title: Sex differences in crime

text: Psychologist and professor Mark van Vugt, from VU University at Amsterdam, Netherlands, has argued that males have evolved more aggressive and group-oriented in order to gain access to resources, territories, mates and higher status. His theory the Male Warrior hypothesis explains that males throughout hominid history have evolved to form coalitions or groups in order to engage in inter-group aggression and increase their chances of acquiring resources, mates and territory. Vugt argues that this evolved male social dynamic explains the human history of war to modern day gang rivalry which is under a process of male on male competition in order to gain resources and potential mates.


title: Sex differences in crime

text: There are two theories on the role of testosterone in aggression and competition among males. The first one is the Challenge hypothesis which states that testosterone would increase during puberty thus facilitating reproductive and competitive behaviour which would include aggression as a result of evolution. Thus it is the challenge of competition in relation to testosterone among males of the species that facilitates aggression and violence. Studies conducted have found direct correlation between testosterone and dominance especially among the most violent criminals in prison who had the highest testosterone levels. The same research also found fathers (those outside competitive environments) had the lowest testosterone levels compared to other males. The second theory is also similar and is known as the evolutionary neuroandrogenic (ENA) theory of male aggression. Testosterone and other androgens have evolved to masculinize a brain in order to be competitive even as far as being a risk to harming others. By doing so, individuals with masculinized brains as a result of pre-natal and adult life testosterone and androgens enhance their resource acquiring abilities in order to survive, attract and copulate with mates as much as possible. Thus, crime can be seen as an extreme form of adaptation to gain status and acquire more resources. Many other researchers have agreed with this and have stated that criminal behavior is an expression of inter-male competition in mating efforts and resource seeking since there is a huge correlation between criminals and fathering children at younger ages.


title: Sex differences in crime

text: Women are more likely to use direct aggression in private, where other people cannot see them, and are more likely to use indirect aggression (such as passive-aggressive behavior) in public. Men are more likely to be the targets of displays of aggression and provocation than women. Studies by Bettencourt and Miller show that when provocation is controlled for, sex differences in aggression are greatly reduced. They argue that this shows that gender-role norms play a large part in the differences in aggressive behavior between men and women.


title: Sex differences in crime

text: According to the 2015 "International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences", sex differences in aggression is one of the most robust and oldest findings in psychology. Past meta-analyses in the encyclopedia found males regardless of age engaged in more physical and verbal aggression while small effect for females engaging in more indirect aggression such as rumor spreading or gossiping. It also found males tend to engage in more unprovoked aggression at higher frequency than females. This replicated another 2007 meta-analysis of 148 studies in the journal "Child Development" which found greater male aggression in childhood and adolescence. This analysis also conforms with the "Oxford Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology" which reviewed past analysis and found greater male use in verbal and physical aggression with the difference being greater in the physical type. A meta-analysis of 122 studies published in the journal of "Aggressive Behavior" found males are more likely to cyberbully than females, although the difference was small. Difference also showed that females reported more cyberbullying behavior during mid-adolescence while males showed more cyberbullying behavior at late adolescence.


title: Sex differences in crime

text: While the literature generally finds that women are more commonly the victims of domestic violence, some research suggests that rates of physical aggression within the context of dating and marriage tend to be similar for men and women, or that women are more likely to commit domestic violence against a partner; this is known as gender symmetry. However, such data generally shows that men tend to inflict the greater share of injuries. Critics have used studies such as Dekeseredy et al. to argue that "studies finding about equal rates of violence by women in relationships are misleading because they fail to place the violence in context; in other words, there is a difference between someone who uses violence to fight back or defend oneself and someone who initiates an unprovoked assault."


title: Sex differences in crime

text: One study argued that it was the above-cited Dekeseredy et al. that in fact improperly contextualized partner violence; Dekeseredy's campus study was based around asking women and only women if their violence was in self-defense, and not permitting the same for men. This results in counting men who had defended themselves as perpetrators, and counting women who may have engaged in ex post facto justification of their violence, a noted trait of psychological abuse, as victims. The study further found that studies from the US Department of Justice did not contextualize violence simply by not counting women perpetrators until forced to by the US Centers for Disease Control (CDC). Other studies that decontextualized partner violence included labeling aggregate findings of motivations for violence that included the desire to coerce or control the partner or being angry with the partner as "striking back" when such questions revealed that women scored equal to or higher than men in desires to use violence out of simple anger or to coerce and control the partner. This, however, is contradicted by other reviews which found women's primary motivation were triggered by anger or self-defense while men's motivation was more about control. Some studies have also postulated that when other factors such as allowing both or neither gender to claim self-defense, or simply including male victims and female perpetrators in the sample, the results were at or near parity for perpetrators and victims, with the results near parity sometimes favoring females and sometimes favoring males. Another large study reveals that women are between two and three times as likely to be the offender in non-reciprocal partner violence. The study suggests that while women are far more prone to be the sole offender, reciprocal violence where both partners use violence has higher frequency of serious injuries, and that these injuries more often have female victims than male.


title: Sex differences in crime

text: A 2008 review published in the journal "Violence and Victims" found that although less serious situation violence or altercation was equal for both genders, more serious and violent abuse was perpetrated by men. It was also found that women's physical violence was more likely motivated by self-defense or fear while men's was motivated by control. A 2011 systematic review from the journal of "Trauma Violence Abuse" also found that the common motives for female on male domestic violence were anger, a need for attention, or as a response to their partner's own violence. Another 2011 review published in the journal of "Aggression and Violent Behavior" also found that although minor domestic violence was equal, more severe violence was perpetrated by men. It was also found that men were more likely to beat up, choke or strangle their partners, while women were more likely to throw something at their partner, slap, kick, bite, punch, or hit with an object.


title: Sex differences in crime

text: One study has noted substantial differences in the treatment and behavior of defendants in the courts on the basis of gender; female criminologist Frances Heidensohn postulates that for judges and juries it is often "impossible to isolate the circumstances that the defendant is a woman from the circumstances that she can also be a widow, a mother, attractive, or may cry on the stand." Furthermore, male and female defendants in court have reported being advised to conduct themselves differently in accordance with their gender; women in particular recall being advised to express "mute passivity," whereas men are encouraged to "assert themselves" in cross-examinations and testimony.


title: Sex differences in crime

text: In the United States, men are much more likely to be incarcerated than women. More than 9 times as many men (5,037,000) as women (581,000) had ever at one time been incarcerated in a State or Federal prison at year end 2001. According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics, males experienced higher victimization rates than females for all types of violent crime except rape or other sexual assault.


title: Sex differences in crime

text: In 2014, more than 73% of those arrested in the US were males. Men accounted for 80.4 percent of persons arrested for violent crime and 62.9 percent of those arrested for property crime. In 2011, the United States Department of Justice compiled homicide statistics in the United States between 1980 and 2008. That study showed the following:


title: Sex differences in crime

text: From 2003 to 2012, there was a decrease in the rate of crime overall, but an increase in crimes committed by women. There was an increase in arrest rate for women of 2.9% but a decrease in arrest rate for men of 12.7%. This demonstrates an increase in arrests for women which only slightly offsets the decrease in arrest for men resulting in a decrease overall in arrest rate in the United States. Arrests rates for women had a sizable increase in the following crimes: robbery (+20.2%), larceny-theft (+29.6%), and arson – property crime (+24.7%). The trend results from 2003 to 2012 showed the vast majority of crimes were still committed by men with around 88% of homicides and 75% of all legal felonies. According to government statistics from the US Department of Justice, male perpetrators constituted 96% of federal prosecution on domestic violence. Another report by the US department of Justice on non-fatal domestic violence from 2003 to 2012 found that 76 percent of domestic violence was committed against women and 24 percent were committed against men.


title: Sex differences in crime

text: According to a Canadian Public Health Agency report, the rate of violent crime doubled among male youth during the late 1980s and 1990s, while it almost tripled among female youth. It rose for the latter from 2.2 per 1,000 in 1988 to a peak of 5.6 per 1,000 in 1996, and began to decline in 1999. Some researchers have suggested that the increase on crime statistics could be partly explained by the stricter approach to schoolyard fights and bullying, leading to a criminalization of behaviors now defined as "assault" behaviors (while they were simply negatively perceived before). The increase in the proportion of female violent crime would thus be explained more by a change in law enforcement policies than by effective behavior of the population itself. According to the report aforementioned, "Evidence suggests that aggressive and violent behavior in children is linked to family and social factors, such as social and financial deprivation; harsh and inconsistent parenting; parents' marital problems; family violence, whether between parents, by parents toward children or between siblings; poor parental mental health; physical and sexual abuse; and alcoholism, drug dependency or other substance misuse by parents or other family members."


title: Sex differences in crime

text: In 2013 and 2014, males accounted for 85% of those that have committed legal offenses and sent to provincial and territorial correctional services in Canada. Females account for 15 percent of overall committed legal offenses.


title: Sex differences in crime

text: According to the data given by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, worldwide, 78.7% of homicide victims are male, and in 193 of the 202 listed countries or regions, males were more likely to be killed than females. In two, the ratio was 50:50 (Switzerland and British Virgin Islands), and in the remaining 7; Tonga, Iceland, Japan, New Zealand, Republic of Korea, Latvia and Hong Kong, females were more likely to be victims of homicides compared to males. A 2013 global study on homicide by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime found that males accounted for about 95 percent of all convicted homicide perpetrators worldwide. Also, according to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, the percent of victims killed by their spouses or ex-spouses in 2011 were 77.4 percent women and 22.6 percent men in selected countries across Europe.


title: Philippine national identity card

text: The Philippine Identification System ID (PhilSys ID), also known as the Philippine Identification Card (PhilID; ), is the official national identity card for Filipino citizens worldwide and foreign permanent residents in the Philippines. The document is a significant part of the Philippine Identification System (PhilSys), the national identification system to be implemented by the Philippine government.


title: Philippine national identity card

text: The Philippine Identification System Act (Republic Act No. 11055), the legislation which seeks to implement this system, was signed into law by President Rodrigo Duterte on August 6, 2018.


title: Philippine national identity card

text: Proponents of the measure emphasize that the system will ease the access and verification of personal records when transacting with the government and private sector, while critics argue against the security of the collected data and warned against its potential to be used to violate the privacy and security of individuals.


title: Philippine national identity card

text: A national identification system for the Philippines was proposed as early as the 1990s, particularly during administration of then-President Fidel V. Ramos. However previous efforts to legislate the system has failed due to concerns in privacy and lack of support from the Congress.


title: Philippine national identity card

text: Panfilo Lacson began to lobby for the establishment of such system when he was elected as Senator in 2001. During the administration of President Rodrigo Duterte the proposed national identification system had progress in the legislature.


title: Philippine national identity card

text: In mid-2016, Quezon City Representative Feliciano Belmonte Jr. and Senator Antonio Trillanes filed House of Representative Bill No. 12 and Senate Bill No. 95 for an identification system for Filipino citizens residing in the Philippines and abroad. Belmonte claims at the time of filing that the Philippines is one of the only nine countries in the world without a national identification system.


title: Philippine national identity card

text: The framework for a Philippine national identity card system was established on August 6, 2018, when President Rodrigo Duterte signed into law the Philippine Identification System Act (R.A. 11055). Section 9 of the Act requires every Philippine citizen and resident alien to personally register with the Philippine ID system.


title: Philippine national identity card

text: The ID contains basic information about the individual, which include demographic and biometric data. The front side of the PhilID bears the coat of arms of the Philippines and the logo of the National ID system. The information displayed in the front include the assigned PhilID Card Number (PCN), photograph of the bearer, the bearer's full name ("Surname, Given Name, Middle Name"), birth date, and domicile. The back features the card's date of issue, QR code, and serial number alongside the bearer's sex ("Male, Female"), blood type ("O+/-, A+/-, B+/-, AB+/-"), marital status (optional), and place of birth.


title: Philippine national identity card

text: The central registry will store all registered information about the bearer and their mobile number and email address, both of which are optional, and the individual's biometrics data (full set of fingerprints set and iris scan).


title: Philippine national identity card

text: Unlike most previously issued government ID cards, the PhilSys ID does not bare a visible copy of the handwritten signature of the holder. According to the PSA, the absence of handwritten information is a security feature in itself.


title: Philippine national identity card

text: As a government-issued identification document, it also can be used the day-to-day transactions of registering for a mobile phone line, obtaining certain discounts at stores and shops (especially for senior citizens), and logging on to certain websites on the internet. Schools frequently use it to identify students, both on-line and in exams. The identity number will be considered as citizen's unique identity number for life.


title: Philippine national identity card

text: The ID does not replace existing government identification cards that serve a purpose beyond identity authentication, such as the driving license, passport, and UMID.


title: Philippine national identity card

text: The Philippine Identification System provides for two sets of numbers; the PhilSys Number (PSN) and the PhilSys Card Number (PCN). The PSN is a randomly-generated unique and permanent 12-digit identification number assigned to each registrant. The PSN contains highly sensitive data and is meant to be confidential; it is only disclosed when required by law. The PCN is the tokenized version of the PSN that can be used for general transactions with the government and private establishments. The PCN could be used without the physical ID card.


title: Philippine national identity card

text: Filipino citizens as well as resident aliens will be required to obtain a PhilSys ID. In an October 2018 report, PSA head (Lisa Grace S. Bersales, National Statistician and Civil Registrar General of the PSA) reported that the necessary bid procurement for the national ID system was scheduled to commence at around 3rd week of October 2018 and end around December 2018.


title: Philippine national identity card

text: By November 2018, the PSA was working with the Philippine Postal Corporation (PHLPost) for the proof of concept. With the design of concept done, with testing projected for January 2019, procurement estimated ideally for June 2019, and roll-out planned for September 2019. The PSA set as a target getting 7 million Filipinos registered with priority given to beneficiaries of the government's cash transfer program and indigenous people (IP)s, while they projected that by 2023 all living Overseas Filipinos would have been issued IDs. March 2019 was the projected start of registration for one million beneficiaries of the government's Unconditional cash transfer program while the registration of 25 million Filipinos was planned to start in September 2019.


title: Philippine national identity card

text: On January 7, 2019, the target was adjusted to 5 million Filipinos for 2019. The goal is that by the end of the 1st quarter to the beginning of the 2nd quarter, the PSA will master PhilSys's processes such as protocols regarding registration and transaction-number generation. September 2019 is set as the target for the launch of the Philippine ID system. By 2020, a total of 26 million Filipinos are projected to have registered with the ID system while in 2025 all 106 million Filipinos would have a PhilSys ID number assigned to them. By that time PhilSys ID number should be issued to newborn Filipino citizens.


title: Philippine national identity card

text: According to schedule, pilot-testing started on September 2, 2019, with a small number of individuals: Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD)-beneficiaries and personnel of the PSA & National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA). The testing was planned continue until July 2020, when registration is slated to be expanded and opened to the public, with overseas registry starting mid-2021. "The first part will involve biometric and demographic capturing processes. Once the system is stable, operations will expand to cover select groups from nearby regions, Regions III and IV-A, based on different geographical typologies. Set to begin on May 2020, the PSA planned to extend the pilot registration process to test the end-to-end system which essentially involves deduplication, generation of unique PhilSys Numbers (PSN), and card printing and issuance." According to new estimates, 100% registry of all Filipinos should be reached by mid-2022.


title: Philippine national identity card

text: The schedule was impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic, and registration was rescheduled to begin towards the fourth quarter of 2020. Registration began in October 2020, with 32 provinces prioritized.


title: Philippine national identity card

text: Proponents of the PhilSys assert that a national identification system would be beneficial in easing access to government services, reducing red tape, and law enforcement. Jamael Jacob, director of Ateneo de Manila University's Data Protection Office, stated that a universal ID system can make the delivery and access to public services more efficient and would aid in contact tracing individuals during outbreaks of disease. Senator Ping Lacson also affirms that the ID will help in reducing bureaucratic tape. This was also backed up by Senator Franklin Drilon, the principal author of the PhilSys Act, who noted that with a national ID system in place, it would be easier for the government to locate and verify the records of any citizen wishing to avail basic services from the government.


title: Philippine national identity card

text: However, concerns surrounding PhilSys were raised by Filipinos over social media, fearing that the national ID system and the collected data may be vulnerable to security breaches in light of the Commission on Elections data breach during the 2016 Philippine general election. Jamael Jacob also warns against the possibility that data collected for the ID system may be used as for other purposes outside of the intended purpose.


title: Philippine national identity card

text: The Communist Party of the Philippines has condemned the passage of the PhilSys Act, expressing fears that the national ID system may be used for "mass surveillance and criminal profiling". In a statement, detained Senator Leila de Lima expressed her distrust in the Duterte administration not to "interfere in the private lives of Filipinos" and further "destroy what remaining rights that Filipinos still have under Duterte's regime".


title: Philippine national identity card

text: In response, National Statistician and Civil Registrar Undersecretary Dennis Mapa assured that all data would be kept secure under the provisions of the Data Privacy Act of 2012 and the PhilSys Act, with safeguards on how this data will be accessed and shared. Both Drilon and Lacson also argued that the information to be gathered for the identity card is already present in other government-issued IDs such as voters' IDs, passports, and driver's licenses, and as such, would be no different to the data that would be collected for PhilSys.


title: Argead dynasty

text: The Argead dynasty (Greek: , ), also known as the Temenid dynasty, was an ancient Macedonian royal house of Dorian Greek provenance. They were the founders and the ruling dynasty of the kingdom of Macedon from about 700 to 310 BC.


title: Argead dynasty

text: Their tradition, as described in ancient Greek historiography, traced their origins to Argos, of Peloponnese in Southern Greece, hence the name "Argeads" or "Argives". Initially the rulers of the tribe of the same name, by the time of Philip II they had expanded their reign further, to include under the rule of Macedonia all Upper Macedonian states. The family's most celebrated members were Philip II of Macedon and his son Alexander the Great, under whose leadership the kingdom of Macedonia gradually gained predominance throughout Greece, defeated the Achaemenid Empire and expanded as far as Egypt and India. The mythical founder of the Argead dynasty is King Caranus. The Argeads claimed descent from Herakles through his great-great-grandson Temenus, also king of Argos.


title: Argead dynasty

text: The words "Argead" and "Argive" derive (via Latin "Argīvus") from the Greek Ἀργεῖος ("Argeios" meaning "of or from Argos"), which is first attested in Homer where it was also used as a collective designation for the Greeks ("Ἀργείων Δαναῶν", "Argive Danaans"). The Argead dynasty claimed descent from the Temenids of Argos, in the Peloponnese, whose legendary ancestor was Temenus, the great-great-grandson of Heracles.


title: Argead dynasty

text: In the excavations of the royal palace at Aegae, Manolis Andronikos discovered in the "tholos" room (according to some scholars "tholos" was the throne room) a Greek inscription relating to that belief. This is testified by Herodotus, in "The Histories", where he mentions that three brothers of the lineage of Temenus, Gauanes, Aeropus and Perdiccas, fled from Argos to the Illyrians and then to Upper Macedonia, to a town called Lebaea, where they served the king. The latter asked them to leave his territory, believing in an omen that something great would happen to Perdiccas. The boys went to another part of Macedonia, near the garden of Midas, above which mount Bermio stands. There they made their abode and slowly formed their own kingdom.


title: Argead dynasty

text: Herodotus also relates the incident of the participation of Alexander I of Macedon in the Olympic Games in 504 or 500 BC where the participation of the Macedonian king was contested by participants on the grounds that he was not Greek. The Hellanodikai, however, after examining his Argead claim confirmed that the Macedonian kings were Greeks and allowed him to participate.


title: Argead dynasty

text: Another theory supported by the Greek historian Miltiades Hatzopoulos, following the opinion of the ancient author Appian, is that the Argead dynasty actually came from Argos Orestikon.According to Thucydides, in the "History of the Peloponnesian War", the Argeads were originally Temenids from Argos, who descended from the highlands to Lower Macedonia, expelled the Pierians from Pieria and acquired in Paionia a narrow strip along the river Axios extending to Pella and the sea. They also added Mygdonia in their territory through the expulsion of the Edoni, Eordians, and Almopians.


title: Argead dynasty

text: The death of the king almost invariably triggered dynastic disputes and often a war of succession between members of the Argead family, leading to political and economic instability. These included:


title: Argead dynasty

text: Additionally, long-established monarchs could still face a rebellion by a relative when the former's kingship was perceived to be weak. An example was Philip's rebellion against his older brother, king Perdiccas II, in the prelude to the Peloponnesian War (433–431 BCE).


title: Makassar

text: Makassar (, , ) is the capital of the Indonesian province of South Sulawesi. It is the largest city in the region of Eastern Indonesia and the country's fifth-largest urban center after Jakarta, Surabaya, Medan, and Bandung. The city is located on the southwest coast of the island of Sulawesi, facing the Makassar Strait.


title: Makassar

text: Throughout its history, Makassar has been an important trading port, hosting the center of the Gowa Sultanate and a Portuguese naval base before its conquest by the Dutch East India Company in the 17th century.


title: Makassar

text: It remained an important port in the Dutch East Indies, serving Eastern Indonesian regions with Makassarese fishers going as far south as the Australian coast. For a brief period after Indonesian independence, Makassar became the capital of the State of East Indonesia, during which an uprising occurred.


title: Makassar

text: The city's area is , and it had a population of around 1.424 million in 2020 within Makassar City's fifteen administrative districts. Its official metropolitan area, known as "Mamminasata", with the addition of thirty-three further districts of neighboring regencies, covers an area of and had a population of around 2,698,915 according to the 2020 Census.


title: Makassar

text: According to the National Development Planning Agency, Makassar is one of the four main central cities of Indonesia, alongside Medan, Jakarta, and Surabaya.


title: Makassar

text: According to Bank Indonesia, Makassar has the second-highest commercial property values in Indonesia, after Greater Jakarta.


title: Makassar

text: The name Makassar was long spelled "Macassar" in English and many other European languages, although the Portuguese spelled it "Macáçar" during their presence there in the 17th century.


title: Makassar

text: The Dutch spelled the name both "Makasser" and "Makassar" during their rule over the city as part of the Dutch East Indies. With the independence following World War II, the Indonesians kept the Dutch spelling of "Makassar" with a double 's', despite the fact that the Indonesian language does not have geminate consonants.


title: Makassar

text: On 1 September 1971 (until 1999), the city was renamed after a variant of the pre-colonial name of the city's Fort Rotterdam, "Ujung Pandang" (Makassarese: "Jumpandang").


title: Makassar

text: The action was taken at the time Makassar was expanding from its original 21 km to encompass neighboring regions to de-emphasise the ethnic connotations of the name, enlarged to its present area. Ujung Pandang remained locally unpopular and, on 13 October 1999, the name reverted to "Makassar" under President B. J. Habibie, himself a native of South Sulawesi.


title: Makassar

text: In the local language, the city is known as "Mangkasara", written in the Lontara script traditionally used to write Makassarese as well as Buginese, which is also widely spoken in the city.


title: Makassar

text: The adjective form of the city's name and the eponymous ethnic group has varied over time. In English, "Macassarese", "Makassarese", and "Macassan" have all been used, although the latter is usually used in the historical context of trepangers in northern Australia (the Macassan contact with Australia) and may include people not from Makassar. More recently, forms such as "Makasarese" and simply "Makasar" (both with a single 's') have appeared.


title: Makassar

text: The trade in spices figured prominently in the history of Sulawesi, which involved frequent struggles between rival native and foreign powers for control of the lucrative trade during the pre-colonial and colonial period when spices from the region were in high demand in the West. Much of South Sulawesi's early history was written in old texts that can be traced back to the 13th and 14th centuries.


title: Makassar

text: Makassar is mentioned in the Nagarakretagama, a Javanese eulogy composed in 14th century during the reign of Majapahit king Hayam Wuruk. In the text, Makassar is mentioned as an island under Majapahit dominance, alongside Butun, Salaya and Banggawi.


title: Makassar

text: The 9th King of Gowa Tumaparisi Kallonna (1512–1546) is described in the royal chronicle as the first Gowa ruler to ally with the nearby trade-oriented polity of Tallo, a partnership which endured throughout Makassar's apogee as an independent kingdom. The center of the dual kingdom was at Sombaopu, near the then mouth of the Jeneberang River about 10 km south of the present city center, where, where an international port and a fortress were gradually developed. First Malay traders (expelled from their Melaka metropolis by the Portuguese in 1511), then Portuguese from at least the 1540s, began to make this port their base for trading to the Spice Islands (Maluku), further east.


title: Makassar

text: The growth of Dutch maritime power over the spice trade after 1600 made Makassar more vital as an alternative port open to all traders, as well as a source of rice to trade with rice-deficient Maluku.


title: Makassar

text: The Dutch East India Company (VOC) sought a monopoly of Malukan nutmeg and cloves and came close to succeeding at the expense of English, Portuguese and Muslims from the 1620s. The Makassar kings maintained a policy of free trade, insisting on the right of any visitor to do business in the city, and rejecting the attempts of the Dutch to establish a monopoly.


title: Makassar

text: Makassar depended mainly on the Muslim Malay and Catholic Portuguese sailors communities as its two crucial economic assets. However the English East India Company also established a post there in 1613, the Danish Company arrived in 1618, and Chinese, Spanish and Indian traders were all important. When the Dutch conquered Portuguese Melaka in 1641, Makassar became the most extensive Portuguese base in Southeast Asia.


title: Makassar

text: The Portuguese population had been in the hundreds but rose to several thousand, served by churches of the Franciscans, Dominicans and Jesuits as well as the regular clergy. By the 16th century, Makassar had become Sulawesi's principal port and center of the powerful Gowa and Tallo sultanates which between them had a series of 11 fortresses and strongholds and a fortified sea wall that extended along the coast.


title: Makassar

text: Portuguese rulers called the city "Macáçar". Makassar was very ably led in the first half of the 17th century when it effectively resisted Dutch pressure to close down its trade to Maluku and made allies rather than enemies of the neighboring Bugis states. Karaeng Matoaya (c.1573–1636) was the ruler of Tallo from 1593, as well as Chancellor or Chief Minister ("Tuma'bicara-butta") of the partner kingdom of Gowa. He managed the succession to the Gowa throne in 1593 of the 7-year-old boy later known as Sultan Alaud-din, and guided him through the acceptance of Islam in 1603, numerous modernizations in military and civil governance, and cordial relations with the foreign traders. The conversion of the citizens to Islam was followed by the first official Friday Prayer in the city, traditionally dated to 9 November 1607, which is celebrated today as the city's official anniversary. John Jourdain called Makassar in his day "the kindest people in all the Indias to strangers".


title: Makassar

text: Matoaya's eldest son succeeded him on the throne of Tallo, but as Chancellor, he had evidently groomed his brilliant second son, Karaeng Pattingalloang (1600–54), who exercised that position from 1639 until his death. Pattingalloang must have been partly educated by Portuguese, since as an adult he spoke Portuguese "as fluently as people from Lisbon itself", and avidly read all the books that came his way in Portuguese, Spanish or Latin. A French Jesuit, Father Alexandre de Rhodes, described Pattingalloang's passion for mathematics and astronomy, on which he pestered the priest endlessly, while even one of his Dutch adversaries conceded he was "a man of great knowledge, science and understanding".


title: Makassar

text: After Pattingalloang's death in 1654, a new king of Gowa, Sultan Hasanuddin, rejected the alliance with Tallo by declaring he would be his own Chancellor. Conflicts within the kingdom quickly escalated, the Bugis rebelled under the leadership of Bone, and the Dutch VOC seized its long-awaited chance to conquer Makassar with the help of the Bugis (1667-69).


title: Makassar

text: Their first conquest in 1667 was the northern Makassar fort of Ujung Pandang, while in 1669 they conquered and destroyed Sombaopu in one of the greatest battles of 17th century Indonesia. The VOC moved the city center northward, around the Ujung Pandang fort they rebuilt and renamed Fort Rotterdam. From this base, they managed to destroy the strongholds of the Sultan of Gowa, who was then forced to live on the outskirts of Makassar. Following the Java War (1825–30), Prince Diponegoro was exiled to Fort Rotterdam until his death in 1855.


title: Makassar

text: After the arrival of the Dutch, there was an important Portuguese community, also called a "bandel", that received the name of Borrobos.


title: Makassar

text: Around 1660 the leader of this community, which today would be equivalent to a neighbourhood, was the Portuguese Francisco Vieira de Figueiredo.


title: Makassar

text: The character of this old trading center changed as a walled city known as Vlaardingen grew. Gradually, in defiance of the Dutch, the Arabs, Malays and Buddhist returned to trade outside the fortress walls and were joined later by the Chinese.


title: Makassar

text: The town again became a collecting point for the produce of eastern Indonesia – the copra, rattan, Pearls, trepang and sandalwood and the famous oil made from bado nuts used in Europe as men's hairdressing – hence the anti-macassars (embroidered cloths protecting the head-rests of upholstered chairs).


title: Makassar

text: Although the Dutch controlled the coast, it was not until the early 20th century that they gained power over the southern interior through a series of treaties with local rulers. Meanwhile, Dutch missionaries converted many of the Toraja people to Christianity. By 1938, the population of Makassar had reached around 84,000 – a town described by writer Joseph Conrad as "the prettiest and perhaps, cleanest looking of all the towns in the islands".


title: Makassar

text: During World War II, the Makassar area was defended by approximately 1000 men of the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army commanded by Colonel M. Vooren. He decided that he could not defend the coast, and was planning to fight a guerrilla war inland. The Japanese landed near Makassar on 9 February 1942. The defenders retreated but were soon overtaken and captured.


title: Makassar

text: In 1945, Indonesia proclaimed its Independence, and in 1946, Makassar became the capital of the State of East Indonesia, part of the United States of Indonesia. In 1950, it was the site of fighting between pro-Federalist forces under Captain Kahar Muzakkar and Republican forces under Colonel Sunkono during the Makassar uprising.


title: Makassar

text: Makassar is also a significant fishing center in Sulawesi. One of its major industries is the trepang (sea cucumber) industry. Trepang fishing brought the Makassan people into contact with Indigenous Australian peoples of northern Australia, long before European settlement (from 1788).


title: Makassar

text: C. C. MacKnight in his 1976 work entitled "Voyage to Marege: Macassan Trepangers in Northern Australia" has shown that they began frequenting the north of Australia around 1700 in search of trepang (sea-slug, sea cucumber, Beche-de-mer), an edible Holothurian. They left their waters during the Northwest Monsoon in December or January for what is now Arnhem Land, Marriage or Marega and the Kimberley region or Kayu Djawa. They returned home with the south-east trade winds in April.


title: Makassar

text: A fleet of between 24 and 26 Macassan perahus was seen in 1803 by French explorers under Nicolas Baudin on the Holothuria Banks in the Timor Sea. In February 1803, Matthew Flinders in the "Investigator" met six perahus with 20–25 men each on board and was told by the fleet's chief Pobasso, that there were 60 perahus then on the north Australian coast. They were fishing for trepang and appeared to have only a small compass as a navigation aid. In June 1818 Macassan trepang fishing was noted by Phillip Parker King in the vicinity of Port Essington in the Arafura Sea.


title: Makassar

text: In 1865, R.J. Sholl, then Government Resident for the British settlement at Camden Sound (near Augustus Island in the Kimberley region) observed seven 'Macassan' perahus with a total of around 300 men on board. He believed that they made kidnapping raids and ranged as far south as Roebuck Bay (later Broome) where 'quite a fleet' was seen around 1866. Sholl believed that they did not venture south into other areas such as Nickol Bay (where the European pearling industry commenced around 1865) due to the absence of trepang in those waters.


title: Makassar

text: The Macassan voyages appear to have ceased sometime in the late nineteenth century, and their place was taken by other sailors operating from elsewhere in the Indonesian archipelago.


title: Makassar

text: The city is one of Indonesia's primary ports, with regular international and domestic shipping connections. It is nationally famous as an essential port of call for the pinisi ships, wooden sailing ships which are among the last in use for regular long-distance trade.


title: Makassar

text: During the colonial era, the city was widely known as the namesake of Makassar oil, which it exported in substantial quantity. Makassar ebony is a warm black hue, streaked with tan or brown tones, and highly prized for use in making fine cabinetry and veneers.


title: Makassar

text: Nowadays, as the largest city in Sulawesi Island and Eastern Indonesia, the city's economy depends highly on the service sector, which makes up approximately 70% of activity. Restaurant and hotel services are the most significant contributor (29.14%), followed by transportation and communication (14.86%), trading (14.86), and finance (10.58%). Industrial activity is the next most important after the service sector, with 21.34% of overall activity. The Makassar Industrial Estate ("Kawasan Industri Makassar"), located within the city's boundaries, measures at 270.84 hectares.


title: Makassar

text: Makassar has a public transportation system called "pete-pete". A pete-pete (known elsewhere in Indonesia as an "angkot") is a minibus that has been modified to carry passengers. The route of Makassar's pete-petes is denoted by the letter on the windshield. Makassar is also known for its "becak" (pedicabs), which are smaller than the "becak" on the island of Java. In addition to becak and pete-pete, the city has a government-run bus system, taxis and ride-hailing services such as Gojek.


title: Makassar

text: A bus rapid transit (BRT), which is known as "Trans Mamminasata" was started in 2014. It has some routes through Makassar to cities around Makassar region such as Maros, Takallar, and Gowa. Run by the Indonesian Transportation Department, each bus has 20 seats and space for 20 standing passengers.


title: Makassar

text: A 35-kilometer monorail in the areas of Makassar, Maros Regency, Sungguminasa (Gowa Regency), and Takalar Regency (the "Mamminasata" region) was proposed in 2011, with operations commencing in 2014, at a predicted cost of Rp.4 trillion ($468 million). The memorandum of understanding was signed on 25 July 2011 by Makassar city, Maros Regency and Gowa Regency. In 2014, the project was officially abandoned, citing insufficient ridership and a lack of financial feasibility.


title: Makassar

text: The city of Makassar, its outlying districts, and the South Sulawesi Province are served by Hasanuddin International Airport. The airport is located outside the Makassar city administration area, being situated in the nearby Maros Regency.


title: Makassar

text: The city is served by "Soekarno-Hatta Sea Port". In January 2012 it was announced that due to limited capacity of the current dock at Soekarno-Hatta sea port, it would be expanded to 150x30 square meters to avoid the need for at least two ships to queue every day.


title: Makassar

text: The executive head of the city is the mayor, who is elected by direct vote for a period of five years. The mayor is assisted by a deputy mayor, who is also an elected official. There is a legislative assembly for the city, members of which are also elected for a period of five years.


title: Makassar

text: Makassar City is divided into 15 administrative districts ("kecamatan") and subdivided into 153 urban villages ("kelurahan"). The districts are listed below with their areas and their populations at the 2010 Census and the 2020 Census. The table also includes the number of administrative villages ("kelurahan") in each district.


title: Makassar

text: Note (a) The 2010 population of the Sangkarrang Islands District ("Kecamatan Kepulauan Sangkarrang") is included in the figure for the Ujung Tanah district, from which it was cut out.


title: Makassar

text: The metropolitan area including Makassar is known as , an acronym of Makassar and the neighboring areas of Maros, Sungguminasa (Gowa) and Takalar.


title: Makassar

text: This official metropolitan area covers 2,666.63 km and had a population of 2,698,915 at the 2020 Census; the official estimate as at mid 2021 was 2,717,283. The metropolitan area of Makassar ("Mamminasata") extends over forty-eight administrative districts ("kecamatan"), consisting of all fifteen districts within the city, all ten districts of Takalar Regency, eleven (out of eighteen) districts of Gowa Regency and twelve (out of fourteen) districts of Maros Regency.


title: Makassar

text:
The districts of Takalar Regency which are included in the metro area are: "Mangarabombang", "Mappakasunggu", "Sanrobone", "Kepulauan Tanakeke", "Polombangkeng Selatan", "Pattallassang", "Polombangkeng Utara", "Galesong Selatan", "Galesong" and "Galesong Utara".
The districts of Gowa Regency which are included in the metro area are: "Somba Opu", "Bontomarannu", "Pallangga", "Bajeng", "Bajeng Barat", "Barombong", "Manuju", "Pattallassang", "Parangloe", "Bontonompo" and "Bontonompo Selatan".
The districts of Maros Regency which are included in the metro area are: "Maros Baru", "Turikale", "Marusu", "Mandai", "Moncongloe", "Bontoa", "Lau", "Tanralili", "Tompo Bulu", "Bantimurung", "Simbang" and "Cenrana".


title: Makassar

text: Makassar has a tropical monsoon climate (Köppen "Am"). The average temperature for the year in Makassar is , with little variation due to its near-equatorial latitude: the average high is around and the average low around all year long.


title: Makassar

text: In contrast to the virtually consistent temperature, rainfall shows wide variation between months due to the movement of the Intertropical Convergence Zone. Makassar averages around of rain on 163 days during the year, but during the month with least rainfall – August – only on one day of rain can be expected. In contrast, during its wet season, Makassar can expect more than per month between December and February. During the wettest month of January, can be expected to fall on twenty-seven rainy days.


title: Makassar

text: Makassar is a multi-ethnic city, populated mostly by Makassarese and Buginese. The remainder are Torajans, Mandarese, Butonese, Chinese and Javanese. The current population in mid 2021 is approximately 1,427,619, with a Metropolitan total of 2.72 million.


title: Makassar

text: Makassar has several famous traditional foods, the most famous of which is "coto makassar". It is a "soto" (stew) made from a mixture of nuts, spices, and selected offal which may include beef brain, tongue and intestine. "Konro", a rib dish, is also a popular traditional food in Makassar. Both "coto makassar" and "konro" are usually consumed with "burasa" or "ketupat", a glutinous rice cake. Another famous dish from Makassar is "ayam goreng sulawesi" (Celebes fried chicken); the chicken is marinated with a traditional soy sauce recipe for up to 24 hours before being fried to a golden color. The dish is usually served with chicken broth, rice and special "sambal" (chilli sauce).


title: Makassar

text: In addition, Makassar is the home of "pisang epe" (pressed banana), as well as "pisang ijo" (green banana). "Pisang epe" is a banana which is pressed, grilled, and covered with palm sugar sauce and sometimes consumed with durian. Many street vendors sell "pisang epe", especially around the area of Losari Beach. "Pisang ijo" is a banana covered with green colored flour, coconut milk, and syrup. "Pisang ijo" is sometimes served iced and often consumed at iftar during Ramadan.


title: Jordan Raskopoulos

text: Jordan Nicola Bridget Raskopoulos (born 25 January 1982) is an Australian comedian, actress, streamer and singer best known for her role as a writer and performer on the Network Ten sketch comedy show "The Ronnie Johns Half Hour", and as lead singer for comedy rock group The Axis of Awesome (2006–2018). Her father is former footballer Peter Raskopoulos, and her brother is Steen Raskopoulos, a fellow comedian.


title: Jordan Raskopoulos

text: In 2003, Raskopoulos became involved with Impro Australia's Theatresports events including The Belvoir St Theatre Theatresports and the Cranston Cup competitions, winning State and National Titles. In 2005, she became part of the university sketch comedy supergroup The 3rd Degree who performed at the Melbourne International Comedy Festival. This group formed the base of the Network Ten's Logie award-winning cult ensemble sketch comedy television show "The Ronnie Johns Half Hour", in which Raskopoulos starred and for which she wrote.


title: Jordan Raskopoulos

text: After the success of "The Ronnie Johns Half Hour", Raskopoulos went on to appear in "Stupid, Stupid Man", "Stand Up Australia", "Hole in the Wall", "Good News Week" and "Thank God You're Here", and has provided voices for the ABC2 machinima series "The Team". She was a team captain for a season of the SBS sports show "The Squiz". In 2007, her debut solo stage show was called "The Adventures of the Man with the Dominant Claw". With her band The Axis of Awesome, Raskopoulos has appeared on "Q&A", "Good News Week" and "The Footy Show".


title: Jordan Raskopoulos

text: From 2006 until 2018, Raskopoulos fronted the award-winning musical comedy trio The Axis of Awesome, whose parody song "4 Chords" has received almost 64 million hits on YouTube and is one of the highest-rated comedy videos on the site. The group came to attention after the release of their songs parodying the 2007 Australian federal election and received a Moosehead award at the 2008 Melbourne International Comedy Festival for their show "The Axis of Awesome Comeback Spectacular". Since 2009, the Axis of Awesome have produced four albums and toured extensively in the United States, UK, Europe, Asia and Australia, with sold-out seasons at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe. They broke up in 2018, after a temporary hiatus.


title: Jordan Raskopoulos

text: Prior to publicly coming out as a trans woman, Raskopoulos wrote articles on transgender issues for "Junkee" under the pseudonym Nicola Fierce.


title: Jordan Raskopoulos

text: Raskopoulos was cast in the supporting role of Trax in the 2012 movie "" along with Rachel Griffiths, Anthony LaPaglia and Alex Williams. In January 2013, Raskopoulos requested users of the internet forum Something Awful to vote for her in the most popular actor category of the 2013 Logie Awards, promising in return to allow site users to write her acceptance speech. This caused some controversy, with news outlets reporting that Raskopoulos, who despite a high-profile international comedy career was relatively unknown in Australian acting circles, planned to 'hack' the Logies. Raskopoulos herself described her campaign as no different to any ordinary "fan" campaign, stating: "I'm conspiring to rig the Logies in the same way Guy Sebastian's fan forums are, or [in the same way as] fans of "The Voice" are calling for votes for Joel Madden on Twitter." In support of her campaign to win votes, Raskopoulos appeared in a segment on Australian current affairs program "Today Tonight" dressed in a fur collar and acting in character, and stated that she wished to win a Logie for use as a doorstop.


title: Jordan Raskopoulos

text: Raskopoulos is a transgender lesbian. Upon coming out publicly as transgender in 2016, she kept her given name but added the middle names Nicola and Bridget. She has attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and spoke about her anxiety disorder at a TEDx talk in 2017. Raskopoulos plays roller derby and has played Warhammer 40,000 since she was 12 years old.


title: Battle pass

text: In the video game industry, a battle pass is a type of monetization approach that provides additional content for a game usually through a tiered system, rewarding the player with in-game items for playing the game and completing specific challenges. Inspired by the season pass ticketing system and originating with "Dota 2" in 2013, the battle pass model gained more use as an alternative to subscription fees and loot boxes beginning in the late 2010s. Battle passes tend to offer free passes, which are available to all users, and a premium pass that require annual or seasonal charges in exchange for enhanced items and cosmetics.


title: Battle pass

text: Within the video game Fortnite & a few others, a battle pass may be offered free to a player, or may require the player to purchase it through microtransactions. Once obtained, the battle pass presents the player with a number of reward tiers; by earning enough experience to complete the tier, the player gains the rewards offered at that tier. These rewards are typically cosmetic in nature, such as character and weapon customization options (also known as "skins"), emotes, and other non-gameplay affecting elements. More desirable rewards are provided at higher levels, which offer a way for players to show off these unique customization options to other players as a status symbol. Experience is gained through normal gameplay, and often through in-game challenges, while some games offer a way to accelerate progression through a battle pass by using microtransactions. In games that offer both free and paid-for battle passes, the free pass may have a very limited number of tiers or offer fewer or less-desirable rewards, but will track progress of the player's progression through the paid-for battle pass, allowing them to buy that battle pass at any time to reap the rewards.


title: Battle pass

text: Battle passes and the rewards contained are only available for a limited time, most commonly a few months, after which a new season battle pass with a new set of rewards are available to be acquired. Most battle pass items are unobtainable after the season ends. This limited availability feeds into the psychological phenomenon of fear of missing out or FOMO, that a player, knowing certain rewards will only be available for a limited time, will be driven to buy and complete the battle pass to assure they have obtained the limited rewards in time, bringing more revenue to the game. To this end, a battle pass's progression towards rewards has to be balanced against expected gameplay time and what gameplay elements contribute towards this to avoid making the progression feel like grinding. For example, "Halo Infinite" multiplayer debuted with a battle pass that was criticized for being too slow in progression, which developer 343 Industries stated they would observe and balance in the future.


title: Battle pass

text: The debut of "Overwatch 2" battle pass system, replacing the previous loot box system, was criticized by players as Blizzard Entertainment stated that new playable heroes would be available through the free tiers of the battle pass, though could be obtained earlier by paying for the premiere battle pass; Blizzard also confirmed that players that miss the free hero during one season would be able to obtain the hero by a free route in future seasons. This was in contrast to "Overwatch" where all players had access to new heroes for free once they were released. Players considered this change a pay to win approach by Blizzard as well as forcing players to grind to get access to new heroes.


title: Battle pass

text: Battle passes may be called different terms depending on the game. For example, "Rocket League" and "PlayerUnknown's Battlegrounds" offer a "Rocket Pass" and "Survivor Pass" respectively.


title: Battle pass

text: One of the first known examples of a battle pass concept was seen in Valve's "Dota 2" during an event that surrounded The International 2013, the annual e-sports tournament for the game. Called the "Compendium", it provided unique in-game content and other features for those players that purchased it, with 25% of all revenue made from it going towards the prize pool for the event. In 2016, Valve included the Compendium into the larger International Battle Pass, and later introduced a monthly form of one with their Dota Plus subscription feature in 2018. Valve also added "campaign passes" to "Team Fortress 2" with special events in 2015. The campaign pass gave the player that purchased it a number of goals to complete during the event to receive unique customization options.


title: Battle pass

text: The popularity of these passes grew significantly in 2018 with the use in Epic Games' "Fortnite Battle Royale". Its runaway success on a scale rarely seen before drew great interest towards its monetization methods. The free-to-play game adopted a "season"-driven release schedule, each season lasting about 10-20 weeks, during which a new set of cosmetic items and emotes were offered. The newly coined "Battle Pass" was added starting in its second season, during a time when the game was seeing a large growth in its player base and has been used by the game since. Battle passes are purchased through an in-game currency called V-Bucks, which either must be purchased with real-world funds via microtransactions, or earned via "", as well as through the battle pass itself"." Analyst Michael Pachter estimated that on the first day of the third season, in February 2018, Epic sold more than five million battle passes, generating over in revenue in a single day. With expansion of "Fortnite" to mobile devices in March 2018, revenue estimates from the game were in the hundreds of millions of dollars per month in the following months, primarily from battle pass sales.


title: Battle pass

text: At the same time as "Fortnite" was becoming a success, the video game industry had been dealing with the issue of loot boxes, another monetization scheme where players spend funds to open boxes containing a random assortment of in-game items. In the late 2010s, loot boxes faced scrutiny from several government-related groups, believing they encouraged gambling, particularly for young players. Battle passes were then seen as a preferable option to loot boxes, as players would be able to see all the rewards they could earn, even if they needed to spend a great deal of time completing all the tiers, assuring players continued to play the game. Further, by offering the means for players to buy into completing tiers, publishers could also see additional revenue.


title: Battle pass

text: Coupled with the success of "Fortnite" battle pass approach and exhaustion over loot box controversies, other publishers started to evaluate battle pass use, with gaming journalists theorizing that games which formerly relied on loot boxes or worked as a service could begin to offer battle passes as a replacement. An increasing number of mobile games including but not limited to "Call of Duty Mobile", "PUBG Mobile," "Clash Royale", "Clash of Clans", and "Brawl Stars" have started using the battle pass system in their games. Some games, such as "Super Animal Royale" and "Halo Infinite", use non-expiring battle passes, where old battle passes remain purchasable and usable even after their respective season ends, but only one pass may be enabled at a time. Deep Rock Galactic distributes items from seasonal passes into other cosmetic pools when the season concludes so that players are able to access cosmetics even after it has ended.


title: NAND logic

text: The NAND Boolean function has the property of functional completeness. This means that any Boolean expression can be re-expressed by an equivalent expression utilizing only NAND operations. For example, the function NOT(x) may be equivalently expressed as NAND(x,x). In the field of digital electronic circuits, this implies that it is possible to implement any Boolean function using just NAND gates.


title: NAND logic

text: The mathematical proof for this was published by Henry M. Sheffer in 1913 in the "Transactions of the American Mathematical Society" (Sheffer 1913). A similar case applies to the NOR function, and this is referred to as NOR logic.


title: NAND logic

text: In CMOS logic, if both of the A and B inputs are high, then both the NMOS transistors (bottom half of the diagram) will conduct, neither of the PMOS transistors (top half) will conduct, and a conductive path will be established between the output and Vss (ground), bringing the output low. If both of the A and B inputs are low, then neither of the NMOS transistors will conduct, while both of the PMOS transistors will conduct, establishing a conductive path between the output and Vdd (voltage source), bringing the output high. If either of the A or B inputs is low, one of the NMOS transistors will not conduct, one of the PMOS transistors will, and a conductive path will be established between the output and Vdd (voltage source), bringing the output high. As the only configuration of the two inputs that results in a low output is when both are high, this circuit implements a NAND (NOT AND) logic gate.


title: NAND logic

text: A NAND gate is a universal gate, meaning that any other gate can be represented as a combination of NAND gates.


title: NAND logic

text: A NOT gate is made by joining the inputs of a NAND gate together. Since a NAND gate is equivalent to an AND gate followed by a NOT gate, joining the inputs of a NAND gate leaves only the NOT gate.


title: NAND logic

text: If the truth table for a NAND gate is examined or by applying De Morgan's Laws, it can be seen that if any of the inputs are 0, then the output will be 1. To be an OR gate, however, the output must be 1 if any input is 1. Therefore, if the inputs are inverted, any high input will trigger a high output.


title: NAND logic

text: A NOR gate is an OR gate with an inverted output. Output is high when neither input A nor input B is high.


title: NAND logic

text: An XOR gate is made by connecting four NAND gates as shown below. This construction entails a propagation delay three times that of a single NAND gate.


title: NAND logic

text: Alternatively, an XOR gate is made by considering the disjunctive normal form formula_1, noting from de Morgan's Law that a NAND gate is an inverted-input OR gate. This construction uses five gates instead of four.


title: NAND logic

text: An XNOR gate is made by considering the disjunctive normal form formula_2, noting from de Morgan's Law that a NAND gate is an inverted-input OR gate. This construction entails a propagation delay three times that of a single NAND gate and uses five gates.


title: NAND logic

text: Alternatively, the 4-gate version of the XOR gate can be used with an inverter. This construction has a propagation delay four times (instead of three times) that of a single NAND gate.


title: NAND logic

text: A multiplexer or a MUX gate is a three-input gate that uses one of the inputs, called the "selector bit," to select one of the other two inputs, called "data bits", and outputs only the selected data bit.


title: NAND logic

text: A demultiplexer performs the opposite function of a multiplexer: It takes a single input and channels it to one of two possible outputs according to a selector bit that specifies which output to choose.


title: RIM-7 Sea Sparrow

text: RIM-7 Sea Sparrow is a U.S. ship-borne short-range anti-aircraft and anti-missile weapon system, primarily intended for defense against anti-ship missiles. The system was developed in the early 1960s from the AIM-7 Sparrow air-to-air missile as a lightweight "point-defense" weapon that could be retrofitted to existing ships as quickly as possible, often in place of existing gun-based anti-aircraft weapons. In this incarnation, it was a very simple system guided by a manually aimed radar illuminator.


title: RIM-7 Sea Sparrow

text: After its introduction, the system underwent significant development into an automated system similar to other US Navy missiles like the RIM-2 Terrier. Contemporary improvements being made to the Sparrow for the air-to-air role led to similar improvements in the Sea Sparrow through the 1970s and 80s. After that point the air-to-air role passed to the AIM-120 AMRAAM and the Sea Sparrow underwent a series of upgrades strictly for the naval role. It now resembles the AIM-7 only in general form; it is larger, faster and includes a new seeker and a launch system suitable for vertical launch from modern warships.


title: RIM-7 Sea Sparrow

text: Fifty years after its development, the Sea Sparrow remains an important part of a layered air defense system, providing a short/medium-range component especially useful against sea-skimming missiles.


title: RIM-7 Sea Sparrow

text: High-speed jet aircraft flying at low altitudes presented a serious threat to naval forces in the late 1950s. Approaching under the local horizon of the ships, the aircraft would suddenly appear at relatively close ranges, giving the ships only seconds to respond before the aircraft dropped their payloads and withdrew. This gave the aircraft an enormous advantage over earlier weapons such as dive bombers or torpedo bombers, whose low speed allowed them to be attacked with some effectiveness by anti-aircraft guns. The advantage was so great that when the Royal Navy was faced by the threat of the new Soviet , they responded in a non-linear fashion by introducing the Blackburn Buccaneer aircraft to attack them.


title: RIM-7 Sea Sparrow

text: Further improving the capabilities of aircraft against ships were a variety of precision-guided weapons. Early designs were first used in World War II with manually controlled weapons such as the Fritz X, and evolving into semi-autonomous cruise missiles, such as the Raduga KS-1 Komet, that relied on a combination of initial guidance from the launching aircraft and terminal guidance on the missile itself. These systems allowed the aircraft to launch their attacks from outside the range of shipboard anti-aircraft weapons, in relative safety. Only the presence of defensive fighters operating at long ranges from the ships could provide cover against these attacks, by attacking the launch aircraft before they could close on the ships.


title: RIM-7 Sea Sparrow

text: US Navy doctrine stressed long-range air cover to counter both high-speed aircraft and missiles, and development of newer short range defenses had been largely ignored. While the Navy was developing expensive long-range fighters like the Douglas F6D Missileer, most ships were left with older weapons, typically Bofors 40 mm guns or Oerlikon 20 mm cannons. By the early 1960s their capability against modern aircraft and missiles was limited; a lack of fast-reacting mounts, gunsight radars of limited accuracy, and long settling times for the fire control systems all meant that the guns were unlikely to be able to respond effectively against high-speed aircraft.


title: RIM-7 Sea Sparrow

text: The introduction of sea-skimming missiles dramatically increased the threat against these ships. Unlike the earlier generation of anti-ship missiles (ASMs), sea-skimmers approached at low level, like an attack aircraft, hiding themselves until the last moment. The missiles were relatively small and much harder to hit than an attacking aircraft. While the older defenses might be considered a credible threat to a large aircraft at low altitude or a missile approaching at higher altitudes, against a sea-skimming missile they were useless. To successfully counter this threat, ships needed new weapons able to attack these targets as soon as they appeared, accurately enough to give them a high first-attempt kill probability - there would be little time for a second attempt.


title: RIM-7 Sea Sparrow

text: The US Army faced a similar problem defending against attacks by high-speed jet-powered attack aircraft. In this case the local horizon was generally even more limited, blocked by trees and hills, and engagement times could be measured in seconds. They concluded that a gun-based system was simply unusable in this role; by the time the radar had locked-on and the gunsight calculated proper "lead" there would be no time to shoot at the target while it was within a gun's relatively short range. Missiles, on the other hand, could progressively tune their approach while they were flying toward the target, and their proximity fuses meant they only needed to get "close enough".


title: RIM-7 Sea Sparrow

text: In 1959 the Army started development of the MIM-46 Mauler, which mounted a new high-speed missile on top of the ubiquitous M113 Armored Personnel Carrier chassis, along with a medium-range search radar and a separate tracking and illumination radar. In order to deal with the quick response times needed, the fire control system was semi-automatic; operators would view targets on the search radar and prioritize them, the fire control system would select ones within attack range and automatically slew the missiles toward them and launch. Since the missile would be operating close to the ground in highly cluttered environments, it used a combination of beam riding along the illumination radar and an infrared seeker in the nose, which allowed tracking as long as either the path in front or in rear of the missile remained free of obstructions.


title: RIM-7 Sea Sparrow

text: These same basic engagement parameters - high-speed and the associated fleeting sighting times - applied to sea-skimming aircraft and missiles as well. The Navy intended to adapt the Mauler to shipboard use by removing its search radar and wiring it into the existing ship-borne radar systems instead. The 9-box launcher and illuminator radar would be retained in a relatively compact mount. Development started in 1960 under the "Point Defense Missile System" (PDMS), the naval version to be known as the "RIM-46A Sea Mauler". The Navy was so confident in the Sea Mauler that they modified the design of their latest frigates, the , to incorporate a space on the rear deck for the Sea Mauler launcher.


title: RIM-7 Sea Sparrow

text: The Navy's confidence in Mauler proved misplaced; by 1963 the program had been downgraded to a pure technology development effort due to continued problems, and was canceled outright in 1965. All three of the stakeholders, the US Army, US Navy and British Army, started looking for a replacement. While the British took a longer-term approach and developed the new Rapier missile, the US Army and Navy scrambled to find a system that could be deployed as quickly as possible. Facing the problem of guidance in a cluttered environment, the Army decided to adapt the infrared AIM-9 Sidewinder missile into the MIM-72 Chaparral. This was based on the AIM-9D, a tail-chaser, and would be useless for the Navy where its targets would be approaching head on. They required a radar-guided system, and this naturally led to the AIM-7 Sparrow. They also considered Chaparral for smaller ships due to its much smaller size, but no such fits were ever attempted.


title: RIM-7 Sea Sparrow

text: Quickly organizing the "Basic Point Defense Missile System", BPDMS, the then-current AIM-7E from the F-4 Phantom was adapted to shipboard use with surprising speed. The main developments were the new Mark 25 trainable launcher developed from the ASROC launcher, and the Mark 115 manually aimed radar illuminator that looked like two large searchlights. Operation was extremely simple; the operator would be cued to targets via voice commands from the search radar operators, and he then slewed the illuminator onto the target. The relatively wide beam of the radar only needed to be in the general direction of the target, the continuous wave signal being Doppler shifted by the moving target and showing up strongly even if it was not centered in the beam. The launcher would automatically follow the motions of the illuminator, so that when the missile was fired it would immediately see the signal being reflected off the target.


title: RIM-7 Sea Sparrow

text: In this form the Sea Sparrow was tested on the destroyer escort starting in February 1967, but this installation was removed when "Bradley" was sent to Vietnam later that year. Testing continued, and between 1971 and 1975 Sea Sparrow was fitted to 31 ships of the "Knox" class, hulls 1052 to 1069 and 1071 to 1083. The "missing ship" in the series, (DE-1070), was instead used to test an upgraded version (see below).


title: RIM-7 Sea Sparrow

text: The Sea Sparrow was far from an ideal weapon. Its rocket engine was designed with the assumption that it would be launched at high speed from an aircraft, and therefore is optimized for a long cruise at relatively low power. In the surface-to-air role one would rather have very high acceleration in order to allow it to intercept sea-skimming targets as soon as possible. The power profile is also suitable for cruising in thin air at high altitudes, but at low altitudes it does not produce enough power to overcome drag and dramatically decreases range; some estimates indicate that the Sea Sparrow may be effective only to , about one quarter of the range of the air-launched Sparrow. An engine of much higher power would greatly improve performance, in spite of a shorter burning time.


title: RIM-7 Sea Sparrow

text: Another problem is that the Sparrow is steered with its mid-mounted maneuvering wings. These were used on the Sparrow because they required less energy for basic maneuvers during cruise, but this made the missile less maneuverable overall, which was not well suited to the quick-reaction weapon. Additionally, the powered wings meant that they could not easily be adapted to fold, and therefore the launcher cells were sized to the wings instead of the missile body, taking up much more room than required. Although the Sea Sparrow was meant as a small missile system that could be fit to a wide variety of ships, the launcher was relatively large and was deployed only to larger frigates, destroyers and aircraft carriers. Finally, the manually aimed illuminator was of limited use at night or in bad weather, which was hardly encouraging for a ship-borne weapon where fog was a common occurrence.


title: RIM-7 Sea Sparrow

text: In 1968, Denmark, Italy, and Norway signed an agreement with the US Navy to use the Sea Sparrow on their ships, and collaborate on improved versions. Over the next few years a number of other countries joined the NATO SEASPARROW Project Office (NSPO), and today it includes 12 member nations. Under this umbrella group, the "Improved Basic Point Defense Missile System" (IBPDMS) program started even while the original version was being deployed.


title: RIM-7 Sea Sparrow

text: IBPDMS emerged as the RIM-7H, which was essentially the RIM-7A with the mid-mounted wings modified to be able to fold. This was done in a fashion similar to carrier-based aircraft; the wings were hinged at a point about 50% along the span, with the outer portions rotated back toward the body of the missile. This allowed them to be stored in tighter container tubes in the new Mark 29 launcher, and flip open automatically when they were released from the tube.


title: RIM-7 Sea Sparrow

text: The seeker was modified to work with a variety of guidance radars, including those being used with existing European missile systems. Production of the RIM-7H began in 1973 as NATO Sea Sparrow Missile System (NSSMS) Block I. For the US Navy's use the new Mark 95 illuminator system was also introduced, similar to the original Mark 115 but with automatic guidance that could be used in any weather. The Mark 95 formed the basis of the highly automated Mark 91 fire control system.


title: RIM-7 Sea Sparrow

text: In 1972 Raytheon started a Sparrow upgrade program to arm the upcoming F-15 Eagle, producing the AIM-7F. The F model replaced the older analog guidance system with a solid state version that could operate with the F-15's new pulse-doppler radar. The guidance system was much smaller, which allowed the warhead to be moved from its former rear-mounted position to one in front of the mid-mounted wings, and increased in weight to . Moving it forward also allowed the rocket engine to be enlarged, so it was replaced by a new dual-thrust engine that quickly accelerated the missile to higher speeds, and then settled to a lower thrust for cruise. The new missiles were quickly adapted for the naval role in a fashion similar to the RIM-7H, producing the RIM-7F. The new missile used the lower model designation in spite of the newer technology than the H model.


title: RIM-7 Sea Sparrow

text: Another major upgrade to the AIM-7 followed, the AIM-7M. The M included a new monopulse radar seeker that allowed it to be shot downward from a higher-altitude aircraft at a target otherwise masked by the ground. The new model also included a completely computerized guidance system that could be updated in the field, as well as further reducing weight for yet another warhead upgrade. The computerized guidance system also included a simple autopilot that allowed the missile to continue flying toward the last known target location even with the loss of a signal, allowing the launch platform to break lock for short periods while the missile was in flight. All of these modifications also improved performance against low-altitude sea-skimming targets as well. The M model entered US operational service in 1983.


title: RIM-7 Sea Sparrow

text: The original RIM-7E was capable to fly at about mach 2+, between , with a range of (depending on the target height). The RIM-7F enhanced the performances, but also the proximity fuse versus low flying targets, as the minimum altitude was reduced to or less. The RIM-7M was able to strike targets at an altitude of , providing some capability against sea-skimming missiles such the Exocet.


title: RIM-7 Sea Sparrow

text: While the M model was being worked on, the US Navy also introduced an upgrade for the Mark 91 fire control system, the "Mark 23 Target Acquisition System" (TAS). TAS included a medium-range 2D radar and IFF system that fed information to a new console in the ship's combat information center. The Mark 23 automatically detected, prioritized and displayed potential targets, greatly improving reaction times of the system as a whole. The Mark 23 is also used to select targets for most other weapons systems, including gunfire and other missile systems. TAS started entering the fleet in 1980.


title: RIM-7 Sea Sparrow

text: The NSPO also used the M series upgrade as an opportunity to upgrade the system to allow it to be launched from a Vertical Launching System (VLS). This modification uses the "Jet Vane Control" (JVC) package that is added to the bottom of the missile. On launch, a small engine in the JVC boosts the missile up above the launching ship, then uses vanes positioned in its own exhaust to quickly slew the missile into the proper alignment with the target, which is fed to the JVC during launch. As far as the Sea Sparrow is concerned, there is no difference between being launched directly from a trainable launcher or using JVC, in both cases the missile becomes active looking directly at the target.


title: RIM-7 Sea Sparrow

text: A final upgrade to the Sparrow was the AIM-7P, which replaced the M's guidance system with an improved model that allowed mid-course upgrades to be sent from the launching platform via new rear-mounted antennas. For air-to-air use this allowed the missile to be "lofted" above the target and then be directed down towards it as it approached; this gives the missile greater range as it spends more time in thinner high-altitude air. In naval use, this meant it could also be directly guided against small surface targets that would otherwise not show up well on radar, allowing the ship's more powerful search radars to provide guidance until the missile approached the target and the reflected signal grew stronger. This also gave the Sea Sparrow a very useful secondary anti-shipping role that allows it to attack smaller boats.


title: RIM-7 Sea Sparrow

text: Taiwan operates ground based Sea Sparrows as part of the Skyguard SHORAD system. Five hundred missiles entered service in 1991 and are deployed on trailers with four box launchers. In 2012 they were temporarily withdrawn from service following a pair of missile failures during testing as well as the failure of a related AIM-7 in the same exercises.


title: RIM-7 Sea Sparrow

text: Although the Navy and Air Force initially planned additional upgrades for the Sparrow, notably the AIM-7R with a combination radar/infrared seeker, these were canceled in favor of the much more advanced AIM-120 AMRAAM in December 1996. With the link between the airborne and shipborne versions of the Sparrow severed, Raytheon proposed a much more extensive set of upgrades to the Sea Sparrow, the RIM-7R Evolved Sea Sparrow Missile (ESSM). The changes were so extensive that the project was renamed, becoming the RIM-162 ESSM.


title: RIM-7 Sea Sparrow

text: The ESSM takes the existing guidance section from the RIM-7P and fits it to an entirely new rear-section. The new missile is in diameter instead of the previous 8 inches, which allows for a much more powerful motor. It also eliminates the mid-mounted wings entirely, replacing them with long fins similar to those on the Standard missile (and practically every other Navy missile since the 1950s) and moves guidance control to the rear fins. The tail-fin based steering of the ESSM uses up more energy but offers considerably higher maneuverability while the engine is still firing.


title: RIM-7 Sea Sparrow

text: The Mark 25 quad-missile pack was developed during the 1990s to fit four ESSMs into a single Mk 41 VLS cell. For VLS use, ESSMs are fitted with the same JVC system as the earlier versions.


title: Jarvis Island

text: Jarvis Island (; formerly known as Bunker Island or Bunker's Shoal) is an uninhabited coral island located in the South Pacific Ocean, about halfway between Hawaii and the Cook Islands. It is an unincorporated, unorganized territory of the United States, administered by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service of the United States Department of the Interior as part of the National Wildlife Refuge system. Unlike most coral atolls, the lagoon on Jarvis is wholly dry.


title: Jarvis Island

text: Jarvis is one of the Line Islands and for statistical purposes is also grouped as one of the United States Minor Outlying Islands. Jarvis Island is the largest of three U.S. equatorial possessions, which include Baker Island and Howland Island.


title: Jarvis Island

text: While a few offshore anchorage spots are marked on maps, Jarvis island has no ports or harbors, and swift currents are a hazard. There is a boat landing area in the middle of the western shoreline near a crumbling day beacon, and another near the southwest corner of the island. The center of Jarvis island is a dried lagoon where deep guano deposits accumulated, which were mined for about 20 years during the nineteenth century. The island has a tropical desert climate, with high daytime temperatures, constant wind, and strong sun. Nights, however, are quite cool. The ground is mostly sandy and reaches 23 feet (7 meters) at its highest point. The low-lying coral island has long been noted as hard to sight from small ships and is surrounded by a narrow fringing reef.


title: Jarvis Island

text: Jarvis Island is one of two United States territories that are in the southern hemisphere (the other is American Samoa). Located only south of the equator, Jarvis has no known natural freshwater lens and scant rainfall. This creates a very bleak, flat landscape without any plants larger than shrubs. There is no evidence that the island has ever supported a self-sustaining human population. Its sparse bunch grass, prostrate vines and low-growing shrubs are primarily a nesting, roosting, and foraging habitat for seabirds, shorebirds, and marine wildlife.


title: Jarvis Island

text: Jarvis Island was submerged underwater during the latest interglacial period, roughly 125,000 years ago, when sea levels were higher than today. As the sea level declined, the horseshoe-shaped lagoon was formed in the center of Jarvis Island.


title: Jarvis Island

text: Jarvis Island's highest point has a topographic isolation of , with Joe's Hill on Kiritimati being the nearest higher neighbor.


title: Jarvis Island

text: Jarvis Island is located in the Samoa Time Zone (UTC -11:00), the same time zone as American Samoa, Kingman Reef, Midway Atoll, and Palmyra Atoll.


title: Jarvis Island

text: Jarvis Island once held some of the largest seabird breeding colonies in the tropical ocean, but guano mining and the introduction of rodents have ruined much of the island's native wildlife. Just eight breeding species were recorded in 1982, compared to thirteen in 1996, and fourteen species in 2004. The Polynesian storm petrel had made its return after over 40 years absent from Jarvis Island, and the number of Brown noddies multiplied from just a few birds in 1982 to nearly 10,000. Just twelve Gray-backed terns were recorded in 1982, but by 2004, over 200 nests were found on there. The island, with its surrounding marine waters, has been recognized as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International because it supports colonies of lesser frigatebirds, brown and masked boobies, red-tailed tropicbirds, Polynesian storm petrels, blue noddies and sooty terns, as well as serving as a migratory stopover for bristle-thighed curlews.


title: Jarvis Island

text: Jarvis Island is unlikely to have hosted permanent human occupation prior to its use for guano mining. However, it is possible the island was utilized as a waypoint or stopover island by Polynesian voyagers. The remoteness of the island and a lack of freshwater resources have prevented large scale archaeological survey from taking place.


title: Jarvis Island

text: The island's first known sighting by the British on August 21, 1821, by the British ship "Eliza Francis" (or "Eliza Frances") owned by Edward, Thomas and William Jarvis and commanded by Captain Brown. The island was visited by whaling vessels till the 1870s.


title: Jarvis Island

text: The U.S. Exploring Expedition surveyed the island in 1841. In March 1857 the island was claimed for the United States under the Guano Islands Act and formally annexed on February 27, 1858.


title: Jarvis Island

text: The American Guano Company, which was incorporated in 1857, established claims in respect of Baker Island and Jarvis Island which was recognized under the U.S. Guano Islands Act of 1856. Beginning in 1858, several support structures were built on Jarvis Island, along with a two-story, eight-room "superintendent's house" featuring an observation cupola and wide verandahs. Tram tracks were laid down for bringing mined guano to the western shore. One of the first loads was taken by Samuel Gardner Wilder.


title: Jarvis Island

text: Laborers for the mining operations came from around the Pacific, including from Hawaii; the Hawaiian laborers named Baker Island "", meaning 'out of breath' or 'exhausted', which is indicative of their working conditions.


title: Jarvis Island

text: For the following 21 years, Jarvis was commercially mined for guano, sent to the United States as fertilizer, but the island was abruptly abandoned in 1879, leaving behind about a dozen buildings and of mined guano.


title: Jarvis Island

text: New Zealand entrepreneurs, including photographer Henry Winkelmann, then made unsuccessful attempts to continue guano extraction on Jarvis, and the two-storey house was sporadically inhabited during the early 1880s. Squire Flockton was left alone on the island as caretaker for several months and committed suicide there in 1883, apparently from gin-fueled despair. His wooden grave marker was a carved plank which could be seen in the island's tiny four-grave cemetery for decades.


title: Jarvis Island

text: John T. Arundel & Co. resumed mining guano from 1886 to 1899. The United Kingdom annexed the island on June 3, 1889. Phosphate and copra entrepreneur John T. Arundel visited the island in 1909 on maiden voyage of the "S.S. Ocean Queen" and near the beach landing on the western shore members of the crew built a pyramidal day beacon made from slats of wood, which was painted white. The beacon was standing in 1935, and remained until at least 1942.


title: Jarvis Island

text: On August 30, 1913, the barquentine "Amaranth" (C. W. Nielson, captain) was carrying a cargo of coal from Newcastle, New South Wales, to San Francisco when it wrecked on Jarvis' southern shore. Ruins of ten wooden guano-mining buildings, the two-story house among them, could still be seen by the "Amaranth" crew, who left Jarvis aboard two lifeboats. One reached Pago Pago, American Samoa, and the other made Apia in Western Samoa. The ship's scattered remains were noted and scavenged for many years, and rounded fragments of coal from the "Amaranth"'s hold were still being found on the south beach in the late 1930s.


title: Jarvis Island

text: Jarvis Island was reclaimed by the United States government and colonized from March 26, 1935, onwards, under the American Equatorial Islands Colonization Project. President Franklin D. Roosevelt assigned administration of the island to the U.S. Department of the Interior on May 13, 1936. Starting out as a cluster of large, open tents pitched next to the still-standing white wooden day beacon, the Millersville settlement on the island's western shore was named after a bureaucrat with the United States Department of Air Commerce. The settlement grew into a group of shacks built mostly with wreckage from the "Amaranth" (lumber from which was also used by the young Hawaiian colonists to build surfboards), but later, stone and wood dwellings were built and equipped with refrigeration, radio equipment, and a weather station. A crude aircraft landing area was cleared on the northeast side of the island, and a T-shaped marker which was intended to be seen from the air was made from gathered stones, but no airplane is known to have ever landed there. According to the 1940 U.S. Census, Jarvis Island had a population of three people.


title: Jarvis Island

text: At the beginning of World War II, an Imperial Japanese Navy submarine surfaced off the west coast of the island. Believing that it was a U.S. Navy submarine which had come to fetch them, the four young colonists rushed down the steep western beach in front of Millersville towards the shore. The submarine answered their waves with fire from its deck gun, but no one was hurt in the attack. On February 7, 1942, the USCGC "Taney" evacuated the colonists, then shelled and burned the dwellings. The roughly cleared landing area on the island's northeast end was later shelled by the Japanese, leaving crater holes.


title: Jarvis Island

text: Jarvis was visited by scientists during the International Geophysical Year from July 1957 until November 1958. In January 1958 all scattered building ruins from both the nineteenth century guano diggings and the 1935–1942 colonization attempt were swept away without a trace by a severe storm which lasted several days and was witnessed by the scientists. When the IGY research project ended the island was abandoned again. By the early 1960s a few sheds, a century of accumulated trash, the scientists' house from the late 1950s and a solid, short lighthouse-like day beacon built two decades before were the only signs of human habitation on Jarvis.


title: Jarvis Island

text: On June 27, 1974, Secretary of the Interior Rogers Morton created Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge which was expanded in 2009 to add submerged lands within of the island. The refuge now includes of land and of water. Along with six other islands, the island was administered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service as part of the Pacific Remote Islands National Wildlife Refuge Complex. In January 2009, that entity was upgraded to the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument by President George W. Bush.


title: Jarvis Island

text: A feral cat population, descendants of cats likely brought by colonists in the 1930s, wrought disruption to the island's wildlife and vegetation. These cats were removed through efforts which began in the mid-1960s and lasted until 1990 when they were completely eradicated. Since cats were removed, seabird numbers and diversity have increased.


title: Jarvis Island

text: Nineteenth-century tram track remains can be seen in the dried lagoon bed at the island's center and the late 1930s-era lighthouse-shaped day beacon still stands on the western shore at the site of Millersville.


title: Jarvis Island

text: Public entry to anyone, including U.S. citizens, on Jarvis Island requires a special-use permit and is generally restricted to scientists and educators. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the United States Coast Guard periodically visit Jarvis.


title: Jarvis Island

text: There is no airport on the island, nor does the island contain any large terminal or port. There is a day beacon near the middle of the west coast. Some offshore anchorage is available.


title: Jarvis Island

text: As a U.S. territory, the defense of Jarvis Island is the responsibility of the United States. All laws of the United States are applicable on the island.


title: Porsche 912

text: The Porsche 912 is a sports car produced by Porsche AG of Stuttgart, Germany, for the 1965 through 1969 model years. An entry-level variant of the 911, it was also offered in compact 2+2 Coupé and Targa body styles. The nimble-handling 912 was a fitted with a 1.6-liter air cooled 4-cylinder flat-4 from the last of the 356s, slightly detuned to 102 SAE horsepower at 5800 rpm. The 912's high-efficiency boxer engine, low drag, and low weight allow it to get up to . Priced at $4,700, more than 32,000 912s were built from April 1965 to July 1969. Sales of the 912 initially outpaced the 911 (introduced in 1964), boosting the manufacturer's total production until success of the 911 was assured.


title: Porsche 912

text: The 4-cylinder 914 superseded the 912 for the 1970 through 1975 model years. In 1976, The 912 enjoyed a one-year revival with the U.S.-only 912E powered by the 914-derived 2.0-liter VW "Type 4" with Bosch L-Jetronic fuel injection delivering 90 SAE horsepower at 4900 rpm. Just 2,092 912E Coupés were built from May 1975 to July 1976.


title: Porsche 912

text: In the early 1960s, Porsche was planning to discontinue the Type 356, which would leave them with the newly introduced Type 911 as their only product. Concerned that the considerable price increase of a 911 with flat opposed six-cylinder powerplant over the 356 would cost the company sales and narrow brand appeal, in 1963 Porsche executives decided to introduce a new four-cylinder entry-level model. Like the 911 (original internal factory designation "901"), the four-cylinder 912 was originally known at Zuffenhausen by a number with a zero in the middle, but the "902" designation was never used publicly. ("912" as project number was used after 1968 to indicate the 12 cylinder flat opposed engine developed for Porsche 917 racing car)


title: Porsche 912

text: In 1963, Porsche assigned Dan Schwartz, later Chief Departmental Manager for Development, Mechanics, a project to oversee design and construction of a new horizontally-opposed four-cylinder engine for the 902, utilizing components from the new 901 six-cylinder engine, that would produce higher performance than their 356SC engine, and be less costly and complex than their Carrera 2 engine. Another option explored by Claus von Rücker was to increase displacement of the 356 Type 616 engine to 1.8-liters, add Kugelfischer fuel injection, and modify both valve and cooling systems. Considering performance, cost, and scheduling, Porsche discontinued both of these design projects, and instead developed a third option, to tailor the 1.6-liter Type 616 engine to the 902.


title: Porsche 912

text: Before 911 production commenced in 1964, the Porsche Vehicle Research Department had set aside chassis numbers 13328, 13329, 13330, 13352, and 13386 through 13397 for research testing of the 902; research vehicle Serial Number 13394 is the oldest 902 known to exist today. In production form, the Type 912 combined a 911 chassis / bodyshell with the 1.6L, four-cylinder, push-rod Type 616/36 engine, based upon the Type 616/16 engine used in the Type 356SC of 1964–1965. With a lower compression ratio and new Solex carburetors, the Type 616/36 engine produced five less horsepower than the 616/16, but delivered about the same maximum torque at 3,500 rpm versus 4,200 rpm for the 616/16. Compared to the 911, the resulting production Type 912 vehicle demonstrated superior weight distribution, handling, and range. To bring 912 pricing close to the 356, Porsche also removed some features standard on the 911. As production of the 356 concluded in 1965, on April 5, 1965, Porsche officially began production of the 912 coupé. Styling, performance, quality construction, reliability, and price made the 912 a very attractive buy to both new and old customers, and it substantially outsold the 911 during the first few years of production. Porsche produced nearly 30,000 912 coupé units and about 2500 912 Targa body style units (Porsche's patented variation of a cabriolet) during a five-year manufacturing run.


title: Porsche 912

text: Production of the Targa, complete with removable roof and heavy transparent plastic rear windows openable with a zipper (later called 'Version I' by Porsche and the 'soft-window Targa' by enthusiasts), commenced in December 1966 as a 1967 model.


title: Porsche 912

text: In January 1968, Porsche also made available a Targa 'Version II' option ('hard window Targa') with fixed glass rear window, transforming the Targa into a coupé with removable roof.