title: Quiet (Metal Gear)

text: In the initial release of the game, some players were disappointed that they lost the option of using Quiet as an ally after completing "Mission 45: A Quiet Exit". Roberts wrote that few developers would be willing to incur the wrath of players by creating one of the most powerful characters in the game, "integrating her completely so as to make her absolutely vital during some particularly difficult missions, then taking her away forever. But it's one of the many ways Kojima is able to express the game's themes — of loss, of despair, of that lingering 'phantom pain' right there in the game's title — and I respect the hell out of Kojima for removing a core component of gameplay to express those themes."


title: Quiet (Metal Gear)

text: Among those who have portrayed Quiet in cosplay was Maja Felicitas in a widely acclaimed photo session by the photographer eosAndy. Others have included the girlfriend of Oculus Rift creator Palmer Luckey, Nicole Edelmann (Nikki Moxxi), as well as Luckey himself, who both wore their respective self-made costumes in public during a visit to Japan. Quiet was also portrayed by Alex Zedra, a character model who had starred in marketing campaigns for the "Call of Duty" series.


title: BMW 8 Series (G15)

text: The second-generation of the BMW 8 Series consists of the BMW G14 (convertible version), BMW G15 (two-door coupe version) grand tourers and BMW G16 (four-door "Gran Coupe" sedan version) executive car (E). The G14/G15/G16 generation has been in production since 2018, and is often collectively referred to as the G15.


title: BMW 8 Series (G15)

text: It is the successor to the BMW 6 Series (F06/F12/F13) range and marks the return of the BMW 8 Series nameplate after nearly two decades, which was previously produced as the E31 until its discontinuation in 1999.


title: BMW 8 Series (G15)

text: The G15 is powered by turbocharged six-cylinder petrol, six-cylinder diesel and V8 petrol engines, mated to an 8-speed automatic transmission. While the initial release of models included all-wheel drive, a rear-wheel drive version of the base 840i and 840d was later made available for sale.


title: BMW 8 Series (G15)

text: The M8 models (designated F91/F92/F93) were unveiled in 2019 and are powered by the twin-turbocharged BMW S63 V8 petrol engine.


title: BMW 8 Series (G15)

text: The BMW 8 Series is based on the BMW Concept 8 Series that debuted at the 2017 Concorso d’Eleganza Villa d’Este, and featured a new design language and iteration of the iDrive system.


title: BMW 8 Series (G15)

text: The convertible version of the 8 Series (G14) was launched in November 2018. The convertible features a folding cloth roof that operates in 15 seconds and can function up to . Changes over the coupé include; new cross struts, new panels for the underbody and aluminium roll over bars for added safety. Initial models for the convertible include the M850i xDrive and 840d xDrive. The convertible weighs an additional more than the coupé.


title: BMW 8 Series (G15)

text: The high-performance variant BMW Concept M8 Gran Coupé was later introduced in June 2019 at the 2018 Geneva Motor Show.


title: BMW 8 Series (G15)

text: The Gran Coupé sedan (G16) of the 8 Series was announced in June 2019 and went on sale in September 2019. It has the same powertrains as the coupé and convertible, but it is the first 8 Series available with a six-cylinder engine for the United States. The 8 Series Gran Coupé has enlarged rear passenger space dimensions including improved headroom compared to the 6 Series Gran Coupé (F06) that it replaced. Like its predecessor, the 8 Series Gran Coupé is seen as a flashier sportier alternative to its platform-mate, the more traditional BMW 7 Series (G11) sedan, and it competes with the Mercedes-AMG GT 4-Door Coupé and Porsche Panamera.


title: BMW 8 Series (G15)

text: The production model is based on the modular CLAR platform and has a design largely unchanged from the Concept 8 Series. The wheelbase of the Gran Coupe is longer than the coupe and convertible models.<ref name="C/D Gran Coupé"></ref>


title: BMW 8 Series (G15)

text: The 8 Series utilises a double-wishbone front suspension and rear multi-link suspension. The car uses BMW's Carbon Core technology, integrating carbon-fibre within its chassis. GPS navigation data is used for the 8-speed automatic transmission to predict upshifts or downshifts when approaching a junction, and cameras along with sensors are utilised to determine appropriate shutdowns for the engine start-stop system.


title: BMW 8 Series (G15)

text: Most trims feature the xDrive all-wheel drive system, although the base 840i and 840d have rear-wheel drive available. The 850i xDrive is available worldwide, while the 840d xDrive is only available in Europe.


title: BMW 8 Series (G15)

text: The official kerb weight (measured using the EU methodology) for the 850i xDrive is for the coupe version and for the convertible version. The kerb weight for the 840d xDrive is coupe version and for the convertible version.


title: BMW 8 Series (G15)

text: Standard equipment includes an 8-speed ZF 8HP torque-converter automatic transmission, Vernasca leather, a heads-up display, adaptive suspension, power steering, and split folding rear seats. The 8 Series also features a display with iDrive digital instrument cluster. All 8 series models can be fitted with M Performance Parts. These include a sport steering wheel, M rims and carbon fibre parts. The M850i xDrive receives 20-inch wheels as standard and aerodynamic elements such as larger air intakes and a front lip spoiler.


title: BMW 8 Series (G15)

text: Available options includes Microsoft Office 365 and Skype for Business integration, laser headlights, a display key fob, and a Bowers & Wilkins Diamond Surround Sound System. Near field communication can also be used to unlock the car via a smartphone. An M Sport package is also available on the 840d xDrive model and features 19-inch alloy wheels, an enhanced braking system, and a re-designed sports steering wheel.


title: BMW 8 Series (G15)

text: The M8 version was introduced in June 2019 and is the road-legal version of the M8 GTE introduced at the 2017 Frankfurt Motor Show. The body styles for the M8 are the 2-door convertible (F91 model code), 2-door coupe (F92 model code) and 4-door "Gran Coupe" fastback (F93 model code).


title: BMW 8 Series (G15)

text: The M8 uses the BMW S63 twin-turbocharged V8 engine, 8-speed torque converter automatic transmission and all-wheel drive (xDrive) system shared with the F90 M5.


title: BMW 8 Series (G15)

text: In reference to the M8 Gran Coupé Concept from 2018, the first eight vehicles of the production series of the M8 Gran Coupé were styled in the same colors as the concept vehicle and sold as "M8 Gran Coupé First Edition".


title: BMW 8 Series (G15)

text: In January 2019 the one-off version "M850i xDrive Coupé Night Sky Edition" was unveiled for the 25th anniversary of BMW Individual. The vehicle has a special paint and interior surfaces of the material of the Muonionalusta-meteorite. In addition, a meteor shower is cited. The coupé had its public debut at the 2019 Geneva Motor Show. For the time being, the coupe remains in the possession of BMW.


title: Vinicunca

text: Vinicunca, or Winikunka, also called Montaña de Siete Colores, Montaña de Colores or Rainbow Mountain, is a mountain in the Andes of Peru with an altitude of above sea level. It is located on the road to the Ausangate mountain, in the Cusco region, between Cusipata District, province of Quispicanchi, and Pitumarca District, province of Canchis.


title: Vinicunca

text: Tourist access requires a two-hour drive from Cusco and a walk of about , or a three-and-a-half-hour drive through Pitumarca and a steep walk (1–1.5 hours) to the hill. As of 2019, no robust methods of transportation to Vinicunca have been developed to accommodate travelers, as it requires passage through a valley.


title: Vinicunca

text: In mid-2010, mass tourism came, attracted by the mountain's series of stripes of various colors due to its mineralogical composition on the slopes and summits. The mountain used to be covered by glacier caps, but these have melted due to climate change approximately 10,000 years ago.


title: Vinicunca

text: Vinicunca is located to the southeast of the city of Cusco and can be reached from Cusco via two routes: Cusipata or Pitumarca. One route is through the Peruvian Sierra del Sur (PE-3s) in the direction of the town of Checacupe, and further to the town of Pitumarca, which is around two hours from the city of Cusco. From Pitumarca, travelers may go by foot, car or motorbike along a trail passing through several rural communities such as Ocefina, Japura and Hanchipacha, and reach the community of Pampa Chiri, where a 1.5-kilometer walk along the Vinincunca pass leads to the natural formation with stripes of colors that give the name Rainbow Mountain. An alternative route is via Cusipata; from there, travellers may walk for 3 km along the Chillihuani route along a bridle path to the Rainbow Mountain.


title: Vinicunca

text: The altitude of the mountain is around 5200 meters or over 17,000 feet, so time for acclimatizing to the high altitude may be necessary during the trek up to the summit.


title: Vinicunca

text: Travelers to Peru and locals generally agree that the best time of the year to visit the colorful site is in August, since it is dry season and provides a very beautiful view, maximizing the vivid colors of the mountains. Nevertheless, the famous colors always look beautiful.


title: Vinicunca

text: Travelers are advised to try to avoid days following significant rainfall (in December, January and February), more so after snow has fallen. As to fauna, travelers may see a wide variety of alpacas and other camelids in certain short seasons.


title: Vinicunca

text: According to the Cultural Landscape Office of the Decentralization of the City of Cusco, the seven colors of the mountain are due to its mineralogical composition: the pink color is due to red clay, fangolitas (mud) and arilitas (sand); the whitish colouring is due to quartzose, sandstone and marls, rich in calcium carbonate; the red is due to claystones (iron) and clays belonging to the Upper Tertiary period; the green is due to phyllites and clays rich in ferro magnesian; the earthy brown is a product of fanglomerate composed of rock with magnesium belonging to the Quaternary period; and the mustard yellow color comes from the calcareous sandstones rich in sulphurous minerals.


title: Vinicunca

text: An approval process for mining began on March 30, 2015, in Lima, when the mining exploration company Minquest Perú SAC, owned by the Canadian Camino Minerals Corporation, submitted a petition to mine Red Beds to the Geological, Mining and Metallurgical Institute ("Instituto Geológico Minero y Metalúrgico", INGEMMET). The petition included the territory of the districts of Cusipata and Pitumarca with an area of 400 hectares, covering the whole of the mountain, and overlapping the peasant communities of Chillihuani and Pampachiri. INGEMMET issued a warning that parts of this territory, including Vinicunca, should have been protected within the "Ausangate Regional Conservation Area". In 2009, the Regional Government of Cusco had proposed the creation of this protected area to Peru's National Service of Protected Natural Areas ("Servicio Nacional de Áreas Naturales Protegidas", SERNANP). However, SERNANP responded that the Ausangate Regional Conservation Area had never been officially created, since the proposal had not met the necessary requirements. Therefore, on March 16, 2018, with Presidential Resolution No. 042-2018-INGEMMET / PCD / PM INGEMMET, the title of metallic mining concession was granted.


title: Vinicunca

text: On May 21, 2018, following public protests, the company informed the Regional Government of Cusco of its renunciation of the concession; however, the Regional Government indicated that it was the Ministry of Energy and Mines that must assume the administrative actions to recover possession of these lands. The National Chamber of Tourism (CANATUR) expressed its deep concern over the management of Vinicunca, one of the most important components of Peru's new appeal to tourism.


title: Vinicunca

text: In November 2018, Peru's President Martín Vizcarra issued a decree enforcing a 12-month moratorium on all mining activity in the area. The Regional Government stated its expectation that within that time frame, the Ministry of Energy and Mines would permanently register the region as a protected conservation area.


title: Vinicunca

text: In 2019, as a result of joint work between the Ministry of the Environment and the National Service of Natural Protected Areas (Sernanp), Ausangate was finally established as one of three new Regional Conservation Areas. Government representatives made the announcement during the COP25 event in Madrid. According to Cusco’s manager for natural resources, the measure to protect the area does not guarantee that mining projects hoping to extract lithium will be banned. However, Cusco’s governor, Jean Paul Benavente, said that permits for these projects should be declined in order to comply with the measure.


title: Doomsday argument

text: The Doomsday Argument (DA), or Carter catastrophe, is a probabilistic argument that claims to predict the future population of the human species, based on an estimation of the number of humans born to date.


title: Doomsday argument

text: The Doomsday argument was originally proposed by the astrophysicist Brandon Carter in 1983 leading to the initial name of the Carter catastrophe. The argument was subsequently championed by the philosopher John A. Leslie and has since been independently discovered by J. Richard Gott, and Holger Bech Nielsen. Similar principles of eschatology were proposed earlier by Heinz von Foerster among others. A more general form was given earlier in the Lindy effect, which proposes that for certain phenomena, the future life expectancy is "proportional to" (though not necessarily "equal to") the current age and is based on a decreasing mortality rate over time.


title: Doomsday argument

text: If the total number of humans who were born or will ever be born is denoted by "N", then the Copernican principle suggests that anyone human is equally likely (along with the other "N" − 1 humans) to find themselves at any position "n" of the total population "N", so humans assume that our fractional position "f" = "n"/"N" is uniformly distributed on the interval <nowiki>[0, 1]</nowiki> prior to learning our absolute position.


title: Doomsday argument

text: "f" is uniformly distributed on (0, 1) even after learning the absolute position "n". That is, for example, there is a 95% chance that "f" is in the interval (0.05, 1), that is "f" > 0.05. In other words, we could assume that we could be 95% certain that we would be within the last 95% of all the humans ever to be born. If we know our absolute position "n", this argument implies a 95% confidence upper bound for "N" obtained by rearranging "n"/"N" > 0.05 to give "N" < 20"n".


title: Doomsday argument

text: If Leslie's figure is used, then 60 billion humans have been born so far, so it can be estimated that there is a 95% chance that the total number of humans "N" will be less than 20 × 60 billion = 1.2 trillion. Assuming that the world population stabilizes at 10 billion and a life expectancy of 80 years, it can be estimated that the remaining 1140 billion humans will be born in 9120 years. Depending on the projection of the world population in the forthcoming centuries, estimates may vary, but the main point of the argument is that it is unlikely that more than 1.2 trillion humans will ever live.


title: Doomsday argument

text: We can assume, for simplicity, that the total number of humans who will ever be born is 60 billion ("N"), or 6,000 billion ("N"). If there is no prior knowledge of the position that a currently living individual, "X", has in the history of humanity, we may instead compute how many humans were born before "X", and arrive at say 59,854,795,447, which would roughly place "X" among the first 60 billion humans who have ever lived.


title: Doomsday argument

text: It is possible to sum the probabilities for each value of "N" and therefore to compute a statistical 'confidence limit' on "N". For example, taking the numbers above, it is 99% certain that "N" is smaller than 6,000 billion.


title: Doomsday argument

text: Note that as remarked above, this argument assumes that the prior probability for "N" is flat, or 50% for "N" and 50% for "N" in the absence of any information about "X". On the other hand, it is possible to conclude, given "X", that "N" is more likely than "N", if a different prior is used for "N". More precisely, Bayes theorem tells us that P("N"|"X") = P("X"|"N")P("N")/P("X"), and the conservative application of the Copernican principle tells us only how to calculate P("X"|"N"). Taking P("X") to be flat, we still have to make an assumption about the prior probability P("N") that the total number of humans is "N". If we conclude that "N" is much more likely than "N" (for example, because producing a larger population takes more time, increasing the chance that a low probability but cataclysmic natural event will take place in that time), then P("X"|"N") can become more heavily weighted towards the bigger value of "N". A further, more detailed discussion, as well as relevant distributions P("N"), are given below in the Rebuttals section.


title: Doomsday argument

text: The Doomsday argument does "not" say that humanity cannot or will not exist indefinitely. It does not put any upper limit on the number of humans that will ever exist, nor provide a date for when humanity will become extinct. An abbreviated form of the argument "does" make these claims, by confusing probability with certainty. However, the actual conclusion for the version used above is that there is a 95% "chance" of extinction within 9,120 years, and a 5% chance that some humans will still be alive at the end of that period. (The precise numbers vary among specific Doomsday arguments.)


title: Doomsday argument

text: This argument has generated a philosophical debate, and no consensus has yet emerged on its solution. The variants described below produce the DA by separate derivations.


title: Doomsday argument

text: Gott specifically proposes the functional form for the prior distribution of the number of people who will ever be born ("N"). Gott's DA used the vague prior distribution:


title: Doomsday argument

text: Since Gott specifies the prior distribution of total humans, "P(N)", Bayes's theorem and the principle of indifference alone give us "P(N|n)", the probability of "N" humans being born if "n" is a random draw from "N":


title: Doomsday argument

text: This is Bayes's theorem for the posterior probability of total population ever born of "N", conditioned on population born thus far of "n". Now, using the indifference principle:


title: Doomsday argument

text: The unconditioned "n" distribution of the current population is identical to the vague prior "N" probability density function, so:


title: Doomsday argument

text: giving P ("N" | "n") for each specific "N" (through a substitution into the posterior probability equation):


title: Doomsday argument

text: The easiest way to produce the doomsday estimate with a given confidence (say 95%) is to pretend that "N" is a continuous variable (since it is very large) and integrate over the probability density from "N" = "n" to "N" = "Z". (This will give a function for the probability that "N" ≤ "Z"):


title: Doomsday argument

text: The use of a vague prior distribution seems well-motivated as it assumes as little knowledge as possible about "N", given that some particular function must be chosen. It is equivalent to the assumption that the probability density of one's fractional position remains uniformly distributed even after learning of one's absolute position ("n").


title: Doomsday argument

text: Gott's 'reference class' in his original 1993 paper was not the number of births, but the number of years 'humans' had existed as a species, which he put at 200,000. Also, Gott tried to give a 95% confidence interval between a "minimum" survival time and a maximum. Because of the 2.5% chance that he gives to underestimating the minimum, he has only a 2.5% chance of overestimating the maximum. This equates to 97.5% confidence that extinction occurs before the upper boundary of his confidence interval, which can be used in the integral above with "Z" = 40"n", and "n" = 200,000 years:


title: Doomsday argument

text: This is how Gott produces a 97.5% confidence of extinction within "N" ≤ 8,000,000 years. The number he quoted was the likely time remaining, "N" − "n" = 7.8 million years. This was much higher than the temporal confidence bound produced by counting births, because it applied the principle of indifference to time. (Producing different estimates by sampling different parameters in the same hypothesis is Bertrand's paradox.) Similarly, there is a 97.5% chance that the present lies in the first 97.5% of human history, so there is a 97.5% chance that the total lifespan of humanity will be at least


title: Doomsday argument

text: In other words, Gott's argument gives a 95% confidence that humans will go extinct between 5,100 and 7.8 million years in the future.


title: Doomsday argument

text: Leslie's argument differs from Gott's version in that he does not assume a" vague prior" probability distribution for "N". Instead he argues that the force of the Doomsday Argument resides purely in the increased probability of an early Doomsday once you take into account your birth position, regardless of your prior probability distribution for "N". He calls this the "probability shift".


title: Doomsday argument

text: Heinz von Foerster argued that humanity's abilities to construct societies, civilizations and technologies do not result in self inhibition. Rather, societies' success varies directly with population size. Von Foerster found that this model fit some 25 data points from the birth of Jesus to 1958, with only 7% of the variance left unexplained. Several follow-up letters (1961, 1962, …) were published in "Science" showing that von Foerster's equation was still on track. The data continued to fit up until 1973. The most remarkable thing about von Foerster's model was it predicted that the human population would reach infinity or a mathematical singularity, on Friday, November 13, 2026. In fact, von Foerster did not imply that the world population on that day could actually become infinite. The real implication was that the world population growth pattern followed for many centuries prior to 1960 was about to come to an end and be transformed into a radically different pattern. Note that this prediction began to be fulfilled just in a few years after the "Doomsday" argument was published.


title: Doomsday argument

text: One of the major areas of Doomsday Argument debate is the reference class from which "n" is drawn, and of which "N" is the ultimate size. The 'standard' Doomsday Argument hypothesis doesn't spend much time on this point, and simply says that the reference class is the number of 'humans'. Given that you are human, the Copernican principle could be applied to ask if you were born unusually early, but the grouping of 'human' has been widely challenged on practical and philosophical grounds. Nick Bostrom has argued that consciousness is (part of) the discriminator between what is in and what is out of the reference class, and that extraterrestrial intelligence might affect the calculation dramatically.


title: Doomsday argument

text: The following sub-sections relate to different suggested reference classes, each of which has had the standard Doomsday Argument applied to it.


title: Doomsday argument

text: The Doomsday clock shows the expected time to nuclear doomsday by the judgment of an expert board, rather than a Bayesian model. If the twelve hours of the clock symbolize the lifespan of the human species, its current time of 23:58 implies that we are among the last 1% of people who will ever be born (i.e., that "n" > 0.99"N"). J. Richard Gott's temporal version of the Doomsday argument (DA) would require very strong prior evidence to overcome the improbability of being born in such a special time.


title: Doomsday argument

text: The scientists' warning can be reconciled with the DA, however. The Doomsday clock specifically estimates the proximity of atomic self-destruction—which has only been possible for about seventy years. If doomsday requires nuclear weaponry, then the Doomsday Argument 'reference class' is people contemporaneous with nuclear weapons. In this model, the number of people living through, or born after, Hiroshima is "n", and the number of people who ever will is "N". Applying Gott's DA to these variable definitions gives a 50% chance of doomsday within 50 years.


title: Doomsday argument

text: If your life is randomly selected from all lives lived under the shadow of the bomb, this simple model gives a 95% chance of doomsday within 1000 years.


title: Doomsday argument

text: The scientists' recent use of moving the clock forward to warn of the dangers posed by global warming muddles this reasoning, however.


title: Doomsday argument

text: Nick Bostrom, considering observation selection effects, has produced a Self-Sampling Assumption (SSA): "that you should think of yourself as if you were a random observer from a suitable reference class". If the 'reference class' is the set of humans to ever be born, this gives "N" < 20"n" with 95% confidence (the standard Doomsday argument). However, he has refined this idea to apply to "observer-moments" rather than just observers. He has formalized this ( as:


title: Doomsday argument

text: An application of the principle underlying SSSA (though this application is nowhere expressly articulated by Bostrom), is: If the minute in which you read this article is randomly selected from every minute in every human's lifespan, then (with 95% confidence) this event has occurred after the first 5% of human observer-moments. If the mean lifespan in the future is twice the historic mean lifespan, this implies 95% confidence that "N" < 10"n" (the average future human will account for twice the observer-moments of the average historic human). Therefore, the 95th percentile extinction-time estimate in this version is 4560 years.


title: Doomsday argument

text: Agreeing with the statistical methods but still disagreeing with the Doomsday argument (DA) implies that:


title: Doomsday argument

text: Therefore, these rebuttals try to give reasons for believing that the currently living humans are some of the earliest beings.


title: Doomsday argument

text: For instance, if one is a member of 50,000 people in a collaborative project, the Doomsday Argument implies a 95% chance that there will never be more than a million members of that project. This can be refuted if one's other characteristics are typical of the early adopter. The mainstream of potential users will prefer to be involved when the project is nearly complete. If one were to enjoy the project's incompleteness, it is already known that he or she is unusual, prior to the discovery of his or her early involvement.


title: Doomsday argument

text: If one has measurable attributes that set one apart from the typical long run user, the project DA can be refuted based on the fact that one could expect to be within the first 5% of members, "a priori". The analogy to the total-human-population form of the argument is: confidence in a prediction of the distribution of human characteristics that places modern and historic humans outside the mainstream implies that it is already known, before examining "n," that it is likely to be very early in "N". This is an argument for changing the reference class.


title: Doomsday argument

text: For example, if one is certain that 99% of humans who will ever live will be cyborgs, but that only a negligible fraction of humans who have been born to date are cyborgs, one could be equally certain that at least one hundred times as many people remain to be born as have been.


title: Doomsday argument

text: The a posteriori observation that extinction level events are rare could be offered as evidence that the DA's predictions are implausible; typically, extinctions of dominant species happen less often than once in a million years. Therefore, it is argued that human extinction is unlikely within the next ten millennia. (Another probabilistic argument, drawing a different conclusion than the DA.)


title: Doomsday argument

text: In Bayesian terms, this response to the DA says that our knowledge of history (or ability to prevent disaster) produces a prior marginal for "N" with a minimum value in the trillions. If "N" is distributed uniformly from 10 to 10, for example, then the probability of "N" < 1,200 billion inferred from "n" = 60 billion will be extremely small. This is an equally impeccable Bayesian calculation, rejecting the Copernican principle on the grounds that we must be 'special observers' since there is no likely mechanism for humanity to go extinct within the next hundred thousand years.


title: Doomsday argument

text: This response is accused of overlooking the technological threats to humanity's survival, to which earlier life was not subject, and is specifically rejected by most of the DA's academic critics (arguably excepting Robin Hanson).


title: Doomsday argument

text: Here, "c" and" q" are constants. If "q" is large, then our 95% confidence upper bound is on the uniform draw, not the exponential value of "N".


title: Doomsday argument

text: The simplest way to compare this with Gott's Bayesian argument is to flatten the distribution from the vague prior by having the probability fall off more slowly with "N" (than inverse proportionally). This corresponds to the idea that humanity's growth may be exponential in time with doomsday having a vague prior probability density function in "time". This would mean than "N", the last birth, would have a distribution looking like the following:


title: Doomsday argument

text: This prior "N" distribution is all that is required (with the principle of indifference) to produce the inference of "N" from "n", and this is done in an identical way to the standard case, as described by Gott (equivalent to formula_13 = 1 in this distribution):


title: Doomsday argument

text: Therefore, with this prior, the chance of a trillion births is well over 20%, rather than the 5% chance given by the standard DA. If formula_13 is reduced further by assuming a flatter prior "N" distribution, then the limits on" N" given by "n" become weaker. An formula_13 of one reproduces Gott's calculation with a birth reference class, and formula_13 around 0.5 could approximate his temporal confidence interval calculation (if the population were expanding exponentially). As formula_22 (gets smaller) "n" becomes less and less informative about "N". In the limit this distribution approaches an (unbounded) uniform distribution, where all values of "N" are equally likely. This is Page et al.'s "Assumption 3", which they find few reasons to reject, "a priori". (Although all distributions with formula_23 are improper priors, this applies to Gott's vague-prior distribution also, and they can all be converted to produce proper integrals by postulating a finite upper population limit.) Since the probability of reaching a population of size 2"N" is usually thought of as the chance of reaching "N" multiplied by the survival probability from "N" to 2"N" it follows that Pr("N") must be a monotonically decreasing function of "N", but this doesn't necessarily require an inverse proportionality.


title: Doomsday argument

text: Another objection to the Doomsday Argument is that the expected total human population is actually infinite. The calculation is as follows:


title: Doomsday argument

text: One objection is that the possibility of a human existing at all depends on how many humans will ever exist ("N"). If this is a high number, then the possibility of their existing is higher than if only a few humans will ever exist. Since they do indeed exist, this is evidence that the number of humans that will ever exist is high.


title: Doomsday argument

text: This objection, originally by Dennis Dieks (1992), is now known by Nick Bostrom's name for it: the "Self-Indication Assumption objection". It can be shown that some SIAs prevent any inference of "N" from "n" (the current population).


title: Doomsday argument

text: The Bayesian argument by Carlton M. Caves states that the uniform distribution assumption is incompatible with the Copernican principle, not a consequence of it.


title: Doomsday argument

text: Caves gives a number of examples to argue that Gott's rule is implausible. For instance, he says, imagine stumbling into a birthday party, about which you know nothing:


title: Doomsday argument

text: Your friendly enquiry about the age of the celebrant elicits the reply that she is celebrating her ("t" = ) 50th birthday. According to Gott, you can predict with 95% confidence that the woman will survive between [50]/39 = 1.28 years and 39[×50] = 1,950 years into the future. Since the wide range encompasses reasonable expectations regarding the woman's survival, it might not seem so bad, till one realizes that [Gott's rule] predicts that with probability 1/2 the woman will survive beyond 100 years old and with probability 1/3 beyond 150. Few of us would want to bet on the woman's survival using Gott's rule. "(See Caves' online paper below.)"


title: Doomsday argument

text: Although this example exposes a weakness in J. Richard Gott's "Copernicus method" DA (that he does not specify when the "Copernicus method" can be applied) it is not precisely analogous with the modern DA; epistemological refinements of Gott's argument by philosophers such as Nick Bostrom specify that:


title: Doomsday argument

text: Careful DA variants specified with this rule aren't shown implausible by Caves' "Old Lady" example above, because the woman's age is given prior to the estimate of her lifespan. Since human age gives an estimate of survival time (via actuarial tables) Caves' Birthday party age-estimate could not fall into the class of DA problems defined with this proviso.


title: Doomsday argument

text: To produce a comparable "Birthday party example" of the carefully specified Bayesian DA we would need to completely exclude all prior knowledge of likely human life spans; in principle this could be done (e.g.: hypothetical Amnesia chamber). However, this would remove the modified example from everyday experience. To keep it in the everyday realm the lady's age must be "hidden" prior to the survival estimate being made. (Although this is no longer exactly the DA, it is much more comparable to it.)


title: Doomsday argument

text: Without knowing the lady’s age, the DA reasoning produces a "rule" to convert the birthday ("n") into a maximum lifespan with 50% confidence ("N"). Gott's Copernicus method rule is simply: Prob ("N" < 2"n") = 50%. How accurate would this estimate turn out to be? Western demographics are now fairly uniform across ages, so a random birthday ("n") could be (very roughly) approximated by a U(0,"M"<nowiki>]</nowiki> draw where "M" is the maximum lifespan in the census. In this 'flat' model, everyone shares the same lifespan so "N" = "M". If "n" happens to be less than ("M")/2 then Gott's 2"n" estimate of "N" will be under "M", its true figure. The other half of the time 2"n" underestimates "M", and in this case (the one Caves highlights in his example) the subject will die before the 2"n" estimate is reached. In this 'flat demographics' model Gott's 50% confidence figure is proven right 50% of the time.


title: Doomsday argument

text: Some philosophers have suggested that only people who have contemplated the Doomsday argument (DA) belong in the reference class 'human'. If that is the appropriate reference class, Carter defied his own prediction when he first described the argument (to the Royal Society). An attendant could have argued thus:


title: Doomsday argument

text: Presently, only one person in the world understands the Doomsday argument, so by its own logic there is a 95% chance that it is a minor problem which will only ever interest twenty people, and I should ignore it.


title: Doomsday argument

text: Jeff Dewynne and Professor Peter Landsberg suggested that this line of reasoning will create a paradox for the Doomsday argument:


title: Doomsday argument

text: If a member of the Royal Society did pass such a comment, it would indicate that they understood the DA sufficiently well that in fact 2 people could be considered to understand it, and thus there would be a 5% chance that 40 or more people would actually be interested. Also, of course, ignoring something because you only expect a small number of people to be interested in it is extremely short sighted—if this approach were to be taken, nothing new would ever be explored, if we assume no "a priori" knowledge of the nature of interest and attentional mechanisms.


title: Doomsday argument

text: Additionally, it should be considered that because Carter did present and describe his argument, in which case the people to whom he explained it did contemplate the DA, as it was inevitable, the conclusion could then be drawn that in the moment of explanation Carter created the basis for his own prediction.


title: Doomsday argument

text: Various authors have argued that the Doomsday argument rests on an incorrect conflation of future duration with total duration. This occurs in the specification of the two time periods as "doom soon" and "doom deferred" which means that both periods are selected to occur "after" the observed value of the birth order. A rebuttal in Pisaturo (2009) argues that the Doomsday Argument relies on the equivalent of this equation:


title: Doomsday argument

text: Pisaturo takes numerical examples based on two possible corrections to this equation: considering only future durations and considering only total durations. In both cases, he concludes that the Doomsday Argument’s claim, that there is a ‘Bayesian shift’ in favor of the shorter future duration, is fallacious.


title: Doomsday argument

text: This argument is also echoed in O'Neill (2014). In this work O'Neill argues that a unidirectional "Bayesian Shift" is an impossibility within the standard formulation of probability theory and is contradictory to the rules of probability. As with Pisaturo, he argues that the doomsday argument conflates future duration with total duration by specification of doom times that occur after the observed birth order. According to O'Neill:


title: Doomsday argument

text: Gelman and Robert assert that the Doomsday argument confuses frequentist confidence intervals with Bayesian credible intervals. Suppose that every individual knows their number "n" and uses it to estimate an upper bound on "N". Every individual has a different estimate, and these estimates are constructed so that 95% of them contain the true value of "N" and the other 5% do not. This, say Gelman and Robert, is the defining property of a frequentist lower-tailed 95% confidence interval. But, they say, "this does not mean that there is a 95% chance that any particular interval will contain the true value." That is, while 95% of the confidence intervals will contain the true value of "N", this is not the same as "N" being contained in the confidence interval with 95% probability. The latter is a different property and is the defining characteristic of a Bayesian credible interval. Gelman and Robert conclude,


title: Doomsday argument

text: ... the Doomsday argument is the ultimate triumph of the idea, beloved among Bayesian educators, that our students and clients do not really understand Neyman–Pearson confidence intervals and inevitably give them the intuitive Bayesian interpretation.


title: Chris Byrd

text: Christopher Cornelius Byrd (born August 15, 1970) is an American former professional boxer who competed from 1993 to 2009. He is a two-time world heavyweight champion, having first won the WBO title in 2000 after an upset corner stoppage over then-undefeated Vitali Klitschko. In his first title defense later that year, he lost to Vitali's brother Wladimir Klitschko. In 2002, Byrd defeated Evander Holyfield to win the IBF heavyweight title for his second reign as world champion. He made four successful defenses until losing his title again to Wladimir Klitschko in a 2006 rematch. He was ranked by BoxRec as the world's top 10 heavyweight from 1996 to 2003, reaching his highest ranking of No.4 in 1998.


title: Chris Byrd

text: As an amateur, Byrd represented the United States at the 1992 Summer Olympics and won a silver medal in the middleweight division. He is also a three-time national amateur champion, winning the light middleweight title in 1989, and the middleweight title in 1991 and 1992.


title: Chris Byrd

text: Chris Byrd was the youngest of eight children growing up in Flint, Michigan. He began boxing at age 5, training in his father (Joe Sr.)'s Joe Byrd Boxing Academy. His father continued to train and manage Byrd as a professional. Byrd attended Flint Northwestern High School.


title: Chris Byrd

text: Byrd began competing in the ring at age 10, since then he had 285 amateur fights in various weight classes, compiled an impressive record of 275 wins, 10 losses. He was a three-time U.S. amateur champion (1989, 1991, and 1992). He was on the 1991 U.S. National boxing Team that became the first (and only) U.S. team to score a tie against the heralded Cuban team.


title: Chris Byrd

text: Byrd won the silver medal in the 1992 Barcelona summer Olympics as a middleweight, losing to Cuba's Ariel Hernández in the final.


title: Chris Byrd

text: Byrd turned professional on January 28, 1993, knocking out 10 of his first 13 opponents. Byrd moved up to heavyweight three fights into his professional career.


title: Chris Byrd

text: Byrd remained undefeated for his first 26 fights, knocking off then-notable opponents like Phil Jackson, Lionel Butler, Uriah Grant, Bert Cooper, Craig Peterson, Frankie Swindell, Jimmy Thunder, undefeated Eliecer Castillo and Ross Puritty.


title: Chris Byrd

text: However, in 1999, Byrd's undefeated record came to a dead end when he fought undefeated Ike Ibeabuchi. With 48 seconds left in the fifth round, a left-handed bolo punch followed with a right hook sent Byrd to the canvas, face first.


title: Chris Byrd

text: During the last week of March 2000, Byrd was offered the chance to be the replacement (for Donovan Ruddock) against undefeated champion Vitali Klitschko in Berlin, Germany (Klitschko's adopted home country) for the WBO Heavyweight Title. He therefore had only seven days to prepare for the fight (not the customary 6–12 weeks). Byrd struggled greatly in the fight, trailing after nine rounds by scores of 88–83 (on two cards) and 89–82 (on one card), i.e. losing seven or eight of those rounds. However, Klitschko severely injured his shoulder and was unable to continue after the ninth round. The injury that Klitschko suffered was a torn shoulder rotator cuff, which required major surgery and a 7-month lay-off. Despite trailing on all three of the judges' scorecards, Byrd walked away the winner by a technical knockout due to the injury to Klitschko.


title: Chris Byrd

text: Six months later, Byrd was back in Germany to defend the title against Wladimir Klitschko, Vitali's younger, more agile brother. Twelve rounds later, Byrd had lost a lopsided unanimous decision and the WBO belt after being knocked down twice.


title: Chris Byrd

text: Byrd returned to the U.S., signed with Don King and beat Maurice Harris to win the United States Boxing Association heavyweight belt in Madison Square Garden. He was now a top-five contender for the IBF title. After winning his next match (a title defense against New Zealand's top contender David Tua) Byrd eventually received his mandatory shot at the vacant IBF world Heavyweight Championship against Evander Holyfield in Atlantic City. On December 14, 2002, Byrd won a unanimous decision and the IBF title.


title: Chris Byrd

text: Byrd has successfully defended the IBF belt against: Fres Oquendo in 2003, a highly entertaining draw with Andrew Golota and a decision win over friend Jameel McCline in 2004, and DaVarryl Williamson in 2005. Byrd's fight with Golota did 75,000 buys on pay-per-view.


title: Chris Byrd

text: On April 22, 2006, Byrd faced Wladimir Klitschko for the second time. Byrd was making his fifth defense of his IBF title and the fight was also sanctioned by the International Boxing Organization for its title, which had been vacated upon the retirement of Lennox Lewis. The fight took place at SAP Arena in Mannheim, Germany. Byrd was heavily dominated throughout the fight, was down in the fifth, and again in the seventh. Referee Wayne Kelly stopped the fight after the second knockdown when Byrd had an open cut near his eyes. Klitschko won in a TKO


title: Chris Byrd

text: After losing to Alexander Povetkin, Byrd would drop about 40 pounds to return to the light heavyweight division. He fought Shaun George on May 16, 2008, at the Thomas and Mack Center in Las Vegas. Byrd was dropped by George in round one and rocked again in round two. George then hammered Byrd with his right hand at will, finally flooring Byrd twice in the ninth round. Byrd beat the count after the first knockdown, but was then battered down again and the bout was waved off by the referee.


title: Chris Byrd

text: Byrd hosts a weekly video podcast, entitled "Byrd's Eye View", which showcases former boxers as well as current professional and champion-level fighters.


title: Type 69 tank

text: The Type 69 () and Type 79 () are Chinese second generation main battle tanks. Both were developments of the Type 59 medium tank (a locally produced Soviet T-54A) with technologies derived from T-62. They were the first indigenously developed main battle tanks by China, although also classified as medium tanks while in development and service. Their lineage from the T-54A can be seen through the distinct gap between the first and second road wheels. Other improvements included a new engine, ballistic computers, and laser rangefinders. The more advanced Type 79 variant was equipped with a 105 mm rifled gun which was also found on the Type 80 tank.


title: Type 69 tank

text: After the Sino-Soviet split, the Soviet Union withdrew its technical staff and support to China's arms industry. This caused China's domestic tank development to stagnate significantly. Sometime after 1960, the PLA tank corps and Fifth Ministry of Machine Building embarked on the development of China's first domestically developed tank. In 1965, development objectives were finalized and the product was named "WZ121" internally. In 1966, the first prototype rolled off the factory. However, the Cultural Revolution and its resulting chaos further impeded tank development.


title: Type 69 tank

text: During the 1969 Sino-Soviet border conflict, the PLA was able to capture a Soviet T-62 MBT. The captured tank was examined and some of its components such as the Soviet Luna IR (infrared) searchlight system, were copied and integrated into the Type 69 prototype. After around a decade of development, the first domestically developed and produced Chinese tank was inducted into the PLA ground forces as the Type 1969 Medium Tank or Type 69 Tank for short.


title: Type 69 tank

text: Appearance wise, the Type 69 did not differ from the Type 59 much. The fume extractor on the 100mm gun was moved back slightly and there was a large IR light attached to the turret. There was a laser rangefinder on the gun mantlet and a smaller IR light on the commander's hatch, making it the first Chinese tank capable of fighting in the dark. The main upgrade in the Type 69 was in its firepower. The Type 69 was the first Chinese tank to be outfitted with a 100mm smoothbore gun capable of firing APFSDS rounds. It also had two plane gun stabilization. Due to these upgrades, the Type 69 was a much more battle-capable MBT than the Type 59, especially at night. It was also faster thanks to an upgraded engine. However, protection wise the Type 69 was essentially the same as the Type 59. Like the Type 59, it also did not have any NBC protection.


title: Type 69 tank

text: Type 69 was incorporated into service in 1974. However, it was fundamentally an improved variant of the Type 59. The Chinese military decided to develop another second-generation main battle tank based on new technologies. The new tank program, also known as the Type 80, began development in 1978, built upon the foundation that was laid during the development of the Type 69 tank.


title: Type 69 tank

text: Despite these improvements, due to the large number of technical problems when operating the tanks, the initial batch of Type 69 tanks were returned to the factory. By March 1974, only 100 Type 69 tanks had been produced. The relevant departments in tank development did not have sufficient experience or knowledge, and the overly ambitious design requirements meant that a large amount of time was wasted. Compounding to this immaturity in the tank manufacturing industry was the on-going Cultural Revolution. The Type 69 took almost a decade of development but only resulted in a tank that looked only marginally different from the original Type 59 and was only significantly different in its firepower. By the time the Type 69 went into production, other countries had already developed much more advanced tanks such as the American M60 MBTs or what would eventually become the Russian T-72.


title: Type 69 tank

text: Relations between China and the West warmed in the 1980s, and China was able to import some Western technologies to improve its weapon systems. The Type 69 was upgraded with Western systems such as the British Marconi FCS, and the L7 105 mm gun. The new version received the designation Type 79, which represented the conclusion of China's first-generation tank development.


title: Type 69 tank

text: Both the Type 69 and Type 79 tanks share almost identical hulls and turrets with the older Type 59. The only difference is that the two more recent tank models have been upgraded with better technologies that were either captured or bought from more advanced countries. (Gelbart 1996:17-19) The Chinese Type 59, 69 and 79 tanks can therefore be viewed as part of the same, evolutionary tank family in the same way that the Soviet T-54, T-55 and T-62 tanks share a common lineage.


title: Type 69 tank

text: Today only a couple of hundred Type 69/Type 79s remain in PLA inventory, mostly deployed with training or reserve units. The Type 69/Type 79 are being replaced by the newer Type 96 and Type 99 MBTs.


title: Type 69 tank

text: The PLA was unsatisfied with the Type 69's performance, but it still became one of China's most successful armored vehicle exports. These export versions were called Type 69-II (in contrast to the domestic Type 69-I) and had incorporated improvements which were not found in the original Type 69-I. Over 2,000 were sold worldwide in the 1980s. The simplicity, robustness and low cost of the tanks made them attractive on the export market, and China sold hundreds to both sides during the Iran–Iraq War. (Gelbart 1996:18) Many of the vehicles were later used by Saddam Hussein during the Gulf War and the 2003 Iraq War.


title: Type 69 tank

text: During the 1980s, China sold hundreds of Type 69 MBTs to Iraq. By the Persian Gulf War of 1990 and 1991, western analysts claim that Iraq had upgraded some Type 69s with a 105 mm gun, a 60 mm mortar, and a 125 mm gun with an auto-loader. All of them were reinforced with frontal layer armor welded on the glacis plate. All these versions were known as Type 69-QMs. It was reported during the 1991 Gulf War that the Iraqi Type 69 units fought harder than the elite Republican Guard units, equipped with T-72 MBTs. One possible explanation is that Saddam ordered his Republican Guard units to preserve their strength, while sending the rest of the army, equipped with inferior Type 69 tanks, to the frontline.


title: Type 69 tank

text: According to battle reports from the 2003 invasion of Iraq, Type 69-QMs were used by the Iraqi Army units defending Nasiriyah in March 2003, most of them being employed as artillery pillboxes. They played an important role in the ambushes mounted against the US Army 507th Maintenance Company and Charlie Company of the 1st Battalion, 2nd Marines, before AH-1 Cobra helicopters wiped out the Iraqi tanks. Two Type 69s destroyed at least four vehicles of the 507th, among them a heavy truck rammed by one of the tanks. There is also a first hand account of about four Type 69s hidden behind some buildings pounding the Marines' Charlie Company with indirect fire and likely disabling several AAVs. Some combat useless Type 59/69s were emplaced as decoys or mere obstacles.


title: Type 69 tank

text: Myanmar Army Type 69 tanks also reportedly engaged Royal Thai Army M60A3 tanks in 2001 during the battle for Border Post 9631, although it is unclear if either side lost any vehicles.


title: Type 69 tank

text: This version was widely exported and produced under license in Pakistan by Heavy Industries Taxila (HIT). The Type 69-II is referred to as the Type 30 in the Royal Thai Army.


title: Type 69 tank

text: A civilian variant of the Type 69/79 was used to develop the Chinese firefighting tank. Currently only three fire brigades in China have purchased such a vehicle.


title: Lofi hip hop

text: Lofi hip hop (also known as chillhop and lofi beats to study to) is a form of downtempo music that combines elements of hip hop and chill-out music. It was popularized in the 2010s on YouTube and has been referred to as an Internet meme.


title: Lofi hip hop

text: Lo-fi hip-hop originated within the underground beatmaking hip-hop scene of the 2000s, particularly after the advent of Roland SP-303 and Roland SP-404 samplers, each of which featured the "lo-fi" effect as a separate button. Roland SP samplers, particularly Boss SP-202, 303 and 404 were sporadically used by beatmakers and DJs since the early 2000s, but it was Madlib who arguably paid stronger attention to the SP samplers, after showcasing them at his Red Bull Academy lecture in Brazil in 2002. It was also in Brazil in 2002 where Madlib created "Rhinestone Cowboy", "Raid", and "Strange Ways" for his 2004 collaborative album with MF DOOM called "Madvillainy". The three mentioned beats were all composed using 303 and a tape deck. "Vice" contributor Luke Winkie suggested that "if there is one shared touchstone for lo-fi hip-hop, it's probably [the 2004 MF Doom and Madlib album] "Madvillainy"". Among the early adopters of the 404 stood Jneiro Jarel, who is credited as the first artist to use SP-404 in an official release, after releasing "Three Piece Puzzle" in 2005.


title: Lofi hip hop

text: The Japanese artist Nujabes, often called the "godfather of lofi hip hop", is also credited with driving lofi's growth with his contributions to the soundtrack for the popular anime "Samurai Champloo". Another artist also often associated with the development of lofi is US rapper and producer J Dilla. Lo-fi hip-hop's nostalgic aesthetic can also be traced back to the early work of Scottish electronic group, Boards of Canada. The duo incorporated hip-hop grooves into their work and used vintage synthesisers and complex audio processing techniques to imitate the sounds of old educational videos and lo-fi mix tapes respectively.


title: Lofi hip hop

text: In 2013, YouTube began hosting live streams, which resulted in 24-hour "radio stations" dedicated to microgenres such as vaporwave. Compilation videos are also popular, combining the music with visuals that could take the form of recorded pedestrian walks through major cities like Tokyo, looping visuals from cartoons such as The Simpsons or Internet memes. Spotify added to the popular "lo-fi beats" wave by generating "Spotified genres", including "Chill Hits", "Bedroom Pop" playlists, and promoting numerous "chill pop" artists.


title: Lofi hip hop

text: In 2017, a form of downtempo music tagged as "chillhop" or "lo-fi hip hop" became popular among YouTube music streamers. Most, if not all, of the content used in YouTube videos was primarily published on SoundCloud. By 2018, several of these channels had millions of followers. One DJ, Ryan Celsius, theorized that they were inspired by a nostalgia for the commercial bumpers used by Toonami and Adult Swim in the 2000s, and that this "created a cross section of people that enjoyed both anime and wavy hip-hop beats". These channels equally functioned as chatrooms, with participants often discussing their personal struggles. By 2018, Spotify's "Chill Hits" playlist had 5.4 million listeners and had been growing rapidly.


title: Lofi hip hop

text: Winkie credited YouTube user Lofi Girl (formerly known as "ChilledCow") as "the person who first featured a studious anime girl as his calling card, which set up the aesthetic framework for the rest of the people operating in the genre". Eventually, lo-fi hip hop itself came to be considered an Internet meme.


title: Lofi hip hop

text: Viewership of lo-fi hip hop streams grew significantly during the COVID-19 pandemic. In April 2020, MTV News noted, "there might be something to be said for lo-fi hip-hop's composition, and the way its creators mix simplistic melodies with a judicious use of words to create intense memories, feelings, and nostalgia" and stated that the quarantine in place in various countries "has led people to log more hours online due to boredom or virtual workplaces and schools, and livestreamed music performances are reaching their full potential".


title: Lofi hip hop

text: Many producers in the genre distanced themselves from the label, with detractors of the genre usually criticizing the music's perceived simple and clichéd sound. "Pitchfork" contributor Philip Sherburne opined that the genre was "what happens when a generation raised on mood-based playlists definitively stops caring about what it listens to. [...] In the new millennium, even background music—like selling out before it—lost all negative connotations."


title: Samant Goel

text: Samant Kumar Goel is an Indian civil servant working as an intelligence officer and is of the IPS cadre. He is the current Chief of the Research and Analysis Wing, India's foreign intelligence agency. He was appointed as the Chief of R&AW on 26 June 2019 replacing Anil Dhasmana.


title: Samant Goel

text: Goel, who belongs to the Punjab cadre, was involved in the planning of the Balakot air strike and played an important role in checking militancy in Punjab. Mr. Goel, a recipient of the Police Medals for Gallantry and Meritorious Service, joined the R&AW in 2001.


title: PSX (digital video recorder)

text: The PSX is a Sony digital video recorder with a fully integrated PlayStation 2 home video game console. It was released in Japan on December 13, 2003. Since it was designed to be a general-purpose consumer video device, it was marketed by the main Sony Corporation instead of Sony Computer Entertainment and does not carry the usual PlayStation branding. Initial sales were strong, with the console selling 100,000 units during its first week, thus selling out. Its high cost, however, resulted in poor sales later on, prompting Sony to cancel plans to release the PSX outside Japan. After the price had been lowered in September 2004, sales increased again.


title: PSX (digital video recorder)

text: The device is a fully functional digital video recorder with an included Infrared remote control and S-Video, composite video, and RF inputs. It is able to tune analog VHF and CATV. It can also be linked with a PlayStation Portable to transfer photos, videos and music via USB ports, and features software for non-linear video editing, image editing and audio editing. DVD+R support was to be introduced in a future update.


title: PSX (digital video recorder)

text: It was the first device to use Sony's XrossMediaBar (XMB) graphical user interface, which was later used on the PlayStation Portable, PlayStation 3, some Blu-ray Disc players, and 2008-era BRAVIA TVs. Like standard PS2 consoles, the PSX can be laid horizontally or stood up vertically.


title: PSX (digital video recorder)

text: The PSX fully supports both PlayStation and PlayStation 2 software by its slot-loading DVD drive, as the onboard EE+GS chip is a unification of the PS2's Emotion Engine and Graphics Synthesizer chips. Online game compatibility is available using the broadband connection; Games that use the PS2 HDD (such as "Final Fantasy XI") are supported as well.


title: PSX (digital video recorder)

text: Shortly before release, Sony omitted numerous features from the PSX, citing that it was necessary to launch by Christmas 2003 time. Playback of CD-R and DVD+RW discs for example were dropped, as well as MP3 format audio, and instead DVD-RW discs and ATRAC format audio were retained upon release. However, firmware updates (versions 1.10 and 1.20) added these features later on.


title: PSX (digital video recorder)

text: The PSX is compatible with all first-party PlayStation and PlayStation 2 controllers and memory cards, with the exception of the PocketStation. The main unit has two controller ports located on the back side and two memory card slots on the front side hidden behind a panel cover. While the unit itself was sold without a game controller, a PSX-branded variant of the DualShock 2 analog controller was sold separately which features a 4-meter long cord (a bit longer than the standard versions of the controller). Because of the different placement of controller ports and memory card slots (which are located above each other on standard PlayStation and PlayStation 2 consoles), the PSX is incompatible with all versions of the multitap, and no PSX-specific multitap was ever made to get around this issue. Games that require the use of two or more USB ports are also incompatible with the PSX.


title: PSX (digital video recorder)

text: The PSX was released in eight retail configurations during its lifespan; the 5000 series (with an embossed logo on top and grey stripe at the back) shipped with 160 GB Hard disk drives, while the 7000 series (with a colored logo on top and black stripe at the back) contained 250 GB drives. Software updates were made available by disc and download.


title: PSX (digital video recorder)

text: The 7500/7700 models added a Ghost Reduction Tuner. The inclusion of BS and UHF/VHF connectors varied by model. Starting with firmware version 2.10, users could export videos to a Memory Stick. The exported files are compatible for playback on the PSP. This feature is unavailable on earlier models due to the later firmware versions never being released for them. Contrary to popular belief, no variant of this console supports PSP games or is compatible with UMD discs.


title: PSX (digital video recorder)

text: All models have two sets of status LEDs and Infrared receivers; one along the front for horizontal orientation, and a second strip along the top-back for vertical orientation. The 'Disk Rec' indicator is only on the front of the device in later models. Additionally, some models have one or two decorative blue LED light strips, either on the front located under the disc slot or in the back. DESR-5XXX consoles have a solid white case with an embossed PSX logo (except DESR-5100S, which has a silver case). DESR-7XXX consoles have a clear-white case with a colored PSX logo printed on.


title: PSX (digital video recorder)

text: Up until the release of the PlayStation 2, the first PlayStation console came to be known colloquially outside of Japan by its provisional codename of PSX (this was adopted to echo the MSX, a home computer standard sold by Sony and other companies throughout the 1980s). This can cause some confusion as to which device is being referred to.


title: PSX (digital video recorder)

text: The PSX was initially displayed at CEATEC in white, silver, yellow, red and blue. The white variant was released commercially, with a limited edition silver model made available in 2004.


title: Highland Park, Illinois

text: Highland Park is a suburban city located in the southeastern part of Lake County, Illinois, United States, about north of downtown Chicago. Per the 2020 census, the population was 30,176. Highland Park is one of several municipalities located on the North Shore of the Chicago metropolitan area.


title: Highland Park, Illinois

text: A traveler in the area in 1833 described visiting a village of bark-covered structures where he ate roasted corn with a chief named Nic-sa-mah at a site likely located south of present-day Clavey Road and east of the Edens Expressway.


title: Highland Park, Illinois

text: In 1847, two German immigrants, John Hettinger and John Peterman founded a town along Lake Michigan, which they called St. John's. Soon, the town was abandoned, due to questions regarding ownership of the land. Three years later, another German Immigrant, Jacob Clinton Bloom, founded Port Clinton, which happened to be just south of St. John's. Port Clinton was described by Elijah Middlebrook Haines as "one of the most promising villages in the city". In 1854, a lighthouse was built in Port Clinton, thanks to funding by the US Congress and sponsorships from Illinois representatives. Despite having a functioning lighthouse with a keeper, a pier, sawmill, and a plank road, Port Clinton did not have a train station in 1855. In 1860, Port Clinton stopped growing as a town, and the lighthouse was shut down.


title: Highland Park, Illinois

text: In 1867, ten men purchased Highland Park for $39,198.70. They were the original stockholders of the Highland Park Building Company. Following construction of the Chicago and Milwaukee Railroad, a depot was established at Highland Park and a plat, extending south to Central Avenue, was laid out in 1856. At that point, Highland Park was settled on mostly scattered farms and undeveloped forested land. Highland Park was established as a city on March 11, 1869, with a population of 500, and evolved from the two settlements of St. John and Port Clinton; St. John's Avenue and Port Clinton Square are named after the settlements. Highland Park was named from its parklike setting at a lofty elevation relative to the lake, and was given its name from Walter S. Gurnee. The town annexed the village of Ravinia in 1899.


title: Highland Park, Illinois

text: From its establishment in 1869 until November 1, 1900, Highland Park was a "dry" community, in which the sale of alcoholic drinks was prohibited.


title: Highland Park, Illinois

text: In 2013, Highland Park passed an ordinance banning assault weapons within the city. In 2015, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit upheld the ban, and later that year, the U.S. Supreme Court allowed the ruling to stand.


title: Highland Park, Illinois

text: On July 4, 2022, a mass shooting occurred at a Fourth of July parade in Highland Park, killing seven people and injuring dozens more. A suspect was apprehended hours later and charged with first-degree murder.


title: Highland Park, Illinois

text: Highland Park has several attractions including a downtown shopping district and the Ravinia Festival. Ravinia Festival is an open-air pavilion seating 3,200, which hosts classical, pop, jazz and latin concerts in the summers. It has been the summer home of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra since 1936. Concert-goers can purchase seats in the covered pavilion or tickets to sit on the lawn. Many visitors arrive early and picnic on the lawn before and during concerts. The festival is located in Ravinia District, originally an artists' colony, which still retains much of its early character and architecture.


title: Highland Park, Illinois

text: Highland Park has several landmark structures listed in the National Register of Historic Places, notably the Willits House by Frank Lloyd Wright. In addition to several houses designed by Wright, the National Register lists homes designed by prominent architects including John S. Van Bergen, Howard Van Doren Shaw, Robert E. Seyfarth, and David Adler. Landscape architect Jens Jensen lived in Highland Park and designed a number of projects in the community that are listed on the register.


title: Highland Park, Illinois

text: There are three public beaches in Highland Park: Rosewood Beach, Moraine Beach (part of which is available for off-leash dogs), and Park Avenue Beach (which also has a boating facility). Highland Park is also home to the North Shore Yacht Club.


title: Highland Park, Illinois

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and , or 0.27%, is water. Its geographic features include a bluff running along of Lake Michigan shoreline and deep, wooded ravines extending up to inland. Elevations range from above sea level.


title: Highland Park, Illinois

text: "Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos can be of any race."


title: Highland Park, Illinois

text: As of the 2010 United States census, there were 29,763 people living in the city. The racial makeup of the city was 91.05% White, 1.84% Black or African American, 2.9% Asian, 0.18% Native American, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 2.51% of some other race and 1.48% of two or more races. 7.28% were Hispanic or Latino (of any race).


title: Highland Park, Illinois

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 31,365 people, 11,521 households, and 8,917 families living in the city. The population density was . There were 11,934 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 91.20% White, 1.78% African American, 0.08% Native American, 2.28% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 3.46% from other races, and 1.18% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 8.90% of the population.


title: Highland Park, Illinois

text: There were 11,521 households, out of which 36.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 69.9% were married couples living together, 5.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 22.6% were non-families. 19.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.71 and the average family size was 3.09.


title: Highland Park, Illinois

text: In the city the population was spread out, with 27.0% under the age of 18, 4.6% from 18 to 24, 25.5% from 25 to 44, 27.8% from 45 to 64, and 15.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41 years. For every 100 females, there were 95.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.5 males.


title: Highland Park, Illinois

text: The median income for a household in the city was $100,967, and the median income for a family was $117,235. Males had a median income of $83,121 versus $41,175 for females. The per capita income for the city was $55,331. About 2.3% of families and 3.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3.9% of those under age 18 and 3.1% of those age 65 or over.


title: Highland Park, Illinois

text: The City of Highland Park is a council-manager government. The nonpartisan City Council consists of seven members, including an elected mayor and six council members, all elected at-large and serving staggered four-year terms. The current city council consists of:


title: Highland Park, Illinois

text: Highland Park is considered a Democratic stronghold, giving Joe Biden more than 80% of its vote in the 2020 United States presidential election. Highland Park voters also tend to prefer Democrats in local races.


title: Highland Park, Illinois

text: At the state level, Highland Park is a part of the 58th House District, represented by Bob Morgan (D-Highwood), and the 29th Senate District, represented by Julie Morrison (D-Deerfield). At the county level, the city is split between Districts 11 and 12, represented by former Highland Park City Councilman Paul Frank (D-Highland Park) and former Lake Forest Mayor Mike Rummel (R-Lake Forest), respectively.


title: Highland Park, Illinois

text: The international headquarters of Solo Cup Company were previously located in Highland Park, before relocating to neighboring Lake Forest in 2009.


title: Highland Park, Illinois

text: The main highway in Highland Park is US-41, which connects Chicago to Milwaukee. Commuter rail is available at four Metra stations within city borders (Braeside, Ravinia Park, Ravinia, and Highland Park), as well as two in nearby Highwood (Highwood and Fort Sheridan) on the Union Pacific/North Line, which begins in Chicago and terminates in Kenosha, Wisconsin. Pace also offers several bus routes. Boat launch facilities are available along Lake Michigan. O'Hare International Airport is located approximately southwest.


title: Highland Park, Illinois

text: Highland Park is popular with professional athletes, as the Chicago Bears practice facility is in nearby Lake Forest. Several members of the championship Chicago Bulls of 1990s also live or lived in Highland Park including Michael Jordan, Scottie Pippen, Toni Kukoc, B. J. Armstrong, and GM Jerry Krause, thanks to its proximity to the team's practice facility in neighboring Deerfield.


title: Highland Park, Illinois

text: Among famous Highland Parkers are singer, songwriter, and producer Richard Marx, who grew up in Highland Park, Smashing Pumpkins frontman Billy Corgan, who resides in Highland Park, national champion and Olympic medalist figure skater Jason Brown, who attended high school in Highland Park, and Golden Globe-winning actress Rachel Brosnahan from Amazon's "The Marvelous Mrs. Maisel", who also grew up in Highland Park and attended Highland Park High School. Three-time Tony Award nominated actor Gary Sinise attended Highland Park High School and co-founded the Steppenwolf Theatre in neighboring Deerfield.


title: Highland Park, Illinois

text: Highland Park was used for location shots for several movies written and directed by John Hughes in the 1980s including "Ferris Bueller's Day Off", "Weird Science", "Sixteen Candles", "Uncle Buck" and "Home Alone". Other popular films from the 1980s shot or partially set in Highland Park include "Ordinary People", "Risky Business", and "Lucas." Since 2000, Highland Park movies have included "Kicking & Screaming" and "Shattered Memories of Love". In the film "Shattered Glass", Stephen Glass, portrayed by actor Hayden Christensen, makes repeated reference to his family's residence in Highland Park as an indication of the high expectations they have for his career.


title: Highland Park, Illinois

text: "Highland Park has the feel of a gated community without the actual gates," writes "Vanity Fair", and has a tradition of "very clever minds who left to strike gold in Hollywood." The creators of the "Revenge of the Nerds", "Beethoven", and other films grew up in Highland Park.


title: Highland Park, Illinois

text: North Shore School District 112 operates an early childhood center, eight elementary schools, and two middle schools.


title: Highland Park, Illinois

text: Township High School District 113 operates Highland Park High School, as well as Deerfield High School in nearby Deerfield.


title: Harley-Davidson VRSC

text: The Harley-Davidson VRSC (V-twin racing street custom), or V-Rod, is a line of V-twin cruiser motorcycles made by Harley-Davidson from 1999 until 2017. They are often called muscle bikes for their relatively high power output. The V-Rods are the first Harley-Davidson street motorcycles with double overhead camshafts (DOHC) and liquid cooling.


title: Harley-Davidson VRSC

text: The VRSC was introduced in 2001 in a single model called the V-Rod aiming to compete against Japanese and American muscle bikes. The V-Rod's Revolution Engine originated with the liquid cooled, four valve per cylinder, overhead cam, 60-degree V-twin engine Harley-Davidson created for its VR1000 racing bike; Porsche Engineering, with the aid of a few Harley-Davidson engineers, developed the engine. Unlike other Harley-Davidson production motorcycles, the radiator and the hydroformed frame members support the round-topped air cleaner cover. The fuel tank on the V-Rod is located underneath the seat, placing the rider on top of it, rather than the usual frontal placement. The "tank" in this case is actually the cover for the air box and coolant fill port. Loosely based on the VR-1000 Superbike, Harley-Davidson built it as a platform for drag-racing competition machines. All VRSC models are produced at Harley-Davidson's Vehicle and Powertrain Operations facility in Kansas City, Missouri.


title: Harley-Davidson VRSC

text: Harley-Davidson has collaborated with Porsche before, in the Nova Project of the 1970s, which, like the V-Rod, was a radical departure from Harley-Davidson's traditional lineup. Nova was cancelled in 1981, in favor of the Evolution engine. A derivative of the Revolution called the Revolution X was later used on the entry-level Harley-Davidson Street, first released in 2014.


title: Harley-Davidson VRSC

text: "Car & Driver" said Harley-Davidson's branding was "culturally rather than technologically driven; so imagine our surprise at seeing the company's newest ride, the V-Rod, complete with a liquid-cooled DOHC four-valve V-twin developed in partnership with Porsche Engineering." They added, "we think the V-Rod is a serious threat to its own stablemates as well as to cruisers from other manufacturers. It's that good".


title: Harley-Davidson VRSC

text: Motorcycle Cruiser wrote "The V-Rod was intended to bring in more than the usual suspects, and it did. It became the company's best-selling bike in other countries. In America, V-Rod buyers often came from other brands, attracted by its modern engine, excellent performance and not-the-usual-cruiser style".


title: Harley-Davidson VRSC

text: The original V-Rod had a Revolution Engine, producing a claimed at the crank. The V-Rod had 49 mm forks and a 180 mm rear tire, with solid disc wheels. The VRSCAs were all factory equipped with fuel tanks. In 2006 the VRSCA was equipped with Brembo brakes. The VRSCA was only offered with forward controls. 2003 models were included in the 100th anniversary edition.


title: Harley-Davidson VRSC

text: The VRSCAW V-Rod is the successor to the VRSCA. First Produced in 2007, it is essentially a VRSCA with a new frame to accommodate the 240 mm rear tire and five gallon gas tank that came standard. The aluminum bodywork of the VRSCA was used in a few early-production VRSCAW models, but was later dropped. With these changes the VRSCAW is a claimed heavier than its predecessor. For the first production year the power-plant remained an unchanged Revolution engine. The VRSCAW was only offered with forward controls. The combination of increased weight, and a 240 mm rear tire with no power increase made the 2007 VRSCAW the slowest production VRSC produced


title: Harley-Davidson VRSC

text: In 2008 the VRSCAW V-Rod's Revolution was increased from 1,131 cc to , producing a claimed @ 7,000 rpm, and peak power of at the crankshaft, a slipper clutch was also added, as was an anti-lock braking system option. For the 2009 model year the VRSCAW replaced the VRSCD, which was dropped from the line, as the "base model" for the VRSC family, and the suggested retail price was reduced.


title: Harley-Davidson VRSC

text: The VRSCB V-Rod had a two-year run. It was mechanically identical to the VRSCA, with cosmetic differences including a black frame, polished aluminum and black powder-coated engine, and a slightly different clamshell, instrument housing and handlebars. The VRSCB was only offered with forward controls.


title: Harley-Davidson VRSC

text: The Night Rod was introduced in 2006 as the “new hot rod-inspired motorcycle” built around the Revolution engine. The Night Rod has mid controls similar to the 2006 Street Rod. These are the only two V-Rod models with mid controls (Rear sets). Straight-shot mufflers helped the Revolution Engine to produce a claimed at the crank. The Night Rod had a black frame, black and chrome engine, Brembo brakes, slotted aluminum disk wheels, and a color-matched fairing. In 2008 the VRSCD Night Rod's Revolution was increased from , producing a claimed @ 7,000 rpm, and peak power of at the crank, a slipper clutch was also added, as was an ABS option. For the 2008 model year, the VRSCD was the only remaining VRSC model to still have a 180 mm rear tire or mid-pegs. 2008 was also the final year of production for the VRSCD Night Rod.


title: Harley-Davidson VRSC

text: The VRSCDX is marketed as the factory made custom version of the standard Night Rod and is also part of Harley-Davidson's "Dark Custom" series. In addition to a 240 mm wide rear tire, most of the chrome components of the VRSCD were replaced with black. The wheels were replaced by black slotted disk wheels, with dark orange pin striping. The Straight shot dual exhaust produced a claimed at the crank. A 5-gallon tank was standard. The DX also include racing stripes. In 2008 the VRSCDX Night Rod Special's Revolution was increased from , producing claimed torque of @ 7,000 rpm, and peak power of at the crank, a slipper-clutch was also added, as was an ABS option. For the 2012 model year, Harley-Davidson launched a tenth anniversary version of the Night Rod Special. This model had a straight-shot exhaust with dual, chrome slash-cut mufflers and chrome exhaust shield; split five-spoke cast aluminum wheels with diamond cut highlights; pullback handlebar with polished finish; inverted front forks in silver and polished finishes; stylized, chrome speed screen visor; graphics, including V-Rod 10th anniversary emblem; and chrome powertrain with platinum crankcase and heads.


title: Harley-Davidson VRSC

text: The V-Rod Muscle was introduced in the summer of 2008 at the Harley-Davidson dealer show in Las Vegas for the 2009 production model year. In promoting the Muscle, American fashion model Marisa Miller was hired for an advertising campaign aimed at younger, urban riders. It would be one of only three VRSC models for 2009. Like the other two models, the Muscle used the Revolution Engine, a 240 mm wide rear tire, fuel tank, slipper clutch and forward controls. Unlike the other models in the VRSC lineup, the Muscle had straight shot dual exhausts, with a crossover, one on each side of the bike, unlike the 2>1>2 exhaust found on all other VRSC models. Additionally, the Muscle used an air-box with mock-up air-rams like those found on many American pony and muscle cars. In the production version of the bike the air-rams are cosmetic. The VRSCF also had a chopped rear fender with integrated turn signals, and a side-mounted license plate. Turn signals were integrated into the rear view mirrors for the first time as a stock feature on a Harley-Davidson motorcycle. The VRSCF provided at the crank a claimed of torque at 6,500 rpm, which was slightly more torque than the other VRSC models, at a slightly lower engine speeds.


title: Harley-Davidson VRSC

text: Claimed peak crank horsepower was slightly lower than the Night Rod Special, at at 500 rpm lower engine speed.


title: Harley-Davidson VRSC

text: In 2005 Harley-Davidson's Custom Vehicle Operations produced their first V-Rod. They did not make very many of these. The dimensions were identical to the VRSCA at the time, but the VRSCSE had extra chrome, custom paint, and not the typical "clamshell" found on other VRSC models. The VRSCSE had a 1,247 cc Revolution Engine, with CNC ported heads.


title: Harley-Davidson VRSC

text: The VRSCSE2 was the first V-Rod or VRSC model with a 240 mm rear tire. It also used the Screamin' Eagle 1,247 cc Revolution Engine.


title: Harley-Davidson VRSC

text: The Street Rod was marketed as the “roadster-inspired” member of the VRSC line. The Street Rod was the first VRSC to use inverted forks (made by Showa Corporation) with a steep rake and also was the first to use Brembo brakes. It had the highest seat height at of any VRSC model, and claimed the greatest lean angle at 40°, over the 32° lean of the other VRSC models. The Street Rod came equipped solely with mid-mounted controls. The Street Rod was the first with a 5-gallon tank in the 2006 year model, that would become standard for the line in 2007.Of the various versions of the V-Rod, the VRSCR Street Rod roadster was aimed primarily at the European market and was best able to handle the engine's 120 bhp output. MCN wrote: "The Harley-Davidson Street Rod has sharper steering, four-piston brakes made for Harley-Davidson by Brembo, new upswept exhausts for extra ground clearance, and a revised riding position makes this a Harley-Davidson like no other – one that attacks corners with glee".


title: Harley-Davidson VRSC

text: Harley-Davidson put out the VRSCX as a Screamin' Eagle Tribute bike during the Harley-Davidson V-Rod's second consecutive NHRA Championship. The VRSCX had the same dimensions as the 2007 VRSCAW, featuring the 240 mm rear tire, 5 gallon gas tank, and forward controls. However, the VRSCX also had paintwork similar to the pro stock V-Rod, a smoked drag-visor windshield, as well as the 1,247 cc Screamin' Eagle Revolution Engine.


title: Harley-Davidson VRSC

text: In 2006 Harley-Davidson introduced a non-street legal eight-second drag bike nicknamed "the Destroyer". Its Revolution engine had a longer-stroke crankshaft and increased bore, high compression forged pistons, larger valves, larger throttle bodies, dyno tuned velocity stacks, and high lift cams. Race-only drivetrain changes included a lightened flywheel, multi-stage lock-up clutch, pneumatic shifter, and programmable shift light. A total of 646 vehicles were produced with 625 released to dealer showrooms. The Destroyer inspired the four-time world champion NHRA Pro Stock motorcycle Harley-Davidson Screamin' Eagle/Vance & Hines V-Rod. The Screamin' Eagle/Vance & Hines V-Rod ran 6.815 seconds and went nearly 200 mph in the quarter-mile.


title: Harley-Davidson VRSC

text: The Revolution engine is based on the VR-1000 Superbike race program, developed by Harley-Davidson's Powertrain Engineering team. It is a liquid-cooled, dual-overhead-cam, internally counterbalanced 60 degree V-twin engine with a displacement of , producing at 8,250 rpm at the crank, with a redline of 9,000 rpm.


title: Harley-Davidson VRSC

text: It was introduced for the new V-Rod line in 2001 for the 2002 model year, starting with the single VRSCA (V-Twin Racing Street Custom) model.


title: Harley-Davidson VRSC

text: A 1,247 cc Screamin' Eagle version of the Revolution engine was made available for 2005, and was present thereafter in a single production model from 2005 to 2007. In 2008, the 1,247 cc Revolution Engine became standard for the entire VRSC line. Harley-Davidson claims at the crankshaft for the 2008 VRSCAW model. The VRXSE "Destroyer" is equipped with a stroker (75 mm crank) Screamin' Eagle Revolution Engine, producing over .


title: Harley-Davidson VRSC

text: The V-Rod engine was used in the Campagna V13R, and Campagna T-Rex from around 2008 to 2013. There is an agreement to sell the engines to the company for use in the motorized trike. Then in 2013 the company changed the engine in the T-Rex to BMW's K1600 but still uses the V-Rod engine in the V13R.


title: Malayalam script

text: Malayalam script (; / ) is a Brahmic script used commonly to write Malayalam, which is the principal language of Kerala, India, spoken by 45 million people in the world. It is a Dravidian language spoken in the Indian state of Kerala and the union territories of Lakshadweep and Puducherry (Mahé district) by the Malayali people. It is one of 22 scheduled languages of India Malayalam script is also widely used for writing Sanskrit texts in Kerala.


title: Malayalam script

text: The Malayalam script bears high similarity with Tigalari script, which was used for writing the Tulu language, spoken in coastal Karnataka (Dakshina Kannada and Udupi districts) and the northernmost Kasargod district of Kerala. Like many other Indic scripts, it is an alphasyllabary (abugida), a writing system that is partially “alphabetic” and partially syllable-based. The modern Malayalam alphabet has 15 vowel letters, 42 consonant letters, and a few other symbols. The Malayalam script is a Vatteluttu alphabet extended with symbols from the Grantha alphabet to represent Indo-Aryan loanwords.


title: Malayalam script

text: The script is also used to write several minority languages such as Paniya, Betta Kurumba, and Ravula. The Malayalam language itself was historically written in several different scripts.


title: Malayalam script

text: Malayalam was first written in the Tamil-Brahmi script, an ancient script of Tamil and Malayalam languages. However, the modern Malayalam script evolved from the Grantha alphabet, and Vattezhuthu, both of which evolved from the Tamil-Brahmi, but independently.


title: Malayalam script

text: Vatteluttu () is a script that had evolved from Tamil-Brahmi and was once used extensively in the southern part of present-day Tamil Nadu and in Kerala. The Vazhappally inscription issued by Rajashekhara Varman is the earliest example, dating from about 830 CE. During the medieval period, the Tigalari script that was used for writing Tulu in South Canara, and Sanskrit in the adjacent Malabar region, was very similar to the modern Malayalam script. In the Tamil country, the modern Tamil script had supplanted Vattezhuthu by the 15th century, but in the Malabar region, Vattezhuthu remained in general use up to the 17th century, or the 18th century. A variant form of this script, Kolezhuthu, was used until about the 19th century mainly in the Malabar-Cochin area. Another variant form, Malayanma, was used in the south of Thiruvananthapuram.


title: Malayalam script

text: According to Arthur Coke Burnell, one form of the Grantha alphabet, originally used in the Chola dynasty, was imported into the southwest coast of India in the 8th or 9th century, which was then modified in course of time in this secluded area, where communication with the east coast was very limited. It later evolved into Tigalari-Malayalam script was used by the Malayali, Havyaka Brahmins and Tulu Brahmin people, but was originally only applied to write Sanskrit. This script split into two scripts: Tigalari and Malayalam. While Malayalam script was extended and modified to write vernacular language Malayalam, the Tigalari was written for Sanskrit only. In Malabar, this writing system was termed Arya-eluttu (, "Ārya eḻuttŭ"), meaning “Arya writing” (Sanskrit is Indo-Aryan language while Malayalam is a Dravidian language).


title: Malayalam script

text: Vatteluttu was in general use, but was not suitable for literature where many Sanskrit words were used. Like Tamil-Brahmi, it was originally used to write Tamil, and as such, did not have letters for voiced or aspirated consonants used in Sanskrit but not used in Tamil. For this reason, Vatteluttu and the Grantha alphabet were sometimes mixed, as in the Manipravalam. One of the oldest examples of the Manipravalam literature, "Vaishikatantram" (, "Vaiśikatantram"), dates back to the 12th century, where the earliest form of the Malayalam script was used, which seems to have been systematised to some extent by the first half of the 13th century.


title: Malayalam script

text: It is Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan who is also credited with the development of Malayalam script into the current form through the intermixing and modification of the erstwhile scripts of "Vatteluttu", "Kolezhuthu", and Grantha script, which were used to write the inscriptions and literary works of Old and Middle Malayalam. He further eliminated excess and unnecessary letters from the modified script. Hence, Ezhuthachan is also known as "The Father of modern Malayalam". The development of modern Malayalam script was also heavily influenced by the Tigalari script, which was used to write the Tulu language, due to the influence of Tuluva Brahmins in Kerala.


title: Malayalam script

text: Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan, a poet from around the 16th century, used Arya-eluttu to write his Malayalam poems based on Classical Sanskrit literature. For a few letters missing in Arya-eluttu ("ḷa", "ḻa", "ṟa"), he used Vatteluttu. His works became unprecedentedly popular to the point that the Malayali people eventually started to call him the father of the Malayalam language, which also popularised Arya-eluttu as a script to write Malayalam. However, Grantha did not have distinctions between "e" and "ē", and between "o" and "ō", as it was as an alphabet to write a Sanskrit language. The Malayalam script as it is today was modified in the middle of the 19th century when Hermann Gundert invented the new vowel signs to distinguish them.


title: Malayalam script

text: By the 19th century, old scripts like Kolezhuthu had been supplanted by Arya-eluttu – that is the current Malayalam script. Nowadays, it is widely used in the press of the Malayali population in Kerala.


title: Malayalam script

text: In 1971, the Government of Kerala reformed the orthography of Malayalam by a government order to the education department. The objective was to simplify the script for print and typewriting technology of that time, by reducing the number of glyphs required. In 1967, the government appointed a committee headed by Sooranad Kunjan Pillai, who was the editor of the Malayalam Lexicon project. It reduced number of glyphs required for Malayalam printing from around 1000 to around 250. Above committee's recommendations were further modified by another committee in 1969.


title: Malayalam script

text: This proposal was later accepted by major newspapers in January 1971. The reformed script came into effect on 15 April 1971 (the Kerala New Year), by a government order released on 23 March 1971.


title: Malayalam script

text: In the traditional orthography, that had been taught in the primary education till that time, any consonant or consonant ligature followed by the vowel sign of "u", "ū", or "r̥" are represented by a cursive consonant-vowel ligature. The glyph of each consonant had its own way of ligating with these vowel signs. This irregularity was simplified in the reformed script. As per that, a vowel sign or the consonant sign would always have a disconnected symbol that does not fuse with the base consonant.


title: Malayalam script

text: Also, most of traditional consonant-consonant ligatures, especially the less common ones only used to write words of Sanskrit origin, were split into non-ligated forms with explicit "chandrakkala". For example:


title: Malayalam script

text: Any consonant or consonant ligature followed by the conjoining "ra" is represented by a cursive tail attached to the consonant or the consonant-ligature. In the reformed script, this consonant sign would be disconnected from the base and represented as a left-bracket like symbol placed on the left side of the cluster.


title: Malayalam script

text: Today the reformed orthography, is commonly called "put̪iya lipi" () and traditional system, "pazhaya lipi" (). Current print media almost entirely uses reformed orthography. The state run primary education introduces the Malayalam writing to the pupils in reformed script only and the books are printed accordingly. However, the digital media uses both traditional and reformed in almost equal proportions as the fonts for both the orthographies are commonly available.


title: Malayalam script

text: An independent vowel letter is used as the first letter of a word that begins with a vowel. A consonant letter, despite its name, does not represent a pure consonant, but represents a consonant + a short vowel /a/ by default. For example, is the first consonant letter of the Malayalam alphabet, which represents /ka/, not a simple /k/. A vowel sign is a diacritic attached to a consonant letter to indicate that the consonant is followed by a vowel other than /a/. If the following vowel is /a/, no vowel sign is needed. The phoneme /a/ that follows a consonant by default is called an inherent vowel. In Malayalam, its phonetic value is unrounded , or as an allophone. To denote a pure consonant sound not followed by a vowel, a special diacritic "virama" is used to cancel the inherent vowel. The following are examples where a consonant letter is used with or without a diacritic.


title: Malayalam script

text: Malayalam alphabet is unicase, or does not have a case distinction. It is written from left to right, but certain vowel signs are attached to the left (the opposite direction) of a consonant letter that it logically follows. In the word ("Kēraḷam"), the vowel sign ("ē") visually appears in the leftmost position, though the vowel "ē" logically follows the consonant "k".


title: Malayalam script

text: The following tables show the independent vowel letters and the corresponding dependent vowel signs (diacritics) of the Malayalam script, with romanizations in ISO 15919, transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).


title: Malayalam script

text: "r̥", "r̥̄", "l̥", "l̥̄", used to write Sanskrit words, are treated as vowels. They are called semi-vowels and are phonetically closer to vowels in Malayalam and in Classical Sanskrit where Panini, the Sanskrit grammarian, groups them with vowel sounds in his sutras. (see "Proto-Indo-European language" and "Vedic Sanskrit"). The letters and signs for "r̥̄", "l̥", "l̥̄" are very rare, and are not considered as part of the modern orthography.


title: Malayalam script

text: The vowel signs "ā", "i", "ī" are placed to the right of a consonant letter to which it is attached. The vowel signs "e", "ē", "ai" are placed to the left of a consonant letter. The vowel signs "o" and "ō" consist of two parts: the first part goes to the left of a consonant letter and the second part goes to the right of it. In the reformed orthography, the vowel signs "u", "ū", "r̥" are simply placed to the right of the consonant letter, while they often make consonant-vowel ligatures in the traditional orthography.


title: Malayalam script

text: It is important to note the vowel duration as it can be used to differentiate words that would otherwise be the same. For example, means "earthenware pot" while means "time" or "season".