title: Eta Carinae

text: The radio emission from Eta Carinae shows continuous variation in strength and distribution over a 5.5-year cycle. The H and recombination lines vary very strongly, with continuum emission (electromagnetic radiation across a broad band of wavelengths) less affected. This shows a dramatic reduction in the ionisation level of the hydrogen for a short period in each cycle, coinciding with the spectroscopic events at other wavelengths.


title: Eta Carinae

text: Eta Carinae is found within the Carina Nebula, a giant star-forming region in the Carina–Sagittarius Arm of the Milky Way. The nebula is a prominent naked eye object in the southern skies showing a complex mix of emission, reflection and dark nebulosity. Eta Carinae is known to be at the same distance as the Carina Nebula and its spectrum can be seen reflected off various star clouds in the nebula. The appearance of the Carina Nebula, and particularly of the Keyhole region, has changed significantly since it was described by John Herschel over years ago. This is thought to be due to the reduction in ionising radiation from Eta Carinae since the Great Eruption. Prior to the Great Eruption the Eta Carinae system contributed up to 20% of the total ionising flux for the whole Carina Nebula, but that is now mostly blocked by the surrounding gas and dust.


title: Eta Carinae

text: Eta Carinae lies within the scattered stars of the Trumpler 16 open cluster. All the other members are well below naked eye visibility, although WR 25 is another extremely massive luminous star. Trumpler 16 and its neighbour Trumpler 14 are the two dominant star clusters of the Carina OB1 association, an extended grouping of young luminous stars with a common motion through space.


title: Eta Carinae

text: Eta Carinae is enclosed by, and lights up, the Homunculus Nebula, a small emission and reflection nebula composed mainly of gas ejected during the Great Eruption event in the mid-19th century, as well as dust that condensed from the debris. The nebula consists of two polar lobes aligned with the rotation axis of the star, plus an equatorial "skirt", the whole being around long. Closer studies show many fine details: a "Little Homunculus" within the main nebula, probably formed by the 1890 eruption; a jet; fine streams and knots of material, especially noticeable in the skirt region; and three Weigelt Blobs—dense gas condensations very close to the star itself.


title: Eta Carinae

text: The lobes of the Homunculus are considered to be formed almost entirely due to the initial eruption, rather than shaped by or including previously ejected or interstellar material, although the scarcity of material near the equatorial plane allows some later stellar wind and ejected material to mix. Therefore, the mass of the lobes gives an accurate measure of the scale of the Great Eruption, with estimates ranging from up to as high as . The results show that the material from the Great Eruption is strongly concentrated towards the poles; 75% of the mass and 90% of the kinetic energy were released above latitude 45°.


title: Eta Carinae

text: A unique feature of the Homunculus is the ability to measure the spectrum of the central object at different latitudes by the reflected spectrum from different portions of the lobes. These clearly show a "polar wind" where the stellar wind is faster and stronger at high latitudes thought to be due to rapid rotation causing gravity brightening towards the poles. In contrast the spectrum shows a higher excitation temperature closer to the equatorial plane. By implication the outer envelope of Eta Carinae A is not strongly convective as that would prevent the gravity darkening. The current axis of rotation of the star does not appear to exactly match the alignment of the Homunculus. This may be due to interaction with Eta Carinae B which also modifies the observed stellar winds.


title: Eta Carinae

text: The distance to Eta Carinae has been determined by several different methods, resulting in a widely accepted value of , with a margin of error around . The distance to Eta Carinae itself cannot be measured using parallax due to its surrounding nebulosity, but other stars in the Trumpler 16 cluster are expected to be at a similar distance and are accessible to parallax. Gaia Data Release 2 has provided the parallax for many stars considered to be members of Trumpler 16, finding that the four hottest O-class stars in the region have very similar parallaxes with a mean value of (mas), which translates to a distance of . This implies that Eta Carinae may be more distant than previously thought, and also more luminous, although it is still possible that it is not at the same distance as the cluster or that the parallax measurements have large systematic errors.


title: Eta Carinae

text: The distances to star clusters can be estimated by using a Hertzsprung–Russell diagram or colour–colour diagram to calibrate the absolute magnitudes of the stars, for example fitting the main sequence or identifying features such as a horizontal branch, and hence their distance from Earth. It is also necessary to know the amount of interstellar extinction to the cluster and this can be difficult in regions such as the Carina Nebula. A distance of has been determined from the calibration of O-type star luminosities in Trumpler 16. After determining an abnormal reddening correction to the extinction, the distance to both Trumpler 14 and Trumpler 16 has been measured at ().


title: Eta Carinae

text: The known expansion rate of the Homunculus Nebula provides an unusual geometric method for measuring its distance. Assuming that the two lobes of the nebula are symmetrical, the projection of the nebula onto the sky depends on its distance. Values of 2,300, 2,250 and have been derived for the Homunculus, and Eta Carinae is clearly at the same distance.


title: Eta Carinae

text: The Eta Carinae star system is currently one of the most massive stars that can be studied in great detail. Until recently Eta Carinae was thought to be the most massive single star, but the system's binary nature was proposed by the Brazilian astronomer Augusto Damineli in 1996 and confirmed in 2005. Both component stars are largely obscured by circumstellar material ejected from Eta Carinae A, and basic properties such as their temperatures and luminosities can only be inferred. Rapid changes to the stellar wind in the 21st century suggest that the star itself may be revealed when dust from the great eruption finally clears.


title: Eta Carinae

text: The binary nature of Eta Carinae is clearly established, although the components have not been directly observed and cannot even be clearly resolved spectroscopically due to scattering and re-excitation in the surrounding nebulosity. Periodic photometric and spectroscopic variations prompted the search for a companion, and modelling of the colliding winds and partial "eclipses" of some spectroscopic features have constrained the possible orbits.


title: Eta Carinae

text: The period of the orbit is accurately known at 5.539 years, although this has changed over time due to mass loss and accretion. Between the Great Eruption and the smaller 1890 eruption, the orbital period was apparently 5.52 years, while before the Great Eruption it may have been lower still, possibly between 4.8 and 5.4 years. The orbital separation is only known approximately, with a semi-major axis of 15–16 AU. The orbit is highly eccentric, e = 0.9. This means that the separation of the stars varies from around 1.6 AU, similar to the distance of Mars from the Sun, to 30 AU, similar to the distance of Neptune.


title: Eta Carinae

text: Perhaps the most valuable use of an accurate orbit for a binary star system is to directly calculate the masses of the stars. This requires the dimensions and inclination of the orbit to be accurately known. The dimensions of Eta Carinae's orbit are only known approximately as the stars cannot be directly and separately observed. The inclination has been modelled at 130–145 degrees, but the orbit is still not known accurately enough to provide the masses of the two components.


title: Eta Carinae

text: Eta Carinae A is classified as a luminous blue variable (LBV) due to the distinctive spectral and brightness variations. This type of variable star is characterised by irregular changes from a high temperature quiescent state to a low temperature outburst state at roughly constant luminosity. LBVs in the quiescent state lie on a narrow instability strip, with more luminous stars being hotter. In outburst all LBVs have about the same temperature, which is near 8,000 K. LBVs in a normal outburst are visually brighter than when quiescent although the bolometric luminosity is unchanged.


title: Eta Carinae

text: An event similar to Eta Carinae A's Great Eruption has been observed in only one other star in the Milky Way——and in a handful of other possible LBVs in other galaxies. None of them seem to be quite as violent as Eta Carinae's. It is unclear if this is something that only a very few of the most massive LBVs undergo, something that is caused by a close companion star, or a very brief but common phase for massive stars. Some similar events in external galaxies have been mistaken for supernovae and have been called supernova impostors, although this grouping may also include other types of non-terminal transients that approach the brightness of a supernova.


title: Eta Carinae

text: Eta Carinae A is not a typical LBV. It is more luminous than any other LBV in the Milky Way although possibly comparable to other supernova impostors detected in external galaxies. It does not currently lie on the S Doradus instability strip, although it is unclear what the temperature or spectral type of the underlying star actually is, and during its Great Eruption it was much cooler than a typical LBV outburst, with a middle-G spectral type. The 1890 eruption may have been fairly typical of LBV eruptions, with an early F spectral type, and it has been estimated that the star may currently have an opaque stellar wind, forming a pseudo-photosphere with a temperature of 9,000–.


title: Eta Carinae

text: Eta Carinae B is a massive luminous hot star, about which little else is known. From certain high excitation spectral lines that ought not to be produced by the primary, Eta Carinae B is thought to be a young O-type star. Most authors suggest it is a somewhat evolved star such as a supergiant or giant, although a Wolf–Rayet star cannot be ruled out.


title: Eta Carinae

text: The masses of stars are difficult to measure except by determination of a binary orbit. Eta Carinae is a binary system, but certain key information about the orbit is not known accurately. The mass can be strongly constrained to be greater than , due to the high luminosity. Standard models of the system assume masses of and for the primary and secondary, respectively. Higher masses have been suggested, to model the energy output and mass transfer of the Great Eruption, with a combined system mass of over before the Great Eruption. Eta Carinae A has clearly lost a great deal of mass since it formed, and it is thought that it was initially , although it may have formed through binary merger. Masses of for the primary and for the secondary best-fit one-mass-transfer model of the Great Eruption event.


title: Eta Carinae

text: Mass loss is one of the most intensively studied aspects of massive star research. Put simply, calculated mass loss rates in the best models of stellar evolution do not reproduce the observed properties of evolved massive stars such as Wolf–Rayets, the number and types of core collapse supernovae, or their progenitors. To match those observations, the models require much higher mass loss rates. Eta Carinae A has one of the highest known mass loss rates, currently around /year, and is an obvious candidate for study.


title: Eta Carinae

text: Eta Carinae A is losing a lot of mass due to its extreme luminosity and relatively low surface gravity. Its stellar wind is entirely opaque and appears as a pseudo-photosphere; this optically dense surface hides any true physical surface of the star that may be present. (At extreme rates of radiative mass loss, the density gradient of lofted material may become continuous enough that a meaningfully discrete physical surface may not exist.) During the Great Eruption the mass loss rate was a thousand times higher, around /year sustained for ten years or more. The total mass loss during the eruption was at least with much of it now forming the Homunculus Nebula. The smaller 1890 eruption produced the "Little Homunculus Nebula", much smaller and only about . The bulk of the mass loss occurs in a wind with a terminal velocity of about 420 km/s, but some material is seen at higher velocities, up to 3,200 km/s, possibly material blown from the accretion disk by the secondary star.


title: Eta Carinae

text: Eta Carinae B is presumably also losing mass via a thin, fast stellar wind, but this cannot be detected directly. Models of the radiation observed from interactions between the winds of the two stars show a mass loss rate of the order of /year at speeds of 3,000 km/s, typical of a hot O-class star. For a portion of the highly eccentric orbit, it may actually gain material from the primary via an accretion disk. During the Great Eruption of the primary, the secondary could have accreted , producing strong jets which formed the bipolar shape of the Homunculus Nebula.


title: Eta Carinae

text: The stars of the Eta Carinae system are completely obscured by dust and opaque stellar winds, with much of the ultraviolet and visual radiation shifted to infrared. The total electromagnetic radiation across all wavelengths for both stars combined is several million solar luminosities (). The best estimate for the luminosity of the primary is making it one of the most luminous stars in the Milky Way. The luminosity of Eta Carinae B is particularly uncertain, probably and almost certainly no more than .


title: Eta Carinae

text: The most notable feature of Eta Carinae is its giant eruption or supernova impostor event, which originated in the primary star and was observed around 1843. In a few years, it produced almost as much visible light as a faint supernova explosion, but the star survived. It is estimated that at peak brightness the luminosity was as high as . Other supernova impostors have been seen in other galaxies, for example the possible false supernova SN 1961V in NGC 1058 and SN 2006jc's pre-explosion outburst in UGC 4904.


title: Eta Carinae

text: Following the Great Eruption, Eta Carinae became self-obscured by the ejected material, resulting in dramatic reddening. This has been estimated at four magnitudes at visual wavelengths, meaning the post-eruption luminosity was comparable to the luminosity when first identified. Eta Carinae is still much brighter at infrared wavelengths, despite the presumed hot stars behind the nebulosity. The recent visual brightening is considered to be largely caused by a decrease in the extinction, due to thinning dust or a reduction in mass loss, rather than an underlying change in the luminosity.


title: Eta Carinae

text: Until late in the 20th century, the temperature of Eta Carinae was assumed to be over 30,000 K because of the presence of high-excitation spectral lines, but other aspects of the spectrum suggested much lower temperatures and complex models were created to account for this. It is now known that the Eta Carinae system consists of at least two stars, both with strong stellar winds and a shocked colliding wind (wind-wind collision or WWC) zone, embedded within a dusty nebula that reprocesses 90% of the electromagnetic radiation into the mid and far infrared. All of these features have different temperatures.


title: Eta Carinae

text: The powerful stellar winds from the two stars collide in a roughly conical WWC zone and produce temperatures as high as at the apex between the two stars. This zone is the source of the hard X-rays and gamma rays close to the stars. Near periastron, as the secondary ploughs through ever denser regions of the primary wind, the colliding wind zone becomes distorted into a spiral trailing behind Eta Carinae B.


title: Eta Carinae

text: The wind-wind collision cone separates the winds of the two stars. For 55–75° behind the secondary, there is a thin hot wind typical of O or Wolf–Rayet stars. This allows some radiation from Eta Carinae B to be detected and its temperature can be estimated with some accuracy due to spectral lines that are unlikely to be produced by any other source. Although the secondary star has never been directly observed, there is widespread agreement on models where it has a temperature between 37,000 K and 41,000 K.


title: Eta Carinae

text: In all other directions on the other side of the wind-wind collision zone, there is the wind from Eta Carinae A, cooler and around 100 times denser than Eta Carinae B's wind. It is also optically dense, completely obscuring anything resembling a true photosphere and rendering any definition of its temperature moot. The observable radiation originates from a pseudo-photosphere where the optical density of the wind drops to near zero, typically measured at a particular Rossland opacity value such as . This pseudo-photosphere is observed to be elongated and hotter along the presumed axis of rotation.


title: Eta Carinae

text: Eta Carinae A is likely to have appeared as an early B hypergiant with a temperature of between 20,000 K and 25,000 K at the time of its discovery by Halley. An effective temperature determined for the surface of a spherical optically thick wind at would be 9,400–15,000 K, while the temperature of a theoretical hydrostatic "core" at optical depth 150 would be 35,200 K. The effective temperature of the visible outer edge of the opaque primary wind is generally treated as being 15,000–25,000 K on the basis of visual and ultraviolet spectral features assumed to be directly from the wind or reflected via the Weigelt Blobs. During the great eruption, Eta Carinae A was much cooler at around 5,000 K.


title: Eta Carinae

text: The Homunculus contains dust at temperatures varying from 150 K to 400 K. This is the source of almost all the infrared radiation that makes Eta Carinae such a bright object at those wavelengths.


title: Eta Carinae

text: Further out, expanding gases from the Great Eruption collide with interstellar material and are heated to around , producing less energetic X-rays seen in a horseshoe or ring shape.


title: Eta Carinae

text: The size of the two main stars in the Eta Carinae system is difficult to determine precisely because neither star can be seen directly. Eta Carinae B is likely to have a well-defined photosphere and its radius can be estimated from the assumed type of star. An O supergiant of with a temperature of 37,200 K has an effective radius of .


title: Eta Carinae

text: The size of Eta Carinae A is not even well defined. It has an optically dense stellar wind so the typical definition of a star's surface being approximately where it becomes opaque gives a very different result to where a more traditional definition of a surface might be. One study calculated a radius of for a hot "core" of 35,000 K at optical depth 150, near the sonic point or very approximately what might be called a physical surface. At optical depth 0.67 the radius would be , indicating an extended optically thick stellar wind. At the peak of the Great Eruption the radius, so far as such a thing is meaningful during such a violent expulsion of material, would have been around , comparable to the largest-known red supergiants, including VY Canis Majoris.


title: Eta Carinae

text: The stellar sizes should be compared with their orbital separation, which is only around at periastron. The accretion radius of the secondary is around , suggesting strong accretion near periastron leading to a collapse of the secondary wind. It has been proposed that the initial brightening from 4th magnitude to 1st at relatively constant bolometric luminosity was a normal LBV outburst, albeit from an extreme example of the class. Then the companion star passing through the expanded photosphere of the primary at periastron triggered the further brightening, increase in luminosity, and extreme mass loss of the Great Eruption.


title: Eta Carinae

text: Rotation rates of massive stars have a critical influence on their evolution and eventual death. The rotation rate of the Eta Carinae stars cannot be measured directly because their surfaces cannot be seen. Single massive stars spin down quickly due to braking from their strong winds, but there are hints that both Eta Carinae A and B are fast rotators, up to 90% of critical velocity. One or both could have been spun up by binary interaction, for example accretion onto the secondary and orbital dragging on the primary.


title: Eta Carinae

text: Two eruptions have been observed from Eta Carinae, the Great Eruption of the mid-19th century and the Lesser Eruption of 1890. In addition, studies of outlying nebulosity suggest at least one earlier eruption around 1250 AD. A further eruption may have occurred around 1550 AD, although it is possible that the material indicating this eruption is actually from the Great Eruption slowed down by colliding with older nebulosity. The mechanism producing these eruptions is unknown. It is not even clear whether the eruptions involve explosive events or so-called super-Eddington winds, an extreme form of stellar wind involving very high mass loss induced by an increase in the luminosity of the star. The energy source for the explosions or luminosity increase is also unknown.


title: Eta Carinae

text: Theories about the various eruptions must account for: repeating events, at least three eruptions of various sizes; ejecting or more without destroying the star; the highly unusual shape and expansion rates of the ejected material; and the light curve during the eruptions involving a brightness increases of several magnitudes over a period of decades. The best-studied event is the Great Eruption. As well as photometry during the 19th century, light echoes observed in the 21st century give further information about the progression of the eruption, showing a brightening with multiple peaks for approximately 20 years, followed by a plateau period in the 1850s. The light echoes show that the outflow of material during the plateau phase was much higher than before the peak of the eruption. Possible explanations for the eruptions include: a binary merger in what was then a triple system; mass transfer from Eta Carinae B during periastron passages; or a pulsational pair-instability explosion.


title: Eta Carinae

text: Eta Carinae is a unique object, with no very close analogues currently known in any galaxy. Therefore, its future evolution is highly uncertain, but almost certainly involves further mass loss and an eventual supernova.


title: Eta Carinae

text: Eta Carinae A would have begun life as an extremely hot star on the main sequence, already a highly luminous object over . The exact properties would depend on the initial mass, which is expected to have been at least and possibly much higher. A typical spectrum when first formed would be O2If and the star would be mostly or fully convective due to CNO cycle fusion at the very high core temperatures. Sufficiently massive or differentially rotating stars undergo such strong mixing that they remain chemically homogeneous during core hydrogen burning.


title: Eta Carinae

text: As core hydrogen burning progresses, a very massive star would slowly expand and become more luminous, becoming a blue hypergiant and eventually an LBV while still fusing hydrogen in the core. When hydrogen at the core is depleted after 2–2.5 million years, hydrogen shell burning continues with further increases in size and luminosity, although hydrogen shell burning in chemically homogeneous stars may be very brief or absent since the entire star would become depleted of hydrogen. In the late stages of hydrogen burning, mass loss is extremely high due to the high luminosity and enhanced surface abundances of helium and nitrogen. As hydrogen burning ends and core helium burning begins, massive stars transition very rapidly to the Wolf–Rayet stage with little or no hydrogen, increased temperatures and decreased luminosity. They are likely to have lost over half their initial mass at this point.


title: Eta Carinae

text: It is unclear whether triple-alpha helium fusion has started at the core of Eta Carinae A. The elemental abundances at the surface cannot be accurately measured, but ejecta within the Homunculus are around 60% hydrogen and 40% helium, with nitrogen enhanced to ten times solar levels. This is indicative of ongoing CNO cycle hydrogen fusion.


title: Eta Carinae

text: Models of the evolution and death of single very massive stars predict an increase in temperature during helium core burning, with the outer layers of the star being lost. It becomes a Wolf–Rayet star on the nitrogen sequence, moving from WNL to WNE as more of the outer layers are lost, possibly reaching the WC or WO spectral class as carbon and oxygen from the triple alpha process reach the surface. This process would continue with heavier elements being fused until an iron core develops, at which point the core collapses and the star is destroyed. Subtle differences in initial conditions, in the models themselves, and most especially in the rates of mass loss, produce different predictions for the final state of the most massive stars. They may survive to become a helium-stripped star or they may collapse at an earlier stage while they retain more of their outer layers. The lack of sufficiently luminous WN stars and the discovery of apparent LBV supernova progenitors has also prompted the suggestion that certain types of LBVs explode as a supernova without evolving further.


title: Eta Carinae

text: Eta Carinae is a close binary and this complicates the evolution of both stars. Compact massive companions can strip mass from larger primary stars much more quickly than would occur in a single star, so the properties at core collapse can be very different. In some scenarios, the secondary can accrue significant mass, accelerating its evolution, and in turn be stripped by the now compact Wolf–Rayet primary. In the case of Eta Carinae, the secondary is clearly causing additional instability in the primary, making it difficult to predict future developments.


title: Eta Carinae

text: The overwhelming probability is that the next supernova observed in the Milky Way will originate from an unknown white dwarf or anonymous red supergiant, very likely not even visible to the naked eye. Nevertheless, the prospect of a supernova originating from an object as extreme, nearby, and well studied as Eta Carinae arouses great interest.


title: Eta Carinae

text: As a single star, a star originally around 150 times as massive as the Sun would typically reach core collapse as a Wolf–Rayet star within 3 million years. At low metallicity, many massive stars will collapse directly to a black hole with no visible explosion or a sub-luminous supernova, and a small fraction will produce a pair-instability supernova, but at solar metallicity and above there is expected to be sufficient mass loss before collapse to allow a visible supernova of type Ib or Ic. If there is still a large amount of expelled material close to the star, the shock formed by the supernova explosion impacting the circumstellar material can efficiently convert kinetic energy to radiation, resulting in a superluminous supernova (SLSN) or hypernova, several times more luminous than a typical core collapse supernova and much longer-lasting. Highly massive progenitors may also eject sufficient nickel to cause a SLSN simply from the radioactive decay. The resulting remnant would be a black hole since it is highly unlikely such a massive star could ever lose sufficient mass for its core not to exceed the limit for a neutron star.


title: Eta Carinae

text: The existence of a massive companion brings many other possibilities. If Eta Carinae A was rapidly stripped of its outer layers, it might be a less massive WC- or WO-type star when core collapse was reached. This would result in a type Ib or type Ic supernova due to the lack of hydrogen and possibly helium. This supernova type is thought to be the originator of certain classes of gamma-ray bursts, but models predict they occur only normally in less massive stars.


title: Eta Carinae

text: Several unusual supernovae and impostors have been compared to Eta Carinae as examples of its possible fate. One of the most compelling is SN 2009ip, a blue supergiant which underwent a supernova impostor event in 2009 with similarities to Eta Carinae's Great Eruption, then an even brighter outburst in 2012 which is likely to have been a true supernova. SN 2006jc, some 77 million light-years away in UGC 4904, in the constellation Lynx, also underwent a supernova impostor brightening in 2004, followed by a magnitude 13.8 type Ib supernova, first seen on 9 October 2006. Eta Carinae has also been compared to other possible supernova impostors such as SN 1961V and iPTF14hls, and to superluminous supernovae such as SN 2006gy.


title: Eta Carinae

text: A typical core collapse supernova at the distance of Eta Carinae would peak at an apparent magnitude around −4, similar to Venus. A SLSN could be five magnitudes brighter, potentially the brightest supernova in recorded history (currently SN 1006). At 7,500 light-years from the star it is unlikely to directly affect terrestrial lifeforms, as they will be protected from gamma rays by the atmosphere and from some other cosmic rays by the magnetosphere. The main damage would be restricted to the upper atmosphere, the ozone layer, spacecraft, including satellites and any astronauts in space.


title: Eta Carinae

text: At least one paper has projected that complete loss of the Earth's ozone layer is a plausible consequence of a "nearby" supernova, which would result in a significant increase in UV radiation reaching Earth's surface from the Sun, but this would require a typical supernova to be closer than 50 light-years from Earth, and even a potential hypernova would need to be closer than Eta Carinae. Another analysis of the possible impact discusses more subtle effects from the unusual illumination, such as possible melatonin suppression with resulting insomnia and increased risk of cancer and depression. It concludes that a supernova of this magnitude would have to be much closer than Eta Carinae to have any type of major impact on Earth.


title: Eta Carinae

text: Eta Carinae is not expected to produce a gamma-ray burst, and its axis is not currently aimed near Earth. The Earth's atmosphere protects its inhabitants from all the radiation apart from UV light (it is opaque to gamma rays, which have to be observed using space telescopes). The main effect would result from damage to the ozone layer. Eta Carinae is too far away to do that even if it did produce a gamma-ray burst.


title: Supernatural (season 13)

text: The thirteenth season of "Supernatural", an American dark fantasy television series created by Eric Kripke, premiered on October 12, 2017, on The CW and concluded on May 17, 2018. The season consists of 23 episodes and aired on Thursdays at 8:00 pm (ET). This is the second season with Andrew Dabb and Robert Singer as showrunners.


title: Supernatural (season 13)

text: This season featured a backdoor pilot to a possible spin-off series called "Wayward Sisters", starring Kim Rhodes as Sheriff Jody Mills, Briana Buckmaster as Sheriff Donna Hanscum, Kathryn Newton as Claire Novak, Katherine Ramdeen as Alex Jones, Clark Backo as Patience Turner and Yadira Guevara-Prip as Kaia Nieves. The spin-off was ultimately not chosen to move forward as a series. The season also featured an animated crossover episode with "Scooby-Doo". The season follows Sam and Dean who, after locating and saving Lucifer's offspring, try to use his powers to find a way back to the Apocalypse World, and save their mother, Mary.


title: Supernatural (season 13)

text: "Supernatural" was renewed for a thirteenth season by The CW on January 8, 2017. This season is the first season not to feature Mark A. Sheppard as Crowley since his introduction in the fifth season, as the actor announced in May 2017 he would not be returning after his character was killed off for the last time. Alexander Calvert, who was introduced as Jack in the twelfth season finale, was promoted to series regular for this season.


title: Supernatural (season 13)

text: The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports a 100% approval rating for "Supernatural"'s thirteenth season, with an average rating of 7.87/10 based on 7 reviews.


title: TomSka

text: Thomas James Ridgewell (born 27 June 1990), known online as TomSka, is a British filmmaker, actor, content creator, and vlogger. He is known for writing, directing, producing, and starring in his live-action sketch comedy YouTube videos and animated web-series such as "asdfmovie" ( ), "Eddsworld" and "Crash Zoom". , his YouTube channel has over 7.13 million subscribers, and his videos have garnered over 1.9 billion views.


title: TomSka

text: As a child, Ridgewell made short films using his parents' video camera. Shortly after YouTube was established, Ridgewell created CakeBomb, a website where he posted his projects, including his animated web series "asdfmovie" and his friend Edd Gould's "Eddsworld". Ridgewell graduated from the University of Lincoln where he studied Media Production, and whilst studying created a series of unofficial advertisements for the university which received millions of views and were also featured on the BBC.


title: TomSka

text: As a professional YouTuber, Ridgewell earns money from revenue from his videos on the website. He has been discussed and interviewed about this, especially when the medium of online video was in its infancy. He has appeared as a guest on the BBC's "The One Show" and created short films for Comedy Central.


title: TomSka

text: In October 2007, Ridgewell created a secondary channel called DarkSquidge (currently known as TomSka & Friends). , the channel has over 1.38 million subscribers and over 191 million views. While his main channel consists of sketch comedy and animations, The "TomSka & Friends" channel shows behind-the-scenes footage of TomSka-related projects and videos, as well as vlogging. Ridgewell also engages in social commentary, covering topics like mental health, sexual health, and body positivity. From April 2016 to February 2018, he uploaded weekly vlogs to the channel in a series named "Last Week".


title: TomSka

text: In 2008, Ridgewell released the first episode of "asdfmovie", an animated sketch comedy series featuring short clips of minimalist characters in surreal and occasionally darkly humorous situations. The "asdf" part of the name originates from the first four characters of the second row of letters on the "QWERTY" keyboard layout. The song "Beep Beep I'm a Sheep" by Canadian musician LilDeuceDeuce with vocals by Ridgewell and Gabriel Brown, released alongside "asdfmovie10", was featured in the dance rhythm game "Just Dance 2018". A book based on the "asdfmovie" series, titled "Art is Dead: the asdf book", was written by Ridgewell, illustrated by Matt Ley and published by Little Brown on 22 October 2015. A second book titled "Sam Kills Christmas", written by Ridgewell and Eddie Bowley with illustrations by Dorina Herdewijn, was released on 8 November 2018.


title: TomSka

text: In 2012, Ridgewell founded the media production company TurboPunch Ltd., located in London. He currently works there alongside co-writer Eddie Bowley and video editor Elliot Gough. Ridgewell also became the producer of "Eddsworld" after the show's creator, Edd Gould, died of leukaemia. He left the series in 2016, relinquishing the show to animator Matt Hargreaves.


title: TomSka

text: In February 2013, Ridgewell was featured on the cover of Wired UK as part of a feature titled "How YouTube Reinvented the Entertainment Business". In May 2013, he was featured in YouTube's first "Comedy Week" as a guest host for its "Geek Week" series in August.


title: TomSka

text: In 2014, Ridgewell, in collaboration with video game developer Pixel Spill Studios, created the game "KatataK", a side-scrolling shoot 'em up for iOS and Android devices. In September 2014, the BBC announced Ridgewell would appear as a guest presenter on the "Dan and Phil Show" on BBC Radio 1.


title: TomSka

text: In May 2018, Ridgewell uploaded "The Muffin Song", a spin-off song of his "asdfmovie" series, in collaboration with Schmoyoho. , the video has garnered over 200 million views.


title: TomSka

text: In 2019, Ridgewell developed a card game based on "asdfmovie" in collaboration with Big Potato Games called "Muffin Time: The Random Card Game". He raised over £1,000,000 for the game on Kickstarter.


title: TomSka

text: Ridgewell's twin sister, Amelia, died prenatally after their mother sustained injuries in a car accident.


title: TomSka

text: He was raised a Jehovah's Witness but no longer practices this faith. Despite this, he has expressed belief in a higher power.


title: TomSka

text: Though not primarily a musician by trade, Ridgewell has played bass guitar in multiple videos, including "Guitar Warfare" and "Mine Turtle" as a featured artist with LilDeuceDeuce.


title: TomSka

text: He endorsed the Labour Party in the 2017 United Kingdom general election and expressed his opposition to both Brexit and the Conservative Party.


title: Visvesvaraya Technological University

text: Visvesvaraya Technological University (VTU), previously spelled Visveswaraiah Technological University, is a collegiate public state university in Belagavi, Karnataka established by the Government of Karnataka. All colleges in the State of Karnataka imparting education in Engineering or Technology, except those that have the consent of VTU and sanction of the Government, are required to be affiliated with Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. The university is named after Sir M. Visvesvaraya, an Indian civil engineer, statesman and the 19th Diwan of Mysore.


title: Visvesvaraya Technological University

text: VTU is one of the largest technical university which provide opportunities for engineering students and management students.


title: Visvesvaraya Technological University

text: Visvesvaraya Technological University (VTU) was established by the Government of Karnataka on 1 April 1998 with its headquarters at Belagavi, as per the provisions of the Visvesvaraya Technological University Act, 1994, an Act to establish and incorporate a university in the State of Karnataka for the development of engineering, technology and allied sciences. For effective administration, four regional offices at the four revenue divisional headquarters, namely, Belagavi, Bangalore, Mysore and Gulbarga were established. VTU was established by the Government in order to promote planned and sustainable development of technical education consistent with state and national policies and bringing various colleges affiliated earlier to different universities, with different syllabi, different procedures and different traditions under one umbrella.


title: Visvesvaraya Technological University

text: As per the provisions of the VTU Act 1994, the headquarters of the university is at Belagavi, Karnataka. The VTU headquarters is named “Jnana Sangama”. Additionally, the university has three regional centres in Bangalore, Kalaburagi and Mysore.


title: Visvesvaraya Technological University

text: Visvesvaraya Institute of Advanced Technology, also known as VIAT, is a research institute being constructed near Muddenahalli, Karnataka.


title: Visvesvaraya Technological University

text: The university also has 13 Quality Improvement Programme (QIP) centers in various affiliated colleges and 16 extension centers for offering postgraduate programs. It has around 2,305 departments recognised as research centres which are spread across its affiliated institutions in Karnataka. The Jnana Sangama, Belagavi campus and the regional and extension centres of VTU at Bangalore, Davangere, Gulbarga and Mysore offer M.Tech, MBA, MCA and PhD programs.


title: Visvesvaraya Technological University

text: VTU offers undergraduate engineering programs that award a Bachelor of Engineering (BE) or Bachelor of Technology (B.Tech.) degree. The university offers postgraduate programs that lead to Master of Technology (M.Tech.),Master of Architecture (M.Arch) Master of Science (MSc) by research, Master of Business Administration (MBA), Master of Computer Applications (MCA) and doctorate (PhD). The MSc and PhD are research degrees while the rest are taught degrees.


title: Visvesvaraya Technological University

text: The university has 12 undergraduate boards which offer Bachelor of Engineering (B.E.) programs and one undergraduate board which offers Bachelor of Architecture (BArch) course:


title: Visvesvaraya Technological University

text: Visvesvaraya Technological University accomplished its primary task of setting a common syllabus across the state in 1998. The university regularly revises the syllabus keeping in view technology upgrades around the world. The syllabus has been updated in 2002, 2006, 2010, 2014, 2015, 2017, 2018 and 2021. VTU adopted a Choice Based Credit System (CBCS) for students admitted to the university from the academic year 2015–2016. The CBCS provides a choice for students to select from the prescribed courses (i.e. core, elective, foundation and mandatory non-credit courses). As part of the new CBCS scheme, VTU also moved to a Cumulative Grade Point Average (CGPA) grading system from the previous system of awarding percentage and class to students.


title: Visvesvaraya Technological University

text: VTU has also made an internship of eight weeks mandatory for undergraduate and postgraduate engineering students in affiliated colleges.


title: Visvesvaraya Technological University

text: For students matriculating since the academic year 2015–2016, VTU adopts an absolute grading system wherein the marks are converted to grades, and every semester results are declared with a semester grade point average (SGPA) and a Cumulative Grade Point Average (CGPA). To obtain a degree, in addition to clearing all the subjects, a student must also obtain a minimum CGPA of five (5.0).


title: Visvesvaraya Technological University

text: Prior to the introduction of the Choice Based Credit System, students were awarded a percentage and a class, as defined:


title: Visvesvaraya Technological University

text: The university has signed MoUs with multinational corporations like IBM, Intel Asia Electronics Inc., Ingersoll-Rand (India) Ltd., Bangalore, Nokia, Bosch Rexroth and Microsoft to improve the industry interactions for students and teachers.


title: Visvesvaraya Technological University

text: VTU is also a member of Association of Indian Universities and Association of Commonwealth Universities.


title: Visvesvaraya Technological University

text: VTU is administered by its Executive Council and Academic Senate whose members are selected from the academic community and government officials. The present chancellor is Sri Thawar Chand Gehlot, Governor of Karnataka state and the vice-chancellor is Dr. Karisiddappa.


title: Visvesvaraya Technological University

text: As of 2021, there are 219 colleges affiliated to the university (107 under Bangalore region, 34 under Belagavi region, 18 under Gulbarga region and 60 under Mysore region). The colleges are categorised as 'government', 'private-aided' and 'private-unaided' based on the type of funding. A few colleges may be classified as 'minority linguistic' and 'minority religious' based on the minority status of languages and religions. Further, these colleges are placed under 'autonomous' and 'non-autonomous' category of institutions granted by UGC. There are 25 autonomous colleges affiliated to VTU.


title: Visvesvaraya Technological University

text: Exams are conducted twice a year for all affiliated non-autonomous colleges. Odd semester exam is conducted during December and January. Results usually published in February. Even semester exams are conducted during May/June; results are published in July.


title: Visvesvaraya Technological University

text: The university has signed MoUs with international organisations (such as CANEUS International) and multinational corporations (like IBM, Intel Asia Electronics Inc., Ingersoll-Rand (India) Ltd., Bangalore, Nokia, Bosch Rexroth and Microsoft) and has set up centres of excellence.


title: Visvesvaraya Technological University

text: Visvesvaraya Institute of Advanced Technology (VIAT) is a research institute being constructed in Muddenahalli, Karnataka. The institute is on of land near Nandi Hills and is expected to cost 600 crores. In the initial years, VIAT will focus on research in embedded technology, software quality, agricultural engineering and bioengineering. Each department will function as a 'discovery-innovation centre.' The institute will offer graduate and PhD programs in the sciences.


title: Visvesvaraya Technological University

text: The university annually organises an inter-collegiate culfest which sees participants from all its affiliated colleges.


title: The Beautiful and Damned

text: The Beautiful and Damned is a 1922 novel by American writer F. Scott Fitzgerald. Set in New York City, the novel's plot follows a young artist Anthony Patch and his flapper wife Gloria Gilbert who become "wrecked on the shoals of dissipation" while excessively partying at the dawn of the hedonistic Jazz Age. As Fitzgerald's second novel, the work focuses upon the swinish behavior and glittering excesses of the American social elite in the heyday of New York's café society.


title: The Beautiful and Damned

text: Fitzgerald modeled the characters of Anthony Patch on himself and Gloria Gilbert on his newlywed spouse Zelda Fitzgerald. The novel draws circumstantially upon the early years of Fitzgeralds' tempestuous marriage following the unexpected success of the author's first novel "This Side of Paradise". At the time of their wedding in 1920, Fitzgerald claimed neither he nor Zelda loved each other, and the early years of their marriage in New York City were more akin to a friendship.


title: The Beautiful and Damned

text: Having reflected upon the criticisms of his debut novel "This Side of Paradise", Fitzgerald sought to improve upon the form and construction of his prose in "The Beautiful and Damned" and to venture into a new genre of fiction altogether. Consequently, he revised his second novel based on editorial suggestions from his friend Edmund Wilson and his editor Max Perkins. When reviewing the manuscript, Perkins commended the conspicuous evolution of Fitzgerald's literary craftsmanship.


title: The Beautiful and Damned

text: "Metropolitan Magazine" serialized the manuscript in late 1921, and Charles Scribner's Sons published the book in March 1922. Scribner's prepared an initial print run of 20,000 copies. It sold well enough to warrant additional print runs reaching 50,000 copies. Despite the considerable sales, many critics typically consider the work to be among Fitzgerald's weaker novels. During the final decade of his life, Fitzgerald remarked upon the novel's lack of quality in a letter to his wife: "I wish "The Beautiful and Damned" had been a maturely written book because it was all true. We ruined ourselves—I have never honestly thought that we ruined each other."


title: The Beautiful and Damned

text: In 1913, Anthony Patch is a twenty-five year old Harvard University alumnus recently having returned from Rome and now residing in New York City. He is the presumptive heir to his dying grandfather's vast fortune. Through his friend Richard "Dick" Caramel, Anthony meets Gloria Gilbert, a beautiful flapper and "jazz baby" who is Dick's cousin. Anthony begins courting her. The couple fall madly in love, with Gloria ecstatically exclaiming: "Mother says that two souls are sometimes created together—and in love before they're born." After a whirlwind courtship, Anthony and Gloria decide to marry.


title: The Beautiful and Damned

text: For the first three years of their married life together, Anthony and Gloria vow to adhere to "the magnificent attitude of not giving a damn... for what they chose to do and what consequences it brought. Not to be sorry, not to lose one cry of regret, to live according to a clear code of honor toward each other, and to seek the moment's happiness as fervently and persistently as possible." Gloria and Anthony's marital bliss soon evaporates, especially when they are each pitted against the other's selfish attitudes. Once the couple's infatuation with each other fades, they begin to see their differences do more harm than good, as well as leaving each other with unfulfilled hopes. Over time, the disappointed couple become hedonistic and cynical libertines.


title: The Beautiful and Damned

text: When Anthony's grandfather learns of Anthony's dissipation, he disinherits him. During World War I, Anthony briefly serves in the American Expeditionary Forces while Gloria remains home alone until his return. While in army training, Anthony has an extramarital liaison with Dot Raycroft, a lower-class Southern woman. After the Allied Powers sign an armistice with Imperial Germany in November 1918, Anthony returns to New York City and reunites with Gloria. When the struggle over the grandfather's inheritance finally concludes, Anthony wins his inheritance. However, he has now become a hopeless alcoholic, and his wife has lost her beauty. The couple are now wealthy but morally and physically ruined.


title: The Beautiful and Damned

text: At the end, Anthony Patch—echoing his grandfather—describes his inherited wealth as a consequence of his character rather than mere circumstance: "Only a few months before people had been urging him to give in, to submit to mediocrity... But he had known that he was justified in his way of life—and he had stuck it out staunchly... 'I showed them... It was a hard fight, but I didn't give up and I came through!"


title: The Beautiful and Damned

text: Following the success of his debut novel "This Side of Paradise" in March 1920, F. Scott Fitzgerald became a household name. His new fame enabled him to earn much higher rates for his short stories, and his increased financial prospects persuaded his fiancée Zelda Sayre to marry him as Fitzgerald could now pay for her accustomed lifestyle. Although they were re-engaged, Fitzgerald's feelings for Zelda were at an all-time low, and he remarked to a friend, "I wouldn't care if she died, but I couldn't stand to have anybody else marry her." Despite mutual reservations, they married in a simple ceremony on April 3, 1920, at St. Patrick's Cathedral, New York. At the time of their wedding, Fitzgerald claimed neither he nor Zelda still loved each other, and the early years of their stormy marriage in New York City were more akin to a friendship.


title: The Beautiful and Damned

text: Living in luxury at the Biltmore Hotel in New York City, the newlywed couple became national celebrities, as much for their wild behavior as for the success of Fitzgerald's novel. At the Biltmore, Scott did handstands in the lobby, while Zelda slid down the hotel banisters. After several weeks, the hotel asked them to leave for disturbing other guests. The couple relocated two blocks to the Commodore Hotel on 42nd Street where they spent half-an-hour spinning in the revolving door. Fitzgerald likened their juvenile behavior in New York City to two "small children in a great bright unexplored barn." Writer Dorothy Parker first encountered the couple riding on the roof of a taxi. "They did both look as though they had just stepped out of the sun", Parker recalled, "their youth was striking. Everyone wanted to meet him."


title: The Beautiful and Damned

text: Fitzgerald's ephemeral happiness mirrored the societal giddiness of the Jazz Age, a term which he popularized in his essays and stories. He described the era as racing "along under its own power, served by great filling stations full of money." In Fitzgerald's eyes, the era represented a morally permissive time when Americans became disillusioned with prevailing social norms and obsessed with self-gratification. During this hedonistic era, alcohol increasingly fueled the Fitzgeralds' social life, and the couple consumed gin-and-fruit concoctions at every outing. Publicly, their alcohol intake meant little more than napping at parties, but privately it led to bitter quarrels. As their quarrels worsened, the couple accused each other of marital infidelities. They remarked to friends that their marriage would not last much longer.


title: The Beautiful and Damned

text: In August 1920 while in Westport, Connecticut, Fitzgerald began work on his second novel. The novel had several working titles such as "The Beautiful Lady Without Mercy" and "The Flight of the Rocket". On August 12th, Fitzgerald described the plot of the novel to Charles Scribner as focusing upon the life of an artist who lacks creative inspiration and who, after marrying a beautiful woman, is "wrecked on the shoals of dissipation". The writing of the novel was interrupted as his wife Zelda wished to return to the Deep South since "she missed peaches and biscuits for breakfast." After an excursion to Montgomery, Alabama, the couple returned to Westport where Fitzgerald resumed work on his novel. While Fitzgerald worked on his second novel, his wife Zelda realized she was pregnant in February 1921, and the couple began planning a trip overseas to Europe.


title: The Beautiful and Damned

text: Throughout the winter and spring of 1921–22, Fitzgerald wrote and rewrote various drafts of "The Beautiful and Damned". Fitzgerald modeled the spoiled characters of Anthony Patch on himself and Gloria Patch on—in his words—the chill-minded selfishness of his wife. The novel draws circumstantially upon the early years of Fitzgeralds' tempestuous marriage following the meteoric success of the author's first novel "This Side of Paradise". Fitzgerald divided the work in pre-publication into three major parts: "The Pleasant Absurdity of Things", "The Romantic Bitterness of Things", and "The Ironic Tragedy of Things". In the final book form, however, the novel consists of untitled "books" of three chapters each.


title: The Beautiful and Damned

text: Having digested criticisms of his debut novel "This Side of Paradise", Fitzgerald sought to improve upon the form and construction of his prose and to venture into a new genre of fiction altogether. Consequently, he revised "The Beautiful and Damned" based on editorial suggestions from his friend Edmund Wilson and his editor Max Perkins. When reviewing the manuscript, Perkins commended the conspicuous evolution of Fitzgerald's literary craftsmanship. Fitzgerald dedicated the novel to the Irish writer Shane Leslie, George Jean Nathan, and Maxwell Perkins "in appreciation of much literary help and encouragement".


title: The Beautiful and Damned

text: While finalizing the novel, Fitzgerald traveled with his wife to Europe, and his agent Harold Ober sold the serialization rights for "The Beautiful and Damned" to "Metropolitan Magazine" for $7,000. The chapters were serialized by "Metropolitan" from September 1921 to March 1922. Shortly before the novel's publication in book form by Charles Scribner's Sons, Zelda Fitzgerald made a sketch in which she envisioned the dust-jacket for her husband's novel. Her sketch depicted a naked flapper sitting in a cocktail glass. Ultimately, the publisher would use an illustration by William E. Hill for the dust-jacket. On March 4, 1922, the book was published by Scribner's. The publisher prepared an initial print run of approximately 20,000 copies, and "The Beautiful and Damned" sold well enough to warrant additional print runs reaching 50,000 copies.


title: The Beautiful and Damned

text: With his second work, "The Beautiful and Damned", Fitzgerald discarded the trappings of collegiate bildungsromans as epitomized in his preceding novel "This Side of Paradise" and crafted an "ironical-pessimistic" novel in the style of Thomas Hardy's oeuvre. The relentless pessimism of the novel would become a point of contention with many critics. Louise Field of "The New York Times" found the novel showed Fitzgerald to be talented but too pessimistic. Likewise, critic Fanny Butcher lamented that Fitzgerald had traded the bubbly giddiness of "This Side of Paradise" for a sequel which plumbed "the bitter dregs of reality."


title: The Beautiful and Damned

text: With the publication of this sophomore effort, critics promptly noticed an evolution in the artistry and quality of Fitzgerald's prose. Whereas "This Side of Paradise" had been universally castigated by critics for its chaotic prose, "The Beautiful and Damned" displayed greater form and construction as well as an awakened literary consciousness. Paul Rosenfeld commented that certain passages easily rivaled D. H. Lawrence in their artistry. Remarking upon Fitzgerald's improved craftsmanship, literary critic H. L. Mencken wrote in his "The Smart Set" review: "There are a hundred signs in it of serious purpose and unquestionable skill. Even in its defects there is proof of hard striving. Fitzgerald ceases to be a "wunderkind", and begins to come into his maturity".


title: The Beautiful and Damned

text: Despite this significant improvement in form and construction over "This Side of Paradise", critics deemed "The Beautiful and Damned" to be far less ground-breaking than his debut work. Whereas critics felt that "This Side of Paradise" had pulsed with originality, they were less ecstatic over "The Beautiful and Damned". Fanny Butcher feared that "Fitzgerald had a brilliant future ahead of him in 1920" but, "unless he does something better... it will be behind him in 1923."


title: The Beautiful and Damned

text: Other reviewers such as John V. A. Weaver recognized that the vast improvement in literary form and construction between his first and second novels augured great prospects for Fitzgerald's future. Weaver predicted that, as Fitzgerald matured into a better writer, he would become regarded as one of the greatest authors of American literature. Consequently, expectations arose that Fitzgerald would significantly improve with his third work, "The Great Gatsby".


title: The Beautiful and Damned

text: Over a century later, many literary critics typically consider "The Beautiful and Damned" to be among Fitzgerald's weaker novels. During the final decade of his life, Fitzgerald remarked upon the novel's lack of quality in a letter to his wife: "I wish "The Beautiful and Damned" had been a maturely written book because it was all true. We ruined ourselves—I have never honestly thought that we ruined each other."


title: The Beautiful and Damned

text: Critics have analyzed "The Beautiful and Damned" as a morality tale, a meditation on love, money and decadence, and a social documentary. Such analyses often focus upon the characters' disproportionate absorption on their past—a fixation which tends to consume them in the present. The theme of absorption in the past also continues through much of Fitzgerald's later works, perhaps best summarized in the final line of his 1925 novel "The Great Gatsby": "So we beat on, boats against the current, borne back ceaselessly into the past", which is inscribed on Fitzgerald's tombstone shared with Zelda in Maryland.


title: The Beautiful and Damned

text: According to Fitzgerald scholar James L. W. West III, "The Beautiful and Damned" is concerned with the question of 'vocation': 'What does one do with oneself when one has nothing to do?' According to West, "Fitzgerald applied the question of vocation largely to his male characters, but he saw that women too needed meaningful roles in life." Fitzgerald presents Gloria as a woman whose vocation is nothing more than to catch a husband. After her marriage to Anthony, Gloria's sole vocation is to slide into indulgence and indolence, while her husband's sole vocation is to wait for his inheritance, during which time he slides into depression and alcoholism.


title: The Beautiful and Damned

text: In April 1922, one month after the book's publication, Zelda Fitzgerald was asked by Scott's friend, humorist Burton Rascoe, to review the book for "The New-York Tribune" as a publicity stunt. Rascoe asked Zelda to pretend to review it and to insert deliberately "a rub here and there" in order to "cause a great deal of comment." Per Rascoe's instructions, Zelda titled her review "Friend Husband's Latest" and wrote "partly [as] a joke" that Fitzgerald had purloined a page of her diary: As a consequence of this statement written in a satirical review by Zelda, various individuals such as Penelope Green have speculated that Zelda was perhaps a co-author of the novel, but most Fitzgerald scholars such as Matthew J. Bruccoli stated there is no evidence whatsoever to support this claim. Bruccoli states:


title: The Beautiful and Damned

text: A film adaptation in 1922, directed by William A. Seiter, starred Kenneth Harlan as Anthony Patch and Marie Prevost as Gloria. The film did well at the box office, and the critical reception was generally favorable. However, F. Scott Fitzgerald disliked the film, and he later wrote to a friend: "It's by far the worst movie I've ever seen in my life-cheap, vulgar, ill-constructed and shoddy. We were utterly ashamed of it."


title: Good Morning, Miss Bliss

text: Good Morning, Miss Bliss (also retroactively known as Saved by the Bell: The Junior High Years) is an American teen sitcom that aired on the Disney Channel from 1988 to 1989 (and later in syndication as part of the "Saved by the Bell" rerun package), starring Hayley Mills as a teacher at John F. Kennedy Junior High School in Indianapolis, Indiana. After one season on the air on the Disney Channel, the show was retooled as "Saved by the Bell", which aired on NBC.


title: Good Morning, Miss Bliss

text: The show was the first program produced by a Big Three network for cable television – in this case, NBC produced it for the Disney Channel.


title: Good Morning, Miss Bliss

text: The series focuses on the life of junior high school teacher Miss Carrie Bliss (Hayley Mills) at John F. Kennedy Junior High in Indianapolis. She is often put into morally difficult situations by her work and often serves as the only person her students could turn to. Her eighth grade students include:


title: Good Morning, Miss Bliss

text: Zack Morris (Mark-Paul Gosselaar), a charming, manipulative scamp. He is lazy, a bad student and always looking for the easy way out. Nonetheless, in the episode "Parents and Teachers", Miss Bliss says that Zack has the most potential of all her students.


title: Good Morning, Miss Bliss

text: Lisa Turtle (Lark Voorhies), a rich shopaholic; and best friend of Nikki. Lisa is the crush of many guys in the school and in Miss Bliss's class, especially Screech.


title: Good Morning, Miss Bliss

text: Samuel "Screech" Powers (Dustin Diamond), an awkward nerd with a crush on Lisa, but an excellent student and very honest.


title: Good Morning, Miss Bliss

text: Mikey Gonzalez (Max Battimo), Zack's best friend, who, although not generally as awkward as Screech, becomes quite shy around girls; a good student, especially in math and history but sometimes gets into conflict with Zack.


title: Good Morning, Miss Bliss

text: Nikki Coleman (Heather Hopper), who is outspoken and often advocates for the moral course of action when the others decide to misbehave.


title: Good Morning, Miss Bliss

text: The show also features Mylo Williams (T.K. Carter), a maintenance supervisor, and Miss Tina Paladrino (Joan Ryan), a quirky teacher and friend of Miss Bliss, with whom she often discusses her personal life, with Miss Paladrino acting as sounding board. Dennis Haskins plays the school principal, Mr. Richard Belding.


title: Good Morning, Miss Bliss

text: The show was cancelled after 13 episodes, and NBC reclaimed the rights to it, reformatting "Good Morning, Miss Bliss" into "Saved by the Bell"; the characters of Zack, Lisa, Screech and Mr. Belding made the transition to "Saved by the Bell", which instead saw the four located in the fictional California suburb of Bayside.


title: Good Morning, Miss Bliss

text: The series was then integrated into the "Saved by the Bell" syndicated rerun package, with "Miss Bliss" episodes being introduced with a cold open by Mark-Paul Gosselaar (in character as Zack Morris) explaining that they were from an earlier time frame than the rest of the series, followed by a retrofitted version of the regular "Saved by the Bell" opening sequence.


title: Good Morning, Miss Bliss

text: The original pilot for "Good Morning, Miss Bliss" aired on July 11, 1987, on NBC (in "The Facts of Life"'s timeslot). Hayley Mills would be the only actress to carry over from the pilot to the series. Brian Austin Green as Adam Montcrief, Jaleel White as Bobby Wilson, and Jonathan Brandis as Michael Thompson were among some of the actors to appear in the pilot. Green was, in essence, the "lead" student in the pilot, a particularly serious student, who wore business suits.


title: Good Morning, Miss Bliss

text: Several other characters from the series existed in the pilot but were played by different actors; Mr. Gerald Belding was played by Oliver Clark, and Miss Tina Paladrino was played by Maria O'Brien. Other characters include Gabriel Damon as Bradley; Samantha Mills as Wendy; Julie Ronnie as Lonnie Maple; Matt Shakman as Georgie Winslow; Charles Siebert as Charlie Davis; Britton Elliott as Janet Hillhurst; Josh Goddard as Steven; and Andrea Messersmith as Laurie.


title: Good Morning, Miss Bliss

text: After the huge success of "Saved by the Bell", episodes of this series were added to the syndication package. Intros by Mark-Paul Gosselaar, in character as Zack Morris, were added to the beginning of each episode, and the title sequence was remade in the style of "Saved by the Bell". The series reran on TBS, along with its spinoff. "Good Morning Miss Bliss" and "Saved by the Bell" were later aired on The N from late 2008 to July 2009. As of February 2015, Netflix syndication of "Saved by the Bell" also reflects this change.


title: Good Morning, Miss Bliss

text: Although the "Saved By the Bell" intro was modified to accommodate the "Miss Bliss" cast, it was incompletely customized for those episodes. The reflection in the animated sunglasses shows images of Bayside High and The Max, locations that were not present in the Indiana-set "Good Morning, Miss Bliss".


title: Good Morning, Miss Bliss

text: The complete series of "Good Morning, Miss Bliss" was released by Shout Factory with the "Saved By The Bell": The Complete Collection DVD set on October 2, 2018.


title: Psygnosis

text: Psygnosis Limited (known as SCE Studio Liverpool or simply Studio Liverpool from 1999) was a British video game developer and publisher headquartered at Wavertree Technology Park in Liverpool. Founded in 1984 by Ian Hetherington, Jonathan Ellis, and David Lawson, the company initially became known for well-received games on the Atari ST and Commodore Amiga. In 1993, it became a wholly owned subsidiary of Sony Computer Entertainment (SCE) and began developing games for the original PlayStation. It later became a part of SCE Worldwide Studios. The company was the oldest and second largest development house within SCE's European stable of developers, and became best known for franchises such as "Lemmings", "Wipeout", "Formula One", and "Colony Wars".


title: Psygnosis

text: Reports of Studio Liverpool's closure surfaced on 22 August 2012, with "Edge" quoting staff tweets. Staff members were told the news by Michael Denny, vice president of Sony Worldwide Studios Europe. Sony said that the Liverpool site would remain in operation, as it was still home to many Sony Departments. At the time of its closure, it employed roughly 100 people comprising two development teams. Mick Hocking oversaw Studio Liverpool's operations as its last Group Studio Director, a position he continued to hold within Evolution Studios.


title: Psygnosis

text: Psygnosis still exists as a legal entity under Sony and continues to make legal filings, but has had no developers since 2012. In December 2021, Sony renewed Psygnosis' logo and trademarks despite not using the Psygnosis branding since 2000, though this is thought to be standard filing practice as trademarks last for a decade in the United States and Sony had previously filed renewal applications in 2011 as well.


title: Psygnosis

text: Psygnosis was the eventual successor of the defunct 8-bit software house Imagine Software, where Lawson was one of the founders and Hetherington was financial director. Finchspeed, a company created by the directors, attempted to acquire the assets of the failing company but this was unsuccessful and the remains of Imagine, including their much-hyped but never completed "megagames", were sold by the receivers. While the name and trademarks were bought by Ocean Software, Sinclair Research paid a rumoured £100,000 for the rights to "Bandersnatch" and contracted a new company set up by Hetherington and Lawson, Fire Iron, to produce the game for the Sinclair QL for release in early 1985.


title: Psygnosis

text: Sinclair withdrew funding from Fire Iron in early 1985 and Psygnosis, which became a limited company under United Kingdom company law in July 1985, launched their first title "Brataccas", which featured many of the concepts originally intended for "Bandersnatch", at the 1985 Personal Computer World show in September.


title: Psygnosis

text: The name of another Imagine Megagame (the proposed but never developed "Psyclapse") was later used by Psygnosis as an alternative label for some of its releases, such as "Ballistix" and "Captain Fizz Meets The Blaster-Trons".


title: Psygnosis

text: The box artwork was very distinctive with a black background and fantasy artwork by Roger Dean bordered in red. This style was maintained for the better part of 10 years. For the next few years, Psygnosis' releases contained increasingly improved graphics, but were marred by similarly difficult gameplay and control methods. The original company headquarters were located at the Port of Liverpool Building at the Pier Head in Liverpool, but soon moved to Century Buildings in Liverpool's Brunswick Business Park, and later moved down the road to South Harrington Building by the docks.


title: Psygnosis

text: Although Psygnosis primarily became a game publisher, some games were developed fully or partly in-house. During the early days, artists were employed full-time at the headquarters, offering third-party developers, who were often just single programmers, a high-quality art resource. This allowed Psygnosis to maintain high graphical standards across the board. The original artists were Garvan Corbett, Jeff Bramfitt, Colin Rushby and Jim Bowers, with Neil Thompson joining a little later.


title: Psygnosis

text: "Obliterator", released in 1988, contained an opening animation by Jim Bowers. This short scene would pave the way for increasingly sophisticated intro animations, starting with 2D hand drawn sequences, and progressing into FMV and 3D rendered movies created with Sculpt 4D on the Amiga. Eventually, Psygnosis would buy Silicon Graphics workstations for the sole purpose of creating these animations.


title: Psygnosis

text: While most game companies of the mid-to-late 1980s (including Psygnosis) were releasing identical games on both the Amiga and Atari ST, Psygnosis started to use the full potential of the Amiga's more powerful hardware to produce technically stunning games, with the landmark title "Shadow of the Beast" bringing the company its greatest success so far in 1989. Its multi-layered parallax scrolling and music were highly advanced for the time and as such led to the game being used as a showcase demonstration for the Amiga in many computer shops.


title: Psygnosis

text: Psygnosis consolidated its fame after publishing the DMA Design "Lemmings" game franchise: debuting in 1991 on the Amiga, "Lemmings" was ported to a plethora of different computer and video game platforms, generating many sequels and variations of its concept through the years. "Microcosm", a game that appeared on the FM Towns, Amiga CD32, and 3DO furthered the company's reputation for games with excellent graphics but limited and poorly designed gameplay.


title: Psygnosis

text: Psygnosis also created the "Face-Off" games in the Nickelodeon 1992 television game show, "Nick Arcade", such as "Post Haste", "Jet Jocks" and "Battle of the Bands".


title: Psygnosis

text: In 1993 the company was acquired by Sony Electronic Publishing. The acquisition cost Sony £20 million. In preparation for the September 1995 introduction of Sony's PlayStation console in Western markets, Psygnosis started creating games using the PlayStation as primary reference hardware. Among the most famous creations of this period were "Wipeout", "G-Police", and the "Colony Wars" series, some of which were ported to PC and to other platforms. The PlayStation marked a turning point in Psygnosis's game design, moving away from the prerendered graphics and limited gameplay that the company had become associated with. This was a successful period for the company; in the 1995-96 financial year, Psygnosis games accounted for 40% of all video games sales in Europe.


title: Psygnosis

text: The acquisition was rewarding for Sony in another aspect: development kits for PlayStation consoles. As it had previously published PSY-Q development kits for various consoles by SN Systems, Psygnosis arranged for them to create a development system for the PS based on cheap PC hardware. Sony evaluated the system during CES in January 1994 and decided to adopt it.


title: Psygnosis

text: As Psygnosis expanded after the Sony buyout, another satellite office was opened in Century Building with later offices opening in Stroud, London, Chester, Paris, Germany, and Foster City in California (as the Customer Support & Marketing with software development done in San Francisco), now the home of Sony Computer Entertainment America. The company headquarters has resided at Wavertree Technology Park since 1995.


title: Psygnosis

text: The Stroud studio was opened in November 1993 in order to attract disgruntled MicroProse employees. Staff grew from initially about 50 to about 70 in 1997. Among the titles created at Stroud are "Overboard!" and "G-Police". The Wheelhouse—its publishing name—was closed in 2000 as part of the Sony Computer Entertainment takeover of Psygnosis. Some members joined Bristol-based Rage Software, but faced a similar demise a number of years later.


title: Psygnosis

text: Despite being owned by Sony, Psygnosis retained a degree of independence from its parent company during this period and continued to develop and publish titles for other platforms, including the Sega Saturn and the Nintendo 64. This caused friction between Psygnosis and Sony, and in 1996 Sony engaged SBC Warburg's services in finding a buyer for Psygnosis. However, though bids reportedly went as high as $300 million (more than ten times what Sony paid for the company just three years before), after six months Sony rescinded its decision to sell Psygnosis. Relations between the two companies had improved during this time, and Sony became reconciled to Psygnosis releasing games for competing platforms. Shortly after, Psygnosis took over distribution of its own titles, a task that Sony had been handling following the buyout.


title: Psygnosis

text: In 1999, a process to consolidate Psygnosis into Sony Computer Entertainment was underway, resulting in the bulk of Psygnosis' sales, marketing and PR staff being made redundant and the development teams reporting directly into Sony Computer Entertainment Europe's president of software development. To reflect this, in 2000, the Psygnosis brand was dropped in favour of SCE Studio Liverpool.


title: Psygnosis

text: The newly named SCE Studio Liverpool released its first title, "Formula One 2001", in 2001. The game was also the studio's first release on the PlayStation 2, and the first entry in the "Formula One" series after taking over from developer Studio 33. From 2001 to 2007, Studio Liverpool released eight instalments in the series between the PlayStation 2, PlayStation Portable and PlayStation 3. However, Sony Computer Entertainment's exclusive licence with the Formula One Group expired, without renewal, before the 2007 season, marking the end of any further "Formula One" series instalments from the developer.


title: Psygnosis

text: Studio Liverpool also created "Wipeout Fusion", the first of two instalments of the series on the PlayStation 2, released in 2002. Next they developed "Wipeout Pure" for the PlayStation Portable, which launched alongside the handheld in 2005 to significant acclaim, with many media outlets heralding it a return to glory for the series. They followed up with the sequel "Wipeout Pulse" in 2007 which was later ported to the PlayStation 2 and released in Europe.


title: Psygnosis

text: In 2008 it released "Wipeout HD", a downloadable title for the PlayStation 3's PlayStation Network service, consisting of various courses taken from both "Wipeout Pure" and "Wipeout Pulse" remade in high definition. An expansion pack for "Wipeout HD" named "Wipeout HD Fury" is available at PlayStation Network, including new game modes, new tracks, new music and new ship skins/models. In 2007, a copy of "Manhunt 2" was leaked online prior to its release by an employee from the Sony Europe Liverpool office.


title: Psygnosis

text: On 29 January 2010, Sony made a public statement. The closure of Studio Liverpool was announced on 22 August 2012. In a press release, Sony stated that after an assessment of all European studios, it had decided to close Studio Liverpool. Sony said that the Liverpool site would remain in operation, as it is home to a number of Sony World Wide Studios and SCEE Departments.


title: Psygnosis

text: Eurogamer was told by an unnamed source that, at the time of its closure, Studio Liverpool was working on two PlayStation 4 launch titles. One was a "Wipeout" title described as "dramatically different"; the other was a motion capture-based game along the lines of "Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell".


title: Psygnosis

text: In 2013 a number of former Studio Liverpool employees formed two new studios: Firesprite which worked on the visuals of "The Playroom" for the PlayStation 4, and Playrise Digital who had success with their "Table Top Racing" games. In September 2021, Sony acquired Firesprite.


title: Psygnosis

text: XDev, Sony's external development studio is responsible for managing the development of titles at developers that are outside of Sony's own developer group. It has won 14 British Academy (BAFTA) video game awards and AIAS awards for "LittleBigPlanet", 3 BAFTA awards for the "Buzz!" series and Develop Industry Excellence Awards for "MotorStorm" and "Buzz!".


title: Heinrich Hoffmann (photographer)

text: Heinrich Hoffmann (12 September 188515 December 1957) was Adolf Hitler's official photographer, and a Nazi politician and publisher, who was a member of Hitler's intimate circle. Hoffmann's photographs were a significant part of Hitler's propaganda campaign to present himself and the Nazi Party as a significant mass phenomenon. He received royalties from all uses of Hitler's image, even on postage stamps, which made him a millionaire over the course of Hitler's rule. After the Second World War he was tried and sentenced to four years in prison for war profiteering. He was classified by the Allies' Art Looting Investigators to be a "major offender" in Nazi art plundering of Jews, as both art dealer and collector and his art collection, which contained many artworks looted from Jews, was ordered confiscated by the Allies. In 1956, the Bavarian State ordered all art under its control and formerly possessed by Hoffmann to be returned to him.


title: Heinrich Hoffmann (photographer)

text: After completing his primary school education, Hoffmann trained as a photographer from 1901 to 1903. Until 1909, he found employment in Heidelberg, Frankfurt am Main, Bad Homburg, Switzerland, France and England. By 1909, he owned a photographic shop in Munich and started to work as a press photographer. In 1913, he founded the image agency "Photobericht Hoffmann". In 1917, Hoffmann was conscripted into the German Army and served in France as a photo correspondent with the Bavarian "Fliegerersatz-Abteilung I". In 1919, he joined the Bavarian "Einwohnerwehren", a right-wing citizens' militia. That year he witnessed the short-lived post-war Bavarian Soviet Republic in Munich, and published a collection of photographs he had taken as "Ein Jahr Bayrische Revolution im Bilde" ("One Year of Bavarian Revolution in Pictures"). The accompanying text, by Emil Herold, suggested a connection between the "Jewish features" shown in the photographs and the subjects' left-wing policies.


title: Heinrich Hoffmann (photographer)

text: A noted photograph, taken by Hoffmann in Munich's Odeonsplatz on 2 August 1914, apparently shows a young Hitler among the crowd cheering the outbreak of World War I. The photo was later used in Nazi propaganda, although its authenticity has been questioned.


title: Heinrich Hoffmann (photographer)

text: Hoffmann claimed that he only discovered Hitler in the photograph in 1929, after the Nazi leader had visited the photographer's studio. Learning that Hoffmann had photographed the crowd in the Odeonsplatz, Hitler told Hoffmann that he had been there, and Hoffmann said he then searched the glass negative of the image until he found Hitler. The photograph was published in the 12 March 1932 issue of the "Illustrierter Beobachter" ("Illustrated Observer"), a Nazi newspaper. After the war, the glass negative could not be found. Footage of the event from a similar angle has also been claimed to show Hitler, but there is no evidence he adopted a toothbrush moustache until after the war.


title: Heinrich Hoffmann (photographer)

text: In 2010, historian , a German expert on the First World War, came to the conclusion that Hoffmann had doctored the image. Krumeich examined other images of the rally and was unable to find Hitler in the place where Hoffmann's photograph placed him. Also, in a different version of Hoffmann's photo in the Bavarian State Archive, Hitler looks like a different man than in the published image. As a result of the doubt raised by those considerations, the curators of a 2010 Berlin exhibition about Hitler's influence inserted a notice saying that the image's authenticity could not be vouched for.


title: Heinrich Hoffmann (photographer)

text: Hoffmann met Hitler in 1919 and joined the Nazi Party on 6 April 1920. He participated in the Beer Hall Putsch as a photographic correspondent. While the Nazi Party was banned in 1923, Hoffmann joined the ephemeral "Großdeutsche Volksgemeinschaft" then rejoined the Nazi Party in 1925. The following year he co-founded the "Illustrierter Beobachter". In November 1929, he represented the Nazi Party in the district assembly of Upper Bavaria and, from December 1929 to December 1933, he served as a city councillor of Munich. In 1940, Hofmann became a member of the Nazi German Reichstag.


title: Heinrich Hoffmann (photographer)

text: After Hitler had taken control of the party in 1921, he named Hoffmann his official photographer, a post he held for over a quarter-century. No other photographer but Hoffmann was allowed to take pictures of Hitler. Hoffmann himself was forbidden to take candid shots. Once, at the "Berghof", Hitler's mountain retreat, Hoffmann took a picture of Hitler playing with his mistress Eva Braun's terrier. Hitler told Hoffmann that he could not publish the picture, because "a statesman does not permit himself to be photographed with a little dog. A German sheepdog is the only dog worthy of a real man". Hitler strictly controlled his public image in all respects, having himself photographed in any new suit before he would wear it in public, according to Hoffmann, and ordering in 1933 that all images of himself wearing lederhosen be withdrawn from circulation. He also expressed his disapproval of Benito Mussolini allowing himself to be photographed in his bathing suit.


title: Heinrich Hoffmann (photographer)

text: The attempt by Hoffmann to portray Hitler as the epitome of the German people was difficult because Hitler lacked the racial profile of the Nordic race (i.e. tall with blonde hair), which the Nazi New Order sought to preserve. Hoffmann tried to portray Hitler in the best light by focusing more on his eyes, which many found dreamy and hypnotic.


title: Heinrich Hoffmann (photographer)

text: Hoffmann's photographs were a significant part of Hitler's propaganda campaign to present himself and the Nazi Party as a significant mass phenomenon. In 1926, Hoffmann's images of the Party's rally in Weimar in Thuringia – one of the few German states in which Hitler was not banned from speaking at the time – showed the impressive march-past of 5,000 stormtroopers, saluted by Hitler for the first time with the straight-armed "Roman" or Fascist salute. Those pictures were printed in the main Nazi newspaper, the "Völkischer Beobachter", and distributed by the thousands throughout Germany. That rally was the progenitor of the Party's annual mass rallies, which were staged quasi-annually in Nuremberg. Later, Hoffmann's book, "The Hitler Nobody Knows" (1933) was an important part of Hitler's strenuous effort to manipulate and control his public image.


title: Heinrich Hoffmann (photographer)

text: Hitler and Hoffmann became close friends. Historian Alan Bullock succinctly described Hoffmann as an "earthy Bavarian with a weakness for drinking parties and hearty jokes", who "enjoyed the licence of a court jester" with Hitler. Hoffmann was part of the small party which drove to Landsberg Prison to meet Hitler when he was released from prison on parole on 20 December 1924, and he took Hitler's picture. Later, Hoffmann often dined with Hitler at the "Berghof" or at the Führer's favorite restaurant in Munich, the Osteria Bavaria, gossiping with him and sharing stories about the painters from Schwabing that Hoffmann knew. He accompanied Hitler on his unprecedented election campaign by air during the presidential election against Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg in 1932.


title: Heinrich Hoffmann (photographer)

text: In the autumn of 1929, Hoffmann and his second wife Erna introduced his Munich studio assistant, Eva Braun, to Hitler. According to Hoffmann, Hitler thought she was "an attractive little thing" – Hitler preferred women to be seen and not heard – but Braun actively pursued him, telling her friends that Hitler was in love with her and claiming she would get him to marry her. Hoffmann reported, however, that even though Braun eventually became a resident of the Berghof – after the death of Geli Raubal (see below) – and was then constantly at Hitler's side during the times he was with his private entourage, she was not immediately his mistress. He believed that did happen at some point, even though Hitler's outward attitude to her never changed. Ultimately, to the surprise of his intimate circle, Hitler married Braun in the "Führerbunker" in Berlin on 29 April 1945, and the couple committed suicide together the following day.


title: Heinrich Hoffmann (photographer)

text: On 17 September 1931, Hitler was with Hoffmann on a trip from Munich to Hamburg when the Führer got word that his niece, Geli Raubal – whom he adored and who accompanied him to almost all social events – had committed suicide by shooting herself. In his post-war memoir, "Hitler Was My Friend", Hoffmann expressed the opinion that Raubal killed herself because she was in love with someone other than Hitler, and could not take Hitler's rabidly jealous control of her life, especially after he found out that she had had an affair with Emil Maurice, Hitler's old comrade and chauffeur.


title: Heinrich Hoffmann (photographer)

text: When Hitler became the ruler of Germany, Hoffmann was the only person authorized to take official photographs of him. Hoffmann's photographs were published as postage stamps, postcards, posters and picture books. Following Hoffmann's suggestion, both he and Hitler received royalties from all uses of Hitler's image, even on postage stamps, which made both Hitler and Hoffmann millionaires. The postage-stamp royalty amounted to at least $75 million over the course of Hitler's reign. When photographing other subjects, he was represented by Schostal Photo Agency (Agentur Schostal).


title: Heinrich Hoffmann (photographer)

text: In 1933, Hoffmann was elected to the Reichstag which, after the passage of the Enabling Act of 1933, had become a powerless entity with little function except to serve as a stage setting for some of Hitler's policy speeches. As a one-party state, an "election" in Nazi Germany meant marking a ballot approving the Führer's list of candidates; no alternative choices were presented or allowed.


title: Heinrich Hoffmann (photographer)

text: The personal esteem Hitler held for Hoffmann is indicated by the fact that, in 1935, he allowed the photographer to issue a limited edition of a portfolio of seven paintings Hitler had made during World War I, even though since becoming Chancellor he had downplayed his desire to become a painter in his youth. In later years, Hitler forbade any publication of or commentary about his work as a painter. Also in 1935, for Hoffmann's 50th birthday, Hitler gave the photographer one of his own paintings of the courtyard of the Alte Residenz ("Old Royal Palace") in Munich, a favorite subject of Hitler's, and one he had painted many times when he was a struggling artist. Hoffmann came to own at least four of Hitler's watercolors. One was purchased in 1944, which provoked Hitler to remark that it would have been "insane" to have paid more than 150 or 200 marks for it, at most. The pictures were seized by the U.S. Army at the end of the war, and were never returned to Germany.


title: Heinrich Hoffmann (photographer)

text: In 1937, after the selection jury had outraged and angered Hitler with their choices for the first Great German Art Exhibition to inaugurate the opening of the House of German Art in Munich, he dismissed the panel and put Hoffmann in charge. That dismayed the artistic community, who felt that Hoffmann was unqualified for the role. Frederic Spotts, in "Hitler and the Aesthetics of Power", reports that Hoffmann was "an alcoholic and cretin who knew little more about painting than did the average plumber". Hoffmann's answer to his critics was that he knew what Hitler wanted and what would appeal to him. Nevertheless, even some of Hoffmann's choices were dismissed from the exhibition by Hitler. A room full of somewhat more modern paintings which Hoffmann had selected as possibilities were angrily dismissed by Hitler with a gesture. Hoffmann remained in charge for subsequent annual Great German Art Exhibitions, making the preliminary selections which were then hung for Hitler to approve or veto. Hoffmann preferred the conventional work of painters from southern Germany, what Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels called in his diary "Munich-school kitsch", over that of the more experimental painters from the north.


title: Heinrich Hoffmann (photographer)

text: In May 1938, when Hitler decreed the "Law for the Confiscation of the Products of Degenerate Art" – which retroactively justified the Nazis' confiscation, without payment, of modern art from museums and galleries for the exhibition of "Degenerate Art" mounted in Munich in July 1937, and allowed for the further unpaid removal of such art from institutions and individuals – Hoffmann was one of the commissioners named to centralize the condemnation and confiscation process, along with chairman Adolf Ziegler, President of the Reich Chamber for Visual Arts, the art deal Karl Haberstock, and others. A year later, Josef Goebbels, the Reich Propaganda Minister, brought the commission into his Ministry and restaffed it to include more art dealers, since the sale of the confiscated works internationally was a source of hard currency for the Nazi regime – although not as much as was expected, since the knowledge that the Nazis were putting large numbers of the artworks up for sale depressed their market value. When auctions were halted as war approached, there were still over 12,000 works stored in warehouses which the commission Hoffmann sat on had condemned as artistically worthless. Hitler personally inspected these, and refused to allow them to be returned to the collections from which they had been confiscated. The result was the burning of 1,004 oil paintings and 3,825 other works in the courtyard of Berlin's central fire station, on 20 March 1939.


title: Heinrich Hoffmann (photographer)

text: Along with sculptor Arno Breker, stage designer Benno von Arent, architect Gerdy Troost, and museum director Hans Posse, Hoffmann was one of the few people whose artistic judgment Hitler trusted. He bestowed the honorific title of "Professor" on Hoffmann in 1938, something he did for many of his favorites in the arts, such as Leni Riefenstahl, the actress and film director, architects Albert Speer and Hermann Giesler, sculptors Breker and Josef Thorak, Wilhelm Furtwängler, conductor of the Berlin Philharmonic, and actor Emil Jannings, among others.


title: Heinrich Hoffmann (photographer)

text: Hoffmann accompanied Hitler on his state visit to Italy in 1938, in which the Führer was much taken by the beauty of the Italian cities of Rome, Naples and Florence and the artworks and architecture they contained. Hoffmann (with von Ribbentrop's photographer Helmut Laux) were in the party that went to the Soviet Union when Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop secretly negotiated the Non-Aggression Treaty with Vyacheslav Molotov in 1939, which enabled Hitler to invade Poland. Hitler specifically asked Hoffmann to take a close-up photograph of Stalin's earlobes, by which he thought he could determine if the Soviet leader was Jewish or not. Earlobes that were "attached" would indicate Jewish blood, while those that were "separate" would be Aryan. Hoffmann took the requisite image, and Hitler determined, to his own satisfaction, that Stalin was not Jewish. Hitler would not allow Hoffmann to publish photographs of Stalin if he was smoking a cigarette, deeming it inappropriate for a leader of Stalin's status to be shown in that way.


title: Heinrich Hoffmann (photographer)

text: Besides introducing him to Eva Braun, Hoffmann also introduced Hitler to art dealer Maria Almas Dietrich, who used that connection to sell hundreds of paintings to Hitler himself, for the collection of Hitler's planned "Führermuseum" in his hometown of Linz, Austria, as well as to other high-ranking Nazis, and to various German museums. In 1941, Hoffmann was chief among the many Nazi chieftains who took advantage of the occupation of the Netherlands to buy paintings and other artworks from Dutch dealers, sometimes at inflated prices. That drove the art market up, much to the consternation of Hans Posse, who had been commissioned by Hitler to assemble a collection for the planned museum. Posse appealed to Hitler to put a stop to it, but Hitler refused the request.


title: Heinrich Hoffmann (photographer)

text: Hoffmann was also the person who recommended Dr. Theodor Morell to Hitler for treatment of his eczema. Morell, who was a member of the Nazi Party, became Hitler's personal physician and treated him for numerous complaints with a panoply of drugs, including amphetamines, cocaine, oxycodone, barbiturates, morphine, strychnine and testosterone, which may have contributed to Hitler's degraded physical condition by the end of the war.


title: Heinrich Hoffmann (photographer)

text: After about 1941, Hoffmann began to lose favor with Hitler, primarily because Martin Bormann – Hitler's personal secretary after Rudolf Hess flew to Scotland in a quixotic attempt to broker a peace deal – did not like him. Bormann increasingly controlled access to Hitler, and fed him misinformation and innuendo about any rivals for Hitler's attention, such as Hoffmann.


title: Heinrich Hoffmann (photographer)

text: Hoffmann married Therese "Lelly" Baumann, who was very fond of Hitler, in 1911. Their daughter Henriette ("Henny") was born on 3 February 1913 and followed by a son, Heinrich ("Heini") on 24 October 1916. Henriette married National Hitler Youth Leader Baldur von Schirach, who provided introductions to many of Hoffmann's picture books, in 1932. Therese Hoffmann died a sudden and unexpected death in 1928.


title: Heinrich Hoffmann (photographer)

text: During the Third Reich Hoffmann assembled many photo-books on Hitler, such as "The Hitler Nobody Knows" (1933) – a book that Ron Rosenbaum calls "central to Hitler's extremely shrewd, extremely well-controlled effort to manipulate his image ... to turn his notoriously non-Nordic-looking foreignness, his much-remarked-upon strangeness, into assets to his charisma" – and "Jugend um Hitler" ("Youth Around Hitler") in 1934. In 1938 Hoffmann wrote three books, "Hitler in Italy", "Hitler befreit Sudetenland" ("Hitler Liberates Sudetenland") and "Hitler in seiner Heimat" ("Hitler in his Homeland"). His "Mit Hitler im Westen" ("With Hitler in the West") was published in 1940. His final book of this period, "Das Antlitz des Führers" ("The Face of the Führer"), was written shortly before the outbreak of the Second World War. In 1936 he had effectively seized control of stereographer Otto Schönstein's publishing house, Raumbild-Verlag, which effectively put him in charge of all mass-market stereoscopic (3D) photography in Germany until the end of the Second World War.


title: Heinrich Hoffmann (photographer)

text: After the war, Hoffmann published his memoirs in London in 1955 under the title "Hitler Was My Friend".


title: Heinrich Hoffmann (photographer)

text: Hoffmann figures prominently in the OSS Art Looting Investigation Unit's Reports 1945–46, Detailed Intelligence Report DIR N°1 carries his name. He was arrested by the United States Army on 10 May 1945, and he was later tried and sentenced to four years for war profiteering. The army considered him a "major offender" and Werner Friedman called him one of the "greediest parasites of the Hitler plague."