title: Khoja

text: The term "Khoja" derives from "Khwāja" (New Persian "Khājé"), a Persian honorific title (خواجه) of pious individuals used in Turco-Persian influenced regions of the Muslim world.


title: Khoja

text: The specific term "Khoja" in the Gujarati and Sindhi languages, was first bestowed by the Persianate Nizari Isma'ili Sadardin (died c. 15th century) upon his followers during the lifetime of the "Nizari Ismaili Imam Islam Shah" (1368-1423 CE). As such, Pir Shihab al-din Shah, brother of one of the Nizari Ismaili imams, wrote regarding the origins of the Khojas that the very formation of the community came about through Pir Sadardin's devotion to the Imam.


title: Khoja

text: Many Lohana Rajputs of Gujarat converted to Nizari Ismailism due to the efforts of Pir Sadardin. They gradually used the title "Khoja." Before the arrival of the Aga Khan from Persia to British ruled India in the 19th century, Khojas retained many Hindu traditions, including a variation on the belief in the Dashavatara.


title: Khoja

text: The Khoja converted from Hinduism to Islam under the influence of pirs. Derived from the Persian khwaja, a term of honour, the word Khoja refers to these Lohana Rajput converts to Nizari Ismaili Islam in medieval India (from about the 13th century onward).


title: Khoja

text: More particularly, it included certain groups such as Charans, predominantly from Gujarat and Kutch, who retained strong Indian ethnic roots and caste customs while sustaining their Muslim religious identity.


title: Khoja

text: In the 19th century, the Ismaili Imamat (office of the Imam) became established in India and a programme of consolidation and reorganisation of the community and its institutions began. These changes led to differences of opinion among Khojas. While the majority of Khojas remained Ismaili, one group became Ithna‘ ashari and a smaller group adopted Sunnism.


title: Khoja

text: In the context of the overall policy of the Ismaili imam of the time, Aga Khan III, of consolidating the Shi‘a Ismaili identity of his followers, the ethnic connotation of being “Khoja” became diluted over time and a wider sense of self-identification as Ismaili Muslims began to emerge. With the increasing recognition of the diversity of the worldwide Ismaili community itself and the positive value of the pluralist heritage represented within each of the traditions, the Khojas now regard themselves as an integral part of the larger Nizari Ismaili community, to whose development they make a strong contribution.


title: Khoja

text: The Khoja Ithna‘ ashari, while seeking to develop relationships with the larger Twelver Shi‘a community, retain their own organisational framework.


title: Khoja

text: The Khojas live today in East Africa, India, Pakistan, Europe, and North America, and show a strong commitment to the values of Muslim philanthropy in their business entrepreneurship and contribution to societies in which they live. From the 18th century, some of the Khojas have migrated to the Persian Gulf region, mainly in the Sultanate of Oman and U.A.E, known as Al-Lawatia.


title: Khoja

text: Originally Nizari Isma'ili, after the 1866 Aga Khan Case that consolidated the bulk of the Bombay Khoja community under the leadership of the Aga Khan. The Khojas credit their title to Pir Sadr al-Din who allegedly laid the foundations for the Nizari Ismaili community in India, even before the Anjudan phase of the history of Nizari Ismailism.


title: Khoja

text: Khojas who follow Twelver Shia Islam and have large communities in Pakistan, India, East Africa, North America and the United Kingdom.


title: Khoja

text: Moulvi Ali Baksh who had settled in Mumbai in the mid-late 1800s was a prominent Moulvi with great respect in Ithna'ashari Khoja community. It is said that then the Shias were organised into a distinct community by Moulvi Ali Baksh himself. (Excerpts as translated from the book Greatness Bygone authored by Ziauddin Ahmed Barni Published by Taleemi Markaz Karachi on 30 July 1961, Page: 342 written on one of 93 great personalities Ali Mohammed Moulvi. The author had not met only 2 of the 93 personalities noted in his book).


title: Khoja

text: Twelver Khojas are said to have broken away from the Isma'ili Khojas due to their determination to defend their remembrance practices against Aga Khan's efforts to ban them, in order to elevate his personal status as the reincarnation of Isma'il ibn Ja'far, the seventh Imām of the Isma'ilis.


title: Khoja

text: Some Khojas follow Sunni Islam. Khoja's relating to Sunni sect of Islam are also called as sheikh, especially in west Punjab now in Pakistan. In fact, Ismaili preachers have been spreading their beliefs among the local communities, in Punjab's Arora, Bhatia, Khatri and Lohana communities.


title: Khoja

text: For hundreds of years, people from South asia sailed down the coast of East Africa in their sail ships during the North Eastern monsoons. There were young Khojas amongst these early sailors and some of them stayed behind in East Africa and took advantage of opportunities in commerce and trade.


title: Khoja

text: While the new land offered limitless opportunities to the Khojas, the new environment and prevailing influences called for a reorientation.


title: Khoja

text: The Khojas around the 1870s primarily followed Nizari Ismailism. However, a minority rejected the changes of modernity under the guidance of the Imam of that era and revolted. While some were barred from the Jama'at Khana, the Nizari Ismaili place of worship, others abandoned it willingly. Many of these adopted the larger Ithna'ashari branch of Shi'a Islam and were aided by scholars from Iran, hence the origination of an Agha (Persian) community in Zanzibar. Alongside were the Bahranis, Arab Twelver Shi'a from Bahrain, whose inspirations emanated from Kalbe Aly Khan, a minister to Sultan Majid/Bargash. He proved a great influence and helped a minority of Khojas to secede.


title: Khoja

text: Zanzibar had a prosperous Khoja community that enthusiastically embraced this secession. In fact, the Kuwwat Jamaat of Zanzibar became the first-ever Khoja Twelver Shi'a community (jamaat) in the world in 1882 when the Khojas elsewhere including South Asia were still facing opposition to establish their separate identity. There were stirring events and emotions were roused as the dissidents fervently built up their mosque. Initially, the connection between the two Khoja groups persisted for a while and even a couple of "dhegs" (large pots) used to be dispatched to the Jama'at Khana from the mosque during "jaman" (feast). Social traditions also prompted the two counterparts to meet each other. Later, partly at the behest of the Nizari Ismaili Imam, restrictions became severe and even family members separated disconnecting ties between each other or the two met in hiding at a secret place.


title: Khoja

text: Kenya also slowly developed a large Shia community, aided by the work of scholars such as Khwaja Muhammad Latif Ansari.


title: Dick Miller

text: Richard Miller (December 25, 1928 – January 30, 2019) was an American character actor who appeared in more than 180 films, including many produced by Roger Corman. He later appeared in the films of directors who began their careers with Corman, including Joe Dante, James Cameron, and Martin Scorsese, with the distinction of appearing in every film directed by Dante. He was known for playing the beleaguered everyman, often in one-scene appearances.


title: Dick Miller

text: Miller's main roles in films included "Gremlins", "", "Explorers", "Piranha", "The Howling", "A Bucket of Blood", "The Little Shop of Horrors", "Not of This Earth", "Chopping Mall", "Night of the Creeps", "The Terminator", "The 'Burbs", "Small Soldiers" and "Quake".


title: Dick Miller

text: Miller was born on Christmas Day, 1928, in The Bronx, New York, the son of Russian Jewish immigrants, Rita (Blucher), an opera singer, and Ira Miller, a printer. He served a tour of duty in the United States Navy. Miller attended the City College of New York, Columbia University, and New York University, eventually attaining a PhD in psychology. He was a writer before turning to acting.


title: Dick Miller

text: Miller performed on Broadway and also worked at the Bellevue Hospital Mental Hygiene Clinic and the psychiatric department of Queens General Hospital. In 1952, he moved to California seeking work as a writer. One of his earliest acting roles was in "Apache Woman" (1955). He played one of the townspeople and also a separate role as an Indian. In an action scene his townsperson character shoots his Indian character, as related in the documentary "Corman's World".


title: Dick Miller

text: His movie roles include "White Line Fever", "The Terminator", "All The Right Moves", "Night of the Creeps", "Small Soldiers", "It Conquered the World", "A Bucket of Blood", "The Little Shop of Horrors", the "Tales from the Crypt" movie "Demon Knight", "Amazon Women on the Moon", "Chopping Mall", "The Howling", "Piranha" and "I Wanna Hold Your Hand". His best known role was in the movies "Gremlins" and "" as Murray Futterman. He appeared in "Pulp Fiction" as Monster Joe, but his scene and a few others were deleted because of the film's length. He also appeared in Rod Stewart's video for the song "Infatuation" in 1984, with Mike Mazurki and Kay Lenz.


title: Dick Miller

text: His television credits include as a Townsman on the 1963 TV Western "Gunsmoke" (S9E8's "Carter Caper"), in "Combat!", as a young soldier in the 5th-season episode "The Outsider"; "Police Squad!" (a 1980s crime spoof series with Leslie Nielsen); "V: The Final Battle" as Dan Pascal; three seasons as the generous bartender Lou Mackie on "Fame"; "", in the season 1 episode "The Big Goodbye", as the newspaper stand man in the holodeck; "", in the season 3 two-part episode "Past Tense", as Vin; "Time of Your Life"; as a prison guard in "Soap" (1979); and as the voice of the gangster Chuckie Sol in the animated feature film "". He also directed television shows, including "The Fix", a 1986 episode of the series "Miami Vice".


title: Dick Miller

text: In 2000, Miller was featured alongside former collaborators including Roger Corman, Sam Arkoff and Peter Bogdanovich in the documentary "SCHLOCK! The Secret History of American Movies", a film about the rise and fall of American exploitation cinema. In 2014 he appeared in a documentary of his life, "That Guy Dick Miller". He is also credited for appearing in a Sega CD video game, "Prize Fighter," as corner man for the main character.


title: Dick Miller

text: Miller portrayed several fictional characters named Walter Paisley. As he noted, "I've played Walter Paisley five times now, I think." By 2011, the character name had actually appeared seven times on film and once in a theatrical production, with Miller providing six of these portrayals. The name first appeared in the Roger Corman film "A Bucket of Blood". In that film, Paisley is a busboy who becomes an artist of sorts by killing his subjects and covering them in clay. In 1976, Miller again played a character named Walter Paisley—this time a talent agent—in another Corman production, "Hollywood Boulevard", directed by Allan Arkush and Joe Dante.


title: Dick Miller

text: Dante cast Miller as another character named Walter Paisley in the 1981 film "The Howling". This time, Paisley is the owner of an occult bookshop. Two years later, the name appeared again for another Miller character, the owner of a diner in the third segment of "." 1986's "Chopping Mall" featured a janitor named Walter Paisley, and the 1994 made-for-TV remake of "Shake, Rattle and Rock!" had Miller playing a character named Officer Paisley. Officer Paisley also appeared in "Night of the Creeps". Miller played a variation on the role one last time in his final posthumously released film "Hanukkah". Two other actors have portrayed the "A Bucket of Blood" character: Anthony Michael Hall in the 1995 television remake; and James Stanton in a musical produced by Chicago's Annoyance Theatre.


title: Dick Miller

text: Miller married Lainie (Sheila Elaine Halpern) on October 6, 1967, and they had one child together, Barbara. Miller died of a heart attack on January 30, 2019, just over a month after his 90th birthday, while being treated for pneumonia in Toluca Lake, Los Angeles.


title: Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk

text: Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk (144321 May 1524), styled Earl of Surrey from 1483 to 1485 and again from 1489 to 1514, was an English nobleman, soldier and statesman who served four monarchs. He was the eldest son of John Howard, 1st Duke of Norfolk, by his first wife, Catharina de Moleyns. The Duke was the grandfather of both Queen Anne Boleyn and Queen Catherine Howard and the great-grandfather of Queen Elizabeth I. In 1513 he led the English to victory over the Scots at the decisive Battle of Flodden, for which he was richly rewarded by King Henry VIII, then away in France.


title: Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk

text: Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk, was born in 1443 at Stoke-by-Nayland, Suffolk, the only surviving son of John Howard, 1st Duke of Norfolk, by his first wife, Katherine, the daughter of Sir William Moleyns (died 8 June 1425) and his wife Margery. He was educated at Thetford Grammar School.


title: Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk

text: While a young man, he entered the service of King Edward IV as a henchman. Howard took the King's side when war broke out in 1469 with the Earl of Warwick, and took sanctuary at Colchester when the King fled to Holland in 1470. Howard rejoined the royal forces at Edward's return to England in 1471, and was severely wounded at the Battle of Barnet on 14 April 1471. He was appointed an esquire of the body in 1473. On 14 January 1478 he was knighted by Edward IV at the marriage of the King's second son, the young Duke of York, and Lady Anne Mowbray (died 1481).


title: Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk

text: After the death of Edward IV on 9 April 1483, Thomas Howard and his father John supported Richard III. Thomas bore the Sword of State at Richard's coronation and served as steward at the coronation banquet. Both Thomas and his father were granted lands by the new King, and Thomas was also granted an annuity of £1000. On 28 June 1483, John Howard was created Duke of Norfolk, while Thomas was created Earl of Surrey. Surrey was also sworn of the Privy Council and invested with the Order of the Garter. In the autumn of that year Norfolk and Surrey suppressed a rebellion against the King by the Duke of Buckingham. Both Howards remained close to King Richard throughout his two-year reign, and fought for him at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485, where Surrey was wounded and taken prisoner, and his father killed. Surrey was attainted in the first Parliament of the new King, Henry VII, stripped of his lands, and committed to the Tower of London, where he spent the next three years.


title: Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk

text: Howard was offered an opportunity to escape during the rebellion of the Earl of Lincoln in 1487, but refused, perhaps thereby convincing Henry VII of his loyalty. In May 1489 Henry restored him to the earldom of Surrey, although most of his lands were withheld, and sent him to quell a rebellion in Yorkshire. Surrey remained in the north as the King's lieutenant until 1499. He and his family lived in Sheriff Hutton Castle while in North. In 1499 he was recalled to court, and accompanied the King on a state visit to France in the following year. In 1501 he was again appointed a member of the Privy Council, and on 16 June of that year was made Lord High Treasurer. Surrey, Richard Foxe (Bishop of Winchester and Lord Privy Seal) and William Warham (Archbishop of Canterbury and Lord Chancellor), became the King's "executive triumvirate". He was entrusted with a number of diplomatic missions. In 1501 he was involved in the negotiations for Catherine of Aragon's marriage to Arthur, Prince of Wales, and in 1503 conducted Margaret Tudor to Scotland for her wedding to King James IV.


title: Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk

text: Surrey was an executor of the will of King Henry VII when the King died on 21 April 1509, and played a prominent role in the coronation of King Henry VIII, in which he served as Earl Marshal. He challenged Thomas Wolsey in an effort to become the new King's first minister, but eventually accepted Wolsey's supremacy. Surrey expected to lead the 1513 expedition to France, but was left behind when the King departed for Calais on 30 June 1513. Shortly thereafter King James IV of Scotland launched an invasion into England, and Surrey, with the aid of other noblemen and his sons Thomas and Edmund, crushed James's much larger force at the Battle of Flodden, near Branxton, Northumberland, on 9 September 1513. The Scots may have lost as many as 10,000 men, and King James was killed. The victory at Flodden brought Surrey great popular renown and royal rewards. On 1 February 1514, he was created Duke of Norfolk, and his son Thomas was made Earl of Surrey. Both were granted lands and annuities, and the Howard arms were augmented in honour of Flodden with an inescutcheon bearing the lion of Scotland pierced through the mouth with an arrow, within a "double tressure flory-counterflory-gules", an emblem of the Scottish royal arms on rare occasion granted by Scottish kings to a favoured follower as a special mark of favour. The grant by Henry VIII to Howard was thus a blatant heraldic insult to the kings of Scotland.


title: Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk

text: In the final decade of his life, Norfolk continued his career as a courtier, diplomat and soldier. In 1514 he joined Wolsey and Foxe in negotiating the marriage of Mary Tudor to King Louis XII of France, and escorted her to France for the wedding. On 1 May 1517, he led a private army of 1,300 retainers into London to suppress the Evil May Day riots. In May 1521 he presided as Lord High Steward over the trial of Edward Stafford, 3rd Duke of Buckingham. According to David M. Head, "he pronounced the sentence of death with tears streaming down his face".


title: Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk

text: By the spring of 1522, Norfolk was almost 80 years of age and in failing health. He withdrew from court, resigned as Lord Treasurer in favour of his son in December of that year, and after attending the opening of Parliament in April 1523, retired to his ducal castle at Framlingham in Suffolk where he died on 21 May 1524. His funeral and burial on 22 June at Thetford Priory were said to have been "spectacular and enormously expensive, costing over £1300 and including a procession of 400 hooded men bearing torches and an elaborate bier surmounted with 100 wax effigies and 700 candles", befitting the richest and most powerful peer in England. After the dissolution of Thetford Priory, the Howard tombs were moved to the Church of St Michael the Archangel, Framlingham. A now-lost monumental brass depicting the 2nd Duke was formerly in the Church of St. Mary at Lambeth.


title: Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk

text: On 30 April 1472, Howard married Elizabeth Tilney, the daughter of Sir Frederick Tilney of Ashwellthorpe, Norfolk, and widow of Sir Humphrey Bourchier, slain at Barnet, son and heir apparent of Sir John Bourchier, 1st Baron Berners. They had issue:


title: Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk

text: Norfolk's first wife died on 4 April 1497, and on 8 November 1497 he married, by dispensation dated 17 August 1497, her cousin, Agnes Tilney, the daughter of Hugh Tilney of Skirbeck and Boston, Lincolnshire and Eleanor, a daughter of Walter Tailboys. They had issue:


title: Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk

text: Note: Thomas Howard indeed had two living daughters named Elizabeth Howard and two living sons named Thomas Howard. It is unclear if he had two sons named Richard as well or if it was the same person. In the Dukes of Norfolk family tree, there is clearly a mistake. Richard Howard is there linked to Agnes Tilney (2nd wife of Thomas Howard), yet is said to born in 1487, which is impossible to be true, as at the time Thomas Howard was married to Elizabeth Tilney.


title: Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk

text: Tucker, Melvin J., "The Life of Thomas Howard, earl of Surrey and second Duke of Norfolk (1964), 170pp' out of print but the only serious biography


title: Perovskite

text: Perovskite (pronunciation: ) is a calcium titanium oxide mineral composed of calcium titanate (chemical formula ). Its name is also applied to the class of compounds which have the same type of crystal structure as (ABX), known as the perovskite structure. Many different cations can be embedded in this structure, allowing the development of diverse engineered materials.


title: Perovskite

text: The mineral was discovered in the Ural Mountains of Russia by Gustav Rose in 1839 and is named after Russian mineralogist Lev Perovski (1792–1856). Perovskite's notable crystal structure was first described by Victor Goldschmidt in 1926 in his work on tolerance factors. The crystal structure was later published in 1945 from X-ray diffraction data on barium titanate by Helen Dick Megaw.


title: Perovskite

text: Found in the Earth's mantle, perovskite's occurrence at Khibina Massif is restricted to the silica under-saturated ultramafic rocks and foidolites, due to the instability in a paragenesis with feldspar. Perovskite occurs as small anhedral to subhedral crystals filling interstices between the rock-forming silicates.


title: Perovskite

text: Perovskite is found in contact carbonate skarns at Magnet Cove, Arkansas, in altered blocks of limestone ejected from Mount Vesuvius, in chlorite and talc schist in the Urals and Switzerland, and as an accessory mineral in alkaline and mafic igneous rocks, nepheline syenite, melilitite, kimberlites and rare carbonatites. Perovskite is a common mineral in the Ca-Al-rich inclusions found in some chondritic meteorites.


title: Perovskite

text: The stability of perovskite in igneous rocks is limited by its reaction relation with sphene. In volcanic rocks perovskite and sphene are not found together, the only exception being an etindite from Cameroon.


title: Perovskite

text: A rare-earth-bearing variety "knopite" with the chemical formula is found in alkali intrusive rocks in the Kola Peninsula and near Alnö, Sweden. A niobium-bearing variety "dysanalyte" occurs in carbonatite near Schelingen, Kaiserstuhl, Germany.


title: Perovskite

text: In stars and brown dwarfs the formation of perovskite grains is responsible for the depletion of titanium oxide in the photosphere. Stars with a low temperature have dominant bands of TiO in their spectrum; as the temperature gets lower for stars and brown dwarfs with an even lower mass, CaTiO forms and at temperatures below 2000 K TiO is undetectable. The presence of TiO is used to define the transition between cool M-dwarf stars and the colder L-dwarfs.


title: Perovskite

text: The eponymous Perovskite crystallizes in the formula_1 space group (No. 62) with lattice constants formula_2 Å, formula_3 Å and formula_4 Å.


title: Perovskite

text: Perovskites have a nearly cubic structure with the general formula . In this structure the A-site ion, in the center of the lattice, is usually an alkaline earth or rare-earth element. B-site ions, on the corners of the lattice, are 3d, 4d, and 5d transition metal elements. The A-site cations are in 12-fold coordination with the anions, while the B-site cations are in 6-fold coordination. A large number of metallic elements are stable in the perovskite structure if the Goldschmidt tolerance factor formula_5 is in the range of 0.75–1.0


title: Perovskite

text: where "R", "R" and "R" are the ionic radii of "A" and "B" site elements and oxygen, respectively. The stability of perovskites can be characterized with the tolerance and octahedral factors. When conditions are not fulfilled, a layered geometry for edge-sharing or face-sharing octahedra or lower B-site coordination is preferred. These are good structural bounds, but not an empirical prediction.


title: Perovskite

text: Perovskites have sub-metallic to metallic luster, colorless streak, and cube-like structure along with imperfect cleavage and brittle tenacity. Colors include black, brown, gray, orange to yellow. Perovskite crystals may appear to have the cubic crystal form, but are often "pseudocubic" and actually crystallize in the orthorhombic system, as is the case for (Strontium titanate, with the larger strontium cation in the A-site, is cubic). Perovskite crystals have been mistaken for galena; however, galena has a better metallic luster, greater density, perfect cleavage and true cubic symmetry.


title: Perovskite

text: A double perovskite has a formula of and replaces half the B sites with B’, where A are alkaline or rare earth metals and B are transition metals. The cation arrangement will differ based on charge, coordination geometry, and the ratio between A cation and B cation radii. The B and B’ cations lead to different ordering schemes. These ordering schemes are rock salt, columnar, and layered structures.


title: Perovskite

text: Rock salt is an alternating, three-dimensional checkerboard of B and B’ polyhedra. This structure is the most common from an electrostatic point of view, as the B sites will have different valence states. Columnar arrangement can be viewed as sheets of B-cation polyhedral viewed from the [111] direction. Layered structures are seen as sheets of B’ and B polyhedra.


title: Perovskite

text: 3D perovskites form when there is a smaller cation in the A site so BX octahedra can be corner shared. 2D perovskites form when the A-site cation is larger so octahedra sheets are formed. In 1D perovskites, a chain of octahedra is formed


title: Perovskite

text: while in 0D perovskites, individual octahedra are separated from each other. Both 1D and 0D perovskites lead to quantum confinement and are investigated for lead-free perovskite solar cell materials.


title: Cariad Lloyd

text: Katie Cariad Lloyd (born 21 August 1982) is a British comedian, actress, writer, and podcaster who has been performing since 2007. She is a member of the improvisational comedy group Austentatious, the host and creator of "Griefcast", and an improv teacher.


title: Cariad Lloyd

text: Lloyd was nominated in 2011 for Best Newcomer at the Fosters Edinburgh Comedy Awards for her debut solo show, "Lady Cariad's Characters". She also won the Edtwinge award for most positively tweeted-about show during the Fringe. "Griefcast" has won several awards, including best Entertainment Podcast and Podcast of the Year at the British Podcast Awards and an ARIA Award for Best Podcast.


title: Cariad Lloyd

text: Lloyd was born in London. She is of Welsh descent on her father’s side. Her father died of pancreatic cancer when she was 15.


title: Cariad Lloyd

text: She studied English literature at the University of Sussex, where she first met her friend and fellow comedian Sara Pascoe. Lloyd worked with Pascoe as a tour guide on open-top buses in London.


title: Cariad Lloyd

text: Lloyd has performed in numerous sketches on BBC Comedy Online including "Funtime" (a Dawson Bros. pilot), "The Proposal" and "Dirty Dancing". She has performed for the BBC Radio 4 shows "Newsjack", "My First Planet", "The Now Show", "Small Scenes" and "The Guns of Adam Riches".


title: Cariad Lloyd

text: Lloyd has appeared on television shows such as Channel 4's "Cardinal Burns" and CBBC's "Fit "and "DNN" and in films such as Baby Cow Productions' "Caravan" and Film4's "Hallo Panda".


title: Cariad Lloyd

text: She wrote and performed in her own comedy pilot for BBC Three, "The Cariad Show". In May 2014, BBC Radio 4 aired a pilot for "The Cariad Radio Show", which was featured on the BBC Comedy of the Week podcast. Since 2014 she has been co-writing and performing in the BBC Radio Wales sketch comedy show "Here Be Dragons".


title: Cariad Lloyd

text: In 2014 Lloyd starred as Holly in the BBC Three comedy pilot "Vodka Diaries" and as Poppy in the comedy series "Give Out Girls" on Comedy Central. In 2015 she played Dawn, a warden in a young offenders' institution in the BBC Three comedy series "Crims". In 2016 she appeared in the initial two episodes of Walliams & Friend on BBC One. She was also a series regular, playing several semi-improvised characters on "Murder in Successville" with Tom Davis.


title: Cariad Lloyd

text: Lloyd is a regular panellist on "QI", having appeared in 12 episodes as of January 2022. She has also appeared on "Have I Got News for You", "Would I Lie to You?", "The News Quiz" and "8 Out of 10 Cats Does Countdown".


title: Cariad Lloyd

text: In March 2021, she presented the BBC Radio 4 programme "What Have We Learnt About Grief?" This programme mentioned the work of Elisabeth Kubler-Ross.


title: Cariad Lloyd

text: Lloyd has performed in a variety of live shows since 2006, including "The Freewheelin' Cariad Lloyd" at Edinburgh Festival Fringe in 2012. In 2013, she performed in "The 50 Hour Improvathon" at Hoxton Hall, and "The Freewheelin' Cariad Lloyd" at Soho Theatre among others. In 2014 she performed at the Edinburgh Fringe with Louise Ford in "Cariad and Louise's Character Hour".


title: Cariad Lloyd

text: Lloyd is a member of the improvisational comedy group Austentatious. In 2014 the show won the Chortle Award for Best Character, Improv or Sketch Act, and two DVDs of one of their live shows have been released by Go Faster Stripe in 2015 and 2018. Other members of the group include Rachel Parris, Amy Cooke-Hodgson and Joseph Morpurgo.


title: Cariad Lloyd

text: In August 2019 it was announced that Lloyd is writing a book on grief called "You Are Not Alone" to be published by Bloomsbury Publishing. It is set to be published in 2023.


title: Cariad Lloyd

text: Lloyd created and hosts the podcast "Griefcast", a series of conversations about death, bereavement, and coping with the loss of a loved one. It has won several awards, including: "Best Entertainment Podcast", "Best Interview Podcast" and "Podcast of the Year" at the British Podcast Awards and an ARIA Award for "Podcast of the Year".


title: Cariad Lloyd

text: Lloyd has appeared on other comedians' podcasts including "Pappy's Flatshare Slamdown" in 2012, "Richard Herring's Leicester Square Theatre Podcast" in 2016 and "Do the Right Thing" in 2017.


title: Matthew Kelly

text: Matthew Kelly (born David Allan Kelly, 9 May 1950) is an English actor and presenter. Having been trained as a theatre actor, he first came to public prominence as a television presenter of ITV light entertainment shows such as "Game for a Laugh", "You Bet!" and "Stars in Their Eyes". In the 2000s he returned to acting, appearing in several West End productions, while also acting in some television roles.


title: Matthew Kelly

text: Kelly was born in Urmston, Lancashire. As a child, he lived on Primrose Avenue in the town and became interested in acting when at the Urmston Musical Theatre, most notably playing the role of Louis in a production of "The King and I" in 1963. He continues to be President of the theatre group.


title: Matthew Kelly

text: After 1961, Kelly went to Urmston Grammar School. He trained as an actor at the Manchester Polytechnic School of Theatre (now Manchester School of Theatre, part of Manchester Metropolitan University) and joined a theatre group which included Julie Walters and Pete Postlethwaite. After graduation, he made his professional debut at the Pavilion Theatre in Rhyl. After this debut he appeared regularly at Liverpool's Everyman Theatre. He is a former member of the Workers' Revolutionary Party.


title: Matthew Kelly

text: Kelly's first major TV appearances were in the ITV sitcom "Holding the Fort" (1980–82) and as a panellist in the game show "Punchlines" (1981–84) hosted by Lennie Bennett on ITV but he became famous as part of the original presenting team on "Game for a Laugh" for the same producers and network. In 1983 he was the original presenter of Children's ITV (CITV) when launched in January of the same year - and returned to the role sporadically over the next few years. He was the subject of an edition of "This Is Your Life" in 1983 when he was surprised by Eamonn Andrews in London's Trafalgar Square. For the next 14 years his work centred on light entertainment shows such as "Kelly's Eye" (TVS sketch show 1985), "You Bet!" (LWT/ITV) (1991–95) and, most notably, "Stars in Their Eyes" (Granada/ITV), which he took over from Russ Abbot, who was brought in as a temporary host after original presenter Leslie Crowther suffered serious head injuries in a car crash in October 1992. Abbot had only hosted one episode, an Elvis Presley special. However, it later became apparent that Crowther would not be able to return, as he retired in 1994, and then died two years later. Therefore, Kelly became the permanent host of the show until he left in March 2004. Simultaneously, he was narrator for the ITV series "After They Were Famous" from 1999 to 2005. He continued to act occasionally, notably in the Channel 4 comedy "Relative Strangers", and in the theatre production of "The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari".


title: Matthew Kelly

text: Following his departure from "Stars in Their Eyes" Kelly returned to acting full-time. He has appeared in a number of television and theatre productions. In 2005, he was a member of the cast in BBC One's "Bleak House" as Mr. Turveydrop. He also played a serial killer in 2005's "Cold Blood" and its 2007 sequel, as well as the explorer Giovanni Belzoni in BBC One's "Egypt". On the stage he won an Olivier Award in 2004 for his portrayal of Lennie in John Steinbeck's "Of Mice and Men" at the Savoy Theatre. Other work includes Ripafratta in "Mirandolina" at the Royal Exchange Theatre in August 2006 which he swiftly followed by appearing as a well-received Antonio Salieri in Peter Shaffer's play "Amadeus". For a short period in summer 2007 he played the character Willie Thorn in the farce "Out For Justice" in Sydney, Australia's Royal Court Theatre. The play was a huge success and writer Vicky Ledbrook was quoted as saying Kelly is one of the finest comic actors of his generation.


title: Matthew Kelly

text: From December 2008 to January 2009, he joined Stefanie Powers, Craig McLachlan and Christopher Biggins at the Mayflower Theatre in Southampton to play May, one of the ugly sisters, in the pantomime "Cinderella" alongside his son Matthew Rixon. In 2009, he was on stage to high critical acclaim, in Howard Barker's "Victory: Choices in Reaction", at the Arcola Theatre, then as George in "Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf" at the Garrick Theatre, Lichfield, followed by a season at London's Trafalgar Studios. The summer was spent as Pandarus in Shakespeare's "Troilus and Cressida" at the Globe in London. He opened in "Comedians" at the Lyric Theatre, Hammersmith, in October 2009.


title: Matthew Kelly

text: In January 2010, he replaced Simon Callow as Pozzo in the revival of "Waiting for Godot" at the Theatre Royal, Haymarket, alongside Ian McKellen (Estragon), Roger Rees (Vladimir) and Ronald Pickup (Lucky). He continued in the successful production of "Waiting for Godot" at the Comedy Theatre, Melbourne, in May 2010.


title: Matthew Kelly

text: In November 2010, Kelly was awarded an honorary doctorate by the University of Chester. In March 2012, he returned to mainstream television by appearing in the ITV comedy "Benidorm", playing Cyril Babcock, a judge for the hotel's dance competition; he reprised the role in 2014. During the 2012 Edinburgh Festival Fringe, he played the role of Frank in a production of the play "Educating Rita". In 2014, Kelly acted in a short drama called "Cherry Cake", and in 2016, he played a one-off role of a carer/grandad in the TV series "Casualty". In 2018, he hosted the documentary series "Top of the Box". In September 2019, Kelly appeared as the Toy Shop owner in the stage production of "Big".


title: Matthew Kelly

text: Kelly married Sarah Grey in 1975. They have mostly lived separately, he in London and she in Cheshire, but remain married.


title: Matthew Kelly

text: In January 2003, Kelly was arrested by police over allegations of child sex abuse, which arose as part of Operation Arundel. The following month he was cleared of all charges. In response to his public arrest, and the later media fallout that drew public criticism, his treatment was raised as a motion in Parliament to consider "ways to protect the anonymity of those investigated until formally charged with an offence." This was later debated within Parliament as part of a wider response to investigations into allegations of historical crimes. In the same year, Kelly appeared on The Frank Skinner Show to discuss the host's jokes, which took aim at his alleged abuse of children.


title: Johann Gottlieb Fichte

text: Johann Gottlieb Fichte (; ; 19 May 1762 – 29 January 1814) was a German philosopher who became a founding figure of the philosophical movement known as German idealism, which developed from the theoretical and ethical writings of Immanuel Kant. Recently, philosophers and scholars have begun to appreciate Fichte as an important philosopher in his own right due to his original insights into the nature of self-consciousness or self-awareness. Fichte was also the originator of "thesis–antithesis–synthesis", an idea that is often erroneously attributed to Hegel. Like Descartes and Kant before him, Fichte was motivated by the problem of subjectivity and consciousness. Fichte also wrote works of political philosophy; he has a reputation as one of the fathers of German nationalism.


title: Johann Gottlieb Fichte

text: Fichte was born in Rammenau, Upper Lusatia and baptized a Lutheran. The son of a ribbon weaver, he came of peasant stock which had lived in the region for many generations. The family was noted in the neighborhood for its probity and piety. Christian Fichte, Johann Gottlieb's father, married somewhat above his station. It has been suggested that a certain impatience which Fichte himself displayed throughout his life was an inheritance from his mother.


title: Johann Gottlieb Fichte

text: He received a rudimentary education from his father. He showed remarkable ability from an early age, and it was owing to his reputation among the villagers that he gained the opportunity for a better education than he otherwise would have received. The story runs that the Freiherr von Militz, a country landowner, arrived too late to hear the local pastor preach. He was, however, informed that a lad in the neighborhood would be able to repeat the sermon almost "verbatim". As a result, the baron took Fichte into his protection and paid for his tuition.


title: Johann Gottlieb Fichte

text: Fichte was placed in the family of Pastor Krebel at Niederau near Meissen, and there received a thorough grounding in the classics. From this time onward, Fichte saw little of his parents. In October 1774, he attended the celebrated foundation-school at Pforta near Naumburg. This school is associated with the names of Novalis, August Wilhelm Schlegel, Friedrich Schlegel and Nietzsche. The spirit of the institution was semi-monastic and, while the education was excellent, it is doubtful whether there was enough social life and contact with the world for Fichte's temperament and antecedents. Perhaps his education strengthened a tendency toward introspection and independence, characteristics which appear strongly in his doctrines and writings.


title: Johann Gottlieb Fichte

text: In 1780, Fichte began study at the University of Jena's Lutheran theology seminary. He was transferred a year later to study at the Leipzig University. Fichte seems to have supported himself during this period of bitter poverty and hard struggle. Freiherr von Militz continued to support him, but when he died in 1784, Fichte had to end his studies without completing his degree.


title: Johann Gottlieb Fichte

text: From 1784 to 1788, Fichte precariously supported himself as tutor for various Saxon families. In early 1788, he returned to Leipzig in the hope of finding a better employment, but eventually he had to settle for a less promising position with the family of an innkeeper in Zurich. He lived in Zurich for the next two years (1788–1790), which was a time of great contentment for him. There he met his future wife, Johanna Rahn, and Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi. He also became, in 1793, a member of the Freemasonry lodge "Modestia cum Libertate" with which Johann Wolfgang Goethe was also connected. In the spring of 1790, he became engaged to Johanna. Fichte began to study the works of Kant in the summer of 1790. This occurred initially because one of Fichte's students wanted to know about Kant's writings. They had a lasting effect on his life and thought. However, while Fichte was studying Kantian philosophy, the Rahn family suffered financial reverses. His impending marriage had to be postponed.


title: Johann Gottlieb Fichte

text: From Zurich, Fichte returned to Leipzig in May 1790. In early 1791, he obtained a tutorship in Warsaw in the house of a Polish nobleman. The situation, however, quickly proved disagreeable and he was released. He then got a chance to see Kant at Königsberg. After a disappointing interview on 4 July of the same year, he shut himself in his lodgings and threw all his energies into the composition of an essay which would attract Kant's attention and interest. This essay, completed in five weeks, was the "Versuch einer Critik aller Offenbarung" ("Attempt at a Critique of All Revelation", 1792). In this book, according to Henrich, Fichte investigated the connections between divine revelation and Kant's critical philosophy. The first edition was published without Kant's or Fichte's knowledge and without Fichte's name or signed preface. It was thus believed by the public to be a new work by Kant.


title: Johann Gottlieb Fichte

text: When Kant cleared the confusion and openly praised the work and author, Fichte's reputation skyrocketed. In a letter to Karl Reinhold, Jens Baggeson wrote that it was "...the most shocking and astonishing news... [since] nobody but Kant could have written this book. This amazing news of a third sun in the philosophical heavens has set me into such confusion". Kant waited seven years to make public statement about the incident; after considerable external pressure he dissociated himself from Fichte. In his statement, he inscribed, "May God protect us from our friends. From our enemies, we can try to protect ourselves."


title: Johann Gottlieb Fichte

text: In October 1793, Fichte was married in Zurich, where he remained the rest of the year. Stirred by the events and principles of the French Revolution, he wrote and anonymously published two pamphlets which led to him to be seen as a devoted defender of liberty of thought and action and an advocate of political changes. In December of the same year, he received an invitation to fill the position of extraordinary professor of philosophy at the University of Jena. He accepted and began his lectures in May 1794. With extraordinary zeal, he expounded his system of "transcendental idealism". His success was immediate. He excelled as a lecturer due to the earnestness and force of his personality. These lectures were later published under the title "The Vocation of the Scholar" ("Einige Vorlesungen über die Bestimmung des Gelehrten"). He gave himself up to intense production, and a succession of works soon appeared.


title: Johann Gottlieb Fichte

text: After weathering several academic storms, Fichte was finally dismissed from the University of Jena in 1799 for atheism. He had been accused of this in 1798 after publishing the essay "Ueber den Grund unsers Glaubens an eine göttliche Weltregierung" ("On the Ground of Our Belief in a Divine World-Governance"), written in response to Friedrich Karl Forberg's essay "Development of the Concept of Religion", in his "Philosophical Journal". For Fichte, God should be conceived primarily in moral terms: "The living and efficaciously acting moral order is itself God. We require no other God, nor can we grasp any other" ("On the Ground of Our Belief in a Divine World-Governance"). Fichte's intemperate "Appeal to the Public" ("Appellation an das Publikum", 1799) provoked F. H. Jacobi to publish an open letter in which he equated philosophy in general and Fichte's transcendental philosophy in particular with nihilism.


title: Johann Gottlieb Fichte

text: Since all the German states except Prussia had joined in the cry against Fichte, he was forced to go to Berlin. There he associated himself with the Schlegels, Schleiermacher, Schelling and Tieck. In April 1800, through the introduction of Hungarian writer Ignaz Aurelius Fessler, he was initiated into Freemasonry in the Lodge Pythagoras of the Blazing Star where he was elected minor warden. At first Fichte was a warm admirer of Fessler, and was disposed to aid him in his proposed Masonic reform. But later he became Fessler's bitter opponent. Their controversy attracted much attention among Freemasons. Fichte presented two lectures on the philosophy of Masonry during the same period as part of his work on the development of various higher degrees for the lodge in Berlin. Johann Karl Christian Fischer, a high official of the Grand Orient, published those lectures in 1802/03 in two volumes under the title "Philosophy of Freemasonry: Letters to Konstant" ("Philosophie der Maurerei. Briefe an Konstant"), where Konstant referred to a fictitious non-Mason.


title: Johann Gottlieb Fichte

text: In November 1800, Fichte published "The Closed Commercial State: A Philosophical Sketch as an Appendix to the Doctrine of Right and an Example of a Future Politics" ("Der geschlossene Handelsstaat. Ein philosophischer Entwurf als Anhang zur Rechtslehre und Probe einer künftig zu liefernden Politik"), a philosophical statement of his property theory, a historical analysis of European economic relations, and a political proposal for reforming them. In 1805, he was appointed to a professorship at the University of Erlangen. The Battle of Jena-Auerstedt in 1806, in which Napoleon completely crushed the Prussian army, drove him to Königsberg for a time, but he returned to Berlin in 1807 and continued his literary activity.


title: Johann Gottlieb Fichte

text: Fichte wrote "On Machiavelli, as an Author, and Passages from His Writings" in June 1807. (""Über Machiavell, als Schriftsteller, und Stellen aus seinen Schriften"" ). Karl Clausewitz’s wrote a Letter to Fichte (1809) about his book on Machiavelli.


title: Johann Gottlieb Fichte

text: After the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire, where German southern principalities resigned as member states and became part of a French protectorship, Fichte delivered the famous "Addresses to the German Nation" ("Reden an die deutsche Nation", 1807-1808) which attempted to define the German Nation, and guided the uprising against Napoleon. He became a professor at the new University of Berlin, founded in 1810. By the votes of his colleagues Fichte was unanimously elected its rector in the succeeding year. But, once more, his impetuosity and reforming zeal led to friction, and he resigned in 1812. The campaign against Napoleon began, and the hospitals at Berlin were soon full of patients. Fichte's wife devoted herself to nursing and caught a virulent fever. Just as she was recovering, he became sick with typhus and died in 1814 at the age of 51.


title: Johann Gottlieb Fichte

text: His son, Immanuel Hermann Fichte (18 July 1796 – 8 August 1879), also made contributions to philosophy.


title: Johann Gottlieb Fichte

text: Fichte's critics argued that his mimicry of Kant's difficult style produced works that were barely intelligible. "He made no hesitation in pluming himself on his great skill in the shadowy and obscure, by often remarking to his pupils, that 'there was only one man in the world who could fully understand his writings; and even he was often at a loss to seize upon his real meaning. On the other hand, Fichte acknowledged the difficulty, but argued that his works were clear and transparent to those who made the effort to think without preconceptions and prejudices.


title: Johann Gottlieb Fichte

text: Fichte did not endorse Kant's argument for the existence of noumena, of "things in themselves", the supra-sensible reality beyond direct human perception. Fichte saw the rigorous and systematic separation of "things in themselves" (noumena) and things "as they appear to us" (phenomena) as an invitation to skepticism. Rather than invite skepticism, Fichte made the radical suggestion that we should throw out the notion of a noumenal world and accept that consciousness does not have a grounding in a so-called "real world". In fact, Fichte achieved fame for originating the argument that consciousness is not grounded in outside of itself. The phenomenal world as such, arises from consciousness; the activity of the I; and moral awareness. His student (and critic), Arthur Schopenhauer, wrote:


title: Johann Gottlieb Fichte

text: In "Foundations of Natural Right" (1797), Fichte argued that self-consciousness was a social phenomenon — an important step and perhaps the first clear step taken in this direction by modern philosophy. For Fichte, a necessary condition of every subject's self-awareness is the existence of other rational subjects. These others call or summon ("fordern auf") the subject or self out of its unconsciousness and into an awareness of itself as a free individual.


title: Johann Gottlieb Fichte

text: Fichte proceeds from the general principle that the I ("das Ich") must posit itself as an individual in order to posit ("setzen") itself at all, and that in order to posit itself as an individual, it must recognize itself to a calling or summons ("Aufforderung") by other free individual(s) — called to limit its own freedom out of respect for the freedom of the others. The same condition applies to the others in development. Mutual recognition ("gegenseitig anerkennen") of rational individuals is a condition necessary for the individual I. The argument for intersubjectivity is central to the conception of selfhood developed in the "Foundations of the Science of Knowledge" ("Grundlage der gesamten Wissenschaftslehre", 1794/1795).


title: Johann Gottlieb Fichte

text: Fichte's consciousness of the self depends upon resistance or a check by something that is understood as not part of the self yet is not immediately ascribable to a particular sensory perception. In his later 1796–99 lectures (his "Nova methodo"), Fichte incorporated this into his revised presentation of the foundations of his system, where the summons takes its place alongside original feeling, which takes the place of the earlier "Anstoss" (see below) as a limit on the absolute freedom and a condition for the positing of the I.


title: Johann Gottlieb Fichte

text: The I posits this situation for itself. To posit does not mean to 'create' the objects of consciousness. The principle in question simply states that the essence of an I lies in the assertion of self-identity, i.e., that consciousness presupposes self-consciousness. Such immediate self-identity cannot be understood as a psychological fact, or an act or accident of some previously existing substance or being. It is an action of the I, but one that is identical with the very existence of this same I. In Fichte's technical terminology, the original unity of self-consciousness is an action and the product of the same I, as a "fact and/or act" ("Thathandlung"; Modern German: "Tathandlung"), a unity that is presupposed by and contained within every fact and every act of empirical consciousness, although it never appears as such.


title: Johann Gottlieb Fichte

text: The I can posit itself only as limited. Moreover, it cannot even posit its own limitations, in the sense of producing or creating these limits. The finite I cannot be the ground of its own passivity. Instead, for Fichte, if the I is to posit itself, it must simply discover itself to be limited, a discovery that Fichte characterizes as an "impulse," "repulse," or "resistance" ("Anstoss"; Modern German: "Anstoß") to the free practical activity of the I. Such an original limitation of the I is, however, a limit for the I only insofar as the I posits it out as a limit. The I does this, according to Fichte's analysis, by positing its own limitation, first, as only a feeling, then as a sensation, then as an intuition of a thing, and finally as a summons of another person.


title: Johann Gottlieb Fichte

text: The "Anstoss" thus provides the essential impetus that first posits in motion the entire complex train of activities that finally result in our conscious experience both of ourselves and others as empirical individuals and of the world around us. Although "Anstoss" plays a similar role as the thing in itself does in Kantian philosophy, unlike Kant, Fichte's "Anstoss" is not something foreign to the I. Instead, it denotes the original encounter of the I with its own finitude. Rather than claim that the not-I ("das Nicht-Ich") is the cause or ground of the "Anstoss", Fichte argues that not-I is posited by the I in order to explain to itself the "Anstoss" in order to become conscious of "Anstoss". The "Wissenschaftslehre" demonstrates that "Anstoss" must occur if self-consciousness is to come about but is unable to explain the actual occurrence of "Anstoss". There are limits to what can be expected from an a priori deduction of experience, and this, for Fichte, equally applies to Kant's transcendental philosophy. According to Fichte, transcendental philosophy can explain that the world must have space, time, and causality, but it can never explain why objects have the particular sensible properties they happen to have or why I am this determinate individual rather than another. This is something that the I simply has to discover at the same time that it discovers its own freedom, and indeed, is a condition for the latter.


title: Johann Gottlieb Fichte

text: Dieter Henrich (1966) proposed that Fichte was able to move beyond a "reflective theory of consciousness". According to Fichte, the self must already have some prior acquaintance with itself, independent of the act of reflection ("no object comes to consciousness except under the condition that I am aware of myself, the conscious subject ["jedes Object kommt zum Bewusstseyn lediglich unter der Bedingung, dass ich auch meiner selbst, des bewusstseyenden Subjects mir bewusst sey"]"). This idea is what Henrich called Fichte's original insight.


title: Johann Gottlieb Fichte

text: Between December 1807 and March 1808, Fichte gave a series of lectures concerning the "German nation" and its culture and language, projecting the kind of national education he hoped would raise it from the humiliation of its defeat at the hands of the French. Having been a supporter of Revolutionary France, Fichte became disenchanted by 1804 as Napoleon's armies advanced through Europe, occupying German territories, stripping them of their raw materials and subjugating them to foreign rule. He came to believe Germany would be responsible to carry the virtues of the French Revolution into the future. Furthermore, his nationalism was not aroused by Prussian military defeat and humiliation, for these had not yet occurred, but resulted from his own humanitarian philosophy. Disappointed in the French, he turned to the German nation as the instrument of fulfilling it.


title: Johann Gottlieb Fichte

text: These lectures, entitled the "Addresses to the German Nation", coincided with a period of reform in the Prussian government, under the chancellorship of Baron vom Stein. The "Addresses" display Fichte's interest during that period in language and culture as vehicles of human spiritual development. Fichte built upon earlier ideas of Johann Gottfried Herder and attempted to unite them with his approach. The aim of the German nation, according to Fichte, was to "found an empire of spirit and reason, and to annihilate completely the crude physical force that rules of the world." Like Herder's German nationalism, Fichte's was cultural, and grounded in the aesthetic, literary, and moral. However, Fichte's belief in a "Closed Commercial State", a state dominated economy and society, should be noted – as should its kinship with certain 20th-century governments in Germany and elsewhere.


title: Johann Gottlieb Fichte

text: The nationalism propounded by Fichte in the "Addresses" would be used over a century later by the Nazi Party in Germany, which saw in Fichte a forerunner to its own nationalist ideology. Like Nietzsche, the association of Fichte with the Nazi regime came to colour readings of Fichte's German nationalism in the post-war period. This reading of Fichte was often bolstered through reference to an unpublished letter from 1793, "Contributions to the Correction of the Public's Judgment concerning the French Revolution", wherein Fichte expressed anti-semitic sentiments, such as arguing against extending civil rights to Jews and calling them a "state within a state" that could "undermine" the German nation.<ref name="Gesamtausgabe I/1 pp. 292">"Gesamtausgabe", I/1, pp. 292–93</ref>


title: Johann Gottlieb Fichte

text: However, attached to the letter is a footnote in which Fichte provides an impassioned plea for permitting Jews to practice their religion without hindrance. Furthermore, the final act of Fichte's academic career was to resign as rector of the University of Berlin in protest when his colleagues refused to punish the harassment of Jewish students. While recent scholarship has sought to dissociate Fichte's writings on nationalism with their adoption by the Nazi Party, the association continues to blight his legacy, although Fichte, as if to exclude all ground of doubt, clearly and distinctly prohibits,  in his reworked version of "The Science of Ethics as Based on the Science of Knowledge" (see § Final period in Berlin) genocide and other crimes against humanity:


title: Johann Gottlieb Fichte

text: Fichte's 1800 economic treatise "The Closed Commercial State" had a profound influence on the economic theories of German Romanticism. In it, Fichte argues the need for the strictest, purely guild-like regulation of industry.


title: Johann Gottlieb Fichte

text: The "exemplary rational state" ("Vernunftstaat"), Fichte argues, should not allow any of its "subjects" to engage in this or that production, failing to pass the preliminary test, not certifying government agents in their professional skills and agility. According to Vladimir Mikhailovich Shulyatikov, "this kind of demand was typical of "Mittelstund", the German petty middle class, the class of artisans, hoping by creating artificial barriers to stop the victorious march of big capital and thus save themselves from inevitable death. The same demand was imposed on the state, as is evident from Fichte's treatise, by the German "factory" ("Fabrike"), more precisely, the manufacture of the early 19th century".


title: Johann Gottlieb Fichte

text: Fichte opposed free trade and unrestrained capitalist industrial growth, stating: "There is an endless war of all against all ... And this war is becoming more fierce, unjust, more dangerous in its consequences, the more the world's population grows, the more acquisitions the trading state makes, the more production and art (industry) develops and, together with thus, the number of circulating goods increases, and with them the needs become more and more diversified. What, with the simple way of life of nations, was done before without great injustices and oppression, turns, thanks to increased needs, into flagrant injustice, into a source of great evils. The buyer tries to take the goods away from the seller; therefore he demands freedom of trade, i.e. freedom for the seller to wander around the markets, freedom not to find a sale for goods and sell them significantly below their value. Therefore, he requires strong competition between manufacturers ("Fabrikanten") and merchants."


title: Johann Gottlieb Fichte

text: The only means that could save the modern world, which would destroy evil at the root, is, according to Fichte, to split the "world state" (the global market) into separate self-sufficient bodies. Each such body, each "closed trading state" will be able to regulate its internal economic relations. It will be able to both extract and process everything that is needed to meet the needs of its citizens. It will carry out the ideal organization of production. Fichte argued for government regulation of industrial growth, writing "Only by limitation does a certain industry become the property of the class that deals with it".


title: Johann Gottlieb Fichte

text: Vladimir Mikhailovich Shulyatikov considers the economics of German idealists and Romantics as representing the compromise of the German bourgeoisie of the early 19th century with the monarchical State:


title: Johann Gottlieb Fichte

text: The French physiocrats proclaimed the principle: "Laissez faire!" On the other hand, the German capitalists of the 1800s, whose ideologists were the objective idealists, professed a belief in the saving effect of government tutelage.


title: Johann Gottlieb Fichte

text: Fichte believed that "active citizenship, civic freedom and even property rights should be withheld from women, whose calling was to subject themselves utterly to the authority of their fathers and husbands."


title: Johann Gottlieb Fichte

text: Fichte gave a wide range of public and private lectures in Berlin from the last decade of his life. These form some of his best known work, and are the basis of a revived German-speaking scholarly interest in his work.


title: Johann Gottlieb Fichte

text: The lectures include two works from 1806. In "The Characteristics of the Present Age" ("Die Grundzüge des gegenwärtigen Zeitalters"), Fichte outlines his theory of different historical and cultural epochs. His mystic work "The Way Towards the Blessed Life" ("Die Anweisung zum seligen Leben oder auch die Religionslehre") gave his fullest thoughts on religion. In 1807-1808 he gave a series of speeches in French-occupied Berlin, "Addresses to the German Nation".


title: Johann Gottlieb Fichte

text: In 1810, the new University of Berlin was established, designed along ideas put forward by Wilhelm von Humboldt. Fichte was made its rector and also the first Chair of Philosophy. This was in part because of educational themes in the "Addresses", and in part because of his earlier work at Jena University.


title: Johann Gottlieb Fichte

text: Fichte lectured on further versions of his "Wissenschaftslehre". Of these, he only published a brief work from 1810, "The Science of Knowledge in its General Outline" ("Die Wissenschaftslehre, in ihrem allgemeinen Umrisse dargestellt"; also translated as "Outline of the Doctrine of Knowledge"). His son published some of these thirty years after his death. Most only became public in the last decades of the twentieth century, in his collected works. This included reworked versions of the "Doctrine of Science" ("Wissenschaftslehre", 1810–1813), "The Science of Rights" ("Das System der Rechtslehre", 1812), and "The Science of Ethics as Based on the Science of Knowledge" ("Das System der Sittenlehre nach den Principien der Wissenschaftslehre", 1812; 1st ed. 1798).


title: Johann Gottlieb Fichte

text: The new standard edition of Fichte's works in German, which supersedes all previous editions, is the "Gesamtausgabe" ("Collected Works" or "Complete Edition", commonly abbreviated as "GA"), prepared by the Bavarian Academy of Sciences: "Gesamtausgabe der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften", 42 volumes, edited by , Hans Gliwitzky, Erich Fuchs and Peter Schneider, Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt: Frommann-Holzboog, 1962–2012.


title: Johann Gottlieb Fichte

text: Fichte's works are quoted and cited from "GA", followed by a combination of Roman and Arabic numbers, indicating the series and volume, respectively, and the page number(s).


title: Johann Gottlieb Fichte

text: Another edition is "Johann Gottlieb Fichtes sämmtliche Werke" (abbrev. "SW"), ed. I. H. Fichte. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1971.


title: Jason Robertson (ice hockey)

text: Jason Robertson (born July 22, 1999), nicknamed "Robo", is an American professional ice hockey left winger for the Dallas Stars of the National Hockey League (NHL). The Stars selected him in the second round, 39th overall, of the 2017 NHL Entry Draft.


title: Jason Robertson (ice hockey)

text: Robertson was born in Arcadia, California, but his family moved to Northville, Michigan, at the age of 10 to increase his opportunities for ice hockey. He played for the Little Caesars and Detroit Kings minor ice hockey teams in Michigan before he was drafted by the Kingston Frontenacs of the Ontario Hockey League in 2015. Robertson's 18 goals in his first season with Kingston were the most of any rookie since Anthony Stewart, and in the next two years, he became the first Frontenac to record back-to-back 40-goal seasons since Mike Zigomanis. Robertson was traded to the Niagara IceDogs partway through the 2018–19 OHL season, during which he recorded 117 points in 62 games to win both the Eddie Powers Memorial Trophy and the CHL Top Scorer Award.


title: Jason Robertson (ice hockey)

text: Joining the Stars for the season, Robertson spent most of the year with the Texas Stars, Dallas's American Hockey League affiliate. He was included in Dallas's quarantine bubble for the 2020 Stanley Cup playoffs but did not appear in a game. Robertson made Dallas's opening night roster the following season, where he was the Calder Memorial Trophy runner-up with 17 goals and 28 assists in 51 games. Robertson continued his offensive production during the season, becoming the first player in Dallas Stars history to record hat-tricks in consecutive games.


title: Jason Robertson (ice hockey)

text: Robertson was born on July 22, 1999, in Arcadia, California, to Mercedes and Hugh Robertson. Beginning with Robertson's older brother Michael, all of Mercedes and Hugh's children were childhood hockey fans, and the family owned season tickets to see the Los Angeles Kings at the Staples Center. Robertson began playing hockey around the age of four or five, and when he was 10 years old, the family moved to Northville, Michigan, where there were more opportunities for him to ice skate. He played minor ice hockey for a number of teams there, including Little Caesars and the Detroit Kings AAA team before spending a season with the Don Mills Flyers of the Greater Toronto Hockey League. With the Flyers, he scored 28 goals and recorded 33 assists for a total of 61 points. Robertson also played in the 2015 OHL Cup, where his team finished second to the Toronto Marlboros.


title: Jason Robertson (ice hockey)

text: The Omaha Lancers of the United States Hockey League (USHL) selected Robertson in Phase I of the 2015 USHL draft, but he instead committed to begin his junior ice hockey career with the Kingston Frontenacs of the Ontario Hockey League (OHL), who drafted him in the second round, 62nd overall, of the 2015 OHL Priority Selection. He impressed head coach Paul McFarland during rookie camp and made the Frontenacs' 2015–16 opening day roster at 16, the youngest possible age for junior ice hockey. He recorded his first OHL goal on October 7 against the Oshawa Generals, and on December 11, he scored his first junior hat-trick, leading Kingston to a 4–1 victory over the Sault Ste. Marie Greyhounds. By the OHL's Christmas break, Robertson had 16 goals for the Frontenacs, three of which came on the power play, as well as eight assists and a +2 plus–minus rating. Those 16 goals were the most of any rookie born in 1999 by that point of the OHL season. He finished the 2015–16 season as the Frontenacs' leading rookie scorer with 18 goals and 32 points in 54 games. Those 18 goals were the most by any Kingston 16-year-old since Anthony Stewart 14 years prior. That September, Robertson participated in the 2016 CCM/USA Hockey All-American Prospects Game at the Wells Fargo Center in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.


title: Jason Robertson (ice hockey)

text: Following his breakout rookie performance, Robertson began the 2016–17 OHL season playing on Kingston's top offensive line with Warren Foegele and Ted Nichol. While the team as a whole struggled to score at the beginning of the season, with only 21 goals through their first nine games, Robertson led the team in scoring with three goals and seven points through that same stretch. After Foegele was traded to the Erie Otters halfway through the season, Robertson became an offensive leader for Kingston, with 26 goals and 47 points in 33 regular season games after the trade. Although the Frontenacs' 179 goals were the fewest of any OHL team during the 2016–17 season, Robertson finished with 42 goals and 81 points in 68 regular season games. Those 42 goals made up 24 percent of the Frontenacs' total scoring. He added another five goals and 18 points in 11 postseason games before the Frontenacs were swept by the Peterborough Petes in the second round of OHL playoffs. The NHL Central Scouting Bureau had named Robertson the No. 34 draft-eligible North American skater in their midterm rankings, but he finished the season at No. 14 overall. That June, the Dallas Stars of the National Hockey League (NHL) selected Robertson in the second round, 39th overall, of the 2017 NHL Entry Draft.


title: Jason Robertson (ice hockey)

text: After attending the Stars' 2017 training camp, Robertson returned to Kingston, where he was named one of four rotating assistant captains for the 2017–18 season. He found strong line chemistry with Linus Nyman at his other wing: by November 9, both wingers had 20 goals apiece, with most of Nyman's assists coming on Robertson's goals. The Nyman—Robertson line found a center in the second half of the season in Gabriel Vilardi. By the halfway point of the season, Robertson led the Frontenacs with 20 goals and 42 points in 33 games. He also led the OHL with 158 shots, recording at least one shot in every game to that point. On March 7, 2018, in a 5–3 loss to the Oshawa Generals, Robertson scored his 100th career OHL goal. Robertson finished the regular season with 41 goals and a team-leading 87 points in 68 games, also becoming the first Frontenac to record 40 goals in consecutive seasons since Mike Zigomanis in 2000 and 2001. He added another 18 points in 16 postseason games before the Hamilton Bulldogs defeated the Frontenacs in the third round of OHL playoffs. At the end of the season, Robertson was named to the OHL All-Star Third Team. Once the junior hockey season ended, Robertson signed a three-year entry-level contract with the Stars, as well as an amateur tryout contract to join the Texas Stars, Dallas's American Hockey League (AHL) affiliate, for their own playoff run. He struggled to keep up with the AHL players in practice, however, and was sent home in the middle of the playoffs to focus on training for the next season.


title: Jason Robertson (ice hockey)

text: Returning to the Frontenacs as an assistant captain, Robertson began the 2018–19 season on an offensive tear: by mid-November, he led the OHL with 22 goals in as many games and was seventh in the league with 33 points. He scored 38.6 percent of the Frontenacs' 57 goals and either scored or assisted on 57.9 percent. After recording two hat-tricks in the same week, first against the Ottawa 67's and then the Oshawa Generals, Robertson was named both the OHL On the Run Player of the Week and a Canadian Hockey League Top Performer of the Week for the week ending November 11. On November 20, the week after receiving these accolades, Robertson and defenseman Jacob Paquette were traded to the Niagara IceDogs for Billy Constantinou, Ian Martin, and 11 draft picks. At the time of the trade, Robertson had 23 goals and 15 assists in 24 games.


title: Jason Robertson (ice hockey)

text: Robertson continued his offensive performance on his new team, with eight goals and 22 points for Niagara by the midseason break, and he was named the OHL Player of the Month in November after recording 12 goals and 30 points in 12 games between the two teams. With two assists in a 6–4 win over the North Bay Battalion on March 1, Robertson recorded both his 100th point of the 2018–19 season and his 300th career OHL point. In the final week of the regular season, Robertson recorded 11 points in three games to clinch the OHL Central Division title for the IceDogs. With 48 goals and 117 points in 62 games, including 25 goals and 79 points in 38 games for Niagara, Robertson won both the 2019 Eddie Powers Memorial Trophy for the OHL's regular season scoring leader and the CHL Top Scorer Award. He then added another 10 points in as many postseason games before the Oshawa Generals eliminated the IceDogs in the second round of playoffs. Robertson closed out the 2018–19 OHL awards season with a selection to the All-Star First Team. He finished his OHL career with 149 goals and 317 points in 252 games.


title: Jason Robertson (ice hockey)

text: Robertson was one of the final cuts that the Dallas Stars made as they reduced their roster to 23 for the start of the season. He instead joined the AHL as the Texas Stars' third line winger. Adjusting to the quicker pace of professional hockey, Robertson recorded 13 goals and 12 assists through his first 39 games in Texas. On February 13, 2020, following an injury to Alexander Radulov, the Dallas Stars called Robertson up for his NHL debut. He debuted that night, recording his first NHL assist on Tyler Seguin's goal during the Stars' 3–2 victory over the Toronto Maple Leafs. That was his only point in his three-game call-up before he was sent back down to the AHL on February 17. By the time that the COVID-19 pandemic suddenly halted both the NHL and AHL regular season, Robertson had 25 goals and 47 points in 60 games for the Texas Stars. Robertson was one of several young prospects who traveled with the Stars to the 2020 Stanley Cup playoffs, but he was invited primarily to watch the team and did not play during Dallas's playoff run.


title: Jason Robertson (ice hockey)

text: A COVID-19 outbreak and several injuries postponed the start of the Dallas Stars' regular season and forced them to retool their roster. Robertson was named to the team's opening night roster as a fourth-line winger alongside Nick Caamano and Jason Dickinson. After playing in the first two games of the season, Robertson was demoted to Dallas's taxi squad for a five-game stretch. He returned at the start of February, and on February 7, Robertson scored his first NHL goal when he deflected a shot from Miro Heiskanen past Malcolm Subban of the Chicago Blackhawks. In the month following that goal, Robertson began producing offensively for Dallas, with three goals and eight points in his next 11 games. By April 11, Robertson's 27 points were second only to Kirill Kaprizov's 40 among rookie scorers. He was named the NHL Rookie of the Month in April after recording eight goals and 18 points, including at least one point in 13 of 17 games. While the Stars narrowly missed the 2021 Stanley Cup playoffs, Robertson finished the season with 17 goals and a rookie-leading 28 assists in 51 games. In addition to being named to the 2020–21 NHL All-Rookie Team, Robertson was the runner-up for the Calder Memorial Trophy, given to the top rookie in the NHL. The award was won by Kaprizov of the Minnesota Wild. Because Robertson was still on his entry-level contract at the time of the 2021 NHL Expansion Draft, he was automatically protected from being drafted by the Seattle Kraken.


title: Jason Robertson (ice hockey)

text: Robertson missed the first seven games of the season with a shoulder injury but returned at the end of October to continue the scoring pace he had set the previous season. Playing on the top line with Roope Hintz and Joe Pavelski, Robertson recorded 17 points in his first 15 games of the season. On December 2, Robertson scored on Daniil Tarasov only 68 seconds into the Stars' game against the Columbus Blue Jackets. It was the fourth game in a row in which Dallas had scored within the first 75 seconds of the game, an NHL record. Three months later, on March 4, 2022, Robertson recorded his first NHL hat-trick in his 100th career game, a 4–3 overtime win against the Winnipeg Jets. He recorded another hat-trick two days later, this time during a 6–3 victory over the Minnesota Wild. He was the first Dallas Stars player ever to record hat-tricks in consecutive games, the first NHL player under the age of 23 to do so since Filip Forsberg in 2017, and the first of any NHL player since Alexander Ovechkin in January 2020. Robertson finished the regular season with 41 goals and 79 points in 74 games. He scored the most goals of any player since Jamie Benn during the season, and was only the fourth member of the Stars to reach the 40-goal mark following their relocation to Dallas. The Stars faced the Calgary Flames in the first round of the 2022 Stanley Cup playoffs, with Robertson making his postseason debut in Game 1. He struggled in the series, with only one assist through four games, and he was moved off of the top line for Game 5. On his new line with Benn and Tyler Seguin, Robertson scored his first postseason goal in Game 5. The Flames defeated the Stars in seven games, and Robertson finished his first playoff series with one goal and four points.


title: Jason Robertson (ice hockey)

text: On October 5, 2022, after missing training camp and a majority of the preseason, Robertson signed a four-year contract with the Stars. He made the Stars' opening roster for the 2022–23 NHL season and recorded an assist in the first game. Robertson then recorded three points in the second game of the season.


title: Jason Robertson (ice hockey)

text: Robertson first represented the United States in international ice hockey when he played for the national junior team at the 2019 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships in Vancouver. He finished the tournament with one goal and seven points in seven games, while the United States took the silver medal in the tournament, losing 3–2 to Finland in the championship match.


title: Jason Robertson (ice hockey)

text: Robertson, joined by Jake Oettinger and Ryan Shea, was one of three young members of the Stars to represent the United States at the 2021 IIHF World Championship in Latvia. Skating on a line with Trevor Moore of the Los Angeles Kings and Conor Garland of the Arizona Coyotes, Robertson was named Team USA's player of the game for scoring the team's only goal in their 2–1 opening-round loss to Finland. He was named the player of the game again with one goal and one assist in Team USA's 6–1 bronze medal victory over Germany. Robertson finished the tournament with four goals and nine points in 10 games.


title: Jason Robertson (ice hockey)

text: Robertson is of Filipino descent on his mother's side and Scottish on his father's. His mother was born in Manila and immigrated to the United States when she was three years old. He is the third hockey player of Filipino descent to play in the NHL, following Tim Stapleton and Matt Dumba, and is only the second Filipino American, after Stapleton. Robertson's younger brother Nick was selected by the Toronto Maple Leafs in the second round of the 2019 NHL Entry Draft.


title: Hmong language

text: Hmong / Mong (; RPA: "Hmoob," ; Nyiakeng Puachue: ; Pahawh: , ) is a dialect continuum of the West Hmongic branch of the Hmongic languages spoken by the Hmong people of Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi, Hainan, northern Vietnam, Thailand, and Laos. There are some 2.7 million speakers of varieties that are largely mutually intelligible, including over 280,000 Hmong Americans as of 2013. Over half of all Hmong speakers speak the various dialects in China, where the Dananshan (大南山) dialect forms the basis of the standard language. However, Hmong Daw and Mong Leng are widely known only in Laos and the United States; Dananshan is more widely known in the native region of Hmong.


title: Hmong language

text: Mong Leng (Moob Leeg) and Hmong Daw (Hmoob Dawb) are part of a dialect cluster known in China as "Chuanqiandian Miao", that is, "Sichuan–Guizhou–Yunnan Miao", called the "Chuanqiandian cluster" in English (or "Miao cluster" in other languages) as West Hmongic is also called "Chuanqiandian", while the variety spoken from Sichuan in China to Thailand and Laos is referred to as the "First Local Variety" () of the cluster. Mong Leng and Hmong Daw are just those varieties of the cluster that migrated to Laos; the Western names, "Mong Leng", "Hmong Dleu/Der", and "Hmong Daw" are also used in China for various dialects of the Chuanqiandian Miao cluster.


title: Hmong language

text: Ethnologue once distinguished only the Laotian varieties (Hmong Daw, Mong Leng), Sinicized Miao (Hmong Shua), and the Vietnamese varieties (Hmong Dô, Hmong Don). The Vietnamese varieties are very poorly known; population estimates are not even available. In 2007, Horned Miao, Small Flowery Miao, and the Chuanqiandian cluster of China were split off from Mong Leng [blu]. These varieties are as follows, along with some alternative names ('Ch.' = Chinese name, 'auto.' = autonym [self name]):


title: Hmong language

text: The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) stated that the White and Leng dialects "are said to be mutually intelligible to a well-trained ear, with pronunciation and vocabulary differences analogous to the differences between British and American English."


title: Hmong language

text: Many of the above names used outside (White Miao, Blue/Green Miao, Flowery Miao, Mong Leng, etc.) are also used in China. Several Chinese varieties may be more distinct than the varieties listed above:


title: Hmong language

text: In the 2007 request to establish an ISO code for the Chuanqiandian cluster, corresponding to the "first local dialect" () of the Chuanqiandian cluster in Chinese, the proposer made the following statement on mutual intelligibility:


title: Hmong language

text: According to the CDC, "although there is no official preference for one dialect over the other, White Hmong seems to be favored in many ways": the Romanized Popular Alphabet (RPA) most closely reflects that of White Hmong ("Hmong Daw"); most educated Hmong speak White Hmong because White Hmong people lack the ability to understand Mong Leng; and most Hmong dictionaries only include the White Hmong dialect. Moreover, younger generations of Hmong are more likely to speak White Hmong, and speakers of Mong Leng are more likely have the ability to understand White Hmong than speakers of White Hmong are to understand Mong Leng.


title: Hmong language

text: Most Hmong in the United States speak the White Hmong ("Hmong Daw") and Mong Leeg ("Moob Leeg") dialects, with about sixty percent speaking White Hmong and about forty percent Mong Leeg. The CDC states that "though some Hmong report difficulty understanding speakers of a dialect not their own, for the most part, Mong Leng seem to do better when understanding both dialects.".


title: Hmong language

text: The three dialects described here are known as Hmong Daw (also called White Miao or "Hmong Der"), Mong Leeg (also called Leng Miao or "Mong Leng"), and Dananshan (Standard Chinese Miao). Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg are the two major dialects spoken by Hmong Americans. Although mutually intelligible, the dialects differ in both lexicon and certain aspects of phonology. For instance, Mong Leeg lacks the voiceless/aspirated of Hmong Daw (as exemplified by their names) and has a third nasalized vowel, ; Dananshan has a couple of extra diphthongs in native words, numerous Chinese loans, and an eighth tone.


title: Hmong language

text: The vowel systems of Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg are as shown in the following charts. Phonemes particular to each dialect are color-coded respectively:


title: Hmong language

text: The Dananshan standard of China is similar. Phonemic differences from Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg are color-coded.


title: Hmong language

text: Dananshan occurs only after non-palatal affricates, and is written , much like Mandarin Chinese. is pronounced after palatal consonants. There is also a triphthong , as well as other i- and u-initial sequences in Chinese borrowings, such as .


title: Hmong language

text: Hmong makes a number of phonemic contrasts unfamiliar to English speakers. All non-glottal stops and affricates distinguish aspirated and unaspirated forms, most also prenasalization independently of this. The consonant inventory of Hmong is shown in the chart below. (Consonants particular to Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg are color-coded respectively.)


title: Hmong language

text: The Dananshan standard of China is similar. (Phonemic differences from Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg are color-coded. Minor differences, such as the voicing of prenasalized stops, or whether is an affricate or is velar, may be a matter of transcription.) Aspirates, voiceless fricatives, voiceless nasals, and glottal stop only occur with "yin" tones (1, 3, 5, 7). Standard orthography is added in angled brackets. Glottal stop is not written; it is not distinct from a zero initial. There is also a , which occurs only in foreign words.


title: Hmong language

text: Only used in Hmong RPA and not in Pahawh Hmong, since Hmong RPA uses Latin script and Pahawh Hmong does not. For example, in Hmong RPA, to write , the order Consonant + Vowel + Tone (CVT) must be followed, so it is "k" + "ee" + "b" = , but in Pahawh Hmong, it is just "" (2nd-Stage Version).


title: Hmong language

text: Hmong syllables have simple structure: all syllables have an onset consonant (except in a few particles), nuclei may consist of a monophthong or diphthong, and the only coda consonants that occur are nasals. In Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg, nasal codas have become nasalized vowels, though they may be accompanied by weakly articulated . Similarly, a short may accompany the low-falling creaky tone.


title: Hmong language

text: Hmong is a tonal language and makes use of seven (Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg) or eight (Dananshan) distinct tones.


title: Hmong language

text: The Dananshan tones are transcribed as pure tone. However, given how similar several of them are, it is likely that there are also phonational differences as in Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg. Tones 4 and 6, for example, are said to make tenuis plosives breathy voiced (浊送气), suggesting they may be breathy/murmured like the Hmong "g"-tone. Tones 7 and 8 are used in early Chinese loans with entering tone, suggesting they may once have marked checked syllables.


title: Hmong language

text: Because voiceless consonants apart from tenuis plosives are restricted to appearing before certain tones (1, 3, 5, 7), those are placed first in the table:


title: Hmong language

text: So much information is conveyed by the tones that it is possible to speak intelligibly using musical tunes only; there is a tradition of young lovers communicating covertly this way by playing on a jew's harp (though this method may only convey vowel sounds).


title: Hmong language

text: Robert Cooper, an anthropologist, collected a Hmong folktale saying that the Hmong used to have a written language, and important information was written down in a treasured book. The folktale explains that cows and rats ate the book, so, in the words of Anne Fadiman, author of "The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down", "no text was equal to the task of representing a culture as rich as that of the Hmong." Therefore, the folktale states that the Hmong language was exclusively oral from that point onwards.


title: Hmong language

text: Natalie Jill Smith, author of "Ethnicity, Reciprocity, Reputation and Punishment: An Ethnoexperimental Study of Cooperation among the Chaldeans and Hmong of Detroit (Michigan)", wrote that the Qing Dynasty had caused a previous Hmong writing system to die out when it stated that the death penalty would be imposed on those who wrote it down.


title: Hmong language

text: Since the end of the 19th century, linguists created over two dozen Hmong writing systems, including systems using Chinese characters, the Lao alphabet, the Russian alphabet, the Thai alphabet, and the Vietnamese alphabet. In addition, in 1959 Shong Lue Yang, a Hmong spiritual leader from Laos, created an 81 symbol writing system called Pahawh. Yang was not previously literate in any language. Chao Fa, an anti-Laotian government Hmong group, uses this writing system.


title: Hmong language

text: In the 1980s, Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong script was created by a Hmong Minister, Reverend Chervang Kong Vang, to be able to capture Hmong vocabulary clearly and also to remedy redundancies in the language as well as address semantic confusions that was lacking in other scripts. Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong script was mainly used by United Christians Liberty Evangelical Church, a church also founded by Vang, although the script have been found to be in use in Laos, Thailand, Vietnam, France, and Australia. The script bears strong resemblance to the Lao alphabet in structure and form and characters inspired from the Hebrew alphabets, although the characters themselves are different.


title: Hmong language

text: The Romanized Popular Alphabet (RPA), the most widely used script for Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg, was developed in Laos between 1951 and 1953 by three Western missionaries. In the United States Hmong do not use RPA for spelling of proper nouns, because they want their names to be easily pronounced by people unfamiliar with RPA. For instance Hmong in the U.S. spell "Hmoob" as "Hmong," and "Liab Lis" is spelled as Lia Lee.


title: Hmong language

text: The Dananshan standard in China is written in a pinyin-based alphabet, with tone letters similar to those used in RPA.


title: Hmong language

text: The following is a list of pairs of RPA and Dananshan segments having the same sound (or very similar sounds). Note however that RPA and the standard in China not only differ in orthographic rules, but are also used to write different languages. The list is ordered alphabetically by the RPA, apart from prenasalized stops and voiceless sonorants, which come after their oral and voiced homologues. There are three overriding patterns to the correspondences: RPA doubles a vowel for nasalization, whereas pinyin uses ; RPA uses for aspiration, whereas pinyin uses the voicing distinction of the Latin script; pinyin uses (and ) to derive the retroflex and uvular series from the dental and velar, whereas RPA uses sequences based on vs. for the same.


title: Hmong language

text: There is no simple correspondence between the tone letters. The historical connection between the tones is as follows. The Chinese names reflect the tones given to early Chinese loan words with those tones in Chinese.


title: Hmong language

text: Example: "lus Hmoob" /̤ lṳ˧˩ m̥̥õ˦ / / (White Hmong) / "lug Moob" / / (Mong Leng) / "lol Hmongb" (Dananshan) / "lus Hmôngz" (Vietnamese) "Hmong language".


title: Hmong language

text: Hmong is an analytic SVO language in which adjectives and demonstratives follow the noun. Noun phrases can contain the following elements (parentheses indicate optional elements):


title: Hmong language

text: The Hmong pronominal system distinguishes between three grammatical persons and three numbers – singular, dual, and plural. They are not marked for case, that is, the same word is used to translate both "I" and "me", "she" and "her", and so forth. These are the personal pronouns of Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg:


title: Hmong language

text: Hmong is an isolating language in which most morphemes are monosyllables. As a result, verbs are not overtly inflected. Tense, aspect, mood, person, number, gender, and case are indicated lexically.


title: Hmong language

text: Hmong verbs can be serialized, with two or more verbs combined in one clause. It is common for as many as five verbs to be strung together, sharing the same subject.


title: Hmong language

text: Because the verb form in Hmong does not change to indicate tense, the simplest way to indicate the time of an event is to use temporal adverb phrases like "last year," "today," or "next week."


title: Hmong language

text: "Taab/tab tom" + verb can also be used to indicate a situation that is about to start. That is clearest when "taab/tab" tom occurs in conjunction with the irrealis marker "yuav". Note that the "taab tom" construction is not used if it is clear from the context that a situation is ongoing or about to begin.


title: Hmong language

text: Another common way to indicate the accomplishment of an action or attainment is by using "tau", which, as a main verb, means 'to get/obtain.' It takes on different connotations when it is combined with other verbs. When it occurs before the main verb (i.e. "tau" + verb), it conveys the attainment or fulfillment of a situation. Whether the situation took place in the past, the present, or the future is indicated at the discourse level rather than the sentence level. If the event took place in the past, "tau" + verb translates to the past tense in English.


title: Hmong language

text: "Tau" is optional if an explicit past time marker is present (e.g. "nag hmo", last night). "Tau" can also mark the fulfillment of a situation in the future:


title: Hmong language

text: When "tau" follows the main verb (i.e. verb + "tau"), it indicates the accomplishment of the purpose of an action.


title: Hmong language

text: "Tau" is also common in serial verb constructions that are made up of a verb, followed by an accomplishment: (White Hmong) "nrhiav tau", to look for; "caum tau", to chase; "yug tau", to give birth.


title: Hmong language

text: "Yuav" + verb may also be seen as indicative of the irrealis mood, for situations that are unfulfilled or unrealized. That includes hypothetical or non-occurring situations with past, present, or future time references:


title: Hmong language

text: Many Hmong, and non-Hmong people who are learning the Hmong language, tends to used the word ""Xim"" (Thai/Lao word) to indicate a specific color. While the true Hmong word for color is ""Kob"". For example, ""Kuv nyiam kob ntsuab";" meaning ""I like the color green / I" "like the green color"""."


title: Hmong language

text: A sentence like, ""Today is Monday"" would be translated as ""Hnub no yog zwj hli"", and not ""Hnub no yog hnub ib/Monday"" in Hmong.


title: Hmong language

text: In 2012 McDonald's introduced its first Hmong language advertising in the United States on a commercial billboard in Saint Paul, Minnesota. However it was unintelligible to Hmong speakers due to an incorrect translation. Google Translate introduced support for Hmong Daw (referred to only as "Hmong") in May 2013.


title: Hmong language

text: The 2008 film Gran Torino by Clint Eastwood features a large American Hmong speaking cast. The screenplay was written in English and the actors improvised the Hmong parts of the script. The decision to cast Hmong actors received a positive reception in Hmong communities. The film also gained recognition and collected awards such as the Ten Best Films of 2008 from the American Film Institute and a César Award in France for Best Foreign Film.


title: Chung Ju-yung

text: Chung Ju-yung or Jung Joo-young (; November 25, 1915 – March 21, 2001), was a South Korean entrepreneur, businessman and the founder of Hyundai Groups, one of the largest chaebols in South Korea. Raised as the eldest son of a poor Korean farmer, he became the richest man in South Korea. Chung was an integral part to the rapid development of Korea's economy, growing Hyundai Heavy Industries to be the largest ship builder in the world, as well as growing Hyundai Motor Group into the largest automobile manufacturer in Korea, and the third largest in the world. Chung was also a vital contributor to the development of South Korea's infrastructure after the Korean War's destruction of infrastructure, such as constructing the Gyeongbu Expressway in 1970, connecting the capital, Seoul, to the port city of Busan, in alliance with the President Park Chung Hee.


title: Chung Ju-yung

text: Chung's business ventures steered through the tumultuous times of Japanese colonial rule in Korea as well as the post-Korean War stresses on the economy.


title: Chung Ju-yung

text: Chung explained his success in his statement: "Our people succeeded because they devoted their enterprising spirits. They used the forces of other mind. Conviction ... creates indomitable efforts. This is the key to (true) miracles ... Man's potential is limitless."


title: Chung Ju-yung

text: Chung Ju-yung was born in Tongchon, Kangwondo, Chōsen (today located in Kangwon Province in North Korea). Born to a large impoverished family of peasants, he was the eldest of seven children. As a young boy, Chung dreamed of becoming a school teacher, but his hopes were cut short because the restrictive environment at the time kept the family stuck in poverty, effectively keeping Chung away from higher educational opportunities. Despite the setbacks, Chung was able to attend a local Confucian school run by his grandfather whenever his time was not taken up by tasks on the family farm.


title: Chung Ju-yung

text: Chung's talent for business became apparent during his trips into town where he would sell wood. The fast-paced atmosphere of the town along with the articles in newspapers Chung read sparked his imagination; he soon grew tired of the poverty that he and his family had to endure.


title: Chung Ju-yung

text: At the age of sixteen, Chung and a friend decided to travel to the city of Seishin (Chongjin, currently in North Korea) for work in hopes of escaping the harsh realities of farm life. After a 15-mile trek through the most dangerous parts of the Paechun valley, the pair reached the town of Kōgen (Kowon, currently in North Korea) where they took up jobs as construction workers. They worked long hours for low pay but Chung enjoyed the fact that he could earn money independently. Chung and his friend continued the work for two months until Chung's father learned of their whereabouts.


title: Chung Ju-yung

text: The journey that Chung and his friend had embarked on made him realize his passion for civil engineering and gave him a sense of accomplishment. Once he returned to his home village of Gasan-ri in Tsūsen-gun, he devised another escape plan: this time towards Keijō (formerly Hanseong, currently Seoul). With two companions, Chung left for Keijō in April 1933. The journey seemed destined for failure, especially since one of the boys was caught by a sibling early on. More misfortune came upon them when Chung and his friend were conned by a stranger who promised them jobs but instead took all of their money. The journey came to an end when Chung's father found the two staying at Chung's grandfather's house nearby.