title: Cotton Eye Joe (Rednex song)

text: In 2021, the Ontario Hockey League team the Guelph Storm stopped using the song during games after consultation with local groups alleging the song has racist origins.


title: President of Kenya

text: The president of the Republic of Kenya () is the head of state and head of government of the Republic of Kenya. The President is also the head of the executive branch of the Government of Kenya and is the commander-in-chief of the Kenya Defence Forces.


title: President of Kenya

text: Kenya's pre-independence constitution was based on the standard "Lancaster House template" used for the former British colonies in Africa, was subject to early amendments, and was replaced in 1969.


title: President of Kenya

text: Under the Independence Constitution, the British monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, was the country's head of state, represented locally by a Governor-General of Kenya, who was the head of government. In 1964, the year after the country gained independence from Britain, the 1963 Constitution was amended to make the country a republic, with the President now serving as both head of state and head of government.


title: President of Kenya

text: Kenya has had a total of 5 presidents since independence, in successive order: Jomo Kenyatta, Daniel arap Moi, Mwai Kibaki, Uhuru Kenyatta, and the current, William Ruto, who was inaugurated on 13 September 2022. Daniel arap Moi remains the country's longest serving President, having served for a total of 24 years.


title: President of Kenya

text: According to the current Constitution, if a person wishes to be elected as President, the following qualifications must be met:


title: President of Kenya

text: A candidate will be disqualified to run for presidency if they have allegiance to a foreign state or is working for the government in any capacity as a public officer. Being a public officer is not applicable to the incumbent President if running for a second term.


title: President of Kenya

text: The President is elected by popular vote in the general election held in the month of August every 5 years. For a presidential candidate to be declared the winner, they must have:


title: President of Kenya

text: A president is eligible for two consecutive terms of five years each, starting from the date the president is sworn in.


title: President of Kenya

text: The following is a summary of the roles of the President of Kenya as provided in the Constitution of Kenya:


title: President of Kenya

text: Additionally, a person serving as President has legal immunity, with the exception of crimes under treaties to which Kenya is party with provisions that prohibit such immunity.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: Compartmental models are a very general modelling technique. They are often applied to the mathematical modelling of infectious diseases. The population is assigned to compartments with labels – for example, S, I, or R, (Susceptible, Infectious, or Recovered). People may progress between compartments. The order of the labels usually shows the flow patterns between the compartments; for example SEIS means susceptible, exposed, infectious, then susceptible again.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: The origin of such models is the early 20th century, with important works being that of Ross in 1916, Ross and Hudson in 1917, Kermack and McKendrick in 1927 and Kendall in 1956. The Reed-Frost model was also a significant and widely-overlooked ancestor of modern epidemiological modelling approaches.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: The models are most often run with ordinary differential equations (which are deterministic), but can also be used with a stochastic (random) framework, which is more realistic but much more complicated to analyze.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: Models try to predict things such as how a disease spreads, or the total number infected, or the duration of an epidemic, and to estimate various epidemiological parameters such as the reproductive number. Such models can show how different public health interventions may affect the outcome of the epidemic, e.g., what the most efficient technique is for issuing a limited number of vaccines in a given population.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: The SIR model is one of the simplest compartmental models, and many models are derivatives of this basic form. The model consists of three compartments:-


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: This model is reasonably predictive for infectious diseases that are transmitted from human to human, and where recovery confers lasting resistance, such as measles, mumps and rubella.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: These variables (S, I, and R) represent the number of people in each compartment at a particular time. To represent that the number of susceptible, infectious and removed individuals may vary over time (even if the total population size remains constant), we make the precise numbers a function of "t" (time): S("t"), I("t") and R("t"). For a specific disease in a specific population, these functions may be worked out in order to predict possible outbreaks and bring them under control.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: As implied by the variable function of "t", the model is dynamic in that the numbers in each compartment may fluctuate over time. The importance of this dynamic aspect is most obvious in an endemic disease with a short infectious period, such as measles in the UK prior to the introduction of a vaccine in 1968. Such diseases tend to occur in cycles of outbreaks due to the variation in number of susceptibles (S("t")) over time. During an epidemic, the number of susceptible individuals falls rapidly as more of them are infected and thus enter the infectious and removed compartments. The disease cannot break out again until the number of susceptibles has built back up, e.g. as a result of offspring being born into the susceptible compartment.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: Each member of the population typically progresses from susceptible to infectious to recovered. This can be shown as a flow diagram in which the boxes represent the different compartments and the arrows the transition between compartments, i.e.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: For the full specification of the model, the arrows should be labeled with the transition rates between compartments. Between "S" and "I", the transition rate is assumed to be "d(S/N)/dt = -βSI/N", where "N" is the total population, β is the average number of contacts per person per time, multiplied by the probability of disease transmission in a contact between a susceptible and an infectious subject, and "SI/N" is the fraction of those contacts between an infectious and susceptible individual which result in the susceptible person becoming infected. (This is mathematically similar to the law of mass action in chemistry in which random collisions between molecules result in a chemical reaction and the fractional rate is proportional to the concentration of the two reactants).


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: Between "I" and "R", the transition rate is assumed to be proportional to the number of infectious individuals which is γ"I". This is equivalent to assuming that the probability of an infectious individual recovering in any time interval "dt" is simply γ"dt". If an individual is infectious for an average time period "D", then γ = 1/"D". This is also equivalent to the assumption that the length of time spent by an individual in the infectious state is a random variable with an exponential distribution. The "classical" SIR model may be modified by using more complex and realistic distributions for the I-R transition rate (e.g. the Erlang distribution).


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: For the special case in which there is no removal from the infectious compartment (γ=0), the SIR model reduces to a very simple SI model, which has a logistic solution, in which every individual eventually becomes infected.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: The dynamics of an epidemic, for example, the flu, are often much faster than the dynamics of birth and death, therefore, birth and death are often omitted in simple compartmental models. The SIR system without so-called vital dynamics (birth and death, sometimes called demography) described above can be expressed by the following system of ordinary differential equations:


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: where formula_2 is the stock of susceptible population, formula_3 is the stock of infected, formula_4 is the stock of removed population (either by death or recovery), and formula_5 is the sum of these three.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: This model was for the first time proposed by William Ogilvy Kermack and Anderson Gray McKendrick as a special case of what we now call Kermack–McKendrick theory, and followed work McKendrick had done with Ronald Ross.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: This system is non-linear, however it is possible to derive its analytic solution in implicit form. Firstly note that from:


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: expressing in mathematical terms the constancy of population formula_8. Note that the above relationship implies that one need only study the equation for two of the three variables.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: the so-called basic reproduction number (also called basic reproduction ratio). This ratio is derived as the expected number of new infections (these new infections are sometimes called secondary infections) from a single infection in a population where all subjects are susceptible. This idea can probably be more readily seen if we say that the typical time between contacts is formula_10, and the typical time until removal is formula_11. From here it follows that, on average, the number of contacts by an infectious individual with others "before" the infectious has been removed is: formula_12


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: By dividing the first differential equation by the third, separating the variables and integrating we get


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: where formula_14 and formula_15 are the initial numbers of, respectively, susceptible and removed subjects.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: This shows that at the end of an epidemic that conforms to the simple assumptions of the SIR model, unless formula_22, not all individuals of the population have been removed, so some must remain susceptible. A driving force leading to the end of an epidemic is a decline in the number of infectious individuals. The epidemic does not typically end because of a complete lack of susceptible individuals.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: The role of both the basic reproduction number and the initial susceptibility are extremely important. In fact, upon rewriting the equation for infectious individuals as follows:


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: i.e., there will be a proper epidemic outbreak with an increase of the number of the infectious (which can reach a considerable fraction of the population). On the contrary, if


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: i.e., independently from the initial size of the susceptible population the disease can never cause a proper epidemic outbreak. As a consequence, it is clear that both the basic reproduction number and the initial susceptibility are extremely important.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: models the transition rate from the compartment of susceptible individuals to the compartment of infectious individuals, so that it is called the force of infection. However, for large classes of communicable diseases it is more realistic to consider a force of infection that does not depend on the absolute number of infectious subjects, but on their fraction (with respect to the total constant population formula_5):


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: Capasso and, afterwards, other authors have proposed nonlinear forces of infection to model more realistically the contagion process.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: In 2014, Harko and coauthors derived an exact so-called analytical solution (involving an integral that can only be calculated numerically) to the SIR model. In the case without vital dynamics setup, for formula_31, etc., it corresponds to the following time parametrization


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: An equivalent so-called analytical solution (involving an integral that can only be calculated numerically) found by Miller yields


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: Here formula_43 can be interpreted as the expected number of transmissions an individual has received by time formula_44. The two solutions are related by formula_45.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: These solutions may be easily understood by noting that all of the terms on the right-hand sides of the original differential equations are proportional to formula_3. The equations may thus be divided through by formula_3, and the time rescaled so that the differential operator on the left-hand side becomes simply formula_48, where formula_49, i.e. formula_50. The differential equations are now all linear, and the third equation, of the form formula_51 const., shows that formula_52 and formula_4 (and formula_54 above) are simply linearly related.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: A highly accurate analytic approximant of the SIR model as well as exact analytic expressions for the final values formula_55, formula_56, and formula_38 were provided by Kröger and Schlickeiser, so that there is no need to perform a numerical integration to solve the SIR model (a simplified example practice on COVID-19 numerical simulation using Microsoft Excel can be found here ), to obtain its parameters from existing data, or to predict the future dynamics of an epidemics modeled by the SIR model. The approximant involves the Lambert function which is part of all basic data visualization software such as Microsoft Excel, MATLAB, and Mathematica.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: While Kendall considered the so-called all-time SIR model where the initial conditions formula_14, formula_59, and formula_15 are coupled through the above relations, Kermack and McKendrick proposed to study the more general semi-time case, for which formula_14 and formula_59 are both arbitrary. This latter version, denoted as semi-time SIR model, makes predictions only for future times formula_63. An analytic approximant and exact expressions for the final values are available for the semi-time SIR model as well.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: Numerical solutions to the SIR model can be found in the literature. An example is using the model to analyze COVID-19 spreading data. Three reproduction numbers can be pulled out from the data analyzed with numerical approximation,


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: formula_67 represents the speed of reproduction rate at the beginning of the spreading when all populations are assumed susceptible, e.g. if formula_68 and formula_69 meaning one infectious person on average infects 0.4 susceptible people per day and recovers in 1/0.2=5 days. Thus when this person recovered, there are two people still infectious directly got from this person and formula_70, i.e. the number of infectious people doubled in one cycle of 5 days. The data fitted by the model will give formula_67 slightly larger than 2 because the two infected people are infecting people. From the SIR model, we can tell that formula_72 is determined by the nature of the disease and also a function of the interactive frequency between the infectious person formula_3 with the susceptible people formula_2 and also the intensity/duration of the interaction like how close they interact for how long and whether or not they both wear masks, thus, it changes over time when the average behavior of the carriers and susceptible people changes. The model use formula_75 to represent these factors but it indeed is referenced to the initial stage when no action is taken to prevent the spread and all population is susceptible, thus all changes are absorbed by the change of formula_72.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: formula_77 is usually more stable over time assuming when the infectious person shows symptoms, she/he will seek medical attention or be self-isolated. So if we find formula_78 changes, most probably the behaviors of people in the community have changed from their normal patterns before the outbreak, or the disease has mutated to a new form. Costive massive detection and isolation of susceptible close contacts have effects on reducing formula_79 but whose efficiencies are under debate. This debate is largely on the uncertainty of the number of days reduced from after infectious or detectable whichever comes first to before a symptom shows up for an infected susceptible person. If the person is infectious after symptoms show up, or detection only works for a person with symptoms, then these prevention methods are not necessary, and self-isolation and/or medical attention is the best way to cut the formula_79 values. The typical onset of the COVID-19 infectious period is in the order of one day from the symptoms showing up, making massive detection with typical frequency in a few days useless.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: formula_78 does not tell us whether or not the spreading will speed up or slow down in the latter stages when the fraction of susceptible people in the community has dropped significantly after recovery or vaccination. formula_82 corrects this dilution effect by multiplying the fraction of the susceptible population over the total population. It corrects the effective/transmissible interaction between an infectious person and the rest of the community when many of the interaction is immune in the middle to late stages of the disease spreading. Thus, when formula_83, we will see an exponential-like outbreak; when formula_84, a steady state reached and no number of infectious people changes over time; and when formula_85, the disease decays and fades away over time.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: Using the differential equations of the SIR model and converting them to numerical discrete forms, one can set up the recursive equations and calculate the S, I, and R populations with any given initial conditions but accumulate errors over a long calculation time from the reference point. Sometimes a convergence test is needed to estimate the errors. Given a set of initial conditions and the disease-spreading data, one can also fit the data with the SIR model and pull out the three reproduction numbers when the errors are usually negligible due to the short time step from the reference point. Any point of the time can be used as the initial condition to predict the future after it using this numerical model with assumption of time-evolved parameters such as population, formula_78, and formula_77. However, away from this reference point, errors will accumulate over time thus convergence test is needed to find an optimal time step for more accurate results.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: Among these three reproduction numbers, formula_67 is very useful to judge the control pressure, e.g., a large value meaning the disease will spread very fast and is very difficult to control. formula_78 is most useful in predicting future trends, for example, if we know the social interactions have reduced 50% frequently from that before the outbreak and the interaction intensities among people are the same, then we can set formula_90. If social distancing and masks add another 50% cut in infection efficiency, we can set formula_91. formula_82 will perfectly correlate with the waves of the spreading and whenever formula_93, the spreading accelerates, and when formula_94, the spreading slows down thus useful to set a prediction on the short term trends. Also, it can be used to directly calculate the threshold population of vaccination/immunization for the herd immunity stage by setting formula_95.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: Consider a population characterized by a death rate formula_96 and birth rate formula_97, and where a communicable disease is spreading. The model with mass-action transmission is:


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: which has threshold properties. In fact, independently from biologically meaningful initial values, one can show that:


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: The point EE is called the Endemic Equilibrium (the disease is not totally eradicated and remains in the population). With heuristic arguments, one may show that formula_103 may be read as the average number of infections caused by a single infectious subject in a wholly susceptible population, the above relationship biologically means that if this number is less than or equal to one the disease goes extinct, whereas if this number is greater than one the disease will remain permanently endemic in the population.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: In 1927, W. O. Kermack and A. G. McKendrick created a model in which they considered a fixed population with only three compartments: susceptible, formula_104; infected, formula_105; and recovered, formula_106. The compartments used for this model consist of three classes:


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: Using a fixed population, formula_111 in the three functions resolves that the value formula_5 should remain constant within the simulation, if a simulation is used to solve the SIR model. Alternatively, the analytic approximant can be used without performing a simulation. The model is started with values of formula_113, formula_114 and formula_115. These are the number of people in the susceptible, infected and removed categories at time equals zero. If the SIR model is assumed to hold at all times, these initial conditions are not independent. Subsequently, the flow model updates the three variables for every time point with set values for formula_72 and formula_77. The simulation first updates the infected from the susceptible and then the removed category is updated from the infected category for the next time point (t=1). This describes the flow persons between the three categories. During an epidemic the susceptible category is not shifted with this model, formula_72 changes over the course of the epidemic and so does formula_77. These variables determine the length of the epidemic and would have to be updated with each cycle.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: Several assumptions were made in the formulation of these equations: First, an individual in the population must be considered as having an equal probability as every other individual of contracting the disease with a rate of formula_123 and an equal fraction formula_124 of people that an individual makes contact with per unit time. Then, let formula_72 be the multiplication of formula_123 and formula_124. This is the transmission probability times the contact rate. Besides, an infected individual makes contact with formula_124 persons per unit time whereas only a fraction, formula_129 of them are susceptible.Thus, we have every infective can infect formula_130 susceptible persons, and therefore, the whole number of susceptibles infected by infectives per unit time is formula_131. For the second and third equations, consider the population leaving the susceptible class as equal to the number entering the infected class. However, a number equal to the fraction formula_77 (which represents the mean recovery/death rate, or formula_79 the mean infective period) of infectives are leaving this class per unit time to enter the removed class. These processes which occur simultaneously are referred to as the Law of Mass Action, a widely accepted idea that the rate of contact between two groups in a population is proportional to the size of each of the groups concerned. Finally, it is assumed that the rate of infection and recovery is much faster than the time scale of births and deaths and therefore, these factors are ignored in this model.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: The expected duration of susceptibility will be formula_134 where formula_135 reflects the time alive (life expectancy) and formula_136 reflects the time in the susceptible state before becoming infected, which can be simplified to:


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: such that the number of susceptible persons is the number entering the susceptible compartment formula_138 times the duration of susceptibility:


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: Analogously, the steady-state number of infected persons is the number entering the infected state from the susceptible state (number susceptible, times rate of infection) formula_140 times the duration of infectiousness formula_141:


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: There are many modifications of the SIR model, including those that include births and deaths, where upon recovery there is no immunity (SIS model), where immunity lasts only for a short period of time (SIRS), where there is a latent period of the disease where the person is not infectious (SEIS and SEIR), and where infants can be born with immunity (MSIR).


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: Some infections, for example, those from the common cold and influenza, do not confer any long-lasting immunity. Such infections may give temporary resistance but do not give long-term immunity upon recovery from infection, and individuals become susceptible again.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: It is possible to find an analytical solution to this model (by making a transformation of variables: formula_148 and substituting this into the mean-field equations), such that the basic reproduction rate is greater than unity. The solution is given as


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: where formula_150 is the endemic infectious population, formula_151, and formula_152. As the system is assumed to be closed, the susceptible population is then formula_153.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: As a special case, one obtains the usual logistic function by assuming formula_154. This can be also considered in the SIR model with formula_155, i.e. no removal will take place. That is the "SI model". The differential equation system using formula_156 thus reduces to:


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: The "Susceptible-Infectious-Recovered-Deceased model" differentiates between "Recovered" (meaning specifically individuals having survived the disease and now immune) and "Deceased". This model uses the following system of differential equations:


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: The "Susceptible-Infectious-Recovered-Vaccinated model" is an extended SIR model that accounts for vaccination of the susceptible population. This model uses the following system of differential equations:


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: where formula_161 are the rates of infection, recovery, and vaccination, respectively. For the semi-time initial conditions formula_162, formula_163, formula_164 and constant ratios formula_165 and formula_166 the model had been solved approximately. The occurrence of a pandemic outburst requires formula_167 and there is a critical reduced vaccination rate formula_168 beyond which the steady-state size formula_169of the susceptible compartment remains relatively close to formula_14. Arbitrary initial conditions satisfying formula_171 can be mapped to the solved special case with formula_164.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: The numerical solution of this model to calculate the real-time reproduction number formula_78 of COVID-19 can be practiced based on information from the different populations in a community. Numerical solution is a commonly used method to analyze complicated kinetic networks when the analytical solution is difficult to obtain or limited by requirements such as boundary conditions or special parameters. It uses recursive equations to calculate the next step by converting the integration into Riemann sum of discrete time steps e.g., use yesterday's principal and interest rate to calculate today's interest which assumes the interest rate is fixed during the day. The calculation contains projected errors if the analytical corrections on the numerical step size are not included, e.g. when the interest rate of annual collection is simplified to 12 times the monthly rate, a projected error is introduced. Thus the calculated results will carry accumulative errors when the time step is far away from the reference point and a convergence test is needed to estimate the error. However, this error is usually acceptable for data fitting. When fitting a set of data with a close time step, the error is relatively small because the reference point is nearby compared to when predicting a long period of time after a reference point. Once the real-time formula_78 is pulled out, one can compare it to the basic reproduction number formula_67. Before the vaccination, formula_78 gives the policy maker and general public a measure of the efficiency of social mitigation activities such as social distancing and face masking simply by dividing formula_177. Under massive vaccination, the goal of disease control is to reduce the effective reproduction number formula_178, where formula_2 is the number of susceptible population at the time and formula_5 is the total population. When formula_85, the spreading decays and daily infected cases go down.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: For many infections, including measles, babies are not born into the susceptible compartment but are immune to the disease for the first few months of life due to protection from maternal antibodies (passed across the placenta and additionally through colostrum). This is called passive immunity. This added detail can be shown by including an M class (for maternally derived immunity) at the beginning of the model.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: To indicate this mathematically, an additional compartment is added, "M"("t")"." This results in the following differential equations:


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: Some people who have had an infectious disease such as tuberculosis never completely recover and continue to carry the infection, whilst not suffering the disease themselves. They may then move back into the infectious compartment and suffer symptoms (as in tuberculosis) or they may continue to infect others in their carrier state, while not suffering symptoms. The most famous example of this is probably Mary Mallon, who infected 22 people with typhoid fever. The carrier compartment is labelled C.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: For many important infections, there is a significant latency period during which individuals have been infected but are not yet infectious themselves. During this period the individual is in compartment "E" (for exposed).


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: Assuming that the latency period is a random variable with exponential distribution with parameter formula_123 (i.e. the average latency period is formula_184), and also assuming the presence of vital dynamics with birth rate formula_97 equal to death rate formula_186 (so that the total number formula_187 is constant), we have the model:


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: We have formula_189 but this is only constant because of the simplifying assumption that birth and death rates are equal; in general formula_5 is a variable.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: Similarly to the SIR model, also, in this case, we have a Disease-Free-Equilibrium ("N",0,0,0) and an Endemic Equilibrium EE, and one can show that, independently from biologically meaningful initial conditions


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: In case of periodically varying contact rate formula_195 the condition for the global attractiveness of DFE is that the following linear system with periodic coefficients:


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: In this model an infection does not leave any immunity thus individuals that have recovered return to being susceptible, moving back into the "S"("t") compartment. The following differential equations describe this model:


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: For the case of a disease, with the factors of passive immunity, and a latency period there is the MSEIR model.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: An MSEIRS model is similar to the MSEIR, but the immunity in the R class would be temporary, so that individuals would regain their susceptibility when the temporary immunity ended.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: It is well known that the probability of getting a disease is not constant in time. As a pandemic progresses, reactions to the pandemic may change the contact rates which are assumed constant in the simpler models. Counter-measures such as masks, social distancing and lockdown will alter the contact rate in a way to reduce the speed of the pandemic.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: In addition, Some diseases are seasonal, such as the common cold viruses, which are more prevalent during winter. With childhood diseases, such as measles, mumps, and rubella, there is a strong correlation with the school calendar, so that during the school holidays the probability of getting such a disease dramatically decreases. As a consequence, for many classes of diseases, one should consider a force of infection with periodically ('seasonal') varying contact rate


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: (the dynamics of recovered easily follows from formula_204), i.e. a nonlinear set of differential equations with periodically varying parameters. It is well known that this class of dynamical systems may undergo very interesting and complex phenomena of nonlinear parametric resonance. It is easy to see that if:


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: whereas if the integral is greater than one the disease will not die out and there may be such resonances. For example, considering the periodically varying contact rate as the 'input' of the system one has that the output is a periodic function whose period is a multiple of the period of the input.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: This allowed to give a contribution to explain the poly-annual (typically biennial) epidemic outbreaks of some infectious diseases as interplay between the period of the contact rate oscillations and the pseudo-period of the damped oscillations near the endemic equilibrium. Remarkably, in some cases, the behavior may also be quasi-periodic or even chaotic.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: Spatiotemporal compartmental models describe not the total number, but the density of susceptible/infective/recovered persons. Consequently, they also allow to model the distribution of infected persons in space. In most cases, this is done by combining the SIR model with a diffusion equation


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: where formula_207, formula_208 and formula_209 are diffusion constants. Thereby, one obtains a reaction-diffusion equation. (Note that, for dimensional reasons, the parameter formula_72 has to be changed compared to the simple SIR model.) Early models of this type have been used to model the spread of the black death in Europe. Extensions of this model have been used to incorporate, e.g., effects of nonpharmaceutical interventions such as social distancing.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: As social contacts, disease severity and lethality, as well as the efficacy of prophylactic measures may differ substantially between interacting subpopulations, e.g., the elderly versus the young, separate SEIR models for each subgroup may be used that are mutually connected through interaction links. Such Interacting Subpopulation SEIR models have been used for modeling the COVID-19 pandemic at continent scale to develop personalized, accelerated, subpopulation-targeted vaccination strategies that promise a shortening of the pandemic and a reduction of case and death counts in the setting of limited access to vaccines during a wave of virus Variants of Concern.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: The SIR model has been studied on networks of various kinds in order to model a more realistic form of connection than the homogeneous mixing condition which is usually required. A simple model for epidemics on networks in which an individual has a probability p of being infected by each of his infected neighbors in a given time step leads to results similar to giant component formation on Erdos Renyi random graphs.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: Dynamics of epidemics depend on how people's behavior changes in time. For example, at the beginning of the epidemic, people are ignorant and careless, then, after the outbreak of epidemics and alarm, they begin to comply with the various restrictions and the spreading of epidemics may decline. Over time, some people get tired/frustrated by the restrictions and stop following them (exhaustion), especially if the number of new cases drops down. After resting for some time, they can follow the restrictions again. But during this pause the second wave can come and become even stronger than the first one. Social dynamics should be considered. The social physics models of social stress complement the classical epidemics models.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: The simplest SIR-social stress (SIR) model is organised as follows. The susceptible individuals (S) can be split in three subgroups by the types of behavior: ignorant or unaware of the epidemic (S), rationally resistant (S), and exhausted (S) that do not react on the external stimuli (this is a sort of refractory period). In other words: S(t) = S(t) + S(t) + S(t). Symbolically, the social stress model can be presented by the "reaction scheme" (where I denotes the infected individuals)


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: has different reaction rate constants formula_72 for S, S, and S. Presumably, for S, formula_72 is lower than for S and S.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: The differences between countries are concentrated in two kinetic constants: the rate of mobilization and the rate of exhaustion calculated for COVID-19 epidemic in 13 countries. These constants for this epidemic in all countries can be extracted by the fitting of the SIR model to publicly available data


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: Based on the classical SIR model, a Korteweg-de Vries (KdV)–SIR equation and its analytical solution have been proposed to illustrate the fundamental dynamics of an epidemic wave, the dependence of solutions on parameters, and the dependence of predictability horizons on various types of solutions. The KdV-SIR equation is written as follows:


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: formula_217 indicates the initial value of the state variable formula_2. Parameters formula_219(σ-naught) and formula_220 (R-naught) are the time-independent relative growth rate and basic reproduction number, respectively. formula_221presents the maximum of the state variables formula_3(for the number of infected persons). An analytical solution to the KdV-SIR equation is written as follows:


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: The SIR model can be modified to model vaccination. Typically these introduce an additional compartment to the SIR model, formula_224, for vaccinated individuals. Below are some examples.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: In presence of a communicable diseases, one of the main tasks is that of eradicating it via prevention measures and, if possible, via the establishment of a mass vaccination program. Consider a disease for which the newborn are vaccinated (with a vaccine giving lifelong immunity) at a rate formula_225:


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: the vaccination program is not successful in eradicating the disease, on the contrary, it will remain endemic, although at lower levels than the case of absence of vaccinations. This means that the mathematical model suggests that for a disease whose basic reproduction number may be as high as 18 one should vaccinate at least 94.4% of newborns in order to eradicate the disease.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: Modern societies are facing the challenge of "rational" exemption, i.e. the family's decision to not vaccinate children as a consequence of a "rational" comparison between the perceived risk from infection and that from getting damages from the vaccine. In order to assess whether this behavior is really rational, i.e. if it can equally lead to the eradication of the disease, one may simply assume that the vaccination rate is an increasing function of the number of infectious subjects:


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: i.e. the baseline vaccination rate should be greater than the "mandatory vaccination" threshold, which, in case of exemption, cannot hold. Thus, "rational" exemption might be myopic since it is based only on the current low incidence due to high vaccine coverage, instead taking into account future resurgence of infection due to coverage decline.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: In case there also are vaccinations of non newborns at a rate ρ the equation for the susceptible and vaccinated subject has to be modified as follows:


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: This strategy repeatedly vaccinates a defined age-cohort (such as young children or the elderly) in a susceptible population over time. Using this strategy, the block of susceptible individuals is then immediately removed, making it possible to eliminate an infectious disease, (such as measles), from the entire population. Every T time units a constant fraction p of susceptible subjects is vaccinated in a relatively short (with respect to the dynamics of the disease) time. This leads to the following impulsive differential equations for the susceptible and vaccinated subjects:


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: It is easy to see that by setting one obtains that the dynamics of the susceptible subjects is given by:


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: Age has a deep influence on the disease spread rate in a population, especially the contact rate. This rate summarizes the effectiveness of contacts between susceptible and infectious subjects. Taking into account the ages of the epidemic classes formula_241 (to limit ourselves to the susceptible-infectious-removed scheme) such that:


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: (where formula_245 is the maximum admissible age) and their dynamics is not described, as one might think, by "simple" partial differential equations, but by integro-differential equations:


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: is the force of infection, which, of course, will depend, though the contact kernel formula_250 on the interactions between the ages.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: Complexity is added by the initial conditions for newborns (i.e. for a=0), that are straightforward for infectious and removed:


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: In the simplest case of equal fertilities in the three epidemic classes, we have that in order to have demographic equilibrium the following necessary and sufficient condition linking the fertility formula_256 with the mortality formula_257 must hold:


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: A basic reproduction number can be calculated as the spectral radius of an appropriate functional operator.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: In the case of some diseases such as AIDS and Hepatitis B, it is possible for the offspring of infected parents to be born infected. This transmission of the disease down from the mother is called Vertical Transmission. The influx of additional members into the infected category can be considered within the model by including a fraction of the newborn members in the infected compartment.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: Diseases transmitted from human to human indirectly, i.e. malaria spread by way of mosquitoes, are transmitted through a vector. In these cases, the infection transfers from human to insect and an epidemic model must include both species, generally requiring many more compartments than a model for direct transmission.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: Other occurrences which may need to be considered when modeling an epidemic include things such as the following:


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: It is important to stress that the deterministic models presented here are valid only in case of sufficiently large populations, and as such should be used cautiously.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: To be more precise, these models are only valid in the thermodynamic limit, where the population is effectively infinite. In stochastic models, the long-time endemic equilibrium derived above, does not hold, as there is a finite probability that the number of infected individuals drops below one in a system. In a true system then, the pathogen may not propagate, as no host will be infected. But, in deterministic mean-field models, the number of infected can take on real, namely, non-integer values of infected hosts, and the number of hosts in the model can be less than one, but more than zero, thereby allowing the pathogen in the model to propagate. The reliability of compartmental models is limited to compartmental applications.


title: Compartmental models in epidemiology

text: One of the possible extensions of mean-field models considers the spreading of epidemics on a network based on percolation theory concepts. Stochastic epidemic models have been studied on different networks and more recently applied to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Stereotypes of white Americans

text: Stereotypes of white people in the United States are generalizations about the character, behavior, or appearance of white Americans by other Americans in the United States. For stereotypes about Americans by people of other nationalities, see Stereotypes of Americans.


title: Stereotypes of white Americans

text: In general, stereotypes of white people portray upper class white Americans as WASPs and they portray lower class white Americans as "backward", "barely-educated" rednecks.


title: Stereotypes of white Americans

text: An early study of stereotypes of white people found in works of fiction which were written by African-American authors was conducted by African-American sociologist Tilman C. Cothran in 1950. The top five stereotypical qualities of whites that Cothran noted in his research were:


title: Stereotypes of white Americans

text: Other stereotypical qualities he listed were "think they know the Negro," "unfair deceitful, tricky," "think it's a white man's world" and "cowardly." In another study on stereotypes in 1951, Tilman observed that the black lower and upper classes at that time had the least favorable stereotypes about white people, and the black middle class the most favorable.


title: Stereotypes of white Americans

text: In a 1972 study, American whites were stereotyped as "materialistic and pleasure loving" when compared with Asian and African Americans. In a study among college students of different races in 1982, White Americans were described as materialistic, ambitious, intelligent, conventional, industrious, and conservative. The study's author noted that the white stereotype had decreased in favorability over the years while the black stereotype had increased.


title: Stereotypes of white Americans

text: White women were described as attractive, blonde, ditsy, shallow, privileged, sexually available, and appearance-focused by non-white participants in a 2013 study. The author of the paper also found that the stereotypes were consistent with media images of white women and noted the relative scarcity of research on white American stereotypes compared to research on other racial stereotypes.


title: Stereotypes of white Americans

text: In a 2018 study of children of different races, six year olds chose photos of white men as being "really smart" over photos of white women or black and brown people.


title: Stereotypes of white Americans

text: Becky and Karen have been used as terms to refer to white women who act in a clueless, condescending or entitled way. Kyle refers to a stereotype of an angry white teenage boy who consumes energy drinks, punches holes into drywall, and plays video games.


title: Stereotypes of white Americans

text: The blog Stuff White People Like, written by a white man and an Asian man, addressed early 21st century stereotypes of white hipster bohemians in a humorous way. Comedian Dave Chappelle also used humor to address the stereotype that white Americans cannot dance in a sketch in which groups of whites erupt into frenzied dancing every time they hear an electric guitar.


title: Stereotypes of white Americans

text: As the social definition of "white people" has changed over the years, studies have shown that members of different races, ethnicities, and nationalities have different stereotypes of white people. Before the 1980s, ethnic groups such as the Irish, Italians, Armenians, and Polish people were portrayed in popular media and culture in a negative fashion. Stereotypes of West Virginians and Alabamians include incest and inbreeding. Poor whites in the Appalachian region have often been stereotyped as hillbillies. White Hispanic and Latino Americans are often overlooked by the U.S. mass media and frequently, American social perceptions incorrectly give the terms "Hispanic or Latino" a racial value, usually mixed-race, such as Mestizo, while they, in turn, are overrepresented in the U.S. Hispanic mass media, are admired by it, and shape social perceptions of Hispanic and Latino Americans.


title: Ilir Meta

text: Ilir Rexhep Meta (; born 24 March 1969) is an Albanian politician. He served as President of Albania from 24 July 2017 to 24 July 2022.


title: Ilir Meta

text: Previously Meta served as Prime Minister from 1999 to 2002 and he was Speaker of the Parliament of Albania from 2013 to 2017. He also held positions as Deputy Prime Minister, Minister for Europe and Foreign Affairs and Minister of Economy, Trade, and Energy. Prior to that, he held the Chairmanship of the Parliamentary Commission of European Integration. He founded the Socialist Movement for Integration in 2004.


title: Ilir Meta

text: On 28 April 2017, Meta was elected President of Albania, receiving 87 votes from the 140 Members of Parliament. On 9 June 2021, he was formally impeached by the Albanian parliament in a 104 to 7 vote making him the first Albanian president in history to be impeached by parliament. On 16 February 2022 the Constitutional Court of Albania overturned the impeachment and ruled that the accusations against him did not violate the constitution.


title: Ilir Meta

text: Ilir Meta was born in Çepan, Skrapar. He graduated at the Faculty of Economics and Politics branch of the University of Tirana, where he also pursued his post-graduate studies.


title: Ilir Meta

text: Meta has been engaged in politics since 1990, after the fall of communism in Albania, as an active participant in the students' movement against one-party rule, which brought political pluralism in Albania. Since 1992 he has been elected Member of Parliament in all legislatures, and has been an active member of several Parliamentary Commissions. From 1996 to 1997 he was Deputy Chairman of the Foreign Affairs Commission of Parliament.


title: Ilir Meta

text: From October 1998 to October 1999, Meta was Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Coordination, as well as State Secretary for European Integration in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in March–October 1998.


title: Ilir Meta

text: In 2004, Meta left the Socialist Party of Albania (PS) and founded his own party, the Socialist Movement for Integration (LSI). From 2004 to 2006, Meta was nominated as a member of the International Commission on the Balkans, chaired by the former Prime Minister of Italy, Giuliano Amato. The Commission drafted a series of important recommendations towards the integration of the Western Balkan countries into the European Union.


title: Ilir Meta

text: Meta became Prime Minister on 29 October 1999. At age 30 he was the second-youngest prime minister in Albanian history after Zog I, who was 27 at the time of his election in 1922. Following the 2001 parliamentary election, he initially remained Prime Minister. The President of Albania, Rexhep Meidani, approved the Government of Albania on 7 September 2001. Five days afterward, the government gave a vote of confidence to Meta's Cabinet. However, the formation of the new cabinet took almost three months. On 29 January 2002, Meta announced his resignation as Prime Minister due to party infighting between the Socialist Party leader Fatos Nano and himself. Pandeli Majko was elected Prime Minister on 22 February 2002.


title: Ilir Meta

text: During this period, Albania engaged in a range of important reforms, joining the Stabilisation and Association Process with the European Union.


title: Ilir Meta

text: In the 2009 parliamentary election, the Socialist Movement for Integration (LSI) won four seats in the Parliament of Albania, with 4.8% of the total vote. The party along with PSV91 became the determining parties to form the government coalition. On 16 September 2009, the LSI allied with the Democratic Party of Albania (PD) to form the government coalition.


title: Ilir Meta

text: With the formation of the new government led by Democratic Party chairman Sali Berisha, Meta became the Deputy Prime Minister and the Minister of Foreign Affairs at the same time. He was an early and vocal campaigner for the visa-free with the Schengen Area, which was accomplished in 2010. He remains one of the most vocal campaigners and advocates of regional and European integration for all countries of the Western Balkans, as a means to further strengthen stability and peace in the region.


title: Ilir Meta

text: In 2011, Meta served as the Minister of Economy, Trade, and Energy in the center-right government of Sali Berisha, whose Democratic Party of Albania the LSI joined after the 2009 parliamentary election.


title: Ilir Meta

text: In the run-up to the eighth multi-party elections held in 2013, Meta and the Socialist Movement for Integration (LSI) left the coalition with the Democratic Party (PD) established in 2009, to transfer over to the Socialist Party (PS). The result of the elections was a victory for the Alliance for a European Albania containing with LSI led by the PS and its leader, Edi Rama. On 10 September 2013, Parliament elected Meta as Chairman of Parliament by a vote of 91 to 45.


title: Ilir Meta

text: On 28 April 2017, Meta was elected President of the Republic of Albania at the fourth ballot with 87 votes out of 140. He took office on 24 July 2017. In the ceremony, he was accompanied solely by his children, as his wife Monika Kryemadhi refused the title of First Lady because of her political engagement as leader of the party her husband founded, with their daughter, Era Meta, serving as the "de facto" First Lady.


title: Ilir Meta

text: On 26 November 2019, an earthquake struck the Durrës region of Albania, killing 51 people, injuring 3,000 others, and damaging 11,000 buildings. In January 2020, Meta met with Israel Defense Forces soldiers in Israel, and thanked them for their assistance in earthquake relief efforts, awarding the Albanian Golden Medal of the Eagle to the soldiers' unit.


title: Ilir Meta

text: As was the case with his predecessor, during his term of office his main focus has been the European integration process of Albania and global challenges affecting Albania. Meta has underscored the willingness of Albanians to strengthen its bilateral strategic partnerships with all partner countries in the areas of security and NATO.


title: Ilir Meta

text: On 9 June 2021, Meta was impeached by the Albanian parliament with 104 MP's voting for his impeachment, which was put forward by the ruling Socialist Party of Albania. Meta had previously refused to appear before the committee investigating whether he should be impeached saying he would be "ignoring any request coming from an anti-constitutional and illegal institution". On 16 February 2022 the Constitutional Court of Albania overturned the impeachment and ruled that the accusations against him did not violate the constitution. As such, Meta would continue as President until the expiration of his term on 24 July 2022.


title: Ilir Meta

text: On 11 January 2011, the TV programme Fiks Fare on Top Channel broadcast a videotape recorded by hidden camera in the Ministry of Economy containing conversations between the Economy Minister at the time Dritan Prifti and then Deputy Prime Minister Ilir Meta. The videotape starts with Meta asking Prifti to intervene in a concession tender for the hydropower plant Egnatia-Shushicë in exchange for €700,000 and 7% of the shares. It then shows Meta requesting Prifti to award the auction for the sale of crude oil to Halilaj Holding Group in exchange for €1 million.


title: Ilir Meta

text: Meta then continues by asking Prifti to hire activists from their party, the Socialist Movement for Integration (LSI) at the time now renamed Freedom Party (PL). The party was the junior government partner in the government of then Prime Minister Sali Berisha, and controlled the ministries of Economy, Foreign Affairs and Health.


title: Ilir Meta

text: Meta is overheard bragging that because he is on good terms with Chief Justice Shpresa Becaj, after having hired her daughter as a diplomat at an embassy he can influence the decision of the court. He then asks Prifti to keep the affair quiet because he is afraid the prosecutor’s office might open an investigation if it learns about it.


title: Ilir Meta

text: On 27 July 2022, the Albanian Authority for Information on Former State Security Documents (AIDSSH) forwarded to Parliament the identity of the high profile political figure referred to as “I.M.” in the initial report.


title: Ilir Meta

text: Two former commissions were established to run background checks on politicians and their ties to the communist regime awarded Meta a “purity certificate”.


title: Ilir Meta

text: Meta also denied the claims and slammed the Authority for Information on Former State Security Documents, calling it the “Manipulations Authority”.


title: Ilir Meta

text: Kronen Zeitung published an article in which Meta is accused of lobbying via a shell company, the article claims Meta paid $700,000 through a Cypriot shell company to gain access to the Inauguration of Donald Trump. On January 20, 2017, Meta shared a photo of himself and SMI leader Petrit Vasili at social media during the inauguration of Donald Trump in Capitol, Washington, D.C.


title: Ilir Meta

text: Meta claims to have been invited by the Republican Party, but according to a US court documents, "$700,000 of a lawyer (who is) close to Meta went through the off shore company Dorelita Limited. Socialist Movement for Integration signed a contract with the alleged lawyer a few weeks prior the Inauguration.


title: Ilir Meta

text: Meta is a Bektashi, and adherent to traditional Bektashian values. He is fluent in Albanian, English and Italian. He is an ardent supporter of Celtic FC, often showing his passion for the club on social media. In July 2020, he founded the first Celtic Supporters Club in Albania.


title: Ilir Meta

text: In March 2012, Meta received "Most Positive Personality for 2010 in Foreign Policy" award by International Institute "IFIMES" in Ljubljana, Slovenia. The award was presented to Meta by former President of Croatia, Stjepan Mesić, who was at the same time the Honorary President of "IFIMES".


title: Ilir Meta

text: Meta has also been honored by several cities and regions of Albania with the title “Honorary Citizen".


title: Kabhi Haan Kabhi Naa

text: Kabhi Haan Kabhi Naa () is a 1994 Hindi-language coming-of-age romantic comedy film directed by Kundan Shah, starring Shah Rukh Khan and Deepak Tijori. It also featured Suchitra Krishnamurthy (in her Hindi film debut) and Naseeruddin Shah. Produced on a budget of , the film received positive reviews grossing , equivalent to adjusted for inflation.


title: Kabhi Haan Kabhi Naa

text: At the 39th Filmfare Awards, it won 2 awards – Best Film (Critics) and Best Actor (Critics) for Khan, who also won Best Actor for "Baazigar" at the same ceremony. It is widely considered to be one of Khan's best performances, and he has said that it is his favorite film. It was premiered at the Indian Panorama section of the 24th International Film Festival of India.


title: Kabhi Haan Kabhi Naa

text: The film was remade in Telugu as "Swapnalokam" (1999). Shah Rukh Khan has bought the rights to the film under his banner, Red Chillies Entertainment. "Kabhi Haan Kabhi Naa" has also drawn comparisons to the later Hollywood film "500 Days of Summer" (2009).


title: Kabhi Haan Kabhi Naa

text: Sunil (Shah Rukh Khan) is woken up from his dream of marrying the girl he loves, Anna (Suchitra Krishnamurthy), by his sister (Sadiya Siddiqui).


title: Kabhi Haan Kabhi Naa

text: Sunil is a happy-go-lucky scamp who loves music and is not interested in studies, which bothers his father, Vinayak (Anjan Srivastav). Everyone has given up on Sunil and thinks he is good for nothing except for Father Braganza (Naseeruddin Shah) who believes Sunil is pure at heart.


title: Kabhi Haan Kabhi Naa

text: Sunil, Anna, and Chris (Deepak Tijori) are 3 members of a 6-person music band, who are looking to make it big. Anna rejoins the group after being away for a while, which makes Chris happy as he loves Anna. After Anna reenters his life, Sunil begins to try and change his ways in order to get Anna to fall in love with him.


title: Kabhi Haan Kabhi Naa

text: During a performance at a friend's wedding, Sunil notices the closeness between Anna and Chris. Devastated, he decides to create a rift between them. Sunil eventually gets caught in his own web of lies. A furious Anna slaps him and decides to never talk to him again. Sunil is thrown out of the band. However, fortune favors Sunil who saves the band from being heckled at a local club by putting on a stellar show; the entire band forgives and forgets.


title: Kabhi Haan Kabhi Naa

text: Sunil thinks he has won Anna back but finds out that Anna and Chris love each other and want to be married. Crushed to pieces, Sunil accepts he has lost in love.


title: Kabhi Haan Kabhi Naa

text: Meanwhile, Anna's father decides that Chris is worthy of marrying her. He makes his intentions known but Chris' parents have other ideas and decide Chris's marriage to their friend's daughter. Anna and her family are dejected.


title: Kabhi Haan Kabhi Naa

text: Sunil consoles Anna and the tide slowly turns in his favor. Anna's father, having realized that Sunil will love and take care of her, convinces Anna to marry Sunil. Sunil is overjoyed until he realizes Anna still loves Chris. Sunil decides to reunite the two and get them married. On their wedding day, as Chris and Anna are about to exchange rings, Chris drops his ring and it rolls out of sight. Sunil spots the ring but feigns ignorance, even as his younger sister gazes at him with a heavy heart. Eventually, Chris locates the ring and the couple gets married.


title: Kabhi Haan Kabhi Naa

text: Just after the wedding, Sunil is shown sitting on the sidewalk, dejected, and heartbroken. By happenstance, a random girl (Juhi Chawla), who is lost and is seeking directions, approaches Sunil. Sometime later, Sunil and the girl are seen walking in the moonlight and talking merrily.


title: Kabhi Haan Kabhi Naa

text: Anthony and Vasco, two criminals who are a part of the story, see Sunil with the new girl and break the fourth wall, saying that Sunil will be alright. The criminals hear the police siren and immediately scamper away as the credits roll.


title: Kabhi Haan Kabhi Naa

text: The music was composed by Jatin–Lalit, while the lyrics were penned by Majrooh Sultanpuri. The song "Sachhi Ye Kahaani Hai" derives from two songs: Boney M.'s "Rasputin" (1978), and Johnny Wakelin's "In Zaire". "Kabhi Haan Kabhi Naa" sold over 800,000 soundtrack albums in India.


title: Cox Communications

text: Cox Communications, Inc. (also known as Cox Cable and formerly Cox Broadcasting Corporation, Dimension Cable Services and Times-Mirror Cable) is an American digital cable television provider, telecommunications and home automation services. It is the third-largest cable television provider in the United States, serving approximately 6.5 million customers, including 2.9 million digital cable subscribers, 3.5 million Internet subscribers, and almost 3.2 million digital telephone subscribers, making it the seventh-largest telephone carrier in the country. Cox is headquartered at 6205 Peachtree Dunwoody Rd in Sandy Springs, Georgia, U.S., in the Atlanta metropolitan area. It is a privately-owned subsidiary of Cox Enterprises.


title: Cox Communications

text: Cox Enterprises expanded into the cable television industry in 1962 by purchasing a number of cable systems in Lewistown, Lock Haven and Tyrone (all in Pennsylvania), followed by systems in California, Oregon and Washington. The subsidiary company, Cox Broadcasting Corporation (unrelated to the Cox Media Group, which focuses on radio stations and television stations), was not officially formed until 1964, when it was established as a public company traded on the New York Stock Exchange. The company was renamed to Cox Communications in 1982. It was taken private by Cox Enterprises in 1985.


title: Cox Communications

text: In 1993, Cox began offering telecommunication services to businesses it was the first multiple system cable operator to do so. This eventually grew into Cox Business, which now represents $1 billion in annual revenue. In 1995, Cox acquired the Times-Mirror cable properties and as a result became a publicly traded company once again.


title: Cox Communications

text: In 1997, Cox became the first multiple system cable operator to offer phone services to customers following the 1996 Telecom Act. Two years later in 1999, Cox acquired the cable television assets of Media General in Fairfax County and Fredericksburg, Virginia. The following year, Cox Communications acquired Multimedia Cablevision with assets in Kansas, Oklahoma and North Carolina.


title: Cox Communications

text: In 2004, the Fairfax County Board of Supervisors found Cox Communications guilty of violating an agreement with the county which stated that all homes served by Cox within Fairfax County would be digital ready with the new fiber optic network by June 2003. When this term expired with less than 30% of the county having been completed, the Board of Supervisors decided to fine Cox $100 per day from the originally agreed completion date, until work was completed in January 2006. The Board also forbade Cox from raising rates to recover the cost of the fine for a period of 10 years from the actual completion date. The total fine was approximately $93,000. Also in 2004, Cox Communications announced plans to take the company private once again, expressing frustration in the shareholder's emphasis on short-term goals. The company was taken private for the second time in 2005.


title: Cox Communications

text: By November 1, 2005, Cox announced the sale of all of its Texas, Missouri, Mississippi and North Carolina properties, as well as some systems in Arkansas, California, Louisiana and Oklahoma to Cebridge Communications. The sale closed in 2006 and those systems were transitioned by their new owner from Cox branding to Suddenlink Communications.


title: Cox Communications

text: On May 14, 2007, Cox announced that they had sold their investment in Discovery Communications for the Travel Channel, related assets, and $1.3 billion.


title: Cox Communications

text: In 2007, DiversityInc magazine named Cox Communications #25 in its Top 50 Companies for Diversity. Cox climbed to the sixth position on Diversity Inc.'s 2008 list. Also in 2008, Cox was named #8 on the Top 10 Companies for African Americans. Two years later, on November 19, 2010, Cox began offering wireless services in Orange County, California; Omaha, Nebraska; and, in Hampton Roads, Virginia.


title: Cox Communications

text: In February 2011, Cox Communications completed its Alternative Energy Project which included two fuel cell installations at each of the company's San Diego, CA and Rancho Santa Margarita, CA headquarters. Two separate PureCell System 400 kilowatt installations will generate enough onsite power to reduce the company's dependence of the local power grid and decrease its carbon footprint.


title: Cox Communications

text: In September 2011, Cox Home Security was added to their suite of products listed on their website. This new service uses advanced technologies similar to the home security products offered by other MSOs such as Comcast.


title: Cox Communications

text: In August 2013, Cox launched a new television platform known as Contour, which features recommendations and a user profile system across multiple devices. In 2015, Cox licensed Comcast's Xfinity X1 platform (which features more extensive integration of video streaming apps, and a voice control remote); it was deployed in 2016, maintaining the Contour naming. Cox stated that at least 1 million subscribers were on the X1-based Contour as of October 2017.


title: Cox Communications

text: Cox Communications Virginia created the philanthropic Cox Charities to annually provide grants to nonprofits serving youth. The organizations must have education programs that focus on science and technology, literacy, mentoring and other areas. In the 2016-2017 program, 15 nonprofits received a total of $150,000. They were:


title: Cox Communications

text: Other state branches of Cox Communications also donate money annually through a Community Investment Grant program. The money comes from employees and goes to 501(c)(3) organizations. The organizations will differ from state to state, and year to year, but usually also have a focus on education, technology, social issues, and the arts. These programs can be found in Oklahoma (nearly $165,000 in 2017), Arkansas (nearly $100,000 in 2017), Nebraska and Iowa (nearly $90,000 in 2017), and the Southeast region, including parts of Louisiana, Florida's Gulf Coast, Central Florida and Middle Georgia.


title: Cox Communications

text: In 2004, Cox Enterprises announced its intention to purchase those shares of Cox Communications which it did not already own. A $6.6 billion tender offer was completed in December of that year, and Cox Communications has been a wholly owned subsidiary ever since. This was the second time Cox Communications was taken private by Cox Enterprises.


title: Cox Communications

text: Cox distributes standard definition and high-definition cable television programming, including Digital Cable. Cox launched Digital Cable on its Orange County system in 1997. In February 2008, Cox started to implement switched digital video (SDV) technology in some of their markets. In late 2014, Cox started notifying customers in their Connecticut market that they would be moving to an All Digital Video platform, requiring a small digital adapter (termed a "Cox Mini-Box") for televisions that were previously connected to an analog only signal.


title: Cox Communications

text: Cox offers digital video recorder service, provided using Motorola, Scientific-Atlanta, Cisco, or previously Moxi equipment depending on the local market.


title: Cox Communications

text: Cox offers video on demand service in the majority of its markets under the name "On Demand". On Demand offerings are fairly standardized, portal-based, and carry VODnets like The Ski Channel, and includes HD offerings and replays of major network series.


title: Cox Communications

text: As of 2013, Cox offers cable internet service to over 21.8 million people across 18 states, making it the 4th largest provider of cable internet service in the US (based on coverage area).


title: Cox Communications

text: Cox offers five levels of high-speed Internet in all of its markets: Starter(10 mbps download/1 mbps upload), Essential(50 mbps download/3 mbps upload), Preferred(150 mbps download/10 mbps upload), Ultimate(300/500 mbps download/10 mbps upload), and Gigablast(900 mbps download/35 mbps upload via coax and 1000 mbps download/1000 mbps upload via fiber). In certain markets they also offer two financial assist plans one being Straight Up, and the other Connect 2 Compete. Cox initially launched high-speed Internet in 1996 in its Orange County infrastructure. Cox licensed the PowerBoost technology from Comcast in 2007 and offers it on the Preferred, Premier, and Ultimate levels of service. Top service download speeds are between 15 and 300 Mbit/s.


title: Cox Communications

text: Cox High Speed Internet won the PC Magazine Readers' Choice Award for High Speed Internet in 2003, 2004, 2005, 2007, and 2011. In 2014, Cox announced they would begin offering 1 Gbit/s internet speeds under the name "G1GABLAST" in Phoenix, Las Vegas and Omaha, with plans to begin offering it in the rest of their service areas by the end of 2016. They also announced that they would double internet speeds for all customers at no cost at the same time. They began rolling out the new speeds in Phoenix in early October of the same year.


title: Cox Communications

text: In fall 2016, Cox first launched its Panoramic WiFi service in San Diego, Orange County and Santa Barbara, and it became available nationwide on June 13, 2017.


title: Cox Communications

text: Cox offers telephone service in the majority of its services areas. Various technologies, including circuit switched and hybrid VoIP systems, are used depending on service areas. Cox has won multiple J.D. Power and Associates awards for its telephone service.


title: Cox Communications

text: In 2010 Cox started offering a range of Home Automation and Security service to customers in its Tucson, Arizona market as a trial. In 2011, this product was expanded to Cox's entire Arizona market, and was rolled out to additional markets over the next couple of years; it was then renamed as Cox Homelife in all markets. In December 2014, Cox Launched Cox Homelife in Louisiana.


title: Cox Communications

text: Cox Business provides voice, data and video services for more than 260,000 small and regional businesses, including health care providers, K-12 and higher education, financial institutions and federal, state and local government organizations. According to Vertical Systems Group, Cox Business is the fourth-largest provider of business Ethernet services in the U.S.-based on customer ports and the company ranked highest among small and mid-size business data service providers in J.D. Power and Associates telecommunications studies in 2006, 2008 and 2010. In 2013, Cox Business had the third largest business-facing enterprise by revenue (of cable providers who provide business services), with $1.2 billion in revenue as of the third quarter of 2013.


title: Cox Communications

text: Cox Business is an early adopter of Voice over IP technology and, in 2007, Cox became the first cable provider in North America to deploy a fully owned and managed IP telephony service for businesses, Cox Business VoiceManager. Cox Business is expected to launch Managed IP PBX, SIP Trunking and IP Centrex services in 2011, allowing customers to more efficiently route voice traffic over Internet Protocol. Cox Business currently supports more than 800,000 business phone lines.


title: Cox Communications

text: Cox previously offered mobile phone and wireless services in four United States markets including Orange County, California, Hampton Roads, Virginia, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, and Omaha, Nebraska. Cox marketed their wireless service as 'Unbelievably Fair' due to a wireless plan it offered which returned money for unused minutes which it called "Moneyback Minutes." This allowed customers to receive up to $20 per month added back to their bill in the event that the customer had leftover minutes. Cox Wireless offered a full range of devices manufactured by Motorola, Samsung, HTC, Kyocera, and LG.


title: Cox Communications

text: Cox Wireless utilized Sprint's voice and 3G networks and also had planned to build out their own 4G LTE network.


title: Cox Communications

text: On May 24, 2011, Cox Communications announced it would decommission its plans to build a 3G wireless network, and would instead offer Sprint service to half of its current footprint and operate as a Sprint MVNO by the end of 2011.


title: Cox Communications

text: On November 15, 2011, Cox Communications announced it would halt sales of all its wireless branded products and existing Cox branded wireless operations would be decommissioned by March 30, 2012. Cox eventually also retracted its plans to offer wireless services reselling Sprint service as an MVNO.


title: Cox Communications

text: On January 1, 2000, Cox was involved in a retransmission consent dispute with News Corporation (the parent company of the Fox broadcast network, now owned by Fox Corporation), pulling four Fox owned-and-operated stations, after retransmission consent talks between News Corp. and Cox broke down, reportedly because Fox had denied permission for Cox to broadcast programming on its O&O stations unless Cox gave it two channel slots on its digital cable service. The affected stations were WJW-TV in Cleveland, Ohio (now owned by Nexstar Media Group), KTBC in Austin, Texas, KRIV in Houston, Texas, and KDFW in Dallas-Fort Worth, Texas, off its cable systems in those areas; another Fox O&O WHBQ-TV in Memphis (itself now owned by Cox Media Group) was also pulled from its Jonesboro, Arkansas, system (of the mentioned systems; only the Cleveland metropolitan area continues to be served by Cox; the Texas systems were later bought out by Time Warner Cable (now Spectrum) and Comcast; the Jonesboro system was sold to Suddenlink Communications in May 2006). The removal of those stations, which were temporarily replaced with premium service Starz! Family (which was made available to subscribers for free), blacked out Fox programming to 425,000 Cox customers. The blackout lasted six days as the two sides came to an agreement on January 6, and the Fox-owned stations were brought back to the systems. Cox gave $1 refunds of their January cable bill to roughly 90,000 subscribers in Texas and Arkansas as compensation.


title: Cox Communications

text: In a separate dispute (clumped with the above dispute by media outlets as the "Cox vs Fox" dispute) that occurred around the same time, customers in Hampton Roads, Virginia lost access to LIN TV-owned Fox affiliate WVBT (channel 43) on January 1, 2000; retransmission talks between WVBT and Cox broke down, reportedly due to a demand by WVBT to be placed somewhere between channels 2 and 14 (it had been broadcast on channel 43). Cox refused to move WVBT to a lower channel number; the channel space was filled in the interim by pay channel HBO Family. It was not until February 5 of that year that the station resumed on Cox's Hampton Roads system (remaining on channel 43), after an agreement was reached during a ten-hour arbitration session. Cox did not offer rebates to its 335,000 subscribers in Fairfax County, Virginia, and Cleveland, Ohio, who also lost their Fox stations.


title: Cox Communications

text: On January 29, 2016, seventeen Nexstar Broadcasting stations were dropped by Cox after failing to reach a new retransmission deal. The contract had expired on December 31, 2015, but the two companies allowed talks to continue until January 22, 2016. The channels were replaced by a screen which accused Nexstar of "demanding a significant fee increase". In Las Vegas, where the dispute threatened to black out Super Bowl 50 due to local CBS station KLAS-TV being affected by the dispute, Cox announced on February 3, 2016, that it would offer a free preview of the game's Spanish-language broadcaster, ESPN Deportes, over Super Bowl weekend. The next day, Cox reached a new deal with Nexstar, and the stations were restored.


title: Cox Communications

text: In 2020, Cox lowered the upstream bitrates of entire neighborhoods from 35Mb/s to 10Mb/s, because they determined that individual users within the neighborhoods had excessive usage.


title: Cox Communications

text: On December 17, 2015, Cox was held responsible for the copyright infringements of its subscribers according to a ruling from a federal jury in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia . The ISP was found guilty of willful contributory copyright infringement and ordered to pay music publisher BMG $25 million in damages. This verdict was reaffirmed by the judge on August 8, 2016. On February 14, 2017, Cox was ordered to additionally pay $8.5 million in costs. On November 7, 2016, Cox appealed to the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit and on February 1, 2018, the court overturned the $25 million verdict due to erroneous jury instructions but upheld its loss of safe harbor protections due to not having a meaningful repeat infringer policy. On August 27, 2018, before the case was scheduled to be tried for a second time, both parties agreed to a confidential settlement.


title: Cox Communications

text: On July 31, 2018, a billion dollar lawsuit was filed against Cox in the same court, before the same judge that handled the BMG case, by 53 record labels, including Sony, Universal, and Warner Brothers. On December 19, 2019, the jury ruled against Cox and awarded $1 billion to the record labels. On June 2, 2020, the judge ruled the jury's verdict is not excessive but also ruled that damages should be issued per work, not per copyright, as a single song, such as a mashup, may have multiple copyrights. However, on January 12, 2021, the court backtracked on this point because Cox did not raise it during the jury trial, and thus upheld the $1 billion verdict. The case was appealed to the Fourth Circuit on May 24, 2021. While pending, Cox filed an additional motion for relief with the district court on December 27, 2021, alleging concealed evidence that came to light in a separate lawsuit by the record labels against Charter. This motion was denied on March 23, 2022. A ruling on the appeal to the Fourth Circuit is pending.


title: Cox Communications

text: One of Cox's marketing trademarks is a fictional animated "spokesman" character named "Digital Max", used from 2005 through 2008. The phasing out of Digital Max in 2008 was followed by the introduction of the current Cox mascots, the "Digeez", little digital helpmates featured in many of Cox Communications' brand commercials.


title: Melbourne gangland killings

text: The Melbourne gangland killings were the murders of 36 underworld figures in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, between January 1998 and August 2010. The murders were retributive killings involving underworld groups. The deaths caused a power vacuum within Melbourne's criminal community, and rival factions fought for control and influence. Many of the murders remain unsolved, although detectives from the Purana Taskforce believe that Carl Williams was responsible for at least ten of them. The period culminated in the arrest of Williams, who pleaded guilty on 28 February 2007 to three of the murders.


title: Melbourne gangland killings

text: Since the confession of Williams, the ultimate source of the violence has become public knowledge. On his 29th birthday, while meeting with Jason Moran and his half brother Mark Moran on 13 October 1999 at a suburban park in Gladstone Park, Jason Moran shot Carl Williams in the stomach over a dispute about money relating to their amphetamine trade. Through the period after his run-in with the Moran family, Williams commenced a war with the aim of killing all members of the ‘Carlton Crew’.


title: Melbourne gangland killings

text: The murder of former lawyer Mario Condello on 6 February 2006 caused speculation of a possible resurgence in the killings, although this was denied by police.


title: Melbourne gangland killings

text: On 19 April 2010, Carl Williams was murdered by fellow inmate Matthew Johnson while incarcerated at Barwon Prison. Williams would have been 71 before becoming eligible for parole.


title: Melbourne gangland killings

text: The majority of underworld crime figures and major incidents can be traced back to the Painters and Dockers Union that existed on Melbourne's waterfront after the Second World War. The Union had a Mafia-like structure, and most criminal activity was centred around control of the Union, and the cut associated with the drugs (primarily heroin and cocaine) that passed through the port. The Melbourne Markets was used as a distribution point for the illegal drugs, because of its close proximity to the docks.


title: Melbourne gangland killings

text: By 1990 the local manufacture of amphetamines had increased to the point where the police described Melbourne as the "amphetamine capital of Australia". As well as drug dealing, criminals received income through protection rackets in King Street nightclubs, as well as in prostitution, illegal gambling, and armed robbery.


title: Melbourne gangland killings

text: The genesis of the underworld conflict can be traced to the 1996 arrest of John Higgs, then Australia's number one trafficker of amphetamines. Higgs was a well-connected criminal with a wide network of contacts both in the underworld and among corrupt police, and it took several years in one of the country's most expensive criminal investigations to finally convict him of drug trafficking charges. The case was controversial and included a major cache of drugs linked to Higgs and his syndicate mysteriously vanishing in the storage depots of Melbourne's drug squad, almost certainly thanks to corrupt police involvement. The downfall of Higgs and his closest associates meant younger criminals became keen to enter the drug trade and fill the vacuum left by Higgs' arrest. This included underworld figures such as Jason Moran and Carl Williams who would become key figures in the Melbourne gangland killings.


title: Melbourne gangland killings

text: The catalyst that ignited the conflict was the 1998 murders of Melbourne gangsters Alphonse Gangitano, shot dead in his own home on 16 January 1998, and Charles Hegyalji known as "Mad Charlie", murdered in front of his house on 23 November of that same year. Both Gangitano and Hegyalji had been major figures in the Melbourne underworld, and Gangitano in particular had been a close ally of Higgs. Following these two deaths many of Gangitano and Hegyalji's former associates suddenly rose to positions of importance in the underworld, and it was several of these figures, such as Vince Mannella and Dimitrios Belias, who became the next victims in Melbourne's underworld war as the fight for power escalated. The conflict was further exacerbated by the 1999 shooting of Carl Williams, who was shot in the stomach by the Moran brothers, Jason and Mark, over a drug-related debt. Williams, who survived the shooting, vowed to exterminate the Moran family and in doing so became the most infamous criminal involved in the killings, as he arranged the murders of most of the Moran family and several of their allies in the Carlton Crew.


title: Melbourne gangland killings

text: The following groups of people were connected to the murders. A number of those named below were members of more than one group at the same time.


title: Melbourne gangland killings

text: The Purana Task Force was established by Victoria Chief Commissioner of Police Christine Nixon in 2003 to investigate the Melbourne gangland killings and major drug syndicates. The taskforce enjoyed success in investigating and halting the killings, despite initially being pushed for staff. In 2008, following the halt in killings, the purview of the task force was expanded.


title: Melbourne gangland killings

text: Investigations were initially hampered by a "code of silence", with few organised crime figures willing to risk their lives to provide details to state and federal authorities but they were able to cultivate informers and protected witnesses from within the criminal community although Victoria's state police have lamented the death of gang figures who were killed before they were able to aid their investigation. The use of one of those informers, barrister Nicola Gobbo, led to multiple court cases including the High Court of Australia decision AB v CD, a Royal Commission and placing hundreds of convictions in doubt.


title: Melbourne gangland killings

text: Detective Inspector Andrew Gustke was head of the taskforce in 2016 and stated that if groups like Purana were successful then there would be a reduction in the level of general crime. At the same time it was announced that would begin investigating firearms trafficking which had caused an increase in shootings in Melbourne. Gustke also wanted international taskforces to be set up to stop drug trafficking before it reaches Australia.


title: Melbourne gangland killings

text: In 2019 it was revealed that, in 2006, Purana detectives hid from the court the fact that they paid money into the prison account of a crown witness. The Court of Appeal ruled this to be a miscarriage of justice and quashed the conviction.


title: Melbourne gangland killings

text: The Purana taskforce was closed after a 2021 review found that the taskforce had achieved what it was set up to do but it a change was required to enable detectives to respond more quickly to changing threats with a spokesperson saying that whilst "highly successful during this time, the criminal landscape has changed significantly since its inception, which is why we have recommended the operation closes". Whilst the taskforce was in operation it was responsible for the laying of charges in 15 murders with 11 convictions as well as intervening to prevent six murders. It also seized $70 million in assets information and assisted the Australian Tax Office in issuing around 1000 tax demand notices which recouped more that $15 million.


title: Melbourne gangland killings

text: Carl Williams was later charged along with Victor Brincat and Thomas Hentschel. He pleaded guilty to drug trafficking charges relating to his arrest in 2001 and in October 2004 was given a seven-year jail sentence, which he was serving in the maximum security Acacia unit of Barwon Prison at the time of his death.


title: Melbourne gangland killings

text: Thomas Hentschel turned informer and consequently, on 17 September 2004, Alfonso Traglia, Victor Brincat and Carl Williams were charged with the murders of Jason Moran and Pasquale Barbaro. In May 2005 Carl Williams was additionally charged with the murder of Mark Moran, after a former employee agreed to testify that he was Carl's driver on the day of the incident, and drove him to a location near Mark's house at the time of the murder. Zarah Garde-Wilson, the widow of Lewis Caine, is defending all of the men in their court cases.


title: Melbourne gangland killings

text: In May 2005, Keith Faure, brother Noel Faure, 50, and Evangelos Goussis, 37, all of Geelong were charged with the murder of Lewis Moran and the attempted murder of Bert Wrout. Security footage from Moran's murder showed that one of the gunmen had a tattoo identical to one of the accused. Previously Keith and Evangelos been charged with the murder of Lewis Caine. Faure and associate, Evangelos Goussis became the first convicted of murder related to the gangland killings on 3 November 2005.


title: Melbourne gangland killings

text: Known underworld figure Nicholas Ibrahim and Abraham Mokdessi was charged with the murder of Housam Zayat. During the trial in June 2005 an eyewitness to the shooting refused at the last minute to testify against Ibrahim, and was charged with contempt of court.


title: Melbourne gangland killings

text: In June 2005, Mick Gatto was found not guilty of the murder of Andrew Veniamin. During the trial, he claimed he had acted in self-defence after Veniamin pulled out a .38 calibre handgun and threatened to kill him. Gatto claims that during a struggle he was able to turn the gun around on Veniamin and fire one shot into his neck, and one shot in the eye. He also claimed that during the argument, Veniamin had implicated himself in the deaths of Dino Dibra, Paul Kallipolitis and Graham Kinniburgh.


title: Melbourne gangland killings

text: On 3 November 2005, Keith Faure and Evangelos Goussis became the first convicted with murder related to the Melbourne gangland killings. Both have appealed their conviction.


title: Melbourne gangland killings

text: On 14 July 2006, Damien Cossu was arrested at gunpoint while driving in Sydney. He was charged with the murder of Mark Mallia whose tortured body was stuffed in a wheelie bin, dumped in a stormwater drain and set alight. Cossu was also present at the murder of Nik Radev.


title: Melbourne gangland killings

text: On 28 February 2007, Carl Williams pleaded guilty to murdering Jason Moran in June 2003 and his father Lewis Moran in March 2004. He also pleaded guilty to a third murder, but the name of that victim was suppressed until recently when it was announced that it was Mark Mallia.


title: Melbourne gangland killings

text: On 6 June 2007, it was announced that Tony Mokbel had been arrested in a café in Athens. At the time of his arrest, his appearance had changed significantly from when he went missing. Wearing a brown stuff wig and having grown a beard, Mokbel was found carrying a fake Australian passport and driver's licence in the name of Stephen Papas. Mokbel was finally extradited back to Melbourne (and Barwon Prison) on 17 May 2008, from Athens via a heavily guarded, private charter plane. His flight path included refuelling in the Maldives and Port Hedland, before landing at Tullamarine. He was then flown in a police helicopter to Barwon Prison. He appeared via video link to the Melbourne Magistrates Court on 20 May 2008.


title: Melbourne gangland killings

text: On the same night Mokbel was arrested, police carried out a raid on an underworld gang calling themselves 'The Company'. Fourteen other underworld figures were arrested in Melbourne. Drugs, weapons and $790,000 in cash were seized.


title: Melbourne gangland killings

text: Purana Taskforce detectives arrested Angelo Mario Venditti for the murder of Paul Kallipoitis on 29 July 2008.


title: Melbourne gangland killings

text: On 9 March 2011, Judy Moran, the mother of slain sons, Mark and Jason Moran and also the ex-de facto partner of Lewis Moran (who was murdered in 2004) was found guilty of the murder of her brother-in-law Desmond "Tuppence" Moran. Moran claimed that she was visiting her son, Mark's grave at Fawkner cemetery at the time as the date of the murder was also the ninth anniversary of Mark's death. But the real motive for the crime was on ongoing dispute between Judy and Des over the money remaining after the murders of three family members. Judy Moran drove the shooter, Geoffery Armour and also accomplice Michael Farrugia to and from the Ascot Vale deli where Des was eventually shot and killed. It was then revealed that Armour pleaded guilty to the murder of Des Moran with Farrugia pleading guilty to manslaughter months earlier before becoming the prosecution's star witness in the case against Judy Moran in which the jury took seven days to deliberate before finally finding Moran guilty of murder. She will be eligible for parole in 2032 at the age of 88.


title: Melbourne gangland killings

text: In December 2018, it was revealed that one of the defence lawyers involved in the prosecutions had become a police informant, prompting a royal commission. The defence lawyer was known by the pseudonym Lawyer X or Informer 3838. On 1 March 2019, the Court of Appeal revealed that former defence barrister Nicola Gobbo was Lawyer X. The Royal Commission into the Management of Police Informants will examine the extent to which cases may have been affected by the conduct of Gobbo, who was registered as an informant with Victoria Police from 1 January 1995 to 13 January 2009.


title: Melbourne gangland killings

text: A drama series detailing the gangland war and the efforts made by the Purana taskforce to contain it, "Underbelly", premiered on the Australia local television Nine Network on 13 February 2008. Due to ongoing legal proceedings in Victoria, Justice Betty King prohibited the Nine Network from airing the show in Victoria and from providing access to the show via their website. An edited version commenced screening in Victoria on 14 September 2008. In 2011 the ban was lifted and the series aired in an unedited version in Victoria.


title: Melbourne gangland killings

text: The drama series Fat Tony & Co., which detailed the crimes of but specifically the manhunt to catch Tony Mokbel, made regular references to the gangland killings. It aired on the Nine Network from 23 February-6 April 2014.


title: Melbourne gangland killings

text: In 2020, the mini-series "Informer 3838" dramatised how Nicola Gobbo was a police informant through the latter stages of her career as a criminal defence barrister. It focuses on Gobbo informing on her high-profile client Carl Williams.


title: Sergei Grinkov

text: Sergei Mikhailovich Grinkov (; 4 February 1967 – 20 November 1995) was a Russian pair skater. Together with his wife Ekaterina Gordeeva, he was the 1988 and 1994 Olympic Champion and a four-time World Champion (1986, 1987, 1989, 1990).