palace of Tétouan.


title: Peeta Mellark

text: Peeta Mellark is a fictional character from "The Hunger Games" trilogy by Suzanne Collins. He is portrayed by actor Josh Hutcherson in "The Hunger Games" film series.


title: Peeta Mellark

text: Peeta is the male tribute representing District 12 in the 74th annual Hunger Games, alongside female tribute Katniss Everdeen (portrayed by Jennifer Lawrence). Together, they defy the rule that the Games must have one victor, unintentionally inciting a rebellion against the authoritarian government of Panem.


title: Peeta Mellark

text: Peeta is first introduced at the reaping for the 74th Hunger Games when he is selected as the male tribute representing District 12 alongside female tribute Katniss Everdeen. Prior to the reaping, Katniss and Peeta had only interacted once: at age eleven, when Peeta deliberately burned two loaves of bread in his family's bakery and took a beating from his abusive mother to feed a starving Katniss. Katniss had always felt indebted to him for this kindness, but never worked up the courage to thank him. Often, he would stare at her in school. Sometimes Katniss would make eye contact with him, only for his eyes to quickly flit away.


title: Peeta Mellark

text: During an interview with Caesar Flickerman preceding the Games, Peeta admits on national television to having a long-standing crush on Katniss. She assumes this is merely part of his strategy to win favor from wealthy Capitol sponsors.


title: Peeta Mellark

text: Once inside the arena, Peeta allies himself with the "Career" (from districts 1 and 2) tributes and tricks them into believing he will lead them to Katniss. However, after Katniss knocks down a hive of Tracker Jackers on her pursuers, she herself is stung with the insects venom, rendering her disoriented and vulnerable. Peeta urges Katniss to run and stays to fight fellow tribute Cato while she escapes. He survives the encounter with Cato but suffers a stab wound on his leg. He camouflages himself into the rocks and mud alongside a riverbank, slowly dying of blood poisoning until Katniss finds him days later.


title: Peeta Mellark

text: Following an announcement proclaiming there can now be two winners, if both originate from the same district, Katniss and Peeta make allies of each other. Katniss realizes that if they play up the love story they may garner viewers' affections. Later a "feast" is announced, in which items each tribute needs desperately will be placed on a table for them to take, organized by district. Peeta strongly suggests that Katniss does not go, knowing she will be in danger. She agrees to stay with him but, having received a bottle of sleep syrup from her mentor, Haymitch Abernathy, she puts him into a drug-induced sleep and seizes the opportunity to slip away to the feast. The medicine gifted to them by the Capitol is strong enough to heal both of their wounds by morning.


title: Peeta Mellark

text: After killing Cato, Katniss and Peeta are the only remaining survivors. However, an announcement shortly afterwards revokes the previous revision, allowing for only one victor. Peeta suggests that Katniss should kill him, enabling her to return home. Katniss instead suggests they commit suicide by consuming poisonous berries known as Nightlock. Before the two are able to get the berries into their mouths, a final announcement is made pleading for the two to stop: both they and the viewers are informed that Katniss and Peeta are declared joint official winners of the 74th Hunger Games. Later, the two learn President Snow considered their actions to be an act of rebellion against the Capitol.


title: Peeta Mellark

text: After their last interview, in which the two continue to affect their romantic feelings for one another, Peeta comes to the realization Katniss has staged her love for him all along.


title: Peeta Mellark

text: Peeta and Katniss embark on the Victory Tour, an event strategically timed in-between each Hunger Games, where the victors visit the other 11 districts as a reminder about the Games and for the Capitol to reinforce its power over the Districts. Peeta and Katniss have barely interacted since the Games; Peeta is angry with Katniss for faking affection for him, and Katniss is confused about her feelings and is uncomfortable to be with him because of her close friendship with Gale Hawthorne, who also has strong feelings for her.


title: Peeta Mellark

text: Peeta expresses a desire to be friends with Katniss; while he knows she is stubborn and skilled in archery, he does not know her favorite color. Later, he tries to give part of his winnings to the families of District 11's most recently fallen tributes (Rue and Thresh) and is made to watch “Peacekeepers” kill a man who led the three finger salute to the two victors. Before the Victory Tour, President Snow visits Katniss and tells her he is aware that she was faking the affection towards Peeta, and that her actions in the arena have sparked a rebellion – one that can only be averted if she presents her and Peeta's attempt at joined suicide in the arena as an act of love-crazed teenagers rather than as defiance.


title: Peeta Mellark

text: Katniss and Peeta think they are going to become mentors for the Quarter Quell, a special Hunger Games that occurs every 25 years and comes with a change in rules, usually to make them more gruesome than the normal Games so district citizens are reminded of the violence of Panem's first civil war; their loss is the reason the Games were established. The new twist for the 75th Games is that the tributes will be chosen from living victors. District 12 has only 3 living victors: Katniss, Peeta, and Haymitch, their constantly drunken mentor who won the 50th Hunger Games (the second Quarter Quell). President Snow draws the card showing what the theme of the Quarter Quell will be and announced, “.. that even the strongest among them cannot overcome the power of the Capitol, the tributes will be reaped from their existing pool of victors.” Katniss becomes the girl tribute, as she is the only living female District 12 victor. Peeta makes Haymitch promise to work to save Katniss, not him. He also vows that if Haymitch is chosen, he will volunteer in his place. Katniss makes Haymitch promise that if Peeta is the male tribute, she and Haymitch will work together to keep Peeta alive, even at the expense of Katniss's life. It is a torn alliance for Haymitch. When Haymitch is drawn as the male tribute, Peeta automatically volunteers to take his place. Many of the other returning tributes are friends with each other, but Katniss and Peeta have a disadvantage. They have met none of them, as they are the newest victors. Peeta hopes to play on their sympathies to gain protection from others in the arena and support from sponsors for Katniss. To this end, he lies to everybody on national television, saying Katniss and he had secretly got married before the Quell was announced, and that Katniss is pregnant. This shocks both Katniss and the whole of Panem.


title: Peeta Mellark

text: Later, Peeta comes in contact with a force field and his heart stops. Katniss and Peeta’s efficient ally, Finnick Odair, succeeds in reviving him with CPR. Finnick Odair is the District 4 male victor tribute and a stunningly good-looking young man. The three soon band together with a few other tributes: Beetee and Wiress from District 3, and Johanna Mason from District 7. Eventually, they find out the arena is shaped like a clock, with 12 sections, and each section is triggered at the same time each day. Different hours indicated different tortures such as blood rain, acid fog, killer monkeys, a giant wave, and so on. During the daring time, Katniss then realizes that she also has feelings toward Peeta. As they formulate a plan to kill the remaining tributes, Wiress is killed and Katniss is attacked by Johanna. Once Katniss regains consciousness she realizes that Beetee had designed a way to destroy the force field surrounding the arena. She triggers it and destroys the field, setting off a chain of events. A rebel-controlled hovercraft arrives and rescues Katniss, Finnick, and Beetee. However, Peeta, Johanna, and Enobaria have been captured by the Capitol. Finnick, Beetee, Haymitch, Johanna, and a few other tributes were part of a plan to safely retrieve Katniss and Peeta from the arena with hopes that they would take on roles to start a revolution against the Capitol. Knowing that the Head Gamemaker, Plutarch Heavensbee, is secretly leading the revolution, Katniss goes to District 13, long believed to have been razed decades ago. Gale explains that after Katniss destroyed the arena, President Snow had District 12 firebombed. There is nothing left.


title: Peeta Mellark

text: Peeta is captured by the Capitol and is tortured physically, emotionally, and mentally. His feelings and memories are distorted with hallucinogenic tracker jacker venom, in a mind-control technique known as "Hijacking." The Capitol uses this method to turn Peeta against Katniss, making him believe that she is not only responsible for the death of his family, friends and the destruction of District 12, but also that she tried to kill him numerous times and that she is not even human, but rather an evil "mutt". This leads him to try and strangle Katniss when he is reunited with her in District 13. The doctors of District 13 try to undo his hijacking, but the process is slow and turns his terror into confusion, where he is unable to differentiate what is real and what is not, especially when it came to his love for Katniss.


title: Peeta Mellark

text: When the rest of the victors' journey to the Capitol to fight, Peeta is initially kept behind because he is considered too unstable to be sent into combat. However, President Coin changes her mind and sends him not only into combat but assigns him to Katniss's squadron. Katniss theorizes that Coin has sent Peeta to remove her as an obstacle to Coin's future as President. Despite the fact that the members of the squadron do not trust him, they help with his recovery by creating a game called "Real or Not Real" in which Peeta will ask them a question about something he believes may be true and the members will confirm whether they are real or a hijacked memory. The squadron eventually comes to the conclusion that President Coin had deliberately sent Peeta to Katniss' squad in hopes that he will go mad and kill her because Coin sees Katniss as a political rival. Unfortunately, during a surprise attack of "pods" (deadly surprises such as flesh-melting light and mines triggered by people passing by), Peeta actually does lose his sanity temporarily in the midst of the chaos and tries to kill Katniss once again, but she rolls out of the way of his gun in an attempt to crush her skull. He becomes responsible at least in part for the death of one of their team members, who he accidentally throws into a barbed-wire net pod during the attack. The squadron repeatedly debate whether or not they should kill Peeta, and even Peeta himself asks to be killed to stop endangering them, but Katniss refuses to when realizing she cannot bring herself to let him die. She even kisses him for a period of time, which actually makes him stable.


title: Peeta Mellark

text: Realizing he cannot convince anyone to kill him or leave him to die, Peeta insists on remaining cuffed instead since the pain in his wrists helps him stay focused in reality instead of succumbing to madness. Further on in the Capitol, the nightmares in Peeta's mind become so intense that he is on the brink of losing his sanity, but Katniss manages to reach him. After the rebels win the war, Katniss is driven to depression and mental instability due to the death of her sister, Prim. Peeta's hijacking is soon mostly recovered by several doctors and he is considered mentally stable and finally back to his former self. Upon returning home, he plants primroses, the flower which Prim was named after, in memory of her.


title: Peeta Mellark

text: In the epilogue, Katniss and Peeta have two children together. It is implied by Katniss that Peeta wanted to have children first and took around 5–15 years to persuade Katniss to start a family. He still has moments where his hijacking will try to take over again, causing Peeta to clench onto something until the attempt passes.


title: Peeta Mellark

text: Peeta is the same age as Katniss, making him 16 years old in "The Hunger Games" and 17-18 in "Catching Fire" and "Mockingjay".


title: Peeta Mellark

text: Peeta is of "medium height, stocky build" and has "ashy blond hair that falls in waves over his forehead." He has blue eyes. He is "broad-shouldered and strong." Part of Peeta's left leg was amputated following the 74th Hunger Games, forcing him to walk with the aid of a prosthetic leg for the rest of his life. In the 2012 film adaptation, his leg is never amputated.


title: Peeta Mellark

text: Peeta is repeatedly described as charming, generous, kind and likable, and possessing a self-deprecating sense of humour. He first confuses and later inspires Katniss with his determination to maintain his identity while inside the arena and his refusal to become a "piece" in the Capitol's game.


title: Peeta Mellark

text: An accomplished painter and baker on account of working in his family's bakery his whole life (Suzanne Collins named the character Peeta because "Pita" is a kind of bread), Peeta also excels at hand-to-hand combat, camouflage, handling knives, and starting fires. Peeta also has a remarkable talent for speaking to crowds. People tend to "embrace everything he says." Not only is he initially responsible for making the Capitol fall in love with Katniss, Katniss herself says Peeta would be invaluable to the revolution because of his ability "to turn his pain into words that will transform people."


title: Peeta Mellark

text: "Entertainment Weekly" said Peeta, as well as Gale Hawthorne, were "thinly imagined". MTV listed five reasons why Peeta is "badass", and that "Peeta gives [Katniss] a run for her money in the coolness category".


title: Peeta Mellark

text: On March 23, 2011, Lionsgate began casting the role of Peeta for the film of "The Hunger Games". According to "The Hollywood Reporter", contenders for the role included Josh Hutcherson, Alexander Ludwig (later cast as Cato), Hunter Parrish, Lucas Till, and Evan Peters. On April 4, 2011, Lionsgate announced that Hutcherson would play the role.


title: Average absolute deviation

text: The average absolute deviation (AAD) of a data set is the average of the absolute deviations from a central point. It is a summary statistic of statistical dispersion or variability. In the general form, the central point can be a mean, median, mode, or the result of any other measure of central tendency or any reference value related to the given data set.


title: Average absolute deviation

text: AAD includes the mean absolute deviation and the median absolute deviation (both abbreviated as MAD).


title: Average absolute deviation

text: The term "average absolute deviation" does not uniquely identify a measure of statistical dispersion, as there are several measures that can be used to measure absolute deviations, and there are several measures of central tendency that can be used as well. Thus, to uniquely identify the absolute deviation it is necessary to specify both the measure of deviation and the measure of central tendency. Unfortunately, the statistical literature has not yet adopted a standard notation, as both the mean absolute deviation around the mean and the median absolute deviation around the median have been denoted by their initials "MAD" in the literature, which may lead to confusion, since in general, they may have values considerably different from each other.


title: Average absolute deviation

text: The choice of measure of central tendency, formula_2, has a marked effect on the value of the mean deviation. For example, for the data set {2, 2, 3, 4, 14}:


title: Average absolute deviation

text: The mean absolute deviation (MAD), also referred to as the "mean deviation" or sometimes "average absolute deviation", is the mean of the data's absolute deviations around the data's mean: the average (absolute) distance from the mean. "Average absolute deviation" can refer to either this usage, or to the general form with respect to a specified central point (see above).


title: Average absolute deviation

text: MAD has been proposed to be used in place of standard deviation since it corresponds better to real life. Because the MAD is a simpler measure of variability than the standard deviation, it can be useful in school teaching.


title: Average absolute deviation

text: This method's forecast accuracy is very closely related to the mean squared error (MSE) method which is just the average squared error of the forecasts. Although these methods are very closely related, MAD is more commonly used because it is both easier to compute (avoiding the need for squaring) and easier to understand.


title: Average absolute deviation

text: For the normal distribution, the ratio of mean absolute deviation from the mean to standard deviation is formula_3. Thus if "X" is a normally distributed random variable with expected value 0 then, see Geary (1935):


title: Average absolute deviation

text: In other words, for a normal distribution, mean absolute deviation is about 0.8 times the standard deviation.


title: Average absolute deviation

text: However, in-sample measurements deliver values of the ratio of mean average deviation / standard deviation for a given Gaussian sample "n" with the following bounds: formula_5, with a bias for small "n".


title: Average absolute deviation

text: The mean absolute deviation from the mean is less than or equal to the standard deviation; one way of proving this relies on Jensen's inequality.


title: Average absolute deviation

text: The median is the point about which the mean deviation is minimized. The MAD median offers a direct measure of the scale of a random variable around its median


title: Average absolute deviation

text: This is the maximum likelihood estimator of the scale parameter formula_7 of the Laplace distribution.


title: Average absolute deviation

text: The mean absolute deviation from the median is less than or equal to the mean absolute deviation from the mean. In fact, the mean absolute deviation from the median is always less than or equal to the mean absolute deviation from any other fixed number.


title: Average absolute deviation

text: While in principle the mean or any other central point could be taken as the central point for the median absolute deviation, most often the median value is taken instead.


title: Average absolute deviation

text: The median absolute deviation (also MAD) is the "median" of the absolute deviation from the "median". It is a robust estimator of dispersion.


title: Average absolute deviation

text: For the example {2, 2, 3, 4, 14}: 3 is the median, so the absolute deviations from the median are {1, 1, 0, 1, 11} (reordered as {0, 1, 1, 1, 11}) with a median of 1, in this case unaffected by the value of the outlier 14, so the median absolute deviation is 1.


title: Average absolute deviation

text: For a symmetric distribution, the median absolute deviation is equal to half the interquartile range.


title: Average absolute deviation

text: The maximum absolute deviation around an arbitrary point is the maximum of the absolute deviations of a sample from that point. While not strictly a measure of central tendency, the maximum absolute deviation can be found using the formula for the average absolute deviation as above with formula_11, where formula_12 is the sample maximum.


title: Average absolute deviation

text: The measures of statistical dispersion derived from absolute deviation characterize various measures of central tendency as "minimizing" dispersion:


title: Average absolute deviation

text: The median is the measure of central tendency most associated with the absolute deviation. Some location parameters can be compared as follows:


title: Average absolute deviation

text: The mean absolute deviation of a sample is a biased estimator of the mean absolute deviation of the population.


title: Average absolute deviation

text: In order for the absolute deviation to be an unbiased estimator, the expected value (average) of all the sample absolute deviations must equal the population absolute deviation. However, it does not. For the population 1,2,3 both the population absolute deviation about the median and the population absolute deviation about the mean are 2/3. The average of all the sample absolute deviations about the mean of size 3 that can be drawn from the population is 44/81, while the average of all the sample absolute deviations about the median is 4/9. Therefore, the absolute deviation is a biased estimator.


title: Average absolute deviation

text: However, this argument is based on the notion of mean-unbiasedness. Each measure of location has its own form of unbiasedness (see entry on biased estimator). The relevant form of unbiasedness here is median unbiasedness.


title: John Getz

text: John William Getz (born October 15, 1946) is an American character actor. After starting his acting career on stage, he has appeared in numerous television series and films.


title: John Getz

text: Getz, one of four children, was born in Davenport, Iowa, and grew up in the Mississippi River Valley. He began acting while attending the University of Iowa, where he helped found the Center for New Performing Arts.


title: John Getz

text: Getz dropped out of college to attend the American Conservatory Theater in San Francisco. While working in a winery, he helped found the Theater Company in Napa County, California. His location in the grape-growing Napa Valley led to Getz's television debut in a made-for-television horror film "Killer Bees" (1974). "Killer Bees" starred Gloria Swanson, Craig Stevens, Kate Jackson, and Edward Albert. Getz then moved to New York City, where he became active in local theater while doing an 18-month stint as Neil Johnson on the soap opera "Another World".


title: John Getz

text: Getz appeared in "The Happy Hooker" (1975) and followed up with several other roles before starring in the Coen Brothers' neo-noir thriller "Blood Simple" (1984). He played the doomed lover of a married woman (Frances McDormand) who woefully misinterprets his increasingly complex circumstances.


title: John Getz

text: In 1985, he co-starred in the unsuccessful police drama "MacGruder and Loud". The pilot was given the post-Super Bowl time slot, contributing to its strong debut in the ratings. However, ABC rescheduled it repeatedly and finally relegated it to the "graveyard slot", 10:00 p.m. EST, Monday night.


title: John Getz

text: Getz appeared in two different shows with the name "Maggie" in the title: 1984's "Maggie Briggs", where he appeared as newspaper editor Geoff Bennett, and 1998's "Maggie" as the title character's husband, Dr. Arthur Day.


title: John Getz

text: Getz also appeared in "The Fly" (1986) and "The Fly II" (1989) as Stathis Borans, a science magazine editor who pays a heavy price for his curiosity. Also in 1989, he played a Marine Corps Major in "Born on the Fourth of July". In 1991, Getz appeared as the unpleasant boyfriend of professional women in "Don't Tell Mom the Babysitter's Dead" and "Curly Sue". In 1990, Getz appeared as a crime boss in the Charlie Sheen and Emilio Estevez spoof "Men At Work". In 1994, he appeared in the film "Playmaker", starring Colin Firth and Jennifer Rubin.


title: John Getz

text: In 2007, he had a role in David Fincher's film "Zodiac". Also in 2007, he appeared in Bill Guttentag and Dan Sturman's documentary film "Nanking" as George Ashmore Fitch, head of the local YMCA and administrative director of the International Committee for the Nanking Safety Zone. Getz also had a role in Fincher's film "The Social Network" (2010), about the founding of Facebook. He appeared in the suspense thriller "Elevator" as a Wall Street executive trapped in an elevator with a group of strangers, one of whom has a bomb. Written and produced by Marc Rosenberg and directed by Stig Svendsen, "Elevator" was released in July 2012. He appeared in "Trumbo" (2015) as director Sam Wood.


title: John Getz

text: Through the decades, Getz has guest-starred in many television series, including "Barney Miller" (in the 1977 episode "Atomic Bomb") and "Three's Company" (1980), where he played Lee Tripper, brother of Jack Tripper. He has guest-starred in "How I Met Your Mother", "Prison Break", "The King of Queens" and "Private Practice", and had recurring roles in "Homeland" (from 2014–2017), "Timeless" (2016–2018) and "Bosch" (2017–2018).


title: Mimar Sinan

text: Mimar Sinan (, , ) ( 1488–1490 – 17 July 1588) also known as Koca Mi'mâr Sinân Âğâ, ("Sinan Agha the Grand Architect" or "Grand Sinan") was the chief Ottoman architect () and civil engineer for sultans Suleiman the Magnificent, Selim II and Murad III. He was responsible for the construction of more than 300 major structures and other more modest projects, such as schools. His apprentices would later design the Sultan Ahmed Mosque in Istanbul and Stari Most in Mostar.


title: Mimar Sinan

text: The son of a stonemason, he received a technical education and became a military engineer. He rose rapidly through the ranks to become first an officer and finally a Janissary commander, with the honorific title of Sinan. He refined his architectural and engineering skills while on campaign with the Janissaries, becoming expert at constructing fortifications of all kinds, as well as military infrastructure projects, such as roads, bridges and aqueducts. At about the age of fifty, he was appointed as chief royal architect, applying the technical skills he had acquired in the army to the "creation of fine religious buildings" and civic structures of all kinds. He remained in this post for almost fifty years.


title: Mimar Sinan

text: His masterpiece is the Selimiye Mosque in Edirne, although his most famous work is the Suleiman Mosque in Istanbul. He headed an extensive governmental department and trained many assistants who, in turn, distinguished themselves, including Sedefkar Mehmed Agha, architect of the Sultan Ahmed Mosque and Mimar Hayruddin, architect of the Stari Most. He is considered the greatest architect of the classical period of Ottoman architecture and has been compared to Michelangelo, his contemporary in the West. Michelangelo and his plans for St. Peter's Basilica in Rome were well known in Istanbul, since Leonardo da Vinci and he had been invited, in 1502 and 1505 respectively, by the Sublime Porte to submit plans for a bridge spanning the Golden Horn. Mimar Sinan's works are among the most influential buildings in history.


title: Mimar Sinan

text: According to contemporary biographer Mustafa Sâi Çelebi, Sinan was born in 1489, 1490 according to the Encyclopædia Britannica, 1491 according to the Dictionary of Islamic Architecture, and some time between 1494 and 1499 according to the Turkish professor and architect Reha Günay, with the name Joseph. He was born either an Armenian, Cappadocian Greek, Albanian, or a Christian Turk in a small town called Ağırnas near the city of Kayseri in Anatolia (as stated in an order by Sultan Selim II). According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, Sinan had either Armenian or Greek origin. One argument that lends credence to his Armenian or Greek background is a decree by Selim II dated Ramadan 7 981 (ca. Dec. 30, 1573), which grants Sinan's request to forgive and spare his relatives from the general exile of Kayseri's Armenian communities to the island of Cyprus;This decree was published in the Turkish journal "Türk Tarihi Encümeni Mecmuası" while Godfrey Goodwin stated that "after the Ottoman conquest of Cyprus in 1571, when Selim II decided to repopulate the island by transferring Rum (Orthodox Christian) families from the Karaman Eyalet, Sinan intervened on behalf of his family and obtained two orders from the Sultan in council exempting them from deportation."


title: Mimar Sinan

text: According to some scholars, this means that his family was Cappadocian Greek because the only Orthodox Christians (Rûms) of the region were Greek-speaking.


title: Mimar Sinan

text: According to Herbert J. Muller though, he "seems to have been an Armenian." Lucy Der Manuelian of Tufts University suggests that "he can be identified as an Armenian through a document in the imperial archives and other evidence."


title: Mimar Sinan

text: Several scholars have cited Sinan's possible Albanian origin. According to the British scholar Percy Brown and the Indian scholar Vidya Dhar Mahajan, the Mughal Emperor Babur was very dissatisfied with the local Indian architecture and planning, thus he invited "certain pupils of the leading Ottoman architect Sinan, the Albanian genius, to carry out his architectural schemes.".


title: Mimar Sinan

text: Sinan grew up helping his father in his work, and by the time that he was conscripted would have had a good grounding in the practicalities of building work. There are three brief records (Anonymous Text; Architectural Masterpieces; Book of Architecture) in the library of Topkapı Palace, dictated by Sinan to his friend and biographer Mustafa Sâi Çelebi. In these manuscripts, Sinan divulges some details of his youth and military career. His father is referred to as "Abdülmennan" (literally "Servant of the Generous and Merciful One"), a title which was commonly used in the Ottoman period to define the non-Muslim father of a Muslim convert.


title: Mimar Sinan

text: In 1512, Sinan was conscripted into Ottoman service under the devshirme system. He was sent to Constantinople to be trained as an officer of the Janissary Corps and converted to Islam. He was too old to be admitted to the imperial Enderun School in the Topkapı Palace but was sent instead to an auxiliary school. Some records claim that he might have served the Grand Vizier Pargalı İbrahim Pasha as a novice of the Ibrahim Pasha School. Possibly, he was given the Islamic name "Sinan" there. He initially learned carpentry and mathematics but through his intellectual qualities and ambitions, he soon assisted the leading architects and got his training as an architect.


title: Mimar Sinan

text: During the next six years, he also trained to be a Janissary officer ("acemioğlan"). He possibly joined Selim I in his last military campaign, Rhodes according to some sources, but when the Sultan died, this project ended. Two years later he witnessed the conquest of Belgrade. Under the new sultan, Suleiman the Magnificent, he was present, as a member of the Household Cavalry, at the Battle of Mohács. He was promoted to captain of the Royal Guard and then given command of the Infantry Cadet Corps. He was later stationed in Austria, where he commanded the 62nd Orta of the Rifle Corps. He became a master of archery, while at the same time, as an architect, learning the weak points of structures when gunning them down. In 1535 he participated in the Baghdad campaign as a commanding officer of the Royal Guard. In 1537 he went on expeditions to Corfu and Apulia and Moldavia.


title: Mimar Sinan

text: During these campaigns he proved himself an able architect and engineer. When the Ottoman army captured Cairo, Sinan was promoted to chief architect and was given the privilege of tearing down any buildings in the captured city that were not according to the city plan. During the campaign in the East, he assisted in the building of defences and bridges, such as a bridge across the Danube. He converted churches into mosques. During the Persian campaign in 1535 he built ships for the army and the artillery to cross Lake Van. For this he was given the title "Haseki'i", Sergeant-at-Arms in the body guard of the Sultan, a rank equivalent to that of the Janissary Ağa.


title: Mimar Sinan

text: When Chelebi Lütfi Pasha became Grand Vizier in 1539, he appointed Sinan, who had previously served under his command, to the office of Architect of the Abode of Felicity. This was the start of a remarkable career. The job entailed the supervision infrastructure construction and the flow of supplies within the Ottoman Empire. He was also responsible for the design and construction of public works, such as roads, waterworks and bridges. Through the years he transformed his office into that of Architect of the Empire, an elaborate government department, with greater powers than his supervising minister. He became the head of a whole Corps of architects, training a team of assistants, deputies and pupils.


title: Mimar Sinan

text: His training as an army engineer gave Sinan an empirical approach to architecture rather than a theoretical one. But the same can be said of the great Western Renaissance architects, such as Brunelleschi and Michelangelo.


title: Mimar Sinan

text: Various sources state that Sinan was the architect of at least 374 structures which included 92 mosques; 52 small mosques ("mescit"); 55 schools of theology ("medrese"); 7 schools for Koran reciters ("darülkurra"); 20 mausoleums ("türbe"); 17 public kitchens ("imaret"); 3 hospitals ("darüşşifa"); 6 aqueducts; 10 bridges; 20 caravanserais; 36 palaces and mansions; 8 vaults; and 48 baths. Sinan held the position of chief architect of the palace, which meant being the overseer of all construction work of the Ottoman Empire, for nearly 50 years, working with a large team of assistants consisting of architects and master builders.


title: Mimar Sinan

text: The development and maturing stages of Sinan's career can be illustrated by three major works. The first two of these are in Istanbul: the Şehzade Mosque, which he calls a work of his apprenticeship period and the Süleymaniye Mosque, which is the work of his qualification stage. The Selimiye Mosque in Edirne is the product of his master stage.


title: Mimar Sinan

text: Şehzade Mosque is the first of the grand mosques created by Sinan. The Mihrimah Sultan Mosque, which is also known as the Üsküdar Quay Mosque, was completed in the same year and has an original design with its main dome supported by three half domes. When Sinan reached the age of 70, he had completed the Süleymaniye Mosque complex. This building, situated on one of the hills of Istanbul facing the Golden Horn, and built in the name of Süleyman the Magnificent, is one of the symbolic monuments of the period. The diameter of the dome, which exceeds the of the Selimiye Mosque which Sinan completed when he was 80, is the most outstanding example of the level of achievement reached by Sinan. Mimar Sinan reached his artistic peak with the design, architecture, tile decorations and land stone workmanship displayed at Selimiye.


title: Mimar Sinan

text: Another area of architecture where Sinan produced unique designs are his mausoleums. The Mausoleum of Şehzade Mehmed is notable for with its exterior decorations and sliced dome. The Rüstem Paşa mausoleum is a very attractive structure in classical style. The mausoleum of Süleyman the Magnificent is an interesting experiment, with an octagonal body and flat dome. The Selim II Mausoleum with has a square plan and is one of the best examples of Turkish mausoleum architecture. Sinan's own mausoleum, which is located in the north-east part of the Süleymaniye complex on the other hand, is a very plain structure.


title: Mimar Sinan

text: Sinan masterfully combined art with functionalism in the bridges he built. The largest of these is the nearly long Büyükçekmece Bridge. Other important examples are the Ailivri Bridge, the Old Bridge in Svilengrad on the Maritsa, the Lüleburgaz (Sokullu Mehmet Pasha) Bridge on the Lüleburgaz River, the Sinanlı Bridge over the river Ergene and the Mehmed Paša Sokolović Bridge over Drina river in Bosnia and Herzegovina.


title: Mimar Sinan

text: While Sinan was maintaining and improving the water supply system of Istanbul, he built arched aqueducts at several locations within the city. The Mağlova Arch over the Alibey River, which is long and high, has two tiers of arches, and is one of the best examples of its kind.