title: Chris Russo

text: On August 14, 2008, Russo reached a mutual agreement with WFAN to release him out of the remainder of his contract. Russo insisted it was solely a personal decision and said, "This has nothing to do with Mike and I hating each other... This is about doing something different. I'm 48 years old and there are not going to be too many more opportunities to break away. It's time to try something else, but it was a tough decision to make." On August 15, 2008, Russo phoned Francesa on the show to say an emotional goodbye.


title: Chris Russo

text: On October 16, 2009, Russo joined Francesa for a one-hour reunion show at Yankee Stadium, where both were scheduled to broadcast in adjacent booths. Francesa joined Russo on his Sirius XM show later in the day.


title: Chris Russo

text: On March 30, 2016, Russo joined Francesa for a "Mike and the Mad Dog" reunion at Radio City Music Hall.


title: Chris Russo

text: On August 19, 2008, Russo signed a five-year contract with Sirius XM Radio to headline a new sports talk channel called Mad Dog Radio on both Sirius and XM satellite radio. Russo hosts the channel's anchor program, "Mad Dog Unleashed", live from Sirius's New York studios every weekday afternoon. Russo brought aboard long-time WINS anchor Steve Torre as the new program director of "Mad Dog Radio" and hired Bill Zimmerman (known on the air as "Billy Z") as the executive producer of his show. The show began airing daily on Sirius Channel 123 and XM Channel 144 on September 15, 2008. The show now airs on Sirius and XM Channel 82.


title: Chris Russo

text: Russo said there was nothing WFAN could have done to keep him, after Sirius XM provided him his own channel, hosting American sports talk personalities. Russo's 5-year deal was worth approximately $3 million per year and Russo operates the channel himself, and hires the on-air staff.


title: Chris Russo

text: On July 9, 2009, Russo reacted to his station being ranked outside the Top 100 stations on satellite radio by berating his entire staff, which included bringing on nighttime host Andy Gresh for an in-person dress-down. Russo concluded by firing his program director, Steve Torre. Torre was later re-hired and it is unknown if the incident was legitimate or a radio skit. On August 28, 2013, Russo announced that he had been signed by Sirius XM for three more years, commencing in September 2013.


title: Chris Russo

text: Russo's Sirius XM deal also included daily hosting of an MLB Network TV show, High Heat, which began on March 31, 2014 (and was simulcast on MLB Network Radio). He signed a new three-year contract, in September 2016. Russo renewed his contract for four more years, in April 2019. On February 15, 2021, Russo announced that the show's producer Bruce Schein, who appeared daily on-air, had been let go by MLB Network.


title: Chris Russo

text: Russo is the only child of Anthony Michael "Tony" (1931–2013) and Vera "Molly" Russo, from Flushing, Queens and England, respectively. Russo married Jeanne Lavelle on May 6, 1995, and they have four children, Timmy, Kiera, Colin, and Patrick. Colin made his radio debut in his father's old time slot on WFAN on December 30, 2020, cohosting with Sonny Carton, son of long-time host, Craig Carton. Russo resides in New Canaan, Connecticut and is a lifelong, avid San Francisco Giants fan.


title: 2017 Indian presidential election

text: A Presidential election was held in India on 17 July 2017 with the votes counted and the results announced on 20 July 2017. President Pranab Mukherjee, whose term of office was due to expire on 24 July 2017, declined to seek re-election due to health concerns and old age.


title: 2017 Indian presidential election

text: Governor of Bihar Ram Nath Kovind of the Bharatiya Janata Party had the backing of the governing National Democratic Alliance coalition, and went up against opposition candidate Meira Kumar of the Indian National Congress in the vote. Kovind secured roughly two-thirds of the votes from the electoral college of elected members of federal, state and union territory legislatures and was elected to a five-year term as President. Kovind's term of office began on 25 July 2017.


title: 2017 Indian presidential election

text: There was initial speculation that the incumbent, Pranab Mukherjee, would seek re-election. However, he decided not to run again in 2017, meaning that his term in office ended on 24 July 2017.


title: 2017 Indian presidential election

text: The President of India is indirectly elected by an electoral college consisting of the elected members of both houses of parliament, the elected members of the Legislative assemblies of the 28 states and the elected members of the legislative assemblies of the Union Territories of Delhi, Puducherry and Jammu and Kashmir. As of 2017, the electoral college comprises 776 MPs and 4,120 MLAs.


title: 2017 Indian presidential election

text: The system assigns varying numbers of votes to these electoral college members, such that the total weight of MPs and those of MLAs is roughly equal and that the voting power of states and territories are proportional to their population. Overall the members of the electoral college were eligible to cast 1,098,903 votes, yielding a threshold for a majority of 549,452 votes.


title: 2017 Indian presidential election

text: The nomination of a candidate for election to the office of the President must be subscribed by at least 50 electors as proposers and 50 electors as seconders. The election is held by means of a secret ballot under the single transferable vote system. The manner of election of President is provided by Article 55 of the Constitution.


title: 2017 Indian presidential election

text: At the time of the election the NDA coalition itself was short of a majority by about 25,000 votes, but was expected to be able to rely on other parties to breach the small deficit without difficulty.


title: 2017 Indian presidential election

text: Although the election was not a popular vote, some general polling was performed to measure public opinion. In both "Business Insider"-Ipsos and NDTV polls comparing support of the two candidates, Kovind was the more popular choice with 71% and 63% support respectively.


title: 2017 Indian presidential election

text: Two candidates were nominated. Both the governing NDA coalition and the opposition UPA coalition put forward candidates from their dominant parties, the Bharatiya Janata Party and the Indian National Congress respectively.


title: 2017 Indian presidential election

text: Ram Nath Kovind was declared as the President-elect after the counting of votes which was held on 20 July 2017. He was administered oath by the Chief Justice of India Jagdish Singh Khehar, to take office as the 15th President of India on 25 July 2017 at the Central Hall located in The Parliament House, New Delhi.


title: 2017 Indian presidential election

text: Immediately after the results were announced, Prime Minister Narendra Modi tweeted, In another tweet he added


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) or electron spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopy is a method for studying materials that have unpaired electrons. The basic concepts of EPR are analogous to those of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), but the spins excited are those of the electrons instead of the atomic nuclei. EPR spectroscopy is particularly useful for studying metal complexes and organic radicals. EPR was first observed in Kazan State University by Soviet physicist Yevgeny Zavoisky in 1944, and was developed independently at the same time by Brebis Bleaney at the University of Oxford.


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: Every electron has a magnetic moment and spin quantum number formula_1, with magnetic components formula_2 or formula_3. In the presence of an external magnetic field with strength formula_4, the electron's magnetic moment aligns itself either antiparallel (formula_3) or parallel (formula_2) to the field, each alignment having a specific energy due to the Zeeman effect:


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: Therefore, the separation between the lower and the upper state is formula_11 for unpaired free electrons. This equation implies (since both formula_8and formula_10 are constant) that the splitting of the energy levels is directly proportional to the magnetic field's strength, as shown in the diagram below.


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: An unpaired electron can change its electron spin by either absorbing or emitting a photon of energy formula_14 such that the resonance condition, formula_15, is obeyed. This leads to the fundamental equation of EPR spectroscopy: formula_16.


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: Experimentally, this equation permits a large combination of frequency and magnetic field values, but the great majority of EPR measurements are made with microwaves in the 9000–10000 MHz (9–10 GHz) region, with fields corresponding to about 3500 G (0.35 T). Furthermore, EPR spectra can be generated by either varying the photon frequency incident on a sample while holding the magnetic field constant or doing the reverse. In practice, it is usually the frequency that is kept fixed. A collection of paramagnetic centers, such as free radicals, is exposed to microwaves at a fixed frequency. By increasing an external magnetic field, the gap between the formula_2 and formula_3 energy states is widened until it matches the energy of the microwaves, as represented by the double arrow in the diagram above. At this point the unpaired electrons can move between their two spin states. Since there typically are more electrons in the lower state, due to the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution (see below), there is a net absorption of energy, and it is this absorption that is monitored and converted into a spectrum. The upper spectrum below is the simulated absorption for a system of free electrons in a varying magnetic field. The lower spectrum is the first derivative of the absorption spectrum. The latter is the most common way to record and publish continuous wave EPR spectra.


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: For the microwave frequency of 9388.4 MHz, the predicted resonance occurs at a magnetic field of about formula_19 = 0.3350 T = 3350 G


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: Because of electron-nuclear mass differences, the magnetic moment of an electron is substantially larger than the corresponding quantity for any nucleus, so that a much higher electromagnetic frequency is needed to bring about a spin resonance with an electron than with a nucleus, at identical magnetic field strengths. For example, for the field of 3350 G shown above, spin resonance occurs near 9388.2 MHz for an electron compared to only about 14.3 MHz for H nuclei. (For NMR spectroscopy, the corresponding resonance equation is formula_20 where formula_21 and formula_22 depend on the nucleus under study.)


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: As previously mentioned an EPR spectrum is usually directly measured as the first derivative of the absorption. This is accomplished by using field modulation. A small additional oscillating magnetic field is applied to the external magnetic field at a typical frequency of 100 kHz. By detecting the peak to peak amplitude the first derivative of the absorption is measured. By using phase sensitive detection only signals with the same modulation (100 kHz) are detected. This results in higher signal to noise ratios. Note field modulation is unique to continuous wave EPR measurements and spectra resulting from pulsed experiments are presented as absorption profiles.


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: The same idea underlies the Pound-Drever-Hall technique for frequency locking of lasers to a high-finesse optical cavity.


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: In practice, EPR samples consist of collections of many paramagnetic species, and not single isolated paramagnetic centers. If the population of radicals is in thermodynamic equilibrium, its statistical distribution is described by the Maxwell–Boltzmann equation:


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: where formula_24 is the number of paramagnetic centers occupying the upper energy state, formula_25 is the Boltzmann constant, and formula_26 is the thermodynamic temperature. At 298 K, X-band microwave frequencies (formula_27 ≈ 9.75 GHz) give formula_28 ≈ 0.998, meaning that the upper energy level has a slightly smaller population than the lower one. Therefore, transitions from the lower to the higher level are more probable than the reverse, which is why there is a net absorption of energy.


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: The sensitivity of the EPR method (i.e., the minimal number of detectable spins formula_29) depends on the photon frequency formula_27 according to


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: where formula_32 is a constant, formula_33 is the sample's volume, formula_34 is the unloaded quality factor of the microwave cavity (sample chamber), formula_35 is the cavity filling coefficient, and formula_36 is the microwave power in the spectrometer cavity. With formula_35 and formula_36 being constants, formula_29 ~ formula_40, i.e., formula_29 ~ formula_42, where formula_43 ≈ 1.5. In practice, formula_43 can change varying from 0.5 to 4.5 depending on spectrometer characteristics, resonance conditions, and sample size.


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: A great sensitivity is therefore obtained with a low detection limit formula_29 and a large number of spins. Therefore, the required parameters are:


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: In real systems, electrons are normally not solitary, but are associated with one or more atoms. There are several important consequences of this:


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: Knowledge of the "g"-factor can give information about a paramagnetic center's electronic structure. An unpaired electron responds not only to a spectrometer's applied magnetic field formula_47 but also to any local magnetic fields of atoms or molecules. The effective field formula_48 experienced by an electron is thus written


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: where formula_50 includes the effects of local fields (formula_51 can be positive or negative). Therefore, the formula_52 resonance condition (above) is rewritten as follows:


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: The quantity formula_54 is denoted formula_55 and called simply the "g"-factor, so that the final resonance equation becomes


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: This last equation is used to determine formula_55 in an EPR experiment by measuring the field and the frequency at which resonance occurs. If formula_55 does not equal formula_8, the implication is that the ratio of the unpaired electron's spin magnetic moment to its angular momentum differs from the free-electron value. Since an electron's spin magnetic moment is constant (approximately the Bohr magneton), then the electron must have gained or lost angular momentum through spin–orbit coupling. Because the mechanisms of spin–orbit coupling are well understood, the magnitude of the change gives information about the nature of the atomic or molecular orbital containing the unpaired electron.


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: In general, the "g" factor is not a number but a 3×3 matrix. The principal axes of this tensor are determined by the local fields, for example, by the local atomic arrangement around the unpaired spin in a solid or in a molecule. Choosing an appropriate coordinate system (say, "x","y","z") allows one to "diagonalize" this tensor, thereby reducing the maximal number of its components from 9 to 3: "g", "g" and "g". For a single spin experiencing only Zeeman interaction with an external magnetic field, the position of the EPR resonance is given by the expression "gB" + "gB" + "gB". Here "B", "B" and "B" are the components of the magnetic field vector in the coordinate system ("x","y","z"); their magnitudes change as the field is rotated, so does the frequency of the resonance. For a large ensemble of randomly oriented spins (as in a fluid solution), the EPR spectrum consists of three peaks of characteristic shape at frequencies "gB", "gB" and "gB".


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: In first-derivative spectrum, the low-frequency peak is positive, the high-frequency peak is negative, and the central peak is bipolar. Such situations are commonly observed in powders, and the spectra are therefore called "powder-pattern spectra". In crystals, the number of EPR lines is determined by the number of crystallographically equivalent orientations of the EPR spin (called "EPR center").


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: At higher temperatures, the three peaks coalesce to a singlet, corresponding to g, for isotropic. The relationship between g and the components is:


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: One elementary step in analyzing an EPR spectrum is to compare g with the g-factor for the free electron, g. Metal-based radicals g is typically well above g whereas organic radicals, g ~ g.


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: The determination of the absolute value of the "g" factor is challenging due to the lack of a precise estimate of the local magnetic field at the sample location. Therefore, typically so-called "g factor standards" are measured together with the sample of interest. In the common spectrum, the spectral line of the "g" factor standard is then used as a reference point to determine the "g" factor of the sample. For the initial calibration of "g" factor standards, Herb et al. introduced a precise procedure by using double resonance techniques based on the Overhauser shift.


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: Since the source of an EPR spectrum is a change in an electron's spin state, the EPR spectrum for a radical (S = 1/2 system) would consist of one line. Greater complexity arises because the spin couples with nearby nuclear spins. The magnitude of the coupling is proportional to the magnetic moment of the coupled nuclei and depends on the mechanism of the coupling. Coupling is mediated by two processes, dipolar (through space) and isotropic (through bond).


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: This coupling introduces additional energy states and, in turn, multi-lined spectra. In such cases, the spacing between the EPR spectral lines indicates the degree of interaction between the unpaired electron and the perturbing nuclei. The hyperfine coupling constant of a nucleus is directly related to the spectral line spacing and, in the simplest cases, is essentially the spacing itself.


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: Two common mechanisms by which electrons and nuclei interact are the Fermi contact interaction and by dipolar interaction. The former applies largely to the case of isotropic interactions (independent of sample orientation in a magnetic field) and the latter to the case of anisotropic interactions (spectra dependent on sample orientation in a magnetic field). Spin polarization is a third mechanism for interactions between an unpaired electron and a nuclear spin, being especially important for formula_61-electron organic radicals, such as the benzene radical anion. The symbols ""a"" or ""A"" are used for isotropic hyperfine coupling constants, while ""B"" is usually employed for anisotropic hyperfine coupling constants.


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: In many cases, the isotropic hyperfine splitting pattern for a radical freely tumbling in a solution (isotropic system) can be predicted.


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: While it is easy to predict the number of lines, the reverse problem, unraveling a complex multi-line EPR spectrum and assigning the various spacings to specific nuclei, is more difficult.


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: In the often encountered case of "I" = 1/2 nuclei (e.g., H, F, P), the line intensities produced by a population of radicals, each possessing "M" equivalent nuclei, will follow Pascal's triangle. For example, the spectrum at the right shows that the three H nuclei of the CH radical give rise to 2"MI" + 1 = 2(3)(1/2) + 1 = 4 lines with a 1:3:3:1 ratio. The line spacing gives a hyperfine coupling constant of "a" = 23 "G" for each of the three H nuclei. Note again that the lines in this spectrum are "first derivatives" of absorptions.


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: As a second example, the methoxymethyl radical, HCOCH the OC"H" center will give an overall 1:2:1 EPR pattern, each component of which is further split by the three methoxy hydrogens into a 1:3:3:1 pattern to give a total of 3×4 = 12 lines, a triplet of quartets. A simulation of the observed EPR spectrum is shown and agrees with the 12-line prediction and the expected line intensities. Note that the smaller coupling constant (smaller line spacing) is due to the three methoxy hydrogens, while the larger coupling constant (line spacing) is from the two hydrogens bonded directly to the carbon atom bearing the unpaired electron. It is often the case that coupling constants decrease in size with distance from a radical's unpaired electron, but there are some notable exceptions, such as the ethyl radical (CHCH).


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: Resonance linewidths are defined in terms of the magnetic induction "B" and its corresponding units, and are measured along the "x" axis of an EPR spectrum, from a line's center to a chosen reference point of the line. These defined widths are called halfwidths and possess some advantages: for asymmetric lines, values of left and right halfwidth can be given. The halfwidth formula_62 is the distance measured from the line's center to the point in which absorption value has half of maximal absorption value in the center of resonance line. First inclination width formula_63 is a distance from center of the line to the point of maximal absorption curve inclination. In practice, a full definition of linewidth is used. For symmetric lines, halfwidth formula_64, and full inclination width formula_65.


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: EPR/ESR spectroscopy is used in various branches of science, such as biology, chemistry and physics, for the detection and identification of free radicals in the solid, liquid, or gaseous state, and in paramagnetic centers such as F-centers.


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: EPR is a sensitive, specific method for studying both radicals formed in chemical reactions and the reactions themselves. For example, when ice (solid HO) is decomposed by exposure to high-energy radiation, radicals such as H, OH, and HO are produced. Such radicals can be identified and studied by EPR. Organic and inorganic radicals can be detected in electrochemical systems and in materials exposed to UV light. In many cases, the reactions to make the radicals and the subsequent reactions of the radicals are of interest, while in other cases EPR is used to provide information on a radical's geometry and the orbital of the unpaired electron.


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: EPR is useful in homogeneous catalysis research for characterization of paramagnetic complexes and reactive intermediates. EPR spectroscopy is a particularly useful tool to investigate their electronic structures, which is fundamental to understand their reactivity.


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: EPR/ESR spectroscopy can be applied only to systems in which the balance between radical decay and radical formation keeps the free radicals concentration above the detection limit of the spectrometer used. This can be a particularly severe problem in studying reactions in liquids. An alternative approach is to slow down reactions by studying samples held at cryogenic temperatures, such as 77 K (liquid nitrogen) or 4.2 K (liquid helium). An example of this work is the study of radical reactions in single crystals of amino acids exposed to x-rays, work that sometimes leads to activation energies and rate constants for radical reactions.


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: Medical and biological applications of EPR also exist. Although radicals are very reactive, so they do not normally occur in high concentrations in biology, special reagents have been developed to attach "spin labels", also called "spin probes", to molecules of interest. Specially-designed nonreactive radical molecules can attach to specific sites in a biological cell, and EPR spectra then give information on the environment of the spin labels. Spin-labeled fatty acids have been extensively used to study dynamic organisation of lipids in biological membranes, lipid-protein interactions and temperature of transition of gel to liquid crystalline phases. Injection of spin-labeled molecules allows for electron resonance imaging of living organisms.


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: A type of dosimetry system has been designed for reference standards and routine use in medicine, based on EPR signals of radicals from irradiated polycrystalline α-alanine (the alanine deamination radical, the hydrogen abstraction radical, and the radical). This method is suitable for measuring gamma and X-rays, electrons, protons, and high-linear energy transfer (LET) radiation of doses in the 1 Gy to 100 kGy range.


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: EPR can be used to measure microviscosity and micropolarity within drug delivery systems as well as the characterization of colloidal drug carriers.


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: The study of radiation-induced free radicals in biological substances (for cancer research) poses the additional problem that tissue contains water, and water (due to its electric dipole moment) has a strong absorption band in the microwave region used in EPR spectrometers.


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: EPR/ESR spectroscopy is used in geology and archaeology as a dating tool. It can be applied to a wide range of materials such as organic shales, carbonates, sulfates, phosphates, silica or other silicates. When applied to shales, the EPR data correlates to the maturity of the kerogen in the shale.


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: EPR spectroscopy has been used to measure properties of crude oil, such as determination of asphaltene and vanadium content. The free-radical component of the EPR signal is proportional to the amount of asphaltene in the oil regardless of any solvents, or precipitants that may be present in that oil. When the oil is subject to a precipitant such as hexane, heptane, pyridine however, then much of the asphaltene can be subsequently extracted from the oil by gravimetric techniques. The EPR measurement of that extract will then be function of the polarity of the precipitant that was used. Consequently, it is preferable to apply the EPR measurement directly to the crude. In the case that the measurement is made upstream of a separator (oil production), then it may also be necessary determine the oil fraction within the crude (e.g., if a certain crude contains 80% oil and 20% water, then the EPR signature will be 80% of the signature of downstream of the separator).


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: EPR has been used by archaeologists for the dating of teeth. Radiation damage over long periods of time creates free radicals in tooth enamel, which can then be examined by EPR and, after proper calibration, dated. Similarly, material extracted from the teeth of people during dental procedures can be used to quantify their cumulative exposure to ionizing radiation. People (and other mammals) exposed to radiation from the atomic bombs, from the Chernobyl disaster, and from the Fukushima accident have been examined by this method.


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: Radiation-sterilized foods have been examined with EPR spectroscopy, aiming to develop methods to determine whether a food sample has been irradiated and to what dose.


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: In the field of quantum computing, pulsed EPR is used to control the state of electron spin qubits in materials such as diamond, silicon and gallium arsenide.


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: High-field high-frequency EPR measurements are sometimes needed to detect subtle spectroscopic details. However, for many years the use of electromagnets to produce the needed fields above 1.5 T was impossible, due principally to limitations of traditional magnet materials. The first multifunctional millimeter EPR spectrometer with a superconducting solenoid was described in the early 1970s by Prof. Y. S. Lebedev's group (Russian Institute of Chemical Physics, Moscow) in collaboration with L. G. Oranski's group (Ukrainian Physics and Technics Institute, Donetsk), which began working in the Institute of Problems of Chemical Physics, Chernogolovka around 1975. Two decades later, a W-band EPR spectrometer was produced as a small commercial line by the German Bruker Company, initiating the expansion of W-band EPR techniques into medium-sized academic laboratories.


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: The EPR waveband is stipulated by the frequency or wavelength of a spectrometer's microwave source (see Table).


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: EPR experiments often are conducted at X and, less commonly, Q bands, mainly due to the ready availability of the necessary microwave components (which originally were developed for radar applications). A second reason for widespread X and Q band measurements is that electromagnets can reliably generate fields up to about 1 tesla. However, the low spectral resolution over "g"-factor at these wavebands limits the study of paramagnetic centers with comparatively low anisotropic magnetic parameters. Measurements at formula_27 > 40 GHz, in the millimeter wavelength region, offer the following advantages:


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: This was demonstrated experimentally in the study of various biological, polymeric and model systems at D-band EPR.


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: The microwave bridge contains both the microwave source and the detector. Older spectrometers used a vacuum tube called a klystron to generate microwaves, but modern spectrometers use a Gunn diode. Immediately after the microwave source there is an isolator which serves to attenuate any reflections back to the source which would result in fluctuations in the microwave frequency. The microwave power from the source is then passed through a directional coupler which splits the microwave power into two paths, one directed towards the cavity and the other the reference arm. Along both paths there is a variable attenuator that facilitates the precise control of the flow of microwave power. This in turn allows for accurate control over the intensity of the microwaves subjected to the sample. On the reference arm, after the variable attenuator there is a phase shifter that sets a defined phase relationship between the reference and reflected signal which permits phase sensitive detection.


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: Most EPR spectrometers are reflection spectrometers, meaning that the detector should only be exposed to microwave radiation coming back from the cavity. This is achieved by the use of a device known as the circulator which directs the microwave radiation (from the branch that is heading towards the cavity) into the cavity. Reflected microwave radiation (after absorption by the sample) is then passed through the circulator towards the detector, ensuring it does not go back to the microwave source. The reference signal and reflected signal are combined and passed to the detector diode which converts the microwave power into an electrical current.


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: At low energies (less than 1 μW) the diode current is proportional to the microwave power and the detector is referred to as a square-law detector. At higher power levels (greater than 1 mW) the diode current is proportional to the square root of the microwave power and the detector is called a linear detector. In order to obtain optimal sensitivity as well as quantitative information the diode should be operating within the linear region. To ensure the detector is operating at that level the reference arm serves to provide a "bias".


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: In an EPR spectrometer the magnetic assembly includes the magnet with a dedicated power supply as well as a field sensor or regulator such as a Hall probe. EPR spectrometers use one of two types of magnet which is determined by the operating microwave frequency (which determine the range of magnetic field strengths required). The first is an electromagnet which are generally capable of generating field strengths of up to 1.5 T making them suitable for measurements using the Q-band frequency. In order to generate field strengths appropriate for W-band and higher frequency operation superconducting magnets are employed. The magnetic field is homogeneous across the sample volume and has a high stability at static field.


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: The microwave resonator is designed to enhance the microwave magnetic field at the sample in order to induce EPR transitions. It is a metal box with a rectangular or cylindrical shape that resonates with microwaves (like an organ pipe with sound waves). At the resonance frequency of the cavity microwaves remain inside the cavity and are not reflected back. Resonance means the cavity stores microwave energy and its ability to do this is given by the quality factor , defined by the following equation:


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: The higher the value of the higher the sensitivity of the spectrometer. The energy dissipated is the energy lost in one microwave period. Energy may be lost to the side walls of the cavity as microwaves may generate currents which in turn generate heat. A consequence of resonance is the creation of a standing wave inside the cavity. Electromagnetic standing waves have their electric and magnetic field components exactly out of phase. This provides an advantage as the electric field provides non-resonant absorption of the microwaves, which in turn increases the dissipated energy and reduces . To achieve the largest signals and hence sensitivity the sample is positioned such that it lies within the magnetic field maximum and the electric field minimum. When the magnetic field strength is such that an absorption event occurs, the value of will be reduced due to the extra energy loss. This results in a change of impedance which serves to stop the cavity from being critically coupled. This means microwaves will now be reflected back to the detector (in the microwave bridge) where an EPR signal is detected.


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: The dynamics of electron spins are best studied with pulsed measurements. Microwave pulses typically 10–100 ns long are used to control the spins in the Bloch sphere. The spin–lattice relaxation time can be measured with an inversion recovery experiment.


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: As with pulsed NMR, the Hahn echo is central to many pulsed EPR experiments. A Hahn echo decay experiment can be used to measure the dephasing time, as shown in the animation below. The size of the echo is recorded for different spacings of the two pulses. This reveals the decoherence, which is not refocused by the formula_61 pulse. In simple cases, an exponential decay is measured, which is described by the formula_72 time.


title: Electron paramagnetic resonance

text: Pulsed electron paramagnetic resonance could be advanced into electron nuclear double resonance spectroscopy (ENDOR), which utilizes waves in the radio frequencies. Since different nuclei with unpaired electrons respond to different wavelengths, radio frequencies are required at times. Since the results of the ENDOR gives the coupling resonance between the nuclei and the unpaired electron, the relationship between them can be determined.


title: Jomsvikings

text: The Jomsvikings were purportedly a legendary order of Viking mercenaries or conquerors of the 10th and 11th centuries. Though reputed to be staunchly dedicated to the worship of the Old Norse gods, they would allegedly fight for any lord who could pay their substantial fees, even if they may be Christian. The institution of the Jomsvikings would itself foreshadow those of the later religious and chivalric orders of the Middle Ages.


title: Jomsvikings

text: The legend of the Jomsvikings appears in some of the Icelandic sagas from the 12th and 13th centuries. According to the sagas (particularly the "Jómsvíkinga saga", "King Olaf Tryggvasson’s Saga", and stories found in the Flatey Book), their stronghold of Jomsborg was located on the southern shore of the Baltic Sea, but its exact location has been disputed by modern historians and archeologists. Jomsborg is also thought by some researchers to be identical with Jumne, Julin and Vineta, which are mentioned in both Danish and German records from the Middle Ages.


title: Jomsvikings

text: The only medieval source that mentions a precise location of Jomsborg () is "Gesta Wulinensis ecclesiae pontificum" that was alleged to have been discovered in the autumn of 2019.


title: Jomsvikings

text: Historians still debate the accuracy of the accounts of the Jomsvikings. Without a conclusively identified location for their headquarters, and because of a lack of primary or contemporary sources specifically mentioning the "Jomsvikings" or "Jomsborg", confirming the tales of their exploits has been difficult. However, there are three contemporary runestones, as well as passages in Old Norse poetry and the lausavísur, that refer to their battles.


title: Jomsvikings

text: The "Saga of the Jomsvikings" relates that the Jomsvikings were highly selective in deciding whom to admit to their order. Membership was restricted to men of proven valor between 18 and 50 (with the exception of a boy named Vagn Åkesson, who defeated Sigvaldi Strut-Haraldsson in single combat at the age of 12). In order to gain admission, prospective members were required to prove themselves with a feat of strength, which often took the form of a ritual duel, or "holmgang", with a Jomsviking.


title: Jomsvikings

text: Once admitted, the Jomsvikings required adherence to a strict code of conduct to instill a sense of military discipline among its members. Any violation of the rules could be punished with immediate expulsion from the order. Each Jomsviking was bound to defend his brothers and to avenge their deaths if necessary. He was forbidden to speak ill of his fellows or to quarrel with them. Blood feuds between members were to be mediated by Jomsviking officers. Jomsvikings were forbidden to show fear or to flee in the face of an enemy of equal or inferior strength, but orderly retreat in the face of vastly-outnumbering forces appears to have been acceptable. All spoils of battle were to be equally distributed among the entire brotherhood. No Jomsviking was permitted to be absent from Jomsborg for more than three days without the permission of the brotherhood. No women or children were allowed within the fortress walls, and none was to be taken captive. It is unclear, however, whether members were forbidden marriage or liaisons with women outside the walls.


title: Jomsvikings

text: There are different accounts for the origins of the order. "Gesta Danorum" (book 10) tells that a settlement named Julinum was conquered by the King of Denmark, Harald Bluetooth, who gave it to the Swedish prince Styrbjörn the Strong. Harald then provided Styrbjörn with a strong force with which Styrbjörn terrorized the seas. The "Knýtlinga saga" agrees by giving Harald as the founder of the Jomsvikings, but the story of Styrbjörn is not connected to the Jomsvikings. The "Jómsvíkinga saga" says that the settlement was founded by Palnatoke, receiving the location from the mythical Wendish ruler Burislav. "Styrbjarnar þáttr Svíakappa" and "Eyrbyggja saga" agree with all previously mentioned versions by making Styrbjörn take command of the Jomsvikings after they already had been established. "Styrbjarnar þáttr Svíakappa" also tells that among the Norse there were many men from the "East land" arriving at Jomsborg, suggesting that it was a settlement of mixed ethnicity. Jomsviking chieftains included Palnatok, Styrbjörn the Strong, Sigvaldi Strut-Haraldsson, Thorkell the High, and Hemeng.


title: Jomsvikings

text: Accounts of their size vary. In various sources, Jomsborg was supposed to have held anywhere from 30 to 300 ships in its harbor. However some historians believe Jomsborg was largely a market center with its Danish garrison imposed on the Wends.


title: Jomsvikings

text: "Gesta Danorum" (book 10), "Styrbjarnar þáttr Svíakappa" and "Eyrbyggja saga" relate that in the early 980s, the exiled Swedish prince Styrbjörn the Strong brought the Jomsvikings to a devastating defeat against Styrbjörn's uncle King Eric the Victorious at the Battle of the Fýrisvellir, Uppsala, in 984 or 985, while trying to take the crown of Sweden by force of arms. The fact that the Jomsvikings lost was attributed to a pact which the Swedish king Eric made with Odin. Three runestones from this time, the Högby Runestone ("the brave champion Asmund fell on the Fyrisvellir"), one of the Hällestad Runestones, labelled DR 295 ("he did not flee at Uppsala"), and the Sjörup Runestone ("He did not flee at Uppsala, but slaughtered as long as he had a weapon"), relate to deaths with honour at Uppsala, probably three Jomsvikings. The battle is also commemorated, in poetry, by the Icelandic skald Þórvaldr Hjaltason, who took part in the battle on the Swedish side.


title: Jomsvikings

text: "Jómsvíkinga saga" tells that in 986, they attacked Haakon Jarl in Norway and were defeated in the Battle of Hjörungavágr. The saga recounts that Jomsvikings captured by the Norwegians and about to be executed exhibited courage and defiance, some being eventually spared by their captors. The "Jómsvíkinga saga" ends with a brief explanation of the battle's aftermath and, in fact, points to this battle as the beginning of the end for the Jomsvikings.


title: Jomsvikings

text: After these two decisive defeats, the power of the Jomsvikings waned, but "Olaf Trygvasson's Saga" relates that they played a decisive, if treacherous, role in the Battle of Svolder in 1000. At Svolder, a Jomsviking force led by Sigvald Jarl abandoned King Olaf of Norway and joined forces with his enemies to annihilate his fleet. This action may have been intended to fight the Christianization of Scandinavia, which had been forcibly promoted by Olaf. As it happened though, the Danish king Sweyn Forkbeard, who won the Norwegian throne when the sea battle ended, was (at least nominally) a Christian. He and his father, King Harald Bluetooth of Denmark, are reported to have been baptized in 965. Their decline continued over the next few decades.


title: Jomsvikings

text: According to the "Heimskringla", King Magnus I of Norway decided to put an end to the Jomsviking threat. As part of consolidating his control of Denmark, he sacked Jomsborg in 1043, destroying the fortress and killing many of its inhabitants.


title: Jomsvikings

text: A golden disc bearing the name of Harald Bluetooth and Jomsvikings stronghold seat Jomsborg was re-discovered in Sweden in autumn 2014. The disc, also called the Curmsun Disc, is made of high gold content and has a weight of 25.23 grams. On the obverse there is a Latin inscription and on the reverse there is a Latin cross with four dots surrounded by an octagonal ridge. The inscription reads: "+ARALD CVRMSVN+REX AD TANER+SCON+JVMN+CIV ALDIN+" and translates as "Harald Gormsson king of Danes, Scania, Jomsborg, diocese of Aldinburg".


title: Jomsvikings

text: It is assumed that the disc was a part of a Viking hoard found in 1841 in the Polish village Wiejkowo near the town of Wolin by Heinrich Boldt.


title: Greensboro Swarm

text: The Greensboro Swarm are an American basketball team of the NBA G League based in Greensboro, North Carolina, and are affiliated with the Charlotte Hornets. The Swarm play their home games at the Greensboro Coliseum Fieldhouse. The team became the eleventh Development League team to be owned by an NBA team when it was announced in 2015.


title: Greensboro Swarm

text: In May 2015, the Charlotte Hornets announced that they planned to bring an NBA D-League team to the Carolinas in 2016. After considering several cities and arenas, the Hornets settled on Greensboro, North Carolina, with its home to be at the Pavilion at the Greensboro Coliseum Complex. On December 29, the name and logo of the Swarm was unveiled during an intermission between the women's and men's championship games of the 40th anniversary of HAECO Invitational presented by NewBridge Bank at the Greensboro Coliseum Complex Special Events Center and featured Charlotte Hornets players and executives, Hugo the Hornet, the Honey Bees (cheerleading for the Hornets), Swarm Squad, and special guests.


title: Greensboro Swarm

text: On July 25, 2016, the Charlotte Hornets hired Denver Nuggets assistant Noel Gillespie to be the head coach of the Swarm. After two seasons and no appearances in the playoffs, Gillespie's contract was not renewed and he was replaced by Joe Wolf.


title: Greensboro Swarm

text: Hornets' assistant coach Jay Hernandez was named the head coach of the Swarm for the abbreviated 2020–21 bubble season in Orlando. Hornets' head video coordinator Jordan Surenkamp was then named the head coach for the 2021–22 season.


title: Polynomial regression

text: In statistics, polynomial regression is a form of regression analysis in which the relationship between the independent variable "x" and the dependent variable "y" is modelled as an "n"th degree polynomial in "x". Polynomial regression fits a nonlinear relationship between the value of "x" and the corresponding conditional mean of "y", denoted E("y" |"x"). Although "polynomial regression" fits a nonlinear model to the data, as a statistical estimation problem it is linear, in the sense that the regression function E("y" | "x") is linear in the unknown parameters that are estimated from the data. For this reason, polynomial regression is considered to be a special case of multiple linear regression.


title: Polynomial regression

text: The explanatory (independent) variables resulting from the polynomial expansion of the "baseline" variables are known as higher-degree terms. Such variables are also used in classification settings.


title: Polynomial regression

text: Polynomial regression models are usually fit using the method of least squares. The least-squares method minimizes the variance of the unbiased estimators of the coefficients, under the conditions of the Gauss–Markov theorem. The least-squares method was published in 1805 by Legendre and in 1809 by Gauss. The first design of an experiment for polynomial regression appeared in an 1815 paper of Gergonne. In the twentieth century, polynomial regression played an important role in the development of regression analysis, with a greater emphasis on issues of design and inference. More recently, the use of polynomial models has been complemented by other methods, with non-polynomial models having advantages for some classes of problems.


title: Polynomial regression

text: The goal of regression analysis is to model the expected value of a dependent variable "y" in terms of the value of an independent variable (or vector of independent variables) "x". In simple linear regression, the model


title: Polynomial regression

text: is used, where ε is an unobserved random error with mean zero conditioned on a scalar variable "x". In this model, for each unit increase in the value of "x", the conditional expectation of "y" increases by "β" units.


title: Polynomial regression

text: In many settings, such a linear relationship may not hold. For example, if we are modeling the yield of a chemical synthesis in terms of the temperature at which the synthesis takes place, we may find that the yield improves by increasing amounts for each unit increase in temperature. In this case, we might propose a quadratic model of the form


title: Polynomial regression

text: In this model, when the temperature is increased from "x" to "x" + 1 units, the expected yield changes by formula_3 (This can be seen by replacing "x" in this equation with "x"+1 and subtracting the equation in "x" from the equation in "x"+1.) For infinitesimal changes in "x", the effect on "y" is given by the total derivative with respect to "x": formula_4 The fact that the change in yield depends on "x" is what makes the relationship between "x" and "y" nonlinear even though the model is linear in the parameters to be estimated.


title: Polynomial regression

text: In general, we can model the expected value of "y" as an "n"th degree polynomial, yielding the general polynomial regression model


title: Polynomial regression

text: Conveniently, these models are all linear from the point of view of estimation, since the regression function is linear in terms of the unknown parameters "β", "β", ... Therefore, for least squares analysis, the computational and inferential problems of polynomial regression can be completely addressed using the techniques of multiple regression. This is done by treating "x", "x", ... as being distinct independent variables in a multiple regression model.


title: Polynomial regression

text: can be expressed in matrix form in terms of a design matrix formula_7, a response vector formula_8, a parameter vector formula_9, and a vector formula_10 of random errors. The "i"-th row of formula_7 and formula_8 will contain the "x" and "y" value for the "i"-th data sample. Then the model can be written as a system of linear equations:


title: Polynomial regression

text: The vector of estimated polynomial regression coefficients (using ordinary least squares estimation) is


title: Polynomial regression

text: assuming "m" < "n" which is required for the matrix to be invertible; then since formula_7 is a Vandermonde matrix, the invertibility condition is guaranteed to hold if all the formula_17 values are distinct. This is the unique least-squares solution.


title: Polynomial regression

text: Although polynomial regression is technically a special case of multiple linear regression, the interpretation of a fitted polynomial regression model requires a somewhat different perspective. It is often difficult to interpret the individual coefficients in a polynomial regression fit, since the underlying monomials can be highly correlated. For example, "x" and "x" have correlation around 0.97 when x is uniformly distributed on the interval (0, 1). Although the correlation can be reduced by using orthogonal polynomials, it is generally more informative to consider the fitted regression function as a whole. Point-wise or simultaneous confidence bands can then be used to provide a sense of the uncertainty in the estimate of the regression function.


title: Polynomial regression

text: Polynomial regression is one example of regression analysis using basis functions to model a functional relationship between two quantities. More specifically, it replaces formula_18 in linear regression with polynomial basis formula_19, e.g. formula_20. A drawback of polynomial bases is that the basis functions are "non-local", meaning that the fitted value of "y" at a given value "x" = "x" depends strongly on data values with "x" far from "x". In modern statistics, polynomial basis-functions are used along with new basis functions, such as splines, radial basis functions, and wavelets. These families of basis functions offer a more parsimonious fit for many types of data.


title: Polynomial regression

text: The goal of polynomial regression is to model a non-linear relationship between the independent and dependent variables (technically, between the independent variable and the conditional mean of the dependent variable). This is similar to the goal of nonparametric regression, which aims to capture non-linear regression relationships. Therefore, non-parametric regression approaches such as smoothing can be useful alternatives to polynomial regression. Some of these methods make use of a localized form of classical polynomial regression. An advantage of traditional polynomial regression is that the inferential framework of multiple regression can be used (this also holds when using other families of basis functions such as splines).


title: Polynomial regression

text: A final alternative is to use kernelized models such as support vector regression with a polynomial kernel.


title: Polynomial regression

text: If residuals have unequal variance, a weighted least squares estimator may be used to account for that.


title: John Key

text: Sir John Phillip Key (born 9 August 1961) is a New Zealand retired politician who served as the 38th Prime Minister of New Zealand from 2008 to 2016 and as Leader of the New Zealand National Party from 2006 to 2016. After resigning from both posts in December 2016 and leaving politics, Key was appointed to the board of directors and role of chairman in several New Zealand corporations.


title: John Key

text: Born in Auckland before moving to Christchurch when he was a child, Key attended the University of Canterbury and graduated in 1981 with a Bachelor of Commerce. He began a career in the foreign exchange market in New Zealand before moving overseas to work for Merrill Lynch, in which he became head of global foreign exchange in 1995, a position he would hold for six years. In 1999 he was appointed a member of the Foreign Exchange Committee of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York until leaving in 2001.


title: John Key

text: Key entered the New Zealand Parliament representing the Auckland electorate of Helensville as one of the few new National members of parliament in the election of 2002 following National's significant defeat of that year. In 2004, he was appointed Finance Spokesman for National and eventually succeeded Don Brash as the National Party leader in 2006. After two years as Leader of the Opposition, Key led his party to victory at the November 2008 general election. He was subsequently sworn in as Prime Minister on 19 November 2008. The National government went on to win two more general elections under his leadership: in November 2011 and September 2014. Key was expected to contest for a fourth term of office at the 2017 general election, but on 5 December 2016 he resigned as Prime Minister and leader of the National Party. He was succeeded by Bill English on 12 December 2016.


title: John Key

text: As Prime Minister, Key led the Fifth National Government of New Zealand which entered government at the beginning of the late-2000s recession in 2008. He was described as having socially liberal but fiscally conservative views and policies. In his first term, Key's government implemented a GST rise and personal tax cuts, while enacting several austerity measures. His government refused to renew license agreements for multiple television channels, including TVNZ 6, TVNZ 7, Kidzone and Heartland, while reducing funding for Radio New Zealand in real terms. In February 2011, after a major earthquake in Christchurch the nation's second largest city significantly affected the national economy, the government formed the Canterbury Earthquake Recovery Authority. In its second term, Key's government implemented a policy of partial privatisation of five state-owned enterprises, while voters in a citizens-initiated referendum on the issue were 2 to 1 opposed to the policy. He also faced a severe housing crisis, especially in Auckland, and was widely criticised for a perceived lack of action. In foreign policy, Key withdrew New Zealand Defence Force personnel from their deployment in the war in Afghanistan, signed the Wellington Declaration with the United States and pushed for more nations to join the Trans-Pacific Partnership.


title: John Key

text: Key was born in Auckland, New Zealand, to George Key (1914–1969) and Ruth Key (née Lazar; 1922–2000) on 9 August 1961. His father was an English immigrant and a veteran of the Spanish Civil War and World War II. Key and his two sisters were raised in a state house in the Christchurch suburb of Bryndwr by his mother, an Austrian-Jewish immigrant. Key is the third prime minister or premier of New Zealand to have Jewish ancestry, after Julius Vogel and Francis Bell.


title: John Key

text: He attended Aorangi School, and then Burnside High School from 1975 to 1979, where he met his wife, Bronagh. He went on to attend the University of Canterbury and earned a Bachelor of Commerce degree in accounting in 1981. He also attended management studies courses at Harvard University.


title: John Key

text: Key's first job was as an auditor at McCulloch Menzies in 1982. He then became a project manager at Christchurch-based clothing manufacturer Lane Walker Rudkin for two years. He began working as a foreign exchange dealer at Elders Finance in Wellington, and rose to the position of head foreign exchange trader two years later, then moved to Auckland-based Bankers Trust in 1988.


title: John Key

text: In 1995, he joined Merrill Lynch as head of Asian foreign exchange in Singapore. That same year he was promoted to Merrill's global head of foreign exchange, based in London, where he may have earned around US$2.25 million a year including bonuses, which is about NZ$5 million at 2001 exchange rates. Some co-workers called him "the smiling assassin" for maintaining his usual cheerfulness while sacking dozens (some say hundreds) of staff after heavy losses from the 1998 Russian financial crisis. He was a member of the Foreign Exchange Committee of the New York Federal Reserve Bank from 1999 to 2001.


title: John Key

text: In 1998, on learning of his interest in pursuing a political career, National Party president John Slater began working to recruit him. Former party leader Jenny Shipley describes him as one of the people she "deliberately sought out and put my head on the line–either privately or publicly–to get them in there".


title: John Key

text: Auckland's population growth led to the formation for the 2002 general election of a new electorate called Helensville, which covered the north-western corner of the Auckland urban area. Key beat long-serving National MP Brian Neeson (whose own Waitakere seat had moved on paper to being a Labour seat through the boundary changes) for the National Party Helensville selection. At the 2002 general election Key won the seat with a majority of 1,705, ahead of Labour's Gary Russell, with Neeson, now standing as an independent, coming third.


title: John Key

text: The National Party was heavily defeated in the 2002 election, receiving only 20.9% of the party vote – the party's worst-ever election result. Following the fallout, a leadership coup against the incumbent Bill English was launched by Don Brash, another of the 2002 recruits, in October 2003. English and his supporters offered Key the finance spokesman position for his vote and were confident they had the numbers with him on their side. Brash narrowly won 14 votes to 12 and at the time it was thought Key had changed his support to Brash. The votes were confidential, although later Key stated that he did vote for English.


title: John Key

text: Key won re-election at the 2005 general election, garnering 63% of votes cast. He increased his majority again in , gaining 73% of the electorate vote.


title: John Key

text: The low numbers in the National caucus meant Key was given more opportunities and responsibilities than most new Members of Parliament would. After serving as deputy finance spokesman under Brash, Key was promoted to the Opposition front benches in 2004 as party spokesman for finance. Key was up against Michael Cullen, the Minister of Finance and a veteran of 23 years in parliament. There was concern he would be out of his depth going up against Cullen in his first term and there was talk among the party of trying to "protect" Key. During the 2005 election campaign political commentators felt Key matched Cullen in the debates, although he may have benefited from Labour focusing their campaign on discrediting Brash.


title: John Key

text: Although Brash lost the election, Key remained as finance spokesman. He was promoted to number four on the list, partly due to his success at selling the party's tax package during the campaign. While Keys ambition to become leader had been telegraphed from early in his political career, he was now beginning to rate highly on preferred Prime Minister polls. Rumours that Key was looking to take over the leadership circulated and there was an unofficial agreement between Brash and Key that he would be the natural successor.


title: John Key

text: Things came to a head earlier than expected. In November 2006 Brash resigned as leader, citing damaging speculation over his future as the reason. Brash's resignation followed controversies over an extramarital affair, and over leaked internal National Party documents that were later published in the book "The Hollow Men". After months of speculation, Key stood for leadership of the party and was elected unopposed.


title: John Key

text: On becoming leader Key convinced Gerry Brownlee, deputy leader under Brash, to step aside and promoted his main rival English to deputy leader and finance spokesman. He showed a ruthless streak by unceremoniously pushing Brash out and refusing to allow another one of the 2002 recruits, Brian Connell, back into the caucus. In his maiden speech as National Party leader, Key spoke of an "underclass" that had been "allowed to develop" in New Zealand, a theme which received a large amount of media coverage. Key followed up on this speech in February 2007 by committing his party to a programme which would provide food in the poorest schools in New Zealand.


title: John Key

text: In opposition he was instrumental in promoting National's change of policy regarding keeping superannuation and Kiwibank. He also supported interest-free student loans and early childhood education funding. He relented on his stance in opposition to Sue Bradford's Child Discipline Bill, which sought to remove "reasonable force" as a defence for parents charged with "prima facie" assault of their children. Key and Prime Minister Helen Clark agreed a compromise – giving police the discretion to overlook smacking they regarded as "inconsequential".


title: John Key

text: In August 2007 Key came in for criticism when he changed his position regarding the Therapeutic Products and Medicine Bill. At the same time Labour's Trevor Mallard hinted in Parliament that Labour would try to link Key to the 1987 "H-Fee" scandal, which involved Key's former employer Elders Merchant Finance and a payment to Equiticorp Chief Executive Allan Hawkins. Hawkins and Elders executive Ken Jarrett were later jailed for fraud. Key declaring that he had left Elders months before the event, that he had no knowledge of the deal, and that his interview with the Serious Fraud Office (SFO) during the investigation into the affair could only have helped to convict the people involved. Then-SFO director Charles Sturt publicly supported Key's statement.


title: John Key

text: Labour MPs criticised Key for not releasing specific policy information at their annual conference. Key responded that National would set its own policy agenda and that there was adequate time before the next election for voters to digest National Party policy proposals.


title: John Key

text: Key became Prime Minister following the general election on 8 November 2008, which signalled an end to the Labour-led government of nine years under Clark. The National Party won 45% of the party vote and 59 of the 122 seats in Parliament, overtaking the incumbent majority Labour Party.


title: John Key

text: National negotiated with smaller parties to form a minority government with confidence and supply from the classical-liberal ACT Party, the centrist United Future and the indigenous-rights-based Māori Party.


title: John Key

text: Key was sworn in as Prime Minister and Minister of Tourism and also appointed as a member of the Executive Council on 19 November 2008, along with his nominated cabinet. He chose Bill English as his Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Finance. During his first term in office National remained high in the polls and one commentator described support for Key as "stratospheric". In 2011 he was nicknamed "Teflon John" in the popular media, as nothing damaging to his reputation seemed to "stick" to him.


title: John Key

text: Key's government introduced several bold economic policies in response to the global economic downturn that began shortly after he took office. The government introduced a plan of personal tax cuts, reducing taxes on all income; the top personal tax rate was lowered from 39% to 38% and then 33%. In its first budget the government raised the rate of Goods and Services Tax (GST) from 12.5% to 15%, despite Key previously stating that an increase would not happen under a National government. Key's government also enacted several austerity measures. His government declined to renew license agreements for multiple television channels, including TVNZ 6, TVNZ 7, Kidzone and Heartland, while reducing funding for Radio New Zealand in real terms.


title: John Key

text: In January 2009, after addressing Chinese New Year celebrations at the Greenlane ASB Showgrounds, Key tripped after coming down a small set of stairs in front of cameras, leaving him with a broken right arm and "embarrassed". Later that year, when arriving at the Ngapuhi Te Tii Waitangi Marae the day before Waitangi Day, Key was briefly shoved and grabbed by two protesters before diplomatic protection officers pulled them off. He told reporters he was "quite shocked" but continued onto the marae and spoke, while police took the two men away and charged them with assault.


title: John Key

text: Key was tied with the National Cycleway Project since its conception at the national Job Summit in early 2009. He proposed it, and as Minister for Tourism, was instrumental in getting NZ$50 million approved for initial construction work.


title: John Key

text: Key launched New Zealand's campaign for a Security Council seat at the UN General Assembly meeting in September 2009. He met briefly with US President Barack Obama and former US President Bill Clinton. While in New York City, Key appeared on the "Late Show with David Letterman". He read out the Top Ten list, 'Top Ten Reasons You Should Visit New Zealand'.


title: John Key

text: In foreign policy, Key supported closer relations with the United States, an ANZUS defence partner. On 4 November 2010, US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton and New Zealand Foreign Minister Murray McCully signed the Wellington Declaration. The agreement signalled an increase in the strategic partnership between the two nations and covered areas of co-operation including nuclear proliferation, climate change and terrorism. This was followed in June 2012 by a companion document, the Washington Declaration. Since 2008 Key has also engaged in Trans-Pacific Partnership negotiations with the United States and other Asia-Pacific economies.


title: John Key

text: On 22 February 2011 a 6.3 magnitude earthquake struck Christchurch, causing widespread damage to the city region and significantly affecting the national economy. It was New Zealand's third deadliest natural disaster, killing 185 people. Addressing the nation, Key said that the disaster "...may well be New Zealand's darkest day". On 29 March 2011, Key created the Canterbury Earthquake Recovery Authority (CERA) to manage the earthquake recovery, co-operating with the government, local councils and residents.


title: John Key

text: On 8 March 2011, John Key advised Queen Elizabeth II, Queen of New Zealand to appoint Jerry Mateparae as the next Governor-General of New Zealand. The Queen made the appointment later that day.


title: John Key

text: In October 2011, Key was caught up in a controversy over the replacement of 34 three-year-old Government BMW limousines with new ones at a time of economic restraint. Initially, Key denied any knowledge of the plan, although reports later surfaced showing that his office was aware of the deal. Political opponents accused Key and his government of hypocrisy; he later apologised, calling it a "sloppy" deal, effectively placing most of the blame on his chief of staff.


title: John Key

text: Shortly before the general election in November 2011, a recording was made of a conversation between Key and ACT Party candidate John Banks that they considered private – though the conversation took place in a public cafe. Key made a complaint to the police and compared the incident to illegal phone hacking in the "News of the World" scandal in Britain. The recording allegedly concerned the leadership of ACT and disparaging remarks about elderly New Zealand First supporters. Journalists and opposition parties demanded the release of the tapes and the affair was nicknamed 'teapot tape'. A senior barrister criticised Key, stating that the comparison of the recording to the phone hacking scandal was a "cheap shot".


title: John Key

text: Statements made by Key regarding New Zealand's national credit rating proved controversial. In October 2011 he claimed that Standard & Poor's (S&P) had said that "if there was a change of Government, that downgrade would be much more likely". S&P contradicted the claim, bringing Key's credibility into question. National won the election, but New Zealand's credit rating was subsequently downgraded anyway – by two different agencies – Standard and Poor's and Fitch Group.


title: John Key

text: The general election on 26 November 2011 saw National increase its share of the vote and gain a seat, while Labour suffered further losses. Key called the election a "very happy night" and a "strong and solid win" for his party. The Prime Minister re-negotiated confidence and supply agreements with United Future, the ACT Party and the Māori Party, to secure a second term of government.


title: John Key

text: In 2012, Key was implicated in the arrest of Kim Dotcom and the subsequent revelations that the Government Communications Security Bureau (GCSB) had illegally spied on Dotcom. As Prime Minister, Key was directly responsible for the GCSB, which is not allowed to spy on New Zealand citizens – and Dotcom had been granted permanent residency. Three days later, Key apologised for the illegal spying. "I apologize to Mr Dotcom. I apologize to New Zealanders because every New Zealander…is entitled to be protected from the law when it comes to the GCSB, and we failed to provide that appropriate protection for him." It subsequently came to light that Deputy Prime Minister Bill English had been asked by the GCSB to sign a "ministerial certificate" suppressing details of the bureau's involvement in the case while Key was overseas – the only time this had been done in the last ten years.


title: John Key

text: The fallout from Dotcom's arrest continued in December when the High Court ordered the GCSB to "confirm all entities" to which it gave information, opening the door for Dotcom to sue for damages – against the spy agency and the police. Later that month, Key's rating as preferred PM dropped to 39% – the first time in his four years as prime minister that his rating had slipped below 40%. It emerged that Key had known Ian Fletcher, head of the GCSB, since they were at school, but Key denied he had 'shoulder-tapped' Fletcher for the role. Later Key's office released a statement saying he rang Fletcher and recommended he apply for the position at GCSB. Key said he hadn't originally mentioned the phone call because he "forgot". Political commentator Bryce Edwards called it the "most appalling political management since he became Prime Minister back in 2008".


title: John Key

text: Key continued New Zealand's push for a spot on the UN Security Council while in New York in 2013. There he accused rival candidates Spain and Turkey of using aid money to buy votes from small African countries, and said New Zealand would not be spending its way onto the Council. While in New York, Key suddenly fell ill, but recovered in time for meetings with representatives from other countries ahead of the General Assembly.


title: John Key

text: In April whilst visiting Chinese president Xi Jinping in Beijing, Key made headlines by suggesting New Zealand would back any United States or Australian military action against North Korea. The following day he backtracked, saying the chance of New Zealand troops entering North Korea was "so far off the planet".


title: John Key

text: The general election on 20 September 2014 saw the National Government returned again. National won a plurality with 47.0% of the party vote and 60 of the 121 seats. On election night counts the party appeared to hold the first majority since 1994 with 61 seats, but lost a list seat (for Maureen Pugh) to the Green Party on the official count (including special votes) of the party vote. National re-entered a confidence and supply arrangement with United Future, the ACT Party and the Māori Party.


title: John Key

text: In October, Key created a new ministerial portfolio called the Minister of National Security and Intelligence to serve the newly established Cabinet National Security Committee. The Prime Minister assumed the new portfolio while the Attorney General Christopher Finlayson became Minister Responsible for the GCSB and Minister in Charge of the New Zealand Security Intelligence Service (NZSIS), portfolios which have traditionally been held by a prime minister. Key was elected Chairman of the International Democrat Union (IDU), an international alliance of centre-right political parties. The National Party was a founding member party in 1983.


title: John Key

text: In April 2015, Key acknowledged that he had pulled a waitress' ponytail multiple times over several months; when Key learnt she had taken offence, he apologised. International media reported the incident as "ponytail-gate".


title: John Key

text: Key had long supported changing the flag of New Zealand, and during the 2014 general election campaign promised a referendum on the issue. Following the election win, two New Zealand flag referendums were held in November/December 2015 and March 2016. The second resulted in the retention of the current flag. Critics (both national and international) charged that the referendums were unnecessary, expensive and a "wasteful vanity project".


title: John Key

text: The New Zealand housing crisis took hold substantially following Key's third term. From the time Key took office until the year he left, average housing prices had more than doubled. Key repeatedly refused to call the property bubble a crisis, claiming it instead was a "challenge". The prime minister was challenged over his criticism of Helen Clark's government's response to the housing crisis during the 2008 campaign, but reluctance to take a stand now it had worsened considerably. A Newshub poll released in May 2016 showed that 76% of New Zealanders felt the government was not doing enough to control the housing market, while only 20 per cent thought it had housing under control.


title: John Key

text: International trade and the negotiation of free-trade agreements were a priority in Key's third term. He was a leading advocate of the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP), also supporting the Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership (TPSEP). Both agreements provide for a multilateral free-trade area in the Asia–Pacific region. In a September 2016 speech to the Council of Foreign Relations, Key said "[TPP] will boost our economy by at least $2.7 billion a year by 2030. It will help diversify our economy and create more jobs and higher incomes for New Zealanders". Key was particularly intent on securing the participation of the United States in the agreement; to this end, he discussed TPP with President Barack Obama in April 2016, and hosted Secretary of State John Kerry in Wellington, 9–13 November 2016. The finalised TPP proposal was signed on 4 February 2016 in Auckland, concluding seven years of negotiations. In January 2017, US President Donald Trump signed a presidential memorandum to withdrawing the United States' signature from the agreement, making its ratification virtually impossible.


title: John Key

text: In February 2016, Key reached an agreement with Australian Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull to grant New Zealanders living in Australia a pathway to citizenship if they were earning five times over the average wage. As a result of this agreement, the Australian Government introduced the "Skilled Independent visa (subclass 189)" in July 2017 to fast-track the Australian citizenship naturalisation process for New Zealanders living in Australia. New Zealanders living in Australia for at least five years and earning an annual income over A$53,900 were eligible for the visa. By late February 2018, 1,512 Subclass 189 visas had been issued. However, this visa scheme was criticised by the "Ozkiwi lobby" since two-thirds of New Zealanders living in Australia did not meet the qualifying wage.


title: John Key

text: In March 2016, Queen Elizabeth II , Queen of New Zealand, approved the appointment of Dame Patsy Reddy as the next Governor-General of New Zealand, for a five-year term starting in September 2016, on the advice of John Key.


title: John Key

text: Key resigned as Prime Minister and leader of the National Party effective from 12 December 2016, and instructed the party to put into motion the processes to elect a new leader. He expressed interest in spending more time with his family, stating that he had "never seen [himself] as a career politician" and that "this feels the right time to go". Media reports described the decision as unexpected, and noted the popularity of Key and his party. Bill English won the 2016 New Zealand National Party leadership election to succeed Key.


title: John Key

text: Following his resignation, Key stated that he would leave Parliament before the 2017 general election. However, he stated that he would resign within six months of the election so as to not trigger a by-election in the electorate. He gave his valedictory speech in Parliament on 22 March 2017 and formally resigned the following month, on 14 April.


title: John Key

text: In May 2017, Key was appointed to the board of directors of Air New Zealand, and took up the position on 1 September 2017. He was also appointed chairman of ANZ Bank New Zealand, taking up the position on 18 October 2017. On 31 March 2020, Key stood down as a director of Air New Zealand.


title: John Key

text: Key's views were largely aligned with his own party's view. However, he noted that his differences from his predecessor are more of style and focus rather than view. Key noted others' concern at the pace of asset sales, but stated that the arguments against selling assets in the 1980s were largely irrational. In a 2002 interview, he said that "some form of orientation towards privatisation" in health, education and superannuation, such as giving firms tax breaks for employer super schemes, made sense. After his party won a plurality in the 2011 election, Key rejected claims that the National Government lacked a mandate to partially privatise state-owned assets.


title: John Key

text: Key had a mixed voting record on social issues. In 2004 he voted against the bill creating civil unions, stating that, while he personally supports such unions, he acted in accordance with his electorate's views. However, in 2005, Key was part of a large bloc of MPs voting to defeat a bill that defined marriage as being between a man and a woman. Key stated in 2008 that he did not oppose same-sex couples adopting children. In 2013 he expressed support for same-sex marriage and voted for the Marriage (Definition of Marriage) Amendment Act 2013.


title: John Key

text: In 2008 Key voted for an attempt to raise the legal drinking age from 18 back to 20, but ignored a Law Commission recommendation to increase levies on alcohol. He claimed there was "no appetite" for such a move. A report on public attitudes to alcohol law reform was later discovered, which indicated that in 2010, when he made this claim, 56% of New Zealanders supported a price increase.


title: John Key

text: Key says that global warming is a real phenomenon, and that the Government needed to implement measures to reduce human contribution to global warming. Key committed the National Party to working towards reducing greenhouse emissions in New Zealand by 50% within the next fifty years. Commentators note that as late as 2005, Key made statements indicating that he was sceptical of the effects and impact of climate change.


title: John Key

text: As a first-term MP in 2003, Key criticised the Labour-led government's stance on the Invasion of Iraq, claiming that New Zealand was "missing in action" by failing to support its ANZUS allies, the United States and Australia. In August 2007 Key claimed that he would have taken a similar position to Clark and not sent troops to Iraq. In response, the Government argued that his comments from 2003 suggest that Key would have deployed troops had he been Prime Minister at the time.


title: John Key

text: Like his predecessor Helen Clark, Key views a New Zealand republic as "inevitable", although probably not for another decade. "If Australia becomes a republic there is no question it will set off quite an intense debate on this side of the Tasman", he said. "We would have to have a referendum if we wanted to move towards it." Key later stated that he was a monarchist, and that a New Zealand republic would "Not [happen] under my watch". In 2009 Key's government restored titular honours, including knighthoods and damehoods — the abolishment of these titles in 2000 had been seen as an advancement towards republicanism.


title: John Key

text: During the 2020 New Zealand euthanasia referendum, Key publicly expressed support for the End of Life Choice Act 2019, saying that his mother's struggle with Alzheimer's disease prior to her death convinced him to support the decriminalisation of euthanasia.


title: John Key

text: In September 2021, Key criticised the Labour Government's elimination-based lockdown policies in response to the COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand, likening it to making New Zealand a hermit kingdom like North Korea. He also accused the Government of ruling by fear and lacking a post-lockdown strategy. To speed up COVID-19 vaccination, he recommended boosting funding for Māori and Pasifika health providers, introducing financial incentives for young people, and allowing only vaccinated people into licensed premises. TVNZ journalist Jack Tame described Key's views on the Government's handling of COVID-19 as provocative but praised his five-point plan as a "collection of sensible ideas worthy of consideration."


title: John Key

text: In August 2022, Key described United States Speaker of the House of Representatives Nancy Pelosi's recent visit to Taiwan as "reckless" and provocative towards China during an interview with TVNZ journalist Jack Tame. Since Beijing regarded the visit as a violation of the One China Policy, China had downgraded bilateral relations with the United States. During his premiership, Key had cultivated a close relationship with the Chinese Premier Xi Jinping, describing Xi as "extremely trustworthy, very open, consistent."


title: John Key

text: On 25 July 2008, Key was added to the New Zealand "National Business Review" (NBR) Rich List for the first time. The list details the wealthiest New Zealand individuals and family groups. He had an estimated wealth of NZ$50 million, which made him the wealthiest New Zealand Member of Parliament. In the 2016 NBR Rich List, Key had an estimated wealth of NZ$60 million. Most of his financial investments are held in a blind trust.


title: John Key

text: Key married Bronagh Irene Dougan in 1984; they met when they were both students at Burnside High School. She has a BCom degree, and worked as a personnel consultant before becoming a full-time mother. They have two children, Stephie and Max. Max is a night-time radio host for George FM, and is also a singer. Stephie is a performance artist.


title: John Key

text: In 2008 Key stated that he attended church frequently with his children, but was an agnostic. He has said that he does not believe in an afterlife, and sees religion as "doing the right thing".


title: John Key

text: On 3 August 2010, Key gained the style "The Right Honourable". Previously, as he was not a privy councillor, he had not been entitled to use the style—his predecessor ended the appointment of New Zealanders to the Privy Council. However, in 2010 the Queen approved the use of the style by prime ministers, governors-general, speakers of the House, and chief justices.


title: John Key

text: Key was appointed a Knight Grand Companion of the New Zealand Order of Merit, in recognition of "services to the State", in the 2017 Queen's Birthday Honours. Later Key was appointed an honorary Companion of the Order of Australia, for "eminent service to Australia-New Zealand relations", by the Governor-General of Australia on the personal recommendation of the Australian Prime Minister, Malcolm Turnbull.


title: John Key

text: On 7 August 2017, Key was awarded an honorary doctorate by his alma mater, the University of Canterbury, to become a doctor of commerce.


title: Physical constant

text: A physical constant, sometimes fundamental physical constant or universal constant, is a physical quantity that is generally believed to be both universal in nature and have constant value in time. It is contrasted with a mathematical constant, which has a fixed numerical value, but does not directly involve any physical measurement.


title: Physical constant

text: There are many physical constants in science, some of the most widely recognized being the speed of light in a vacuum "c", the gravitational constant "G", the Planck constant "h", the electric constant "ε", and the elementary charge "e". Physical constants can take many dimensional forms: the speed of light signifies a maximum speed for any object and its dimension is length divided by time; while the fine-structure constant "α", which characterizes the strength of the electromagnetic interaction, is dimensionless.


title: Physical constant

text: The term "fundamental physical constant" is sometimes used to refer to universal-but-dimensioned physical constants such as those mentioned above. Increasingly, however, physicists only use "fundamental physical constant" for dimensionless physical constants, such as the fine-structure constant "α".


title: Physical constant

text: Physical constant, as discussed here, should not be confused with other quantities called "constants", which are assumed to be constant in a given context without being fundamental, such as the "time constant" characteristic of a given system, or material constants (e.g., Madelung constant, electrical resistivity, and heat capacity).


title: Physical constant

text: Since May 2019, all of the SI base units have been defined in terms of physical constants. As a result, five constants: the speed of light in vacuum, "c"; the Planck constant, "h"; the elementary charge, "e"; the Avogadro constant, "N"; and the Boltzmann constant, "k", have known exact numerical values when expressed in SI units. The first three of these constants are fundamental constants, whereas "N" and "k" are of a technical nature only: they do not describe any property of the universe, but instead only give a proportionality factor for defining the units used with large numbers of atomic-scale entities.


title: Physical constant

text: Whereas the physical quantity indicated by a physical constant does not depend on the unit system used to express the quantity, the numerical values of dimensional physical constants do depend on choice of unit system.


title: Physical constant

text: The term "physical constant" refers to the physical quantity, and not to the numerical value within any given system of units. For example, the speed of light is defined as having the numerical value of when expressed in the SI unit metres per second, and as having the numerical value of 1 when expressed in the natural units Planck length per Planck time. While its numerical value can be defined at will by the choice of units, the speed of light itself is a single physical constant.


title: Physical constant

text: Any ratio between physical constants of the same dimensions results in a dimensionless physical constant, for example, the proton-to-electron mass ratio. Any relation between physical quantities can be expressed as a relation between dimensionless ratios via a process known as nondimensionalisation.


title: Physical constant

text: The term of "fundamental physical constant" is reserved for physical quantities which, according to the current state of knowledge, are regarded as immutable and as non-derivable from more fundamental principles. Notable examples are the speed of light "c", and the gravitational constant "G".


title: Physical constant

text: The fine-structure constant "α" is the best known dimensionless fundamental physical constant. It is the value of the elementary charge squared expressed in Planck units. This value has become a standard example when discussing the derivability or non-derivability of physical constants. Introduced by Arnold Sommerfeld, its value as determined at the time was consistent with 1/137. This motivated Arthur Eddington (1929) to construct an argument why its value might be 1/137 precisely, which related to the Eddington number, his estimate of the number of protons in the Universe. By the 1940s, it became clear that the value of the fine-structure constant deviates significantly from the precise value of 1/137, refuting Eddington's argument.


title: Physical constant

text: With the development of quantum chemistry in the 20th century, however, a vast number of previously inexplicable dimensionless physical constants "were" successfully computed from theory. In light of that, some theoretical physicists still hope for continued progress in explaining the values of other dimensionless physical constants.


title: Physical constant

text: It is known that the Universe would be very different if these constants took values significantly different from those we observe. For example, a few percent change in the value of the fine structure constant would be enough to eliminate stars like our Sun. This has prompted attempts at anthropic explanations of the values of some of the dimensionless fundamental physical constants.


title: Physical constant

text: It is possible to combine dimensional universal physical constants to define fixed quantities of any desired dimension, and this property has been used to construct various systems of natural units of measurement. Depending on the choice and arrangement of constants used, the resulting natural units may be convenient to an area of study. For example, Planck units, constructed from "c", "G", "ħ", and "k" give conveniently sized measurement units for use in studies of quantum gravity, and Hartree atomic units, constructed from "ħ", "m", "e" and 4"πε" give convenient units in atomic physics. The choice of constants used leads to widely varying quantities.


title: Physical constant

text: The number of fundamental physical constants depends on the physical theory accepted as "fundamental".


title: Physical constant

text: Currently, this is the theory of general relativity for gravitation and the Standard Model for electromagnetic, weak and strong nuclear interactions and the matter fields.


title: Physical constant

text: There is, however, no single "correct" way of enumerating them, as it is a matter of arbitrary choice which quantities are considered "fundamental" and which as "derived". Uzan (2011) lists 22 "unknown constants" in the fundamental theories, which give rise to 19 "unknown dimensionless parameters", as follows:


title: Physical constant

text: The number of 19 independent fundamental physical constants is subject to change under possible extensions of the Standard Model, notably by the introduction of neutrino mass (equivalent to seven additional constants, i.e. 3 Yukawa couplings and 4 lepton mixing parameters).


title: Physical constant

text: The discovery of variability in any of these constants would be equivalent to the discovery of "new physics".


title: Physical constant

text: The question as to which constants are "fundamental" is neither straightforward nor meaningless, but a question of interpretation of the physical theory regarded as fundamental; as pointed out by , not all physical constants are of the same importance, with some having a deeper role than others.


title: Physical constant

text: The same physical constant may move from one category to another as the understanding of its role deepens; this has notably happened to the speed of light, which was a class A constant (characteristic of light) when it was first measured, but became a class B constant (characteristic of electromagnetic phenomena) with the development of classical electromagnetism, and finally a class C constant with the discovery of special relativity.


title: Physical constant

text: By definition, fundamental physical constants are subject to measurement, so that their being constant (independent on both the time and position of the performance of the measurement) is necessarily an experimental result and subject to verification.


title: Physical constant

text: Paul Dirac in 1937 speculated that physical constants such as the gravitational constant or the fine-structure constant might be subject to change over time in proportion of the age of the universe. Experiments can in principle only put an upper bound on the relative change per year. For the fine-structure constant, this upper bound is comparatively low, at


title: Physical constant

text: The gravitational constant is much more difficult to measure with precision, and conflicting measurements in the 2000s have inspired the controversial suggestions of a periodic variation of its value in a 2015 paper. However, while its value is not known to great precision, the possibility of observing type Ia supernovae which happened in the universe's remote past, paired with the assumption that the physics involved in these events is universal, allows for an upper bound of less than 10 per year for the gravitational constant over the last nine billion years.


title: Physical constant

text: Similarly, an upper bound of the change in the proton-to-electron mass ratio has been placed at 10 over a period of 7 billion years (or 10 per year) in a 2012 study based on the observation of methanol in a distant galaxy.


title: Physical constant

text: It is problematic to discuss the proposed rate of change (or lack thereof) of a single "dimensional" physical constant in isolation. The reason for this is that the choice of units is arbitrary, making the question of whether a constant is undergoing change an artefact of the choice (and definition) of the units.


title: Physical constant

text: For example, in SI units, the speed of light was given a defined value in 1983. Thus, it was meaningful to experimentally measure the speed of light in SI units prior to 1983, but it is not so now. Similarly, with effect from May 2019, the Planck constant has a defined value, such that all SI base units are now defined in terms of fundamental physical constants. With this change, the international prototype of the kilogram is being retired as the last physical object used in the definition of any SI unit.


title: Physical constant

text: Tests on the immutability of physical constants look at "dimensionless" quantities, i.e. ratios between quantities of like dimensions, in order to escape this problem. Changes in physical constants are not meaningful if they result in an "observationally indistinguishable" universe. For example, a "change" in the speed of light "c" would be meaningless if accompanied by a corresponding change in the elementary charge "e" so that the ratio (the fine-structure constant) remained unchanged.


title: Physical constant

text: Some physicists have explored the notion that if the dimensionless physical constants had sufficiently different values, our Universe would be so radically different that intelligent life would probably not have emerged, and that our Universe therefore seems to be fine-tuned for intelligent life. However, the phase space of the possible constants and their values is unknowable, so any conclusions drawn from such arguments are unsupported. The anthropic principle states a logical truism: the fact of our existence as intelligent beings who can measure physical constants requires those constants to be such that beings like us can exist. There are a variety of interpretations of the constants' values, including that of a divine creator (the apparent fine-tuning is actual and intentional), or that ours is one universe of many in a multiverse (e.g. the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics), or even that, if information is an innate property of the universe and logically inseparable from consciousness, a universe without the capacity for conscious beings cannot exist.


title: Physical constant

text: The fundamental constants and quantities of nature have been discovered to be fine-tuned to such an extraordinarily narrow range that if it were not, the origin and evolution of conscious life in the universe would not be permitted.


title: Physical constant

text: The table below lists some frequently used constants and their CODATA recommended values. For a more extended list, refer to "List of physical constants".


title: Natural News

text: Natural News (formerly NewsTarget, which is now a separate sister site) is a far-right, anti-vaccination conspiracy theory and fake news website known for promoting alternative medicine, pseudoscience, disinformation, and far-right extremism. The website began publishing articles in 2008 and is based in the United States.


title: Natural News

text: The site's founder, Michael Allen "Mike" Adams, gained attention after posting a blog entry implying a call for violence against proponents of GMO foods, and then allegedly creating another website with a list of names of alleged supporters. He has been accused of using "pseudoscience to sell his lies". Adams has described vaccines as "medical child abuse".