title: Buddhist symbolism

text: The Buddha was also symbolized by a white elephant, another Indian symbol of royal power. This symbol appears in the myth of Queen Maya when the Buddha takes the form of a white elephant to enter his mother's womb. Though the characteristics that are emphasized are the animal's strength and steadfastness, these are the ones that become the symbol for the individual's mental and physical strength. The other way that the elephant is also a symbol of responsibility and earthiness. When looking at the myth in India about elephants, the way that the myth goes is that the Airavata and the flying elephants would be used as a vehicle for transportation. The elephant was said to be seen seemingly emerging from the white ocean, these animals were seen as having special powers with one being the ability to produce rain. Not only, were they considered to have the power to produce rain, in Indian society, but they were also are a symbol of good luck and prosperity, and since they were Kings would own them and even used them in wars. The white elephant can also be seen as a symbol of mental strength, the elephant would start as a gray elephant that is rampant when the mind is uncontrollable. As the individual continues to practice dharma and can tame their mind, the gray elephant now becomes a white one, which is a symbol for strong and powerful, who only destroys in the directions that are willed by the individual. The tusks are also seen as an emblem of the Seven Royal Emblems. However, Gangpati or Ganesh is known to be an elephant-faced deity which is a form of the bodhisattva of Avalokitesvara. While, the elephant is seen as a deity when in the form of Avalokitesvara, the animal has used transportation for Tathagata Aksobhya and the deity Balabadra. Like the lion, the elephant is seen as a guardian of temples and the Buddha.


title: Buddhist symbolism

text: Some of the characteristics that are emphasized about the horse are their loyalty, industriousness. and swiftness.These characteristics can be seen in the riderless horse (representing the Buddha's royal horse, Kanthaka) symbolizes the Buddha's renunciation, and can be seen in some depictions of the "Great Renunciation" scene (along with Chandaka, the Buddha's attendant holding up a royal umbrella). Meanwhile, deer represent Buddhist disciples, as the Buddha gave his first sermon at the deer park of Varanasi. In terms of Buddhism, the horse is a symbol of energy and effort when practicing dharma, along with the air or Prana that will run through the channels of the body. The "Wind Horse" is the transportation of the mind and can be ridden on. The deity that is associated with the horse is Lokesvara also known as Avalokitesvara, who also takes the form of a horse. When looking at Buddhist iconography, the horse is seen supporting the throne of Tathagatha Ratnasambhava. While they are used for support for Tathagatha Ratnasambhava, the animal is used as transportation for deities and dharma protectors, known as Mahali and the horse-faced deities, an example of this is Hayagriva.


title: Buddhist symbolism

text: The Buddha is also often called a "great nāga" in the sutras, which is a mythical serpent-like being with magical powers. However, this term is also generally indicative of the greatness and magical power of the Buddha, whose psychic power (siddhi) is greater than that of all gods (devas), nature spirits (yakkha), or nāgas. Another important nāga is Mucalinda, king of the nāgas, who is known for having protected the Buddha from storms.


title: Buddhist symbolism

text: The peacock has multiple distinctly different symbols for which it is considered in different parts of the world and religions; however, in Buddhism, the peacock is a symbol of wisdom. The way they are connected to the bodhisattvas is by the peacock's ability to eat a poisonous plant without getting affected by the plant, which correlates with the bodhisattva's path toward enlightenment. The bodhisattva's path begins with delusions, ignorance, desire, lastly hatred, which all can be translated into moha, raga, dvesa. The opening of the colorful tail of the peacock can be compared to the enlightenment of the bodhisattva. The tradition that comes with the symbol of the peacock is when the bodhisattva becomes enlightened. The bodhisattva's body is adorned with five brightly colored feathers (red, blue, green, and others) that can be seen on the body. During the ceremony, the bodhisattva eats the same poisonous plants as the peacock, as it happens, the feathers slowly change colors since, like the peacock, these individuals are not worried about the harm that may come to them. Essentially the peacock is a symbol of the change from the path of desire to the path of liberation. The deities that are associated with the peacock is Amitabha, who happens to represent desire and attachment into changes into liberation. Along with the peacock being a symbol in Buddhism, birds as a whole can be seen to be a part of the mantra said during "Wheel of Law", which has “Aum or Om Mani Padme Hung or hum rhi” as the individual symbols. When said together, the translation of the mantra is "Adoration to the jewel in the Lotus Amen". According to Tseten Namgyal. states that the symbols represented as "Om corresponding angels, Mani representing demons, Padme as men, hum as quadrupeds srhi as birds and reptiles".


title: Buddhist symbolism

text: Garuda is also known as the king of the birds. When looking at the origins of the name it comes from Gri meaning to swallow since he devours snakes. The way he is represented in iconographies, he can either be seen with the upper body of a human, that has big eyes, a beak, short blue horns, yellow hair standing on the end, a bird's claws and wings. In Hinduism, he can be represented as a human with wings. However, when looking at the symbolism of Garuda, it represents the space element and the power of the sun. Though when looking at the representation from a spiritual view, Garuda represents the spiritual energy that will devour the delusions from jealousy and hatred (represented by snakes). Since he represents the space element, this includes the openness that can be seen when he stretches his wings. Though, when looking at Buddhism specifically, he can represent the dana paramita, when the sun's rays give life to the earth. The deity that Garuda is associated with is Amoghasiddhi, which is the vehicle of the deity. Through this, he is also the vehicle form of Lokishvara Hariharihar vahana. However, he is a deity of his own, who is said to be able to cure the bites of snakes, epilepsy, and diseases caused by nagas. Garuda can be found in toranas which are the semicircular tympanum that stands above the temple doors. Along with an emerald that happens to be named Garuda stone which is said to be protection against poison. Images of the deity are on jewelry as protection against the bites of snakes.


title: Buddhist symbolism

text: During the early days in Japan, some places in the country would there were some places in the country that would allow the killing of animals in the region. However, Buddhism was transmitted to the country by China via the Korean peninsula. One of the teachings that resonated with the Japanese people was the basic laws of Buddhist ethics that had a part of the laws included the commandment to not kill which was similar to the principle of benevolence or jin, 仁. So from the 7th century onwards, the rulers would prohibit the killing of animals since the animals would be a symbol of benevolent rule for these rulers. What this meant for the animals that were kept by imperial officials included dogs, falcons, and cormorants to name a few who were used for hunting purposes were to be set free. Their offices once used for hunting were abolished later on and the personnel who worked there would be transferred. Though the longevity of these decrees did not last long, the decrees had a long-lasting effect on the norms, values, and behavior of at least the upper class of Japanese society for the next several hundred years.


title: Buddhist symbolism

text: The Indian lotus ("Nelumbo nucifera", Sanskrit: "padma") is an ancient symbol of purity, detachment and fertility, and it is used in various Indian religions. In Buddhism, the lotus is also another symbol for the Buddha and his awakening. In the Buddhist scriptures, the Buddha compares himself to a lotus (in Pali, "paduma"). Just like the lotus flower comes up from the muddy water unstained, the Buddha is said to transcend the world without stains. The Indian lotus also appears in early Buddhist sites like Sanchi and Bharhut. It is also the specific symbol of Amitabha, the Buddha of the Lotus family, as well as Avalokiteshvara (i.e. Padmapani, the "lotus holder"). In Tantric Buddhism, it is also symbolic for the vagina as well as for chakras (often visualized as lotuses).


title: Buddhist symbolism

text: Another early symbol is the triratna ("three jewels"), also called a trident ("trishula") in non-Buddhist contexts. According to Karlsson, the ancient pre-Buddhist symbol was initially seen as a "weapon against enemies or Evil." In Buddhism, this symbol later came to represent the Buddha, Dharma (teaching, eternal law), and sangha (Buddhist monastic community).


title: Buddhist symbolism

text: The Buddha throne, or empty seat/platform ("āsana", later associated with the "vajra seat", "vajrāsana") is a symbol of the Buddha. The vajra seat or awakening seat represents the place where he sat down (in Bodh Gaya) to meditate and attained awakening. It thus also represents the place of awakening ("bodhimanda") and is thus similar to the Bodhi tree in this regard. In early Buddhist art, the vajra seat may also be depicted as an empty seat (often under a tree) or a platform. However, these seats or platforms may not specifically symbolize the "vajra seat" itself and may just be an altar or a symbol of the Buddha. A vajra seat or empty seat may also be decorated with lotuses or be depicted as a giant lotus (in this case, it can be referred to as a "lotus throne").


title: Buddhist symbolism

text: The Buddha footprint ("buddhapāda") represents the Buddha. These footprints were often placed on stone slabs, and are usually decorated with some other Buddhist symbol, such as a Dharma wheel, swastika, or triratna, indicating Buddhist identity. According to Karlsson, "in the 3rd century AD as many as twelve signs can be seen on slabs from Nagarjunakonda. At that time we can found such signs as fishes, stupas, pillars, flowers, urns of plenty ("purnaghata") and mollusc shells engraved on the buddhapada slab".


title: Buddhist symbolism

text: In some early reliefs, the Buddha is represented by a royal umbrella ("chatra"). Sometimes the chatra is depicted over an empty seat or a horse, and it is sometimes held by an attendant figure like Chandaka. In other depictions, the chatra is shown over an illustration of the Buddha himself. It also represents royalty and protection, as well as honor and respect.


title: Buddhist symbolism

text: The "Indrakhila" ("Indras post") which appears in early Buddhist sites has sometimes been interpreted as a symbol for the Buddha (but it could just be a symbol of auspiciousness). This is usually "a series of formalized lotus plants one above the other, with artificial brackets in the borders from which hang jewelled garlands and necklaces of lucky talismans betokening both worldly and spiritual riches. At the top there is a trident and at the bottom a pair of footprints".


title: Buddhist symbolism

text: Another symbol which may indicate the Buddha is a "flaming pillar". This may be a reference to the Twin Miracle at Savatthi and the Buddha's magical abilities.


title: Buddhist symbolism

text: The svastika was traditionally used in India to represent good fortune. This symbol was adopted to symbolize the auspiciousness of the Buddha. The left-facing svastika is often imprinted on the chest, feet or palms of Buddha images. The swastika was also a symbol of protection from evil. The ancient swastika (which are also Chinese characters, mainly 卍 and 卐) is common in Buddhist art. It is widely used in East Asia to represent Buddhism, and Buddhist temples. Buddhist symbols like the swastika have also been used as a family emblem ("mon") by Japanese clans.


title: Buddhist symbolism

text: It also symbolizes the "endless wisdom and compassion for the Buddha," among other interpretations. The symbols are used in a variety of ways, such as greeting cards, ceremonial scarves, and in jewelry.


title: Buddhist symbolism

text: A pair of fishes (Sanskrit: "matsyayugma") represent happiness and spontaneity as well as fertility and abundance. In Tantric Buddhism, it represents the left and right subtle body channels (nadis). In China, it often represents fidelity and conjugal unity.


title: Buddhist symbolism

text: The victory banner was a military symbol of victory, and symbolizes the Buddha's victory over Mara and the defilements (an epithet for the Buddha is the "conqueror"; in Sanskrit, Jina).


title: Buddhist symbolism

text: A treasure vase, which represents inexhaustible treasure and wealth, is also an attribute of wealth deities like Jambhala, Vaishravana and Vasudhara.


title: Buddhist symbolism

text: A conch shell represents victory, the spreading the teachings of the Buddha far and wide, and the aspect of speech. It is blown on auspicious events to announce (and also invite) the deities or other living beings of the happening of the auspicious event, such as marriages (in Sri Lanka).


title: Buddhist symbolism

text: The "ever-burning lamp" ("changmingdeng") is "an oil lamp kept in the monastery that in theory was never allowed to burn out". This was used as a symbol for the Buddhist teachings and for the "mind of correct enlightenment" ("zhengjuexin").


title: Buddhist symbolism

text: Ruyi may have been used as a baton held by a speaker in a conversation (a talking stick), and later became imbued with different Buddhist meanings. The scepters exact usage is unknown, however, is depicted in ancient Chinese artwork commonly as being held by scholars. The artistic style mirrors Buddhist appreciation of natural forms. Ruyi scepters were often given as gifts.


title: Buddhist symbolism

text: Wooden fish symbolized vigilance. In practice is a percussion instrument, known most commonly to the Western World as a Chinese temple block. It is symbolic of wakeful attention, as the eyes of a fish never close. The sound from the drum is believed to call the attention of divinity, and can also be associated with prayers for rain, the act of reincarnation, and wealth. In Buddhist services, the drum is struck persistently whilst the name of Buddha is chanted.


title: Buddhist symbolism

text: The ring staff is traditionally said to be useful in alerting nearby animals as well as alerting Buddhist donors of the monk's presence (and thus is a symbol of the Buddhist monk).


title: Buddhist symbolism

text: The number 108 is very sacred in Buddhism. It represents 108 kleshas of humankind to overcome in order to achieve enlightenment. In Japan, at the end of the year, a bell is chimed 108 times in Buddhist temples to finish the old year and welcome the new one. Each ring represents one of 108 earthly temptations (Bonnō) a person must overcome to achieve nirvana.


title: Buddhist symbolism

text: A vajra is a ritual weapon symbolizing the properties of a diamond (indestructibility) and a thunderbolt (irresistible force). The vajra is a male polysemic symbol that represents many things for the tantrika. The vajra is representative of upaya (skilful means) whereas its companion tool, the bell which is a female symbol, denotes prajna (wisdom). Some deities are shown holding each the vajra and bell in separate hands, symbolizing the union of the forces of compassion and wisdom, respectively.


title: Buddhist symbolism

text: In the tantric traditions of Buddhism, the vajra is a symbol for the nature of reality, or sunyata, indicating endless creativity, potency, and skillful activity.


title: Buddhist symbolism

text: An instrument symbolizing vajra is also extensively used in the rituals of the tantra. It consists of a spherical central section, with two symmetrical sets of five prongs, which arc out from lotus blooms on either side of the sphere and come to a point at two points equidistant from the centre, thus giving it the appearance of a "diamond sceptre", which is how the term is sometimes translated.


title: Buddhist symbolism

text: The vajra is made up of several parts. In the center is a sphere which represents Sunyata, the primordial nature of the universe, the underlying unity of all things. Emerging from the sphere are two eight petaled lotus flowers. One represents the phenomenal world (or in Buddhist terms Samsara), the other represents the noumenal world (Nirvana). This is one of the fundamental dichotomies which are perceived by the unenlightened.


title: Buddhist symbolism

text: Arranged equally around the mouth of the lotus are two, four, or eight creatures which are called makara. These are mythological half-fish, half-crocodile creatures made up of two or more animals, often representing the union of opposites (or a harmonisation of qualities that transcend our usual experience). From the mouths of the makara come tongues which come together in a point.


title: Buddhist symbolism

text: The five-pronged vajra (with four makara, plus a central prong) is the most commonly seen vajra. There is an elaborate system of correspondences between the five elements of the noumenal side of the vajra, and the phenomenal side. One important correspondence is between the five "poisons" with the five wisdoms. The five poisons are the mental states that obscure the original purity of a being's mind, while the five wisdoms are the five most important aspects of the enlightened mind. Each of the five wisdoms is also associated with a Buddha figure (see also Five Wisdom Buddhas).


title: Buddhist symbolism

text: The vajra is almost always paired with a ritual bell. Tibetan term for a ritual bell used in Buddhist religious practices is tribu. Priests and devotees ring bells during the rituals. Together these ritual implements represent the inseparability of wisdom and compassion in the enlightened mindstream. During meditation ringing the bell represents the sound of Buddha teaching the dharma and symbolizes the attainment of wisdom and the understanding of emptiness. During the chanting of the mantras the Bell and Vajra are used together in a variety of different ritualistic ways to represent the union of the male and female principles.


title: Buddhist symbolism

text: The hollow of the bell represents the void from which all phenomena arise, including the sound of the bell, and the clapper represents form. Together they symbolize wisdom (emptiness) and compassion (form or appearance). The sound, like all phenomena, arises, radiates forth and then dissolves back into emptiness.


title: Buddhist symbolism

text: In Zen, ensō (円相, "circular form") is a circle that is hand-drawn in one or two uninhibited brushstrokes to express a moment when the mind is free to let the body create.The ensō symbolizes absolute enlightenment, strength, elegance, the universe, and mu (the void). It is characterised by a minimalism born of Japanese aesthetics.The circle may be open or closed. In the former case, the circle is incomplete, allowing for movement and development as well as the perfection of all things. Zen practitioners relate the idea to wabi-sabi, the beauty of imperfection. When the circle is closed, it represents perfection, akin to Plato's perfect form, the reason why the circle was used for centuries in the construction of cosmological models Once the ensō is drawn, one does not change it. It evidences the character of its creator and the context of its creation in a brief, continuous period of time. Ensō exemplifies the various dimensions of the Japanese wabi-sabi perspective and aesthetic: fukinsei (asymmetry, irregularity), kanso (simplicity), koko (basic; weathered), shizen (without pretense; natural), yugen (subtly profound grace), datsuzoku (freedom), and seijaku (tranquility).


title: Buddhist symbolism

text: Mudras are a series of symbolic hand gestures in Buddhist art. There are numerous mudras with different meanings. Mudras are used represent specific moments in the life of Gautama Buddha.


title: Buddhist symbolism

text: Mahayana Buddhist art makes use of a common set of Indian "eight auspicious symbols" (Sanskrit "aṣṭamaṅgala", , Tib. "bkra-shis rtags-brgyad"). These symbols were pre-Buddhist Indian symbols which were associated with kingship and may originally have included other symbols, like the swastika, the srivasta, a throne, a drum and a flywisk (this is still part of the Newari Buddhist eight symbol list).


title: Buddhist symbolism

text: Buddha footprints often bear distinguishing marks, such as a Dharmachakra at the centre of the sole, or the group of 32, 108 or 132 auspicious signs of the Buddha, engraved or painted on the sole.


title: Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthi Parishad

text: Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthi Parishad (ABVP) () is a right-wing all India student organisation affiliated to the Hindu nationalist organization Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS).


title: Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthi Parishad

text: The ABVP, founded in 1948 with the initiative of the RSS activist Balraj Madhok, was formally registered on 9 July 1949. Its purpose when founded was to counter communist influence on university campuses. Yashwant Rao Kelkar, a lecturer in Bombay, became its main organiser in 1958. According to the ABVP website, he built the organisation into what it is now and is considered to be 'the real architect of the ABVP'.


title: Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthi Parishad

text: Various branches of the ABVP have been involved in Hindu-Muslim communal riots since 1961. However, in the 1970s, the ABVP also increasingly took on issues concerning the lower middle classes like corruption and government inertia. The ABVP played a leading role in the agitational politics of the 1970s during the JP Movement. This led to collaboration among student activists in Gujarat and Bihar. The ABVP gained significantly from such efforts after the Emergency and experienced a growth in membership.


title: Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthi Parishad

text: By 1974, the ABVP had 160,000 members across 790 campuses and had gained control over several prominent universities, including University of Delhi via student elections. By 1983, the organisation had 250,000 members and 1,100 branches. ABVP grew during the 1990s, receiving more support as a result of the Babri Masjid demolition and the economic liberalisation pursued by the P. V. Narasimharao government. It continued to grow after the United Progressive Alliance came to power in 2003, trebling in membership to 3.175 million members as of 2016. It claims to be India's largest student organisation.


title: Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthi Parishad

text: The ABVP spokesmen insist that the ABVP is not affiliated to the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP). They describe it the "student wing" of the RSS. However, both the BJP and the ABVP are members of the Sangh Parivar, the RSS's "family of (affiliated) organisations". The BJP is said to gain handsomely from the ABVP's support base and several politicians of the BJP, including the former Finance Minister Arun Jaitley, had their ideological foundation in the ABVP. Several scholars make no distinction between the RSS and the BJP, and regard the ABVP as a student wing of both of them or either of them.


title: Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthi Parishad

text: In 2017, the ABVP faced a string of losses in student body elections. They included not only Delhi's Jawaharlal Nehru University and Delhi University, but also the Allahabad University and Mahatma Gandhi Kashi Vidyapeeth in Uttar Pradesh, the Gujarat University and the Gauhati University. The loss in the Kashi Vidyapeeth was considered especially significant since it is in Varanasi, the prime minister Narendra Modi's home constituency. This is said to have caused alarm in the BJP, which set up a committee to study the issues causing the ABVP's decline.


title: Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthi Parishad

text: ABVP was able to resurge in the year 2018 by winning the key posts of president, vice-president and joint secretary of students polls of Delhi University. ABVP won all the six seats in the Hyderabad Central University students union polls after eight years.


title: Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthi Parishad

text: The ABVP's manifesto includes agendas such as educational and university reforms. It competes in student-body elections in colleges and universities. Students for Development (SFD) is an initiative by the ABVP to promote "right perspective towards the need of holistic and sustainable development" in students. The official ABVP magazine is "Rashtriya Chhatrashakti", which is published monthly in Hindi in New Delhi.


title: Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthi Parishad

text: ABVP has been accused to multiple violent incidents, including stone pelting, arson, vandalism and physical assault, on college and school campuses and elsewhere, even leading to the victims' deaths in some cases. Most notably, on 5 January 2020, according to the Jawaharlal Nehru University Students' Union, masked ABVP members attacked JNU students, smashing cars and pelted stones, while ABVP accused left wing organisations. ABVP later confessed the same on national media and in a sting operation, and the veracity of ABVP's involvement was also found out through investigative journalism which was later confirmed by Delhi Police. A total of 28 people were injured, including students and teachers.


title: Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthi Parishad

text: ABVP conducted door-to-door screening in more than 100 slums of Delhi for Covid-19 symptoms and encouraged people to register for vaccination.


title: Monolithic kernel

text: A monolithic kernel is an operating system architecture where the entire operating system is working in kernel space. The monolithic model differs from other operating system architectures (such as the microkernel architecture) in that it alone defines a high-level virtual interface over computer hardware. A set of primitives or system calls implement all operating system services such as process management, concurrency, and memory management. Device drivers can be added to the kernel as modules.


title: Monolithic kernel

text: Modular operating systems such as OS-9 and most modern monolithic operating systems such as OpenVMS, Linux, BSD, SunOS, AIX, and MULTICS can dynamically load (and unload) executable modules at runtime.


title: Monolithic kernel

text: This modularity of the operating system is at the binary (image) level and not at the architecture level. Modular monolithic operating systems are not to be confused with the architectural level of modularity inherent in server-client operating systems (and its derivatives sometimes marketed as hybrid kernel) which use microkernels and servers (not to be mistaken for modules or daemons).


title: Monolithic kernel

text: Practically speaking, dynamically loading modules is simply a more flexible way of handling the operating system image at runtime—as opposed to rebooting with a different operating system image. The modules allow easy extension of the operating systems' capabilities as required. Dynamically loadable modules incur a small overhead when compared to building the module into the operating system image.


title: Monolithic kernel

text: However, in some cases, loading modules dynamically (as-needed) helps to keep the amount of code running in kernel space to a minimum; for example, to minimize operating system footprint for embedded devices or those with limited hardware resources. Namely, an unloaded module need not be stored in scarce random access memory.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)

text: The Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ) is the first generation of the Jeep Grand Cherokee sport utility vehicle. Introduced in 1992 for the 1993 model year, development of the ZJ Grand Cherokee started under American Motors Corporation (AMC) and was continued after the company was acquired by Chrysler in 1987.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)

text: The all-new 1993 Jeep Grand Cherokee ZJ offered many new and class-exclusive features that its competitors, such as the Chevrolet S-10 Blazer and Ford Explorer, did not offer.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)

text: For example, all Jeep Grand Cherokee ZJ models featured a standard front driver's-side SRS airbag in the steering wheel. The Limited model offered a digital climate control system. All models offered a digital Electronic Vehicle Information Center (EVIC) that monitored critical vehicle systems and provided audible and visual feedback when a fault was detected (doors, hood, tailgate, engine coolant level, engine oil level, and front and rear lighting systems were some of the systems monitored by the EVIC). In addition to monitoring vehicle status, the EVIC could also display current date and time information and vehicle service interval reminders, and could be set via buttons on the EVIC screen. An overhead console provided a mini trip computer with current direction of travel and exterior temperature information in Celsius or Fahrenheit, as well as elapsed time, mileage remaining until the fuel tank is empty, and trip mileage for two trips (Trip A and Trip B). In addition to the mini trip computer, the overhead console provided storage for a single garage door opener, and two pairs of sunglasses, and included four overhead map/reading lamps. Keyless entry allowed for easy access to the vehicle without having to insert the vehicle's key into the door lock cylinder, and could also arm or disarm the class-exclusive vehicle security system. The interior lights illuminated whenever a door was opened, and could shut off automatically along with the automatic headlamps. The ignition cylinder was located on the right side of the steering column, and was lighted so that it could be easily located during nighttime driving conditions. Finally, a premium AccuSound factory audio system by Jensen (or Infinity Gold on 1994 and newer models) and 120-watt amplifier located underneath of the rear bench seat could be paired with an in-dash CD player and five-band graphical equalizer for a high-fidelity audio experience.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)

text: A fully mechanical full-time four wheel drive system could split torque when a wheel was losing traction, and send all available traction to that wheel in order to keep moving. In addition, the system, called Quadra-Trac, could automatically detect when four wheel drive was needed, and automatically switch from rear wheel drive without input from the driver. The Grand Cherokee ZJ also offered Chrysler's 318 cubic inch (5.2 L) Magnum electronically fuel-injected V8 engine as an option, which produced and of torque for up to 5,000 lbs. of towing capacity, and was the only SUV in its class at the time to offer a V8 engine as an option.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)

text: In 1996, even more new features were added to the Jeep Grand Cherokee ZJ. The newly available Jeep Memory System utilized a button panel located on the inside of the front driver's door panel to recall driver's seat adjustment, mirror adjustments, and radio preset settings when the corresponding key was inserted into the ignition cylinder (each keyless entry remote was engraved with either a '1' or a '2' to designate which key would automatically recall these settings). Heated seats also became available for the front driver and passenger with slide switches located near the lighting controls on the driver's side. A power tilt-and-sliding sunroof was added to the options list, and remote controls for the audio system were added to the back of the steering wheel on some Grand Cherokee models. For the first time on the Grand Cherokee, buyers could choose a combination cassette and single-disc CD player instead of just either a cassette or a single-disc CD player. Dual front SRS airbags now came standard on all models, and the 5.2 L Magnum V8 engine gained 5 lb. ft. of torque, up to 285 from 280, and remained one of the most powerful SUVs in its class.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)

text: Finally, in 1998, the 5.9 L Limited model became available for the Jeep Grand Cherokee ZJ, utilizing Chrysler's 360 cubic inch (5.9 L) Magnum electronically fuel-injected V8 engine producing 245 horsepower and 345 lb. ft. of torque, which made the Grand Cherokee ZJ 5.9 L Limited the most powerful SUV in its class.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)

text: The Grand Cherokee (ZJ) was initially available in three trim levels: base, Laredo, and Limited. The base model included features such as full instrumentation, cloth interior, a standard five-speed manual transmission, and was given the "SE" name for the 1994 model year. Power windows and locks were not standard equipment on the base and SE for 1993 and 1994. The minimal difference in price resulted in low consumer demand, so the low-line model was discontinued after 1994. Standard features on all models included a driver-side airbag and four-wheel anti-lock braking system (ABS). The Laredo was the mid-scale model with standard features that included power windows, power door locks, and cruise control. Exterior features included medium-grey plastic paneling on the lower body and five-spoke aluminum wheels. The Limited was the premium model, featuring lower body paneling that was the same color as the rest of the vehicle. The Limited also had standard features such as leather seating, power sunroof, heated mirrors, heated power seats, and a remote keyless system. The "Up-Country" version was also offered between 1993 and 1997. It came with 4WD and the AMC straight-6 4.0 L engine. Package groups included: convenience, fog lamps, skid plate, lighting, luxury, power, security, and trailer towing.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)

text: When it was first introduced in April 1992 as an early 1993 model year vehicle, the Grand Cherokee had one powertrain, the AMC-derived 4.0 L Power Tech I6 engine that produced 190 horsepower. Transmission choices were a four-speed automatic transmission (early production ZJs used the AW4; the A500SE (later 42RE) replaced the AW4 during the latter half of the 1993 model year) or an Aisin AX15 manual transmission. Low sales demand for the manual transmission resulted in its discontinuation after the 1994 model year for North America, but it remained on the option list for European ZJs. The drivetrain choices included rear-wheel drive or four-wheel-drive.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)

text: The all-new, 1993 Jeep Grand Cherokee went on sale in April 1992 in Base, Laredo, and Limited trims. At launch all Grand Cherokees were powered by the 4.0 L Power Tech Inline Six-Cylinder engine, and were all four-wheel drive. Starting in early 1993, the Grand Cherokee became available with the 5.2 L Magnum V8 engine, and a Grand Wagoneer model became available with standard four-wheel drive and V8 power, as well as a plush leather-trimmed interior and faux vinyl woodgrain side and tailgate paneling. The 5.2 L Magnum V8 engine was available with the Quadra-Trac four-wheel drive system, which was based around a NV249 transfer case with a viscous coupler. The Quadra-Trac system was a permanent four-wheel drive system that allowed up to 60% of power to the rear wheels and a 50–50 split when loss of rear traction occurred. It also had a low range that still utilized the viscous coupler in the 1993-1995 model years. In 1996 and beyond, the low range provided a true 50-50 lock between the front and rear axles. However, the system required little to no driver input, as it was automatically determined by the viscous coupler when more front bias was required. In addition to Quadra-Trac, a Selec-Trac Full-Time four-wheel drive system was available that was a "Shift-on-the-Fly" four-wheel drive system that had a 4-wheel drive part-time mode (50/50 lock) a 4-wheel drive full-time mode (variable front bias, much like the Quadra-Trac) and a 4 LO. The standard part-time four-wheel drive system in the Grand Cherokee was known as Command-Trac, a part-time only four-wheel drive, modes were 2 wheel drive, 4 HI and 4 LO. All three four-wheel drive systems featured a selector lever that was located next to the transmission gear selector or shifter. Two Wheel Drive Grand Cherokees featured a small storage area in place of the four-wheel drive selector lever.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)

text: In late 1992/early 1993 calendar year, Chrysler made some minor changes to the 1993 model year Grand Cherokee. The changes are shown in "The New Jeep", a brochure on the 1993 Jeep Grand Cherokee published in 1992. The crimson-colored interior option for the vinyl and cloth seats was no longer available, and the Limited model now had the option of quilted Highland-grain leather seats. The 5.2 L High-Output Magnum Engine V8 producing 220 horsepower was added in early 1993. The only transmission choice was a 46RH, four-speed automatic transmission. The top-of-the-line Grand Wagoneer trim was also shown in the brochure, and became available in early 1993. The radio face was changed for the AM/FM cassette player in early 1993, with raised buttons and rounded knobs, as well as larger green display text to match the rest of the Grand Cherokee's interior. The radio also introduced Dolby noise reduction technology for the cassette player. Full-faced steel wheels replaced the six-spoke version on the Base/SE model.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)

text: For 1994, the upgraded Jensen Electronics AccuSound premium amplified audio system was rebranded Infinity Gold, with upgraded components. An AM/FM stereo with in-dash CD player became available for the first time. Mid-level Laredo models gained standard fifteen-inch sport aluminum-alloy wheels. The Grand Wagoneer model was dropped for 1994, while the Base trim level is renamed the SE. The Aisin AW4 four-speed automatic transmission was replaced for 1994, becoming the Chrysler-built 42RE.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)

text: In 1995, the performance of the V8 engine was upgraded to from 285. The AMC 4.0 L straight-6 engine, rated to tow , was also refined with more torque and quieter operation.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)

text: An uplevel Orvis Edition model of the Grand Cherokee was introduced in partnership with Orvis catalog, adding features to the uplevel Limited model such as perforated tan and Moss Green leather-trimmed seating surfaces and front and rear door panels, an AM/FM stereo with in-dash CD player as an option, and unique exterior trim and fifteen-inch aluminum-alloy wheels with green inserts to the Limited trim. A flip out rear glass hatch was a new option for the Orvis, along with font lettering which was similar to other Chrysler products (which was phased in the following model year). The base SE trim level received more standard equipment such as power windows and door locks, Antilock Braking System (ABS), keyless entry, an AM/FM stereo with cassette player, air conditioning, and upgraded fifteen-inch styled steel wheels. The five-speed Aisin AX15 manual transmission was also no longer available for 1995.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)

text: For 1996, the Grand Cherokee received a mid-cycle restyling, with new front and rear bumpers and side cladding, a larger front grille, new aluminum-alloy wheel options, and an entirely new interior, now featuring a front passenger side airbag and revised interior fabrics. A combination AM/FM stereo with cassette and CD players became available, as well as a rear-mounted multi-disc CD changer unit. The five-speed manual transmission option was also dropped for 1995. At this time, the part-time Command-Trac four-wheel drive system was dropped, leaving the full-time Selec-Trac and computerized Quadra-Trac four-wheel drive systems as options.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)

text: A new steering wheel which featured three-spokes with integrated cruise control buttons, a new dual-note horn, and the horn buttons were deleted in favor of a single horn pad. The front seats were new as well as an upgraded interior with new door panels and interior trim panels, a glove box with more storage space, new tires and wheels, revised headlamps, fog lamps that were directly integrated into the vehicle's front bumper on some models, a new remote keyless system, as well as faux wood interior trim standard on all models. An optional rear lift glass (first introduced with the 1995 Orvis edition where production tailgates manufactured after January 3, 1995 have both provisions for both fixed and lift glass) for the Laredo and Limited were added to the options list (the fixed glass came standard). The Grand Cherokee now offered standard power windows, power door locks, rear door child locks, keyless entry, AM/FM radio with cassette player and compact disc player and four standard speakers, cloth seating surfaces, and more. The manual transmission was no longer offered after the 1994 model year Grand Cherokee sold in North America, but remained as the only transmission for European ZJs (ZG) sold in Europe with the diesel motor.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)

text: New front door designs got new side body cladding strips, and the 'Laredo' subtext on the Laredo model was moved down to the cladding. The 'Grand Cherokee' badge was relocated to the front lower doors, and was now larger (using a font style similar to other Chrysler products and initially used with the 1995 Orvis package), replacing the 1974-era American Motors font style used on Jeep vehicles. On V8-equipped Grand Cherokees, there was a new V8 badge on the rear liftgate. The 4X4 badge, on four-wheel-drive-equipped Grand Cherokees, was also changed to raised metal letters instead of the 4X4 decals offered before.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)

text: The vehicle featured an OBD II diagnostics port under the dashboard on the driver's side, required for all 1996 model year and newer vehicles, a digital odometer and trip odometer, a 120 miles per hour speedometer rating on some models, and the vehicle now included some user-programmable features such as if the headlamps and tail lamps flashed when a button was pressed on the remote keyless system, how many miles until service intervals, whether the horn sounded when a button was pressed on the remote, and more. The overhead console was somewhat redesigned for the 1996 model year to improve storage space and feature availability. In addition to the cigarette lighter port, a 12-volt power port was added for cellular telephones, coolers, computers, and other devices. The ashtray was also removed from the rear doors, replaced by a solid area. The Limited model and Orvis Edition model both got chrome interior door handles.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)

text: The 4.0 engine rating was reduced by 5 horsepower to 185 to meet EPA regulations for the 1996 model year production.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)

text: For 1997, a new trim level of Grand Cherokee, the Special Edition, was introduced, adding the Infinity Gold premium amplified audio system, an AM/FM stereo with cassette and CD players, dual power-adjustable front bucket seats, color-keyed exterior trim, and a security system to the base Laredo model. The TSi, also based on the base Laredo model, added unique sixteen-inch sport aluminum-alloy wheels, unique front and rear bumpers and side cladding, an AM/FM stereo with cassette and CD players, dual power-adjustable front bucket seats, luxury leather-trimmed seating surfaces with dual heated front bucket seats, dark gray wood interior trim, and a security system to the Laredo trim. The 5.2 L Magnum V8 engine was now available with 2-wheel-drive (Rear-Wheel-Drive). The Orvis Edition was in its last production year for 1997, available in Moss Green and a Birch Silver exterior color.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)

text: For 1998, the first-generation Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ) entered its final year of production. The Laredo and other models were carried over, and the new 5.9L Limited Edition was introduced and exclusive to this year model.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)

text: Production of the first-generation Jeep Grand Cherokee ZJ ended in mid-1998, as production of the next generation Jeep Grand Cherokee (WJ) began at Jefferson North Assembly.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)

text: Between 1996 and 1998, the export Grand Cherokee Laredo (marketed for Japan) had the optional Aspen package (source: The Story of Jeep).


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)

text: In 1998, a 5.9 L Limited model featured the 5.9 L V8 Magnum engine producing with all-wheel-drive and a four-speed automatic transmission. This engine and model was only available for the 1998 model year. This Limited model featured the 5.9 L Magnum V8 engine from the Dodge Ram 1500 pickup truck, unique forged sixteen-inch aluminum-alloy wheels, unique ruffled luxury leather-trimmed seating surfaces and front and rear door panels, an AM/FM stereo with cassette and CD players, a unique ten-speaker, 180-watt Infinity Gold premium amplified audio system, a unique mesh grille and a vented performance hood to the standard Limited model. The 5.9 also included working hood vents, upgraded alternator, and unique exhaust. The 1998 5.9 L was the then fastest production SUV, having a measured 0-60 time (by Road and Track) of 6.8 seconds—a time that would not be beat until almost ten years later, with Jeep's SRT.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)

text: In the mid-late 2000s (as they passed the 15 year mark), Japanese Domestic Market (JDM) Jeep Grand Cherokees that came in right hand drive became a popular vehicle choice for Canadian Mail Carriers since it shared the same chassis, body, suspension, and engine as the North American left hand drive version.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)

text: The Base and SE (1993-1995) were the most basic trim levels of the Grand Cherokee between 1993 and 1995. The Base was given a name, the SE, in 1994. Standard features included the 4.0L "Power-Tech" Inline Six-Cylinder (I6) engine with 5-speed manual transmission, full instrumentation, vinyl-and-cloth trimmed seating surfaces, front high-back bucket seats, a split-folding rear 60/40 bench seat, an AM/FM stereo with 4 speakers, manual roll-up windows and door locks, and fifteen-inch (15") styled steel wheels. In 1995, the SE gained standard power windows and door locks, as well as keyless entry, air conditioning, an AM/FM stereo with cassette player, warning chimes, and a 4-speed automatic transmission. The SE was dropped after 1995, and in 1996, the Laredo became the base trim level of the Grand Cherokee.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)

text: The Laredo (1993-1998) served as the midrange trim level of the Grand Cherokee between 1993 and 1995, and the base trim level of the Grand Cherokee between 1996 and 1998. It added these features to the base SE Grand Cherokee: fifteen-inch (15") alloy wheels, an AM/FM stereo with cassette player, air conditioning, warning chimes, cloth seating surfaces, keyless entry, power windows and door locks, a chrome front grille, and body-side cladding and molding. In 1996, the Laredo became the base trim level of the Grand Cherokee, and remains the base trim level to this day. In 1995, the Laredo gained a standard 4-speed automatic transmission, as the 5-speed manual transmission was dropped after 1994. Many of the features available on the luxurious Limited model could also be had on the midrange or base Laredo model.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)

text: The Special Edition (1997-1998) was slotted just above the base Laredo trim Grand Cherokee between 1997 and 1998. It added the following features to the basic Laredo trim: a premium 120-watt Infinity Gold sound system with 6 speakers, an AM/FM stereo with cassette and CD players, power front bucket seats, a security system, color-keyed body-side trim and front and rear bumpers (sourced from the Limited), a 'Special Edition' emblem on both front doors, and more.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)

text: The TSi (1997-1998) served as the "sporty" trim level of the Grand Cherokee between 1997 and 1998. Slotted above the base Laredo trim, the TSi added additional features to the basic Laredo trim that included sport alloy wheels, blue front and rear bumper and side trim accents, sport leather-trimmed and perforated seating surfaces, heated front bucket seats, an AM/FM stereo with cassette and CD players, a premium 120-watt Infinity Gold sound system with 6 speakers, and a security system.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)

text: The Limited (1993-1998) served as the "luxury" trim level of the Grand Cherokee between 1993 and 1998. It added these features to the midrange Laredo Grand Cherokee: premium leather-trimmed seating surfaces, premium low-back front bucket seats, power front seats, a premium 120-watt Infinity Gold sound system with 6 speakers, fifteen-inch (15") or sixteen-inch (16") luxury alloy wheels, a security system, 4-speed automatic transmission, an Electronic Vehicle Information Center (EVIC or VIC), carpeted floor mats, body-colored front grille, front and rear bumpers, gold-plated badging, and body-side cladding and trim, and more.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)

text: The Orvis Edition (1995-1997) was a partnership between the Orvis catalog and Jeep. Based on the Limited model, and available between 1995 and 1997, it offered two exterior color options, either Moss Green Pearl Coat or Light Driftwood Pearl Coat, an AM/FM stereo with CD player, unique beige-and-green luxury leather seating surfaces with red piping and matching door panel accents, luxury fifteen-inch (15") or sixteen-inch (16") alloy wheels with Moss Green-painted accents, a power sunroof, heated front bucket seats, unique beige-and-green carpeted floor mats with red piping, a beige-and-green leather spare tire and spare wheel cover with integrated storage pockets, and more. Jeep ended their partnership with Orvis in 1997, and thus, the Orvis Edition Grand Cherokee was discontinued after 1997.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)

text: The 5.9 L Limited (1998 only) The 5.9 Limited was a Jeep Grand Cherokee produced only for the 1998 model year, having more luxury and performance than that of the regular Limited. Chrysler manufactured nearly a quarter million Grand Cherokees in 1998. Of those, fewer than fifteen thousand were 5.9s. It housed a Magnum 5.9 L V8 engine with an output of 245 hp (183 kW) and 345 lb·ft (468 N·m) of torque, going from zero to 60 mph (100 km/h) in 7.3 seconds[6] ("Motor Trend" measured this at a slightly faster 6.8 seconds[7]), making it the quickest SUV available that year. The performance of the 1998 5.9 L V8 has been surpassed by Jeep only with the introduction of the 2006 Jeep Grand Cherokee SRT-8, which housed a 6.1 L Hemi Engine.[8] The 5.9 Jeep Grand Cherokee was named the 1998 four-wheel drive vehicle of the year by Petersen's 4-Wheel & Off-Road magazine.[6]


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)

text: The 5.9 Limited was available only in Deep Slate, Stone White, Bright Platinum. European version named 5.9 Limited LX and had two additional colors: Forest Green and Deep Amethyst.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)

text: The 5.9 Jeep Grand Cherokee included a number of improvements over the top of the line "limited" Grand Cherokee, that were unique to the 5.9. This included, in addition to the premium motor, all the options found on the limited edition, in addition to:[7]


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)

text: The Grand Wagoneer served as the most luxurious Grand Cherokee trim level for 1993, offering features in addition to the luxurious Limited features: quilted leather seating surfaces, faux vinyl wood side paneling, 'Grand Wagoneer' emblems on both upper front fenders, more wood interior trim, the deletion of the body-side cladding panels, the 5.2 L Magnum V8 engine, 4X4 only, and a chrome front grille. Meant to pay homage to the then-recently discontinued Jeep Grand Wagoneer SJ, the Grand Wagoneer was discontinued after 1993.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)

text: Four-wheel drive systems included "Command-Trac", a part-time unit offering temporary 4-wheel assistance; Command-Trac was dropped from lineup in conjunction with the SE trim in 1996. "Selec-Trac" had the option of either full-time or part-time operation; both shift-on-the-fly Command-Trac and Selec-Trac were already available for the Cherokee, and they were adapted to the Grand Cherokee. Exclusive to the Grand Cherokee was the introduction of "Quadra-Trac" system with permanent all-time four-wheel assistance. This was optional on all models. Low-range required using a manual shift lever for all three systems.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)

text: The Quadra-Link suspension design was used on both the front and rear axles. This design uses four control arms, two above the axle and two below it, to control longitudinal movement and rotation about the lateral axis (drive and braking reaction). A panhard rod, also referred to as a track bar, is used to locate the axle laterally. Two coil springs are seated on top of the axle housing as well as two gas-charged shock absorbers. The optional "Up Country" package included heavier duty German made gas charged shocks installed upside down, taller coil springs and longer bump stops; thereby increasing ride height by one inch.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)

text: Following the introduction of the all-new 1993 Grand Cherokee ZJ, Jeep introduced an "ultra-luxury" model of its all-new midsize SUV, called the Grand Wagoneer. Based on the Grand Cherokee Limited and paying tribute to the Jeep Grand Wagoneer SJ of which the Grand Cherokee ZJ replaced, the Grand Wagoneer included a standard 5.2L "Magnum" High-Output V8 engine and the new "Quadra-Trac" computerized full-time four wheel drive (4X4) system, both of which were optional on all other Grand Cherokees. Additional features on top of the Limited included exclusive faux woodgrain vinyl decals on the front fenders, doors, and rear tailgate, chrome Grand Wagoneer emblems on both front fenders, deletion of the lower textured body side cladding, unique pinstripes on the front and rear bumpers and above the woodgrain decals on both sides of the vehicle, color-keyed heated power-adjustable side mirrors, a chrome front grille, front bumper-mounted driving (fog) lamps, a color-keyed leather-wrapped tilt steering wheel with cruise control, ultra-luxury quilted leather-trimmed seating surfaces, a security system, and a full-size, matching cargo area-mounted spare tire and wheel with vinyl cover. The Grand Wagoneer was available in several different exterior color options, although all interiors were beige in color, regardless of exterior color. Options were very limited, as the Grand Wagoneer had a long list of standard equipment, although an A/M-F/M radio with graphic equalizer and single-disc CD player was available as an option (the Grand Cherokee ZJ was one of the first midsize SUV's to offer a factory-installed, in-dash CD player as an option). As there was not a large market for the Grand Cherokee ZJ-based Grand Wagoneer, it was discontinued after the 1993 model year, once again leaving the Limited as the top-of-the-line Grand Cherokee trim level.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)

text: The Orvis (1995–1997) was a Grand Cherokee Limited package that featured an exterior color scheme of Moss Green, or in 1997 the (less common) Light Driftwood, with roan red and maize side strip accents (1995). Moss Green paint accents on the road wheels (matching the moss green body color) and the special "Orvis" brand badging were the only significant exterior visual differences. In performance, the 5.2 V8 engine became standard, but was available with a 4.0 inline 6-cylinder engine. Also, some Orvis editions came with a rear liftglass (which in 1996 became a mainstream option), tow hooks, and the Up-Country suspension group. However, the interior was special. Two-tone green and tan leather seats were complemented with roan red accent piping and Orvis insignia. There was a slight difference between the 1996 and 1997 years' interior compared to each other. The 1996 had a black dash where the 1997 had a tan dash, The Orvis Edition luxury trim package was optional on the Limited version, and when equipped with all the other options was the most expensive of all the Grand Cherokee versions until 1998 when the 5.9 Limited was introduced. Jeep ended their relationship with Orvis Catalog in 1997, and the Orvis Edition was discontinued. However in Europe, the ZJ (ZG) Orvis Special Edition in RHD form now became the ultimate. Boasting all the Orvis extras, plus features such as Bonnet (Hood) vents from the 5.9, this exclusively high output 4.0 6 cylinder (195 bhp) 3:73 standard gearing car was offered in Platinum Mist Metallic with Black Leather and wood trim, complete with an Option Free list (except Tow Pack). Boasting 0-60 of 8.1, and a factory top speed of 132 mph this was arguably the best ZJ version ever, and is becoming increasingly rare and sought after.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)

text: A sporty TSi model (1997–1998) was briefly offered, with exterior features that included single color body paneling with lower indigo blue striping, a body colored grille, and TSi accents. The TSi trim level was first used on the turbocharged, intercooled version of the 1986-89 Chrysler Conquest before it transferred to Eagle and was applied to performance-oriented 1990-98 Talons and 1993-97 Visions from Jeep's sister brand. The TSi trim was applied to the Grand Cherokee to create a stronger connection between Jeep and Eagle, as Eagle sales had been in the doldrums by 1997.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)

text: The TSi could only be ordered in select colors, which included Black, Platinum, and Deep Amethyst. TSi packages came equipped with 5 spoke alloy wheels, 225/70R16 Goodyear Eagle GA tires, fog lights, Luxury group, featuring: "Highland" perforated, power, leather seats, overhead computer, and a premium sound system with steering wheel mounted controls. Contrary to popular belief, the suspension used on the TSi was the standard duty Quadra-Coil suspension used on all non-UpCountry ZJs. Both the 4.0 I6 and the 5.2 V8 were available. Quadra-Trac was standard with the TSi package for both engines, while Selec-Trac was optional with the I6. Both engine options could also be special ordered in 2 wheel drive configurations. The TSi was priced between the Laredo and the Limited and was discontinued after a two-year run.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)

text: The 5.9 Limited was produced only for the 1998 model year, having more luxury and performance than that of the regular Limited. Chrysler manufactured nearly a quarter million Grand Cherokees in 1998. Of those, fewer than fifteen thousand were 5.9s. Standard was a Magnum 5.9 L V8 engine producing and of torque and capable of accelerating from zero to in 6.8 seconds, making it the quickest SUV available that year (That time was not bested until almost ten years later, when Jeep introduced the SRT). The 5.9 Jeep Grand Cherokee was named the 1998 four-wheel drive vehicle of the year by "Petersen's 4-Wheel & Off-Road" magazine.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)

text: The 5.9 Limited was available only in Deep Slate, Stone White, and Bright Platinum. European version named 5.9 Limited LX and had two additional colors: Forest Green and Deep Amethyst.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)

text: The 5.9 Jeep Grand Cherokee included unique features. These included all the options from the Limited and the following:


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)

text: Jeep introduced several concept vehicles for its annual Easter Safari in Moab, Utah. One such vehicle was the Jeep Grand One, which was created to celebrate the 25th anniversary of the Jeep Grand Cherokee. This vehicle was based on a stock Stone White 1993 Jeep Grand Cherokee ZJ Laredo 4X4 equipped with the 5.2 L Magnum High-Output V8 engine and 46RH 4-speed automatic transmission, which the automaker purchased off of Craigslist specifically for the project. The Grand One was repainted a robin's-egg blue with a light woodgrain-style treatment underneath of the paint, paying homage to the 1993 Jeep Grand Wagoneer ZJ, and the wheelbase was stretched to accommodate new front and rear axles (however, this is only noticeable if one looks at the slightly modified rear doors that had to be modified to accommodate the longer wheelbase). Large front and rear fender flares conceal the extended wheelbase. The Grand One also receives large, off-road capable tires, custom eighteen-inch laced aluminum-alloy wheels, a slight lift, an eight-slot gloss black-finished front grille, 2017 Jeep Grand Cherokee-style 'GRAND CHEROKEE' emblems on the front doors and rear tailgate, and a new '5.2' emblem on the rear tailgate. Pinstripes on the side and rear of the body were removed, as was the textured side cladding, and the 'Jeep' emblem on the hood. Underneath the Grand One's hood, all components are stock Jeep except for a Mopar air filter and intake. Inside, the interior of the Grand One is mostly stock, except for new upholstery (the stock seats of the Grand One were re-wrapped in a modern gray leather-and-microfiber-suede with bright blue accent stitching), and a plaid headliner. Retro touches, such as the factory AM/FM radio with cassette player that has a cassette tape sticking out of the tape deck, an Audiovox car phone, and an original Nintendo Game Boy on the rear seat are eminent on the Grand One, paying tribute to the Jeep Grand Cherokee's history.


title: Hogmanay

text: Hogmanay ( , ) is the Scots word for the last day of the old year and is synonymous with the celebration of the New Year in the Scottish manner. It is normally followed by further celebration on the morning of New Year's Day (1 January) or in some cases, 2 January—a Scottish bank holiday.


title: Hogmanay

text: The origins of Hogmanay are unclear, but it may be derived from Norse and Gaelic observances of the winter solstice. Customs vary throughout Scotland, and usually include gift-giving and visiting the homes of friends and neighbours, with special attention given to the first-foot, the first guest of the new year.


title: Hogmanay

text: The etymology of the word is obscure. The earliest proposed etymology comes from the 1693 "Scotch Presbyterian Eloquence", which held that the term was a corruption of a presumed () and that this meant "holy month". The three main modern theories derive it from a French, Norse or Gaelic root.


title: Hogmanay

text: The word is first recorded in a Latin entry in 1443 in the West Riding of Yorkshire as . The first appearance in English came in 1604 in the records of Elgin, as "hagmonay". Subsequent 17th-century spellings include "Hagmena" (1677), "Hogmynae night" (1681), and "Hagmane" (1693) in an entry of the "Scotch Presbyterian Eloquence".


title: Hogmanay

text: Although "Hogmanay" is currently the predominant spelling and pronunciation, a number of variant spellings and pronunciations have been recorded, including:


title: Hogmanay

text: The term may have been introduced to Middle Scots via French. The most commonly cited explanation is a derivation from the northern French dialectal word , or variants such as , and , those being derived from 16th-century Middle French meaning either a gift given at New Year, a children's cry for such a gift, or New Year's Eve itself. The "Oxford English Dictionary" supports this theory, saying that the term is probably a borrowing of , a medieval French cry used to welcome the new year consisting of an unknown first element plus "" ("the new year").


title: Hogmanay

text: This explanation is supported by a children's tradition, observed up to the 1960s in parts of Scotland at least, of visiting houses in their locality on New Year's Eve and requesting and receiving small treats such as sweets or fruit. The second element would appear to be ('the New Year'), with sources suggesting a druidical origin of the practice overall. Compare those to Norman and the obsolete customs in Jersey of crying , and in Guernsey of asking for an , for a New Year gift (see also ). In Québec, was a door-to-door collection for the poor.


title: Hogmanay

text: Other suggestions include ("lead to the mistletoe"), ('bring to the beggars'), ('at the mistletoe the new year', or ('(the) man is born').


title: Hogmanay

text: The word may have come from the Goidelic languages. Frazer and Kelley report a Manx new-year song that begins with the line "To-night is New Year's Night, Hogunnaa" but did not record the full text in Manx. Kelley himself uses the spelling whereas other sources parse this as and give the modern Manx form as "Hob dy naa". Manx dictionaries though give (), generally glossing it as "Hallowe'en", same as many of the more Manx-specific folklore collections.


title: Hogmanay

text: In this context it is also recorded that in the south of Scotland (for example Roxburghshire), there is no , the word thus being "Hunganay", which could suggest the is intrusive.


title: Hogmanay

text: Another theory occasionally encountered is a derivation from the phrase (, "I raised the cry"), which resembles "Hogmanay" in pronunciation and was part of the rhymes traditionally recited at New Year but it is unclear if this is simply a case of folk etymology.


title: Hogmanay

text: Overall, Gaelic consistently refers to the New Year's Eve as ("the Night of the New Year") and ("the Night of the Calends").


title: Hogmanay

text: Other authors reject both the French and Goidelic theories, and instead suggest that the ultimate source both for the Norman French, Scots, and Goidelic variants of this word have a common Norse root. It is suggested that the full forms


title: Hogmanay

text: invoke the hill-men (Icelandic , compare Anglo-Saxon ) or "elves" and banishes the trolls into the sea (Norse 'into the sea'). Repp furthermore makes a link between "Trollalay/Trolla-laa" and the rhyme recorded in "Percy's Relics": "Trolle on away, trolle on awaye. Synge heave and howe rombelowe trolle on away", which he reads as a straightforward invocation of troll-banning.


title: Hogmanay

text: The roots of Hogmanay perhaps reach back to the celebration of the winter solstice among the Norse, as well as incorporating customs from the Gaelic celebration of Samhain. The Vikings celebrated Yule, which later contributed to the Twelve Days of Christmas, or the "Daft Days" as they were sometimes called in Scotland. Christmas was not celebrated as a festival and Hogmanay was the more traditional celebration in Scotland. This may have been a result of the Protestant Reformation after which Christmas was seen as "too Papist".


title: Hogmanay

text: Hogmanay was also celebrated in the far north of England, down to and including Richmond. It was traditionally known as 'Hagmena' in Northumberland, 'Hogmina' in Cumberland, and 'Hagman-ha' or 'Hagman-heigh' in the North Riding of Yorkshire.


title: Hogmanay

text: There are many customs, both national and local, associated with Hogmanay. The most widespread national custom is the practice of first-footing, which starts immediately after midnight. This involves being the first person to cross the threshold of a friend or neighbour and often involves the giving of symbolic gifts such as salt (less common today), coal, shortbread, whisky, and black bun (a rich fruit cake), intended to bring different kinds of luck to the householder. Food and drink (as the gifts) are then given to the guests. This may go on throughout the early hours of the morning and well into the next day (although modern days see people visiting houses well into the middle of January). The first-foot is supposed to set the luck for the rest of the year. Traditionally, tall, dark-haired men are preferred as the first-foot.


title: Hogmanay

text: An example of a local Hogmanay custom is the fireball swinging that takes place in Stonehaven, Aberdeenshire, in northeast Scotland. This involves local people making up "balls" of chicken wire filled with old newspaper, sticks, rags, and other dry flammable material up to a diameter of , each attached to about of wire, chain or nonflammable rope. As the Old Town House bell sounds to mark the new year, the balls are set alight and the swingers set off up the High Street from the Mercat Cross to the Cannon and back, swinging the burning balls around their heads as they go.


title: Hogmanay

text: At the end of the ceremony, any fireballs that are still burning are cast into the harbour. Many people enjoy this display, and large crowds flock to see it, with 12,000 attending the 2007/2008 event. In recent years, additional attractions have been added to entertain the crowds as they wait for midnight, such as fire poi, a pipe band, street drumming and a firework display after the last fireball is cast into the sea. The festivities are now streamed live over the Internet.


title: Hogmanay

text: In the east coast fishing communities and Dundee, first-footers once carried a decorated herring. And in Falkland in Fife, local men marched in torchlight procession to the top of the Lomond Hills as midnight approached. Bakers in St Andrews baked special cakes for their Hogmanay celebration (known as "Cake Day") and distributed them to local children.


title: Hogmanay

text: Institutions also had their own traditions. For example, amongst the Scottish regiments, officers waited on the men at special dinners while at the bells, the Old Year is piped out of barrack gates. The sentry then challenges the new escort outside the gates: "Who goes there?" The answer is "The New Year, all's well."


title: Hogmanay

text: An old custom in the Highlands is to celebrate Hogmanay with the "saining" (Scots for 'protecting, blessing') of the household and livestock. Early on New Year's morning, householders drink and then sprinkle 'magic water' from 'a dead and living ford' around the house (a 'dead and living ford' refers to a river ford that is routinely crossed by both the living and the dead). After the sprinkling of the water in every room, on the beds and all the inhabitants, the house is sealed up tight and branches of juniper are set on fire and carried throughout the house and byre. The juniper smoke is allowed to thoroughly fumigate the buildings until it causes sneezing and coughing among the inhabitants. Then all the doors and windows are flung open to let in the cold, fresh air of the new year. The woman of the house then administers 'a restorative' from the whisky bottle, and the household sits down to its New Year breakfast.


title: Hogmanay

text: The Hogmanay custom of singing "Auld Lang Syne" has become common in many countries. "Auld Lang Syne" is a Scots poem by Robert Burns, based on traditional and other earlier sources. It is now common to sing this in a circle of linked arms that are crossed over one another as the clock strikes midnight for New Year's Day, though it is only intended that participants link arms at the beginning of the final verse, before rushing in to the centre as a group.


title: Hogmanay

text: Between 1957 and 1968, a New Year's Eve television programme, "The White Heather Club", was presented to herald in the Hogmanay celebrations.


title: Hogmanay

text: The show was presented by Andy Stewart, who always began by singing "Come in, come in, it's nice to see you..." The show always ended with Stewart and the cast singing, "Haste ye Back":


title: Hogmanay

text: The performers were Jimmy Shand and band, Ian Powrie and his band, Scottish country dancers: Dixie Ingram and the Dixie Ingram Dancers, Joe Gordon Folk Four, James Urquhart, Ann & Laura Brand, Moira Anderson & Kenneth McKellar. All the male dancers and Andy Stewart wore kilts, and the female dancers wore long white dresses with tartan sashes.


title: Hogmanay

text: Following the demise of the "White Heather Club", Andy Stewart continued to feature regularly in TV Hogmanay shows until his retirement. His last appearance was in 1992.


title: Hogmanay

text: In the 1980s comedian Andy Cameron presented the "Hogmanay Show" (on STV in 1983 and 1984 and from 1985 to 1990 on BBC Scotland) while Peter Morrison presented the show "A Highland Hogmanay" on STV/Grampian, axed in 1993.


title: Hogmanay

text: For many years, a staple of New Year's Eve television programming in Scotland was the comedy sketch show "Scotch and Wry", featuring the comedian Rikki Fulton, which invariably included a hilarious monologue from him as the gloomy Reverend I.M. Jolly.


title: Hogmanay

text: Since 1993, the programmes that have been mainstays on BBC Scotland on Hogmanay have been "Hogmanay Live" and Jonathan Watson's football-themed sketch comedy show, "Only an Excuse?".


title: Hogmanay

text: The 1693 "Scotch Presbyterian Eloquence" contained one of the first mentions of the holiday in official church records. Hogmanay was treated with general disapproval. Still, in Scotland Hogmanay and New Year's Day are as important as Christmas Eve and Christmas Day.


title: Hogmanay

text: Although Christmas Day held its normal religious nature in Scotland amongst its Catholic and Episcopalian communities, the Presbyterian national church, the Church of Scotland, discouraged the celebration of Christmas for nearly 400 years; it only became a public holiday in Scotland in 1958. Conversely, 1 and 2 January are public holidays and Hogmanay still is associated with as much celebration as Christmas in Scotland.


title: Hogmanay

text: As in much of the world, the largest Scottish cities – Glasgow, Edinburgh and Aberdeen – hold all-night celebrations, as do Stirling and Inverness. The Edinburgh Hogmanay celebrations are among the largest in the world. Celebrations in Edinburgh in 1996–97 were recognised by the "Guinness Book of Records" as the world's largest New Years party, with approximately 400,000 people in attendance. Numbers were then restricted due to safety concerns.


title: Hogmanay

text: In 2003-4 most of the organised events were cancelled at short notice due to very high winds. The Stonehaven Fireballs went ahead as planned, however, with 6,000 people braving the stormy weather to watch 42 fireball swingers process along the High Street. Similarly, the 2006–07 celebrations in Edinburgh, Glasgow and Stirling were all cancelled on the day, again due to high winds and heavy rain. The Aberdeen celebration, however, went ahead, and was opened by pop music group Wet Wet Wet.


title: Hogmanay

text: Many Hogmanay festivities were cancelled in 2020–21 and 2021–22 due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Scotland.


title: Hogmanay

text: Historically, presents were given in Scotland on the first Monday of the New Year. A roast dinner would be eaten to celebrate the festival. "Handsel" was a word for gift and hence "Handsel Day". In modern Scotland this practice has died out.


title: Hogmanay

text: The period of festivities running from Christmas to Handsel Monday, including Hogmanay and Ne'erday, is known as the Daft Days.


title: Romanization

text: Romanization or romanisation, in linguistics, is the conversion of text from a different writing system to the Roman (Latin) script, or a system for doing so. Methods of romanization include transliteration, for representing written text, and transcription, for representing the spoken word, and combinations of both. Transcription methods can be subdivided into "phonemic transcription", which records the phonemes or units of semantic meaning in speech, and more strict "phonetic transcription", which records speech sounds with precision.


title: Romanization

text: There are many consistent or standardized romanization systems. They can be classified by their characteristics. A particular system’s characteristics may make it better-suited for various, sometimes contradictory applications, including document retrieval, linguistic analysis, easy readability, faithful representation of pronunciation.


title: Romanization

text: If the romanization attempts to transliterate the original script, the guiding principle is a one-to-one mapping of characters in the source language into the target script, with less emphasis on how the result sounds when pronounced according to the reader's language. For example, the Nihon-shiki romanization of Japanese allows the informed reader to reconstruct the original Japanese kana syllables with 100% accuracy, but requires additional knowledge for correct pronunciation.


title: Romanization

text: Most romanizations are intended to enable the casual reader who is unfamiliar with the original script to pronounce the source language reasonably accurately. Such romanizations follow the principle of phonemic transcription and attempt to render the significant sounds (phonemes) of the original as faithfully as possible in the target language. The popular Hepburn Romanization of Japanese is an example of a transcriptive romanization designed for English speakers.


title: Romanization

text: A phonetic conversion goes one step further and attempts to depict all phones in the source language, sacrificing legibility if necessary by using characters or conventions not found in the target script. In practice such a representation almost never tries to represent "every" possible allophone—especially those that occur naturally due to coarticulation effects—and instead limits itself to the most significant allophonic distinctions. The International Phonetic Alphabet is the most common system of phonetic transcription.


title: Romanization

text: For most language pairs, building a usable romanization involves trade-offs between the two extremes. Pure transcriptions are generally not possible, as the source language usually contains sounds and distinctions not found in the target language, but which must be shown for the romanized form to be comprehensible. Furthermore, due to diachronic and synchronic variance no written language represents any spoken language with perfect accuracy and the vocal interpretation of a script may vary by a great degree among languages. In modern times the chain of transcription is usually spoken foreign language, written foreign language, written native language, spoken (read) native language. Reducing the number of those processes, i.e. removing one or both steps of writing, usually leads to more accurate oral articulations. In general, outside a limited audience of scholars, romanizations tend to lean more towards transcription. As an example, consider the Japanese martial art 柔術: the Nihon-shiki romanization "zyûzyutu" may allow someone who knows Japanese to reconstruct the kana syllables , but most native English speakers, or rather readers, would find it easier to guess the pronunciation from the Hepburn version, "jūjutsu".


title: Romanization

text: The Arabic alphabet is used to write Arabic, Persian, Urdu, Pashto and Sindhi as well as numerous other languages in the Muslim world, particularly African and Asian languages without alphabets of their own. Romanization standards include the following:


title: Romanization

text: The Brahmic family of abugidas is used for languages of the Indian subcontinent and south-east Asia. There is a long tradition in the west to study Sanskrit and other Indic texts in Latin transliteration. Various transliteration conventions have been used for Indic scripts since the time of Sir William Jones.


title: Romanization

text: Hindustani is an Indo-Aryan language with extreme digraphia and diglossia resulting from the Hindi–Urdu controversy starting in the 1800s. Technically, Hindustani itself is recognized by neither the language community nor any governments. Two standardized registers, Standard Hindi and Standard Urdu, are recognized as official languages in India and Pakistan. However, in practice the situation is,


title: Romanization

text: The digraphia renders any work in either script largely inaccessible to users of the other script, though otherwise Hindustani is a perfectly mutually intelligible language, essentially meaning that any kind of text-based open source collaboration is impossible among devanagari and nastaʿlīq readers.


title: Romanization

text: Initiated in 2011, the Hamari Boli Initiative is a full-scale open-source language planning initiative aimed at Hindustani script, style, status & lexical reform and modernization. One of primary stated objectives of Hamari Boli is to relieve Hindustani of the crippling devanagari–nastaʿlīq digraphia by way of romanization.


title: Romanization

text: Romanization of the Sinitic languages, particularly Mandarin, has proved a very difficult problem, although the issue is further complicated by political considerations. Because of this, many romanization tables contain Chinese characters plus one or more romanizations or Zhuyin.


title: Romanization

text: Romanization (or, more generally, Roman letters) is called "rōmaji" in Japanese. The most common systems are:


title: Romanization

text: While romanization has taken various and at times seemingly unstructured forms, some sets of rules do exist:


title: Romanization

text: Thai, spoken in Thailand and some areas of Laos, Burma and China, is written with its own script, probably descended from mixture of Tai–Laotian and Old Khmer, in the Brahmic family.


title: Romanization

text: The Nuosu language, spoken in southern China, is written with its own script, the Yi script. The only existing romanisation system is YYPY (Yi Yu Pin Yin), which represents tone with letters attached to the end of syllables, as Nuosu forbids codas. It does not use diacritics, and as such due to the large phonemic inventory of Nuosu, it requires frequent use of digraphs, including for monophthong vowels.


title: Romanization

text: In English language library catalogues, bibliographies, and most academic publications, the Library of Congress transliteration method is used worldwide.


title: Romanization

text: In linguistics, scientific transliteration is used for both Cyrillic and Glagolitic alphabets. This applies to Old Church Slavonic, as well as modern Slavic languages that use these alphabets.


title: Romanization

text: A system based on scientific transliteration and was considered official in Bulgaria since the 1970s. Since the late 1990s, Bulgarian authorities have switched to the so-called Streamlined System avoiding the use of diacritics and optimized for compatibility with English. This system became mandatory for public use with a law passed in 2009. Where the old system uses <č,š,ž,št,c,j,ă>, the new system uses <ch,sh,zh,sht,ts,y,a>.


title: Romanization

text: The new Bulgarian system was endorsed for official use also by UN in 2012, and by BGN and PCGN in 2013.


title: Romanization

text: There is no single universally accepted system of writing Russian using the Latin script—in fact there are a huge number of such systems: some are adjusted for a particular target language (e.g. German or French), some are designed as a librarian's transliteration, some are prescribed for Russian travellers' passports; the transcription of some names is purely traditional.   All this has resulted in great reduplication of names.   E.g. the name of the Russian composer Tchaikovsky may also be written as "Tchaykovsky", "Tchajkovskij", "Tchaikowski", "Tschaikowski", "Czajkowski", "Čajkovskij", "Čajkovski", "Chajkovskij", "Çaykovski", "Chaykovsky", "Chaykovskiy", "Chaikovski", "Tshaikovski", "Tšaikovski", "Tsjajkovskij" etc. Systems include:


title: Romanization

text: The Latin script for Syriac was developed in the 1930s, following the state policy for minority languages of the Soviet Union, with some material published.


title: Romanization

text: The 2010 Ukrainian National system has been adopted by the UNGEGN in 2012 and by the BGN/PCGN in 2020. It is also very close to the modified (simplified) ALA-LC system, which has remained unchanged since 1941.


title: Romanization

text: The chart below shows the most common phonemic transcription romanization used for several different alphabets. While it is sufficient for many casual users, there are multiple alternatives used for each alphabet, and many exceptions. For details, consult each of the language sections above. (Hangul characters are broken down into jamo components.)


title: Iconography

text: Iconography, as a branch of art history, studies the identification, description and interpretation of the content of images: the subjects depicted, the particular compositions and details used to do so, and other elements that are distinct from artistic style. The word "iconography" comes from the Greek ("image") and ("to write" or "to draw").


title: Iconography

text: A secondary meaning (based on a non-standard translation of the Greek and Russian equivalent terms) is the production or study of the religious images, called "icons", in the Byzantine and Orthodox Christian tradition (see Icon). This usage is mostly found in works translated from languages such as Greek or Russian, with the correct term being "icon painting".


title: Iconography

text: In art history, "an iconography" may also mean a particular depiction of a subject in terms of the content of the image, such as the number of figures used, their placing and gestures. The term is also used in many academic fields other than art history, for example semiotics and media studies, and in general usage, for the content of images, the typical depiction in images of a subject, and related senses. Sometimes distinctions have been made between "iconology" and "iconography", although the definitions, and so the distinction made, varies.


title: Iconography

text: When referring to movies, genres are immediately recognizable through their iconography, motifs that become associated with a specific genre through repetition.


title: Iconography

text: Early Western writers who took special note of the content of images include Giorgio Vasari, whose "Ragionamenti", interpreting the paintings in the Palazzo Vecchio in Florence, reassuringly demonstrates that such works were difficult to understand even for well-informed contemporaries. Lesser known, though it had informed poets, painters and sculptors for over two centuries after its 1593 publication, was Cesare Ripa's emblem book "Iconologia". Gian Pietro Bellori, a 17th-century biographer of artists of his own time, describes and analyses, not always correctly, many works. Lessing's study (1796) of the classical figure Amor with an inverted torch was an early attempt to use a study of a type of image to explain the culture it originated in, rather than the other way round.


title: Iconography

text: Iconography as an academic art historical discipline developed in the nineteenth-century in the works of scholars such as Adolphe Napoleon Didron (1806–1867), Anton Heinrich Springer (1825–1891), and Émile Mâle (1862–1954) all specialists in Christian religious art, which was the main focus of study in this period, in which French scholars were especially prominent. They looked back to earlier attempts to classify and organise subjects encyclopedically like Cesare Ripa and Anne Claude Philippe de Caylus's "Recueil d'antiquités égyptiennes, étrusques, grècques, romaines et gauloises" as guides to understanding works of art, both religious and profane, in a more scientific manner than the popular aesthetic approach of the time. These early contributions paved the way for encyclopedias, manuals, and other publications useful in identifying the content of art. Mâle's "l'Art religieux du XIIIe siècle en France" (originally 1899, with revised editions) translated into English as "The Gothic Image, Religious Art in France of the Thirteenth Century" has remained continuously in print.


title: Iconography

text: In the early-twentieth century Germany, Aby Warburg (1866–1929) and his followers Fritz Saxl (1890–1948) and Erwin Panofsky (1892–1968) elaborated the practice of identification and classification of motifs in images to using iconography as a means to understanding meaning. Panofsky codified an influential approach to iconography in his 1939 "Studies in Iconology", where he defined it as "the branch of the history of art which concerns itself with the subject matter or meaning of works of art, as opposed to form," although the distinction he and other scholars drew between particular definitions of "iconography" (put simply, the identification of visual content) and "iconology" (the analysis of the meaning of that content), has not been generally accepted, though it is still used by some writers.


title: Iconography

text: In the United States, to which Panofsky immigrated in 1931, students such as Frederick Hartt, and Meyer Schapiro continued under his influence in the discipline. In an influential article of 1942, "Introduction to an "Iconography of Mediaeval Architecture"", Richard Krautheimer, a specialist on early medieval churches and another German émigré, extended iconographical analysis to architectural forms.


title: Iconography

text: The period from 1940 can be seen as one where iconography was especially prominent in art history. Whereas most iconographical scholarship remains highly dense and specialized, some analyses began to attract a much wider audience, for example Panofsky's theory (now generally out of favour with specialists) that the writing on the rear wall in the "Arnolfini Portrait" by Jan van Eyck turned the painting into the record of a marriage contract. Holbein's "The Ambassadors" has been the subject of books for a general market with new theories as to its iconography, and the best-sellers of Dan Brown include theories, disowned by most art historians, on the iconography of works by Leonardo da Vinci.


title: Iconography

text: Technological advances allowed the building-up of huge collections of photographs, with an iconographic arrangement or index, which include those of the Warburg Institute and the Index of Medieval Art (formerly Index of Christian Art) at Princeton (which has made a specialism of iconography since its early days in America). These are now being digitised and made available online, usually on a restricted basis.


title: Iconography

text: With the arrival of computing, the Iconclass system, a highly complex way of classifying the content of images, with 28,000 classification types, and 14,000 keywords, was developed in the Netherlands as a standard classification for recording collections, with the idea of assembling huge databases that will allow the retrieval of images featuring particular details, subjects or other common factors. For example, the Iconclass code "71H7131" is for the subject of "Bathsheba (alone) with David's letter", whereas "71" is the whole "Old Testament" and "71H" the "story of David". A number of collections of different types have been classified using Iconclass, notably many types of old master print, the collections of the Gemäldegalerie, Berlin and the German Marburger Index. These are available, usually on-line or on DVD. The system can also be used outside pure art history, for example on sites like Flickr.


title: Iconography

text: Religious images are used to some extent by all major religions, including both Indian and Abrahamic faiths, and often contain highly complex iconography, which reflects centuries of accumulated tradition. Secular Western iconography later drew upon these themes.


title: Iconography

text: Central to the iconography and hagiography of Indian religions are mudra or gestures with specific meanings. Other features include the aureola and halo, also found in Christian and Islamic art, and divine qualities and attributes represented by asana and ritual tools such as the dharmachakra, vajra, chhatra, sauwastika, phurba and danda. The symbolic use of colour to denote the Classical Elements or Mahabhuta and letters and bija syllables from sacred alphabetic scripts are other features. Under the influence of tantra art developed esoteric meanings, accessible only to initiates; this is an especially strong feature of Tibetan art. The art of Indian Religions esp. Hindus in its numerous sectoral divisions is governed by sacred texts called the Aagama which describes the ratio and proportion of the icon, called "taalmaana" as well as mood of the central figure in a context. For example, Narasimha an incarnation of Vishnu though considered a wrathful deity but in few contexts is depicted in pacified mood.


title: Iconography

text: Although iconic depictions of, or concentrating on, a single figure are the dominant type of Buddhist image, large stone relief or fresco narrative cycles of the "Life of the Buddha", or tales of his previous lives, are found at major sites like Sarnath, Ajanta, and Borobudor, especially in earlier periods. Conversely, in Hindu art, narrative scenes have become rather more common in recent centuries, especially in miniature paintings of the lives of Krishna and Rama.


title: Iconography

text: Christian art features Christian iconography, prominently developed in the medieval era and renaissance, and is a prominent aspect of Christian media. Aniconism was rejected within Christian theology from the outset, and the development of early Christian art and architecture occurred within the first two centuries after Jesus. Small images in the Catacombs of Rome show orans figures, portraits of Christ and some saints, and a limited number of "abbreviated representations" of biblical episodes emphasizing deliverance. From the Constantinian period monumental art borrowed motifs from Roman Imperial imagery, classical Greek and Roman religion and popular art – the motif of Christ in Majesty owes something to both Imperial portraits and depictions of Zeus. In the Late Antique period iconography began to be standardized, and to relate more closely to Biblical texts, although many gaps in the canonical Gospel narratives were plugged with matter from the apocryphal gospels. Eventually, the Church would succeed in weeding most of these out, but some remain, like the ox and ass in the Nativity of Christ.


title: Iconography

text: After the period of Byzantine iconoclasm iconographical innovation was regarded as unhealthy, if not heretical, in the Eastern Church, though it still continued at a glacial pace. More than in the West, traditional depictions were often considered to have authentic or miraculous origins, and the job of the artist was to copy them with as little deviation as possible. The Eastern church also never accepted the use of monumental high relief or free-standing sculpture, which it found too reminiscent of paganism. Most modern Eastern Orthodox icons are very close to their predecessors of a thousand years ago, though development, and some shifts in meaning, have occurred – for example, the old man wearing a fleece in conversation with Saint Joseph usually seen in Orthodox Nativities seems to have begun as one of the shepherds, or the prophet Isaiah, but is now usually understood as the "Tempter" (Satan).


title: Iconography

text: In both East and West, numerous iconic types of Christ, Mary and saints and other subjects were developed; the number of named types of icons of Mary, with or without the infant Christ, was especially large in the East, whereas Christ Pantocrator was much the commonest image of Christ. Especially important depictions of Mary include the Hodegetria and Panagia types. Traditional models evolved for narrative paintings, including large cycles covering the events of the Life of Christ, the Life of the Virgin, parts of the Old Testament, and, increasingly, the lives of popular saints. Especially in the West, a system of attributes developed for identifying individual figures of saints by a standard appearance and symbolic objects held by them; in the East they were more likely to identified by text labels.


title: Iconography

text: From the Romanesque period sculpture on churches became increasingly important in Western art, and probably partly because of the lack of Byzantine models, became the location of much iconographic innovation, along with the illuminated manuscript, which had already taken a decisively different direction from Byzantine equivalents, under the influence of Insular art and other factors. Developments in theology and devotional practice produced innovations like the subject of the Coronation of the Virgin and the Assumption, Both associated with the Franciscans, as were many other developments. Most painters remained content to copy and slightly modify the works of others, and it is clear that the clergy, by whom or for whose churches most art was commissioned, often specified what they wanted shown in great detail.


title: Iconography

text: The theory of typology, by which the meaning of most events of the Old Testament was understood as a "type" or pre-figuring of an event in the life of, or aspect of, Christ or Mary was often reflected in art, and in the later Middle Ages came to dominate the choice of Old Testament scenes in Western Christian art.


title: Iconography

text: Whereas in the Romanesque and Gothic periods the great majority of religious art was intended to convey often complex religious messages as clearly as possible, with the arrival of Early Netherlandish painting iconography became highly sophisticated, and in many cases appears to be deliberately enigmatic, even for a well-educated contemporary. The subtle layers of meaning uncovered by modern iconographical research in works of Robert Campin such as the Mérode Altarpiece, and of Jan van Eyck such as the Madonna of Chancellor Rolin and the Washington Annunciation lie in small details of what are on first viewing very conventional representations. When Italian painting developed a taste for enigma, considerably later, it most often showed in secular compositions influenced by Renaissance Neo-Platonism.


title: Iconography

text: From the 15th century religious painting gradually freed itself from the habit of following earlier compositional models, and by the 16th century ambitious artists were expected to find novel compositions for each subject, and direct borrowings from earlier artists are more often of the poses of individual figures than of whole compositions. The Reformation soon restricted most Protestant religious painting to Biblical scenes conceived along the lines of history painting, and after some decades the Catholic Council of Trent reined in somewhat the freedom of Catholic artists.


title: Iconography

text: Secular painting became far more common in the West from the Renaissance, and developed its own traditions and conventions of iconography, in history painting, which includes mythologies, portraits, genre scenes, and even landscapes, not to mention modern media and genres like photography, cinema, political cartoons, comic books and anime.