title: Mark R. Hughes

text: Mark and Suzan established the Herbalife Family Foundation (HFF) in 1994, a non-profit organization dedicated to improving vulnerable children's lives through helping charity organizations meet the nutritional needs of children at risk, and providing funds to organizations that assist victims of natural disasters.


title: Ryu Seung-ryong

text: Ryu Seung-ryong (born November 29, 1970) is a South Korean actor. Ryu began his acting career in theater, subsequently becoming one of the most versatile supporting actors in Korean film and television. In 2013, he headlined "Miracle in Cell No. 7", which became (at the time) the third highest grossing Korean film of all time, and in 2019 he starred in the comedy film "Extreme Job", which is currently the 2nd highest-grossing film of all time in South Korea. Ryu is the first Korean to star in four movies that have drawn over 10 million viewers each.


title: Ryu Seung-ryong

text: Ryu Seung-ryong made his acting debut at the age of 15 in a stage musical. After his screen debut in 2004's "Someone Special", he has since become one of the most versatile and dependable character actors in Korea. A sampling of the various roles he has played over the years: a mentally handicapped father in "Miracle in Cell No. 7", the royal adviser Heo Gyun in "Masquerade", an officer of the North Korean People's Army in "The Front Line", a hard-nosed general of the Qing Dynasty in "War of the Arrows", a ladies’ man in "All About My Wife", a gambling husband who fears his wife in "The Quiz Show Scandal", a refined gay man in "Personal Taste", a vengeful gangster in "Secret", a reporter on the trail of a story in "The Recipe", and the titular figure in "The Piper".


title: Ryu Seung-ryong

text: In 2017, Ryu was cast in the main role of Cho Hak-ju on the Netflix period zombie thriller "Kingdom" The series premiered on January 25, 2019.


title: Ryu Seung-ryong

text: In 2019, Ryu starred in the comedy film "Extreme Job" which became the 2nd highest-grossing film of all time in South Korea.


title: Ryu Seung-ryong

text: Ryu graduated with a Theatre degree from Seoul Institute of the Arts. He currently teaches at Seoul Art College's School of Acting Arts as an adjunct professor.


title: Neil Maskell

text: Neil Maskell (born 1976) is an English actor, writer and director who is known for his appearances in British crime and horror films such as "The Football Factory" and "Kill List".


title: Neil Maskell

text: Maskell was born in London. As a youth, he played football for Long Lane JFC as a full back. He first trained in acting at the Anna Scher Theatre in Islington, London, where he attended classes from the age of 11, and studied at the Miskin Theatre, Dartford at North West Kent College from 1992. He later worked as a director at the Miskin Theatre.


title: Neil Maskell

text: Maskell's film career began in 1997 with an appearance as Schmuddie in Gary Oldman's directorial debut "Nil by Mouth". His leading role in the 2011 thriller "Kill List" attracted positive reviews from critics and saw him nominated for the Best Actor award at the British Independent Film Awards.


title: Neil Maskell

text: Maskell's first television appearance was in 1991 in the ITV police drama "The Bill". Between 1992 and 2002, he made a further five appearances on the show, portraying a different character each time. He has had one-off roles in a number of other popular British serial dramas such as "Casualty", "London's Burning", "Soldier Soldier". His most regular television roles have been in the 2005 comedy series "", in the comedy sketch show "The Wrong Door", and in the 2013–2014 thriller drama action series "Utopia". Since 2015, he has been a series regular in sci-fi thriller "Humans". In 2019 Maskell played prime minister Winston Churchill in the series finale of "Peaky Blinders."


title: Neil Maskell

text: Between 2018 and 2020 he played the recurring character Winkle in the BBC One sitcom "King Gary", friend and employee of the titular character played by Tom Davis. Maskell has previously worked with Davis in "Murder in Successville" (where he played Frankie Boyle in one episode),"The Warm-Up Guy" and "The Morgana Show".


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: An amphibious vehicle (or simply amphibian), is a vehicle that is a means of transport viable on land as well as on or under water. Amphibious vehicles include amphibious bicycles, ATVs, cars, buses, trucks, railway vehicles, combat vehicles and hovercraft.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: Classic landing craft are not amphibious vehicles as they do not offer any real land transportation at all, although they are part of amphibious warfare. Ground effect vehicles, such as "ekranoplans", will likely crash on any but the flattest of landmasses so are also not considered to be amphibious vehicles.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: Apart from the distinction in sizes mentioned above, two main categories of amphibious vehicles are immediately apparent: those that travel on an air-cushion (Hovercraft) and those that do not. Amongst the latter, many designs were prompted by the desire to expand the off-road capabilities of land-vehicles to an "all-terrain" ability, in some cases not only focused on creating a transport that will work on land and water, but also on intermediates like ice, snow, mud, marsh, swamp etc. This explains why many designs use tracks in addition to or instead of wheels, and in some cases even resort to articulated body configurations or other unconventional designs such as screw-propelled vehicles which use auger-like barrels which propel a vehicle through muddy terrain with a twisting motion.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: Most land vehicles – even lightly armoured ones – can be made amphibious simply by providing them with a waterproof hull and perhaps a propeller. This is possible as a vehicle's displacement is usually greater than its weight, and thus it will float. Heavily armoured vehicles however sometimes have a density greater than water (their weight in kilograms exceeds their volume in litres) and will need additional buoyancy measures. These can take the form of inflatable floatation devices, much like the sides of a rubber dinghy, or a waterproof fabric skirt raised from the top perimeter of the vehicle, to increase its displacement.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: For propulsion in or on the water some vehicles simply make do by spinning their wheels or tracks, while others can power their way forward more effectively using (additional) screw propeller(s) or water jet(s). Most amphibians will work only as a displacement hull when in the water – only a small number of designs have the capability to raise out of the water when speed is gained, to achieve high velocity hydroplaning, skimming over the water surface like speedboats.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: Some of the earliest known amphibious vehicles were amphibious carriages, the invention of which is credited to the Neapolitan polymath Prince Raimondo di Sangro of Sansevero in July 1770 or earlier, or Samuel Bentham whose design of 1781 was built in June 1787.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: The first known self-propelled amphibious vehicle, a steam-powered wheeled dredging barge, named the "Orukter Amphibolos", was conceived and built by United States inventor Oliver Evans in 1805, although it is disputed to have successfully travelled over land or water under its own steam.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: Inventor Gail Borden, better known for condensed milk, designed and tested a sail-powered wagon in 1849. On testing, it reportedly tipped over 50 feet (15 m) from shore, from an apparent lack of ballast to counteract the force of the wind in the sail.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: In the 1870s, logging companies in eastern Canada and the northern United States developed a steam-powered amphibious tug called an "Alligator" which could cross between lakes and rivers. The most successful Alligator tugs were produced by the firm of West and Peachey in Simcoe, Ontario.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: Until the late 1920s, the efforts to unify a boat and an automobile mostly came down to simply putting wheels and axles on a boat hull, or getting a rolling chassis to float by blending a boat-like hull with the car's frame. One of the first reasonably well-documented cases was the 1905 amphibious petrol-powered carriage of T. Richmond (Jessup, Iowa, USA). Just like the world's first petrol-powered automobile (1885, Carl Benz), it was a three-wheeler. The single front wheel provided direction, both on land and in the water. A three-cylinder petrol combustion-engine powered the oversized rear wheels. In order to get the wheels to provide propulsion in the water, fins or buckets would be attached to the rear wheel spokes. Remarkably the boat-like hull was one of the first integral bodies ever used on a car.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: Since the 1920s, many diverse amphibious vehicles designs have been created for a broad range of applications, including recreation, expeditions, search & rescue, and military, leading to a myriad of concepts and variants. In some of them, the amphibious capabilities are central to their purpose, whereas in others they are only an expansion to what has remained primarily a watercraft or a land vehicle. The design that came together with all the features needed for a practical all-terrain amphibious vehicle was by Peter Prell of New Jersey. His design, unlike others, could operate not only on rivers and lakes but the sea and did not require firm ground to enter or exit the water. It combined a boat-like hull with tank-like tracks. In 1931, he tested a scaled down version of his invention.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: Recently, Gibbs Amphibians has developed a new type of amphibian, one capable of high speeds on both land and water. The vehicles use a patented hydraulic system to raise the wheels into the wheel wells, allowing the vehicles to plane on water. These vehicles can transition between land and water modes in about five seconds. The first Gibbs fast amphibian is the Quadski, introduced in October 2012. It went on sale in January 2013.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: Iguana Yachts, a French company created in 2008, has developed amphibious motorboats featuring all-terrain tracks.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: Sealegs Amphibious Craft, a three-wheeled amphibious boat designed in New Zealand, has been in production since 2005.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: In 2010, a Southern California-based company named WaterCar set the Guinness World Record for Fastest Amphibious Vehicle, with their prototype, The Python, which reached top land speeds of 204 km/h (127 mph) and water speeds of 96 km/h (60 mph; 52 knots). Since then, the company launched their first commercial vehicle, The Panther, which has been featured on ABC's "The Bachelor" as well as USA's "Royal Pains". The WaterCar can do 80 mph (129 km/h) on land, and 44 mph (38 knots; 71 km/h) on sea, and can transition from land to sea in less than 15 seconds.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: An amphibious cycle is a human-powered vehicle capable of operation on both land and water. "Saidullah's Bicycle" uses four rectangular air filled floats for buoyancy, and is propelled using two fan blades which are attached to the spokes. Moraga's "Cyclo Amphibious" uses a simple tricycle frame to support three floaters which provide both the floatation and thrust. The wings on the powered wheels propel the vehicle in a similar way to a paddle wheel.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: The SBK Engineering Shuttle-Bike consists of two inflatable floats with straps that allow the carrying of a bicycle with a passenger. The ensemble, when deflated, fits in a backpack for carrying by the cyclist.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: Gibbs Sports Amphibians Inc. introduced a motorized version of the amphibious cycle that resembles a jet ski on water and motorcycle on land. The model can reach up to 80 mph by land and 45 mph by water.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: Amongst the smallest non-air-cushioned amphibious vehicles are amphibious ATVs (all-terrain vehicles). These saw significant popularity in North America during the 1960s and early 1970s. Typically an amphibious ATV (AATV) is a small, lightweight, off-highway vehicle, constructed from an integral hard plastic or fibreglass bodytub, fitted with six (sometimes eight) driven wheels, with low pressure, balloon tires. With no suspension (other than what the tires offer) and no steering wheels, directional control is accomplished through skid-steeringjust as on a tracked vehicleeither by braking the wheels on the side in the direction of the desired turn or by applying more throttle to the wheels on the opposite side. Most contemporary designs use garden tractor type engines, that will provide roughly 25 mph (40 km/h) top speed on land.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: Constructed this way, an AATV will float with ample freeboard and is capable of traversing swamps, ponds, and streams as well as dry land. On land these units have high grip and great off-road ability, that can be further enhanced with an optional set of tracks that can be mounted directly onto the wheels. Although the spinning action of the tires is enough to propel the vehicle through the wateralbeit slowlyoutboard motors can be added for extended water use.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: In October 2013, Gibbs Amphibians introduced the long-awaited Quadski, the first amphibious vehicle capable of traveling 45 mph on land or water. The Quadski was developed using Gibbs' High-Speed Amphibian technology, which Gibbs originally developed for the Aquada, an amphibious car, which the company has still not produced because of regulatory issues.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: Amphibious automobiles have been conceived from ca. 1900; however, the Second World War significantly stimulated their development. Two of the most significant amphibious cars to date were developed during World War II. The most proliferous was the German "Schwimmwagen", a small jeep-like 4x4 vehicle designed by the Porsche engineering firm in 1942 and widely used in World War II. The amphibious bodywork was designed by Erwin Komenda, the firm's body construction designer, using the engine and drive train of the "Kübelwagen". An amphibious version of the Willys MB jeep, the Ford GPA or" 'Seep' "(short for "Sea jeep") was developed during World War II as well. A specially modified GPA, called Half-Safe, was driven and sailed around the world by Australian Ben Carlin in the 1950s.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: One of the most capable post-war amphibious off-roaders was the German Amphi-Ranger, that featured a hull made of seawater-resistant AlMg2 aluminium alloy. Extensively engineered, this costly vehicle was proven seaworthy at a Gale force 10 storm off the North Sea coast (Pohl, 1998). Only about 100 were builtthose who own one have found it capable of crossing the English Channel almost effortlessly.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: Purely recreational amphibian cars include the 1960s Amphicar and the contemporary Gibbs Aquada. With almost 4,000 pieces built, the Amphicar is still the most successfully produced civilian amphibious car to date. The Gibbs Aquada stands out due to its capability of high-speed planing on water. Gibbs built fifty Aquadas in the early 2000s after it was developed by a team assembled by founder Alan Gibbs before the company's engine supplier, Rover, was unable to continue providing engines. Gibbs and new partner Neil Jenkins reconstituted the company and are now seeking U.S. regulatory approval for the Aquada.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: The Southern California-based company, WaterCar, founded by Dave March, has also built four working amphibious prototypes, one which holds the Guinness World Record for World's Fastest Amphibious Vehicle (The Python). In 2013, March released the company's first commercial vehicle, The Panther. Since its release, WaterCar has been popular in the Middle East, selling to the Embassy of the United Arab Emirates, with six additional vehicles being sold to the Crown Prince of Dubai. The WaterCar has also been sold to tech enthusiasts and residents of Silicon Valley.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: Amfibus amphibious buses made by Dutch Amphibious Transport (DAT) in Nijmegen, Netherlands are used to operate tours of Amsterdam, Rotterdam and Lübeck, under the "Splashtours" brand. The buses have a Volvo chassis and carry 43 passengers. The operation started in 2010 in Katendrecht, Rotterdam, was copied in Amsterdam in 2011 but suspended in 2012 after technical problems, and then relaunched in 2019. A tour of Lübeck was launched in 2014. In 2010 it was tested as a replacement for the ferry at Renfrew, Scotland, but not adopted. A similar service, using different vehicles, operates in Porto.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: Some amphibious vehicles, rather than being designed for land transport with the ability to cross water, are designed as water-transport vehicles with the ability to travel on land. The distinction is that the vehicles are designed to be high performing on water, with the land transport ability added to give additional functionality, rather than being the main function. Sealegs Amphibious Craft are an example of this, which are a range of aluminium fabricated boats (mostly RIBs) designed and manufactured in Auckland, New Zealand. These craft can travel up to 39 knots on water, but travel at only 7.5 km/hr on land, showing the preference for water performance in design. Various versions of this type of amphibious boat design have been produced, including the Iguana Yacht (covered in the "Tracked" section below).


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: Since 1977, several boat builders in Brittany have built specialized amphibious vehicles for use in the area's mussel and oyster farming occupations. The boats are made of aluminium, are relatively flat-bottomed, and have three, four, or six wheels, depending on the size of the boat. When the tide is out the boats can run on the tidal flats using their wheels. When the tide is in, they use a propeller to move through the water. Oyster farmers in Jersey make use of similar boats. Currently, "Constructions Maritimes du Vivier Amphibie" has a range of models.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: With more than 20,000 units produced, the DUKW was the most successful amphibious truck of World War II. This 6x6 truck was used to establish and supply beachheads. It was designed as a wartime project by Sparkman & Stephens, a yacht design firm who also designed the hull for the Ford GPA 'Seep'. Britain developed the Terrapin 8x8 amphibious cargo carrier which was used by 79th Armoured Division during the Walcheren campaign. While offering greater capacity than the DUKW, ease of operation favoured the DUKW. An improved version of the Terrapin never got beyond prototype stage. During the war, Germany produced the "Landwasserschlepper". In the 1950s, the Soviets developed the GAZ-46, BAV 485, and PTS.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: During the Vietnam War, the US Army used the amphibious articulated Gama Goat and the larger M520 Goer truck-series to move supplies through the canals and rice paddies of Southeast Asia. The latter was based on a 1950s civil construction vehicle and became the US Army's standard heavy tactical truck before its replacement by the HEMTT. Although the vehicles' wheels were mounted without suspension or steering action, and land speeds over 20 mph (32 km/h) were ill-advised, its articulated design provided it with good maneuverability and helped it to keep all four wheels firmly in touch with uneven ground. Coupled with its amphibious capability, in the Vietnam War, the M520 Goer developed a reputation of being able to go where other trucks could not.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: For taking vehicles and supplies onto the beaches the US used the 1950s designed LARC-V and the huge LARC-LX which could carry 60 tons of cargo.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: The British Army used the 6x6 wheeled Alvis Stalwart as their amphibious cargo carrier. In the water vectored thrust water-jet propulsion units drove it along at about 6 knots.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: The M3 Amphibious Rig can be used as a ferry or as a floating bridge for trucks and heavy combat vehicles.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: Gibbs has also developed other types of fast amphibians including the Phibian, a amphibian that is aimed at first responder market, and the Humdinga, a amphibian that is capable of traversing extreme terrain.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: Many modern military vehicles, ranging from light wheeled command and reconnaissance vehicles, through armoured personnel carriers (APCs), tanks and amphibious warfare ships, are manufactured with amphibious capabilities.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: The French Panhard VBL is a compact, lightly armored 4x4 all-terrain vehicle that is fully amphibious and can swim at . The VAB is a French fully amphibious APC, powered in the water by two water jets, mounted one on either side of the rear hull (see detail picture above). It entered service in 1976 and around 5000 were produced in many configurations.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: During the Cold War the Soviet bloc states developed a number of amphibious APCs, fighting vehicles and tanks, both wheeled and tracked. Most of the vehicles the Soviets designed were amphibious or could ford deep water. Wheeled examples are the BRDM-1 and BRDM-2 4x4 armored scout cars, as well as the BTR-60, BTR-70, BTR-80 and BTR-94 8x8 APCs and the BTR-90 infantry fighting vehicle.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: The M29 Weasel (Studebaker Weasel), whilst originally designed as a snow vehicle, operated successfully in an amphibious role by the addition of front and rear floats. The basic vehicle will float but its bow is square so the additional floats add stability and load carrying capacity.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: Tracked armored vehicles with amphibious capabilities include those that are intended for use in amphibious assault. The United States started developing a long line of LVT (Landing Vehicle Tracked) designs from around 1940.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: Many tracked armored vehicles that are primarily intended for land-use, such as armoured fighting vehicles and armoured personnel carriers nevertheless also have amphibious ability, tactically useful inland, reducing dependence on destroyable and easily targeted bridges. To provide motive power, they use their tracks, sometimes with an added propeller or water jets. As long as the opposite bank has a shallow enough slope for the vehicle to climb out within a few miles, they can cross rivers and water obstacles. An American example is the M113 Armored Personnel Carrier. Soviet examples are the PT-76 amphibious tank, and the BTR-50 and MT-LB APCs based on its chassis.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: Some heavier tanks have an amphibious mode in which a fabric skirt is needed to add buoyancy. The Sherman DD tank used in the D-Day invasion had this setup. When in water the waterproof float screen was raised and propellers deployed. The M2 and M3 Bradleys also need such a skirt.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: At the end of World War I a Mark IX tank had drums attached to the side and front and was tested as an amphibious vehicle launched into Hendon Reservoir. A modified Medium Mark D successfully swam in a river near Christchurch.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: By the early 1930s, Vickers had developed an amphibious tank. By using very thin armour, flotation could be achieved without external buoyancy aids. The British Army trialled the Vickers-Carden-Loyd Light Amphibious Tank but did not adopt it for service use. An order was placed with Vickers by the USSR for a small number of tanks. After negotiations to purchase the Vickers tank by Poland failed, they developed their own design the PZInż 130 but dropped the idea of amphibious tanks as obsolete. A pontoon based tank, the L1E3, was produced by Vickers in 1939.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: In World War II the British further developed amphibious tanks. The Crusader was trialled with two pontoons that could be attached or removed, the tracks driving the tank in the water. The "Medium Tank A/T 1" was a tank with inbuilt buoyancy some long and tall. The Valentine, then the M4 Sherman medium tank were made amphibious with the addition of a rubberized canvas screen to provide additional buoyancy and propellers driven by the main engine to give propulsion. These were DD tanks (from "Duplex Drive") and the Sherman DD was used on D-Day to provide close fire support on the beaches during the initial landings. The Sherman DD could not fire when afloat as the buoyancy screen was higher than the gun. A number swamped and sank in the operation, due to rough weather in the English Channel (with some tanks having been launched too far out), and to turning in the current to converge on a specific point on the battlefield, which allowed waves to breach over the screens. Those making it ashore, however, provided essential fire support in the first critical hours.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: Before World War II, The Soviets produced light amphibious tanks called T-37A and T-38. A third serial model, T-40, started production after the beginning of the war. A 14-ton tank, PT-1 was created but was not mass-produced. In addition, an attempt was made to attach pontoons to T-26. While successful, the project was closed due to the high vulnerability and unwieldiness of the construction.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: Some light tanks such as the PT-76 are amphibious, typically being propelled in the water by hydrojets or by their tracks. In 1969, the U.S. Army rushed the new M551 Sheridan to Vietnam. This 17 ton light tank was built with an aluminium hull, steel turret, and the 152 mm "gun-launcher" (which could fire the MGM-51 Shillelagh missile), and could swim across bodies of water. The M551 upon arrival in Vietnam began replacing the M48A3 Patton in all cavalry squadrons, leaving only the M48A3 in the U.S. Army's three armored battalions in Vietnam, the 1/77th, 1/69th, and the 2/34th Armor. The Sheridan needed no modifications for river crossings: crewmen simply raised the cloth sides that were tucked inside rubber tubes along the hull's upper edges, raised the driver's front shield which had an acrylic glass window, the driver turned on his bilge pumps, shifted his transmission lever to water operations and the Sheridan entered the water. For newly arrived Sheridans, this might work as engineered. For "war-weary" M551s, the driver's window was often "yellowed" or cracked as to obscure his vision, and the rubber tubes that contained the rolled up side sleeves were often cracked or frozen into place. The Sheridan could still cross a body of water, but like its swimming cousin, the M113 armoured personnel carrier, also built of aluminium) the river had to be narrow, less than . In all cases, the bilge pumps had to be working properly, and even then by the time the Sheridan or the APC reached the other side, water would often fill the insides up to their armoured roofs, spilling through the hatches' cracks and emptying onto the earth once safely ashore. Often a fold-down trim vane is erected to stop water washing over the bow of the tank and thus reducing the risk of the vehicle being swamped via the driver's hatch.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: During the Cold War, the Swedish Stridsvagn 103 main battle tank carried flotation gear all the time and was, therefore, theoretically, always amphibious.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: According to a 1999 article in "Military Parade" magazine, multi-unit, all-terrain transport vehicles were first proposed by the British in 1913, and by the 1950s, over 40 types of articulated tracked vehicles (ATV) were in production. The articulated tracked concept is chosen primarily for its combination of high maneuverability, cross-country abilities, and load-carrying capacity. In some cases the design is made amphibious, giving them all-terrain capability in the truest sense. Usually, the front unit houses at least the engine, gearboxes, fuel tank(s) and the driver's compartment, and perhaps there is some space left for cargo or passengers, whereas the rear unit is the primary load carrier.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: Examples of this concept are the Russian Vityaz, Swedish Volvo Bv202 and Hagglunds Bv206 designs, and the Bronco All Terrain Tracked Carrier of Singapore.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: A highly specialised development is the ARKTOS Craft, that uses a linkage with two joints to connect the two units and each unit having independent drive systems, giving enhanced mobility and redundancy. They are capable of climbing large ice steps from open water.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: Some military vehicles are capable of "wading" using waterproof screens to keep the upper hull dry. In World War II the tanks following the Sherman DDs were given waterproofed hulls and trunking was fixed to the engine intakes and exhausts to allow them to come ashore from landing craft in shallow water. The Germans gave their Tiger tank a long snorkel, essentially a long tube on the commander's hatch that allowed it to wade through four metres of water.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: The Leopard 2 tank can use a series of rings to create a long tube. This tube is then fitted to the crew commander's hatch and provides air and an escape route for the crew. The height of the tube is limited to around three meters.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: The Russian T-90 tank is also able to perform deep fording operations. The Russian snorkel is only a few inches around and does not provide a crew escape path, but it can be stored on the tank.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: Some civilian deep wading vehicles achieve their capability by means of legs or stilts to raise the body of the vehicle from its wheels. One example is the sea tractor, a motor vehicle that can travel through shallow water, with driver and passengers on a raised platform. Another is the Brighton and Rottingdean Seashore Electric Railway, a coastline railway that ran on submerged rails through the shallow coastal waters of the English Channel between 1896 and 1901.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: An air-cushion vehicle (ACV) or hovercraft can travel over land or water supported by a cushion of air ejected downwards against the surface below it. In principle, a hovercraft can travel over any sufficiently smooth surface: solid, liquid, mixed, or anything in between. Large hovercraft, riding on an air-cushion contained by skirts several meters tall, can deal with obstacles 1 to 2 meters in height. The smallest personal hovercraft are nimble enough to follow some rolling of the terrain.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: One of the benefits of this type of amphibious craft is the possibility of making them largethe British-built SR.N4 Mk.3 ferries could carry dozens of vehicles. ACVs have a high speed over water (an SR.N4 Mk.1 could do 83 knots (95 mph or 154 km/h)) and can make the transition between land and water at speedunlike most wheeled or tracked amphibians. Drawbacks are high fuel consumption and noise levels.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: For some military applications wheeled and tracked amphibious vehicles are slowly being supplanted by air-cushioned landing craft. The hovercraft's ability to distribute its laden weight evenly across the surface below it makes it well suited to the role of amphibious landing craft. The US Navy LCAC can take troops and materials (if necessary an M1 Abrams tank) from ship to shore and can access more than 70% of the world's coastline, as opposed to conventional landing craft, which are only capable of landing along 17% of that coastline.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: The BBC television series "Top Gear" has, on several occasions, used amphibious vehicles as the basis for challenges. In S08E03, Clarkson, Hammond and May competed to see who could build the best amphibious car, starting with a used vehicle of their choice. Clarkson used a Toyota Hilux, which he nicknamed the "Toybota", and powered it with a large outboard motor. Hammond used a Volkswagen Vanagon, which he combined with a boat hull to build a drivable cabin cruiser called the "Dampervan". May started with a Triumph Herald and fitted it with a sail. During the challenge, which was to drive across a reservoir, the Toybota made it almost all the way to the end before capsizing, the Dampervan immediately sank, and the Triumph was the only vehicle to complete the trip, although it took a very long time to do so.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: The show returned to the concept in S10E02, when the presenters built updated versions of their designs with lessons learned from the first time. Clarkson built his "Nissank" out of a Nissan Hardbody, the overall design being very similar to the Toybota, but now with oil drums as stabilizers. Hammond built a near-identical Dampervan, which had many of the same problems as its predecessor. May used the same actual vehicle as before, with only minor improvements (including a retractable daggerboard). The challenge was to drive the cars across the English Channel. Both Hammond and May's vessels sank shortly after departing, and all three presenters ended up making the trip aboard Clarkson's vehicle. Along the way, they attempted to beat Richard Branson's world record for crossing the channel in an amphibious vehicle, but failed. The pickup truck successfully crossed the channel and landed in France, although they ended up in Sangatte instead of Calais, their intended destination.


title: Amphibious vehicle

text: "Top Gear USA" featured a very similar challenge in S04E06. Their vehicles were a Volkswagen Golf, which Rutledge Wood combined with a Sea Ray boat; a Jeep Wrangler YJ, which Adam Ferrara turned into an airboat; and a Plymouth Conquest, which Tanner Foust turned into a speedboat called the "Turboat". In the initial tests, the VW had issues on both water and land, the Jeep worked well on water but not on land (the airboat motor left him stranded on the highway), and the Turboat performed well on land but sank immediately in the water. The Jeep sank as well after Foust and Ferrara got into an impromptu sea battle. All three presenters then attempted to cross Lake Ontario in the VW. Foust abandoned the trip halfway through, being picked up by a friend's yacht. Wood and Ferrara made it to the Canadian border, but were turned away because they did not bring passports.


title: Órale

text: Órale is a common interjection in Mexican Spanish slang. It is also commonly used in the United States as an exclamation expressing approval or encouragement. The term has varying connotations, including an affirmation that something is impressive, an agreement with a statement (akin to "okay"), or to signify distress. The word's origin is from the verb orar (to pray), with the added suffix "“-le”", which is a grammatical expletive – a word part that occupies a position without adding to the sense, e.g. "“ándale”" and "“épale”".


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: The Kingdom of Bosnia ( / Краљевина Босна), or Bosnian Kingdom ("Bosansko kraljevstvo" / Босанско краљевство), was a medieval kingdom that lasted for nearly a century, from 1377 to 1463, and evolved out of the Banate of Bosnia, which itself lasted since at least 1154.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: Although Hungarian kings viewed Bosnia as under their sovereignty during this time, Bosnian sovereignty and independence in conducting its affairs is nevertheless undeniable.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: King Tvrtko I (r. 1353–91) acquired portions of western Serbia and most of the Adriatic coast south of the Neretva River. During the late part of his reign, Bosnia became one of the strongest states in the Balkan Peninsula. However, feudal fragmentation remained important in Bosnia and the Bosnian nobility held significant power, exercising it at the Stanak meetings where members deliberated on matters such as election of the new king or queen and coronations, foreign policy, sale or cession of territory, contracting and signing treaties with neighboring countries, and military issues.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: The Ottoman Empire annexed portions of eastern Bosnia in the 1440s and 1450s and went on to conquer Hum, by then renamed to Herzegovina, with the last fortress falling in 1481. Stephen Tomašević, the last king of Bosnia, was captured by the Ottomans and killed in 1463.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: The overwhelming majority of the population was rural, with few significant urban centers. Among the more notable towns were Doboj, Jajce, Srebrenik, Srebrenica, Tešanj, and Podvisoki. Mining, especially for silver, was a major source of income for Bosnian kings.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: The Banate of Bosnia was a medieval state comprising, at its peak, most of what is today Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as parts of Dalmatia (in Croatia), Serbia, and Montenegro. Although nominally belonging to the Kingdom of Hungary crown lands, it was a de facto independent state. After the reign of Ban Kulin, rulers of Bosnia enjoyed virtual independence from Hungary, and although they formally held a vassal position for much of this time, in reality they managed to maintain independent functions and even expand their rule in Serbia, Croatia, and Dalmatia. The Banate of Bosnia existed until 1377, when it was elevated into a kingdom with the coronation of Tvrtko I following the death of the last Serbian Emperor from the Nemanjić dynasty, which had no heir to the throne in 1371.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: Tvrtko had the strongest claim to the royal title at that time, and even if he had no practical means to rule Serbia, it allowed him to elevate Bosnia to a kingdom, as this would imply more formal independence. Tvrtko thus proclaimed himself the first King of Bosnia, claiming full legitimacy as the crown he took was sent from Pope Honorius III to Stefan the First-Crowned in 1217. A Serbian logothete named Blagoje, having found refuge at Tvrtko's court, attributed to Tvrtko the right to a "double crown": one for Bosnia, and the other for the Serbian lands of his Nemanjić ancestors. He was also King of Serbia, and in that way, legal basis for crowning was achieved, which was promoted even by his formal sovereign Louis I. Tvrtko's title as a king was also approved by Louis's successor, and Tvrtko's cousin, Mary, Queen of Hungary. Venice and Ragusa consistently referred to Tvrtko as King of Rascia, Ragusa even complaining, in 1378, about Tvrtko's preoccupation with his new kingdom. Tvrtko's coronation as King of Bosnia and Serbia was held in the fall of 1377 (probably 26 October, the feast day of Saint Demetrius), and marked a significant event of Bosnian medieval history, although contemporary sources about the coronation are very rare. The Royal Charter issued to the Ragusan commune on 10 April 1378 stands as one of the key sources for understanding the position of medieval Bosnian banate and its transformation to the kingdom, as well as information about economic activity between Bosnia and Ragusa, and proof of Bosnian independence.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: Feudal fragmentation remained important feature in Bosnia and the Bosnian nobility held significant power, exercising it at the Stanak meetings. The Stanak is the most common name used to refer to the assembly of nobility in medieval Bosnia, and it is first attested in the charter of Tvrtko I in 1354. Its influence peaked between the 1390s and the 1420s. The existence of the "stanak" proved a unity and feeling of belonging to a Bosnian identity and integrity, but also it illustrated weakness of the monarch and decentralization of the state.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: The right to take part in the sessions of the s"tanak" was enjoyed by every Bosnian "knez", from magnates to petty lords, collectively known as "vlastela", but the ultimate authority belonged to the highest nobility. The "stanak" was convoked when required, usually by the ruler, who presided over it and led its sessions. If male, his wife was allowed to attend, but his children were not. The Bosnian Church clergy, not belonging to the "vlastela", were also barred, but influenced decision-making in the "stanak" through the great lords associated with them. The magnates of the country convoked the "stanak" themselves when the country experienced greater domestic issues, such as succession crisis or deposition of the ruler, domestic conflicts or wars. It normally took place wherever the monarch held court: in Mile, Milodraž, Bobovac, Kraljeva Sutjeska and Jajce.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: The Stanak enjoyed power and authority on all matters, including election of the new king or queen and coronation, foreign policy, sale or cession of territory, contracting and signing treaties with neighboring countries, and military issues. Charters issued by monarchs reflected the decisions made by the "stanak"; as the royal power weakened, that of s"tanak" increased.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: Hungarian rulers perceiveded Bosnia as a country under their sovereignty during medieval time, however, Bosnian sovereignty and independence is nevertheless undeniable. Bosnian rulers acted completely independently in carrying out state and diplomatic affairs, governing the judicial system, granting towns and estates, minting coins, exploiting natural resources, and making trading agreements with other countries and independent cities.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: As a main trading partner of the Bosnian state, the Ragusa referred to the Bosnian Kingdom as a separate state ("rusag"), for example in a charter issued to Sandalj Hranić in November 1405, where they articulated that the Ragusan merchants would be safe across the "Bosnian rusag", or 1451, during the war with Stjepan Vukčić, as a "Holly Kingdom". Ragusans also paid Saint Demetrius an income of 2000 Ragusan perpera. Ladislaus of Naples acknowledged the territories of the kingdom on 26 August 1406 at the request of Tvrtko II.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: Bosnia reached its peak under Tvrtko I, a member of the Kotromanić dynasty, who came to power in 1353. In 1372, Tvrtko formed an alliance with Prince Lazar Hrebeljanović, one of the regional lords in the territory of the disintegrated Serbian Empire. The next year, Tvrtko and Lazar attacked the domain of Nikola Altomanović, the most powerful Serbian noble at the time. After defeating Altomanović, they divided his lands, except for his littoral districts of Dračevica, Konavle, and Trebinje, which were seized by Đurađ I Balšić, the Lord of Zeta. Tvrtko received parts of Zahumlje, the upper reaches of the Drina and Lim rivers, and the districts of Onogošt and Gacko. This acquisition included the important Serbian Orthodox monastery of Mileševa, which held the relics of Saint Sava, the first Serbian Archbishop.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: In 1377, Tvrtko took the littoral districts from Balšić. That year, on 26 October, he was crowned King of "Serbia, Bosnia, the Primorje (Seaside), and the western lands". The acquisition of Serbian territory, including the important Monastery of Mileševa, combined with the fact that Tvrtko's grandmother had been a member of the Nemanjić dynasty, prompted Tvrtko into having himself crowned King of Serbia, thus asserting his pretensions to the Serbian throne. This was made possible by the royal Nemanjić line having died out with Uroš in 1371. The crown was sent to him by Hungarian king Louis of Anjou. According to a plurality of recent works from scholars like Čošković, Anđelić, Lovrenović, and Filipović, the ceremony itself was conducted in Mile near Visoko in the church that was built during Stephen II Kotromanić's reign, where he was also buried alongside his uncle Stjepan II. In contrast, some earlier historiographers, mostly represented by western scholars, consider that he was crowned in the Orthodox Monastery of Mileševa by the Metropolitan of Mileševa.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: After the defeat of Altomanović, Lazar was the most powerful lord on the territory of the former Serbian Empire. He wanted to reunite the Serbian state, and the Serbian Orthodox Church saw him as the best suited to succeed the Nemanjić dynasty. The Church, which was the strongest cohesive force among the Serbs at the time, did not support Tvrtko's aspirations in this regard.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: By 1390, Tvrtko had expanded his realm to include a part of Croatia and Dalmatia, and expanded his title to "King of Serbia, Bosnia, Dalmatia, Croatia and the Littoral". Tvrtko's full title listed subject peoples and geographical dependencies, following the Byzantine norm. At the peak of his power, he was "King of Bosnia, Serbia, Croatia, Hum, Usora, Soli, Dalmatia, and Donji Kraji".


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: In the last months of his reign, Tvrtko devoted himself to solidifying his position in Dalmatia and to plans for taking Zadar, the only Dalmatian city that had evaded his rule. He offered an extensive alliance to Venice, but it did not suit the republic's interests. Meanwhile, Tvrtko was also fostering relations with Albert III, Duke of Austria. By the late summer of 1390, a marriage was expected to be contracted between the recently widowed King and a member of the Austrian ruling family, the Habsburgs. The Hungarian kingdom remained the focus of Tvrtko's foreign policy, however. Although they did not recognize each other as kings, Tvrtko and Hungarian King Sigismund started negotiating a peace in September. Sigismund was in the weaker position and likely ready to make concessions to Tvrtko when his ambassadors arrived at Tvrtko's court in January 1391. The negotiations were probably never concluded, as Tvrtko died on 10 March.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: While Bosnia retained its standing among neighboring states in the immediate aftermath of Tvrtko's death, during Dabiša's reign conditions within the state started deteriorating. He successfully resisted his sovereigns from Hungary, Naples, and even Ottoman Turks. In the first years of his reign, Dabiša successfully maintained the integrity of the Kingdom.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: The latter part of his reign, however, saw the ascent of magnates and considerable loss of territories and influence. The nobility grew stronger and for the first time acted independently of the king, starting with the Zachlumian Sanković noble family. Dabiša curbed the Sanković power, but the trend was irreversible and eventually led to the weakening of the royal authority. Hrvoje Vukčić Hrvatinić, the kingdom's leading magnate, came into agreement with Sigismund and Mary but remained loyal to Dabiša. By June 1394, Dabiša was in open conflict with John Horvat, a fervent supporter of Ladislaus and enemy of Sigismund. He ordered that men from his islands of Brač, Hvar, and Korčula assist in the siege of Omiš, a city ruled by Horvat. Sigismund, who had been amassing an army since April, took advantage of the discord.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: The Battle of Dobor saw Horvat's defeat and execution as well as the destruction of the eponymous town on the river Bosna by Sigismund's troops. Soon thereafter Dabiša submitted to Sigismund and resigned Croatia and Dalmatia to the Hungarian king and, with the agreement of his vassals, recognized him as his feudal overlord as well as heir designate to the Bosnian throne. It is not clear what prompted Dabiša to agree to such harsh terms. In return, as evident from a treaty issued in July 1394, Sigismund included Dabiša among the highest ranking Hungarian officials and named him "ispán" (count) of Somogy.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: Despite an auspicious start, Dabiša's reign ended with the kingdom displaying the first signs of decay. Much of Tvrtko's extraordinary legacy was lost in the summer of 1394, and the state resumed its previous boundaries. Dabiša left the state more dependent on Hungarian kings than ever before, and the kingdom's influence in the Balkans waned.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: In 1394, Dabiša's wife Helen agreed to Dabiša's decision to designate Sigismund as his heir. When Dabiša died on 8 September the following year, however, the leading noblemen – Grand Duke Hrvoje Vukčić Hrvatinić, Prince Pavao Radinović, Duke Sandalj Hranić, and Juraj of Radivojević's – refused to honor the agreement Dabiša had made with Sigismund. Sigismund raised an army and marched to nearby Syrmia to claim the Bosnian throne, but the noblemen convoked a "stanak", an assembly of noblemen, and elected Helen as Dabiša's successor. Not willing to engage the united nobility in war, Sigismund withdrew; the death of his wife Mary, heir of Hungary and cousin of Dabiša, made his position too precarious to attack in Bosnia, as did the defeat by the Ottomans at the Battle of Nicopolis. By mid-December 1395, Helen had consolidated her grasp on the throne, and the pretender was killed by Sigismund's supporters in 1396, never having seriously threatened the Queen. The emancipation of Bosnian nobility reached a peak during Helen's reign. Having become virtually autonomous, her vassals engaged in internal warfare, which weakened Bosnia and precluded its participation in regional politics.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: By March 1398, Bosnia was beset by internal strife. It seems that Helen's family, the Nikolić, attempted to take further advantage of their royal relations and free themselves from subordinacy to the House of Kosača to become immediate vassals of the monarch. This may have been the reason for an uprising against Helen. She maintained a great deal of support in April, when Ragusa paid its tribute to her. The last to remain on her side were the Radivojević noble family, including Helen's grandson-in-law Juraj. By 10 May, however, her husband's kinsman Ostoja was enthroned as the new King of Bosnia.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: Ostoja was brought to power by the forces of Hrvoje Vukčić, who deposed Helen in 1398. In 1403 he sided with King Ladislaus of Naples against Sigismund. Ostoja led a war against the Republic of Dubrovnik, a Hungarian vassalage. In 1404, the Bosnian nobles under Hrvoje Vukčić replaced him with his brother Tvrtko II because of his pro-Hungarian views. He had to flee to Hungary after a stanak in Mile, Visoko. Ostoja tried to reclaim the throne with Hungarian support, but, in June 1404, Tvrtko's supporters defeated a Hungarian army and thus prevented Ostoja from reclaiming the crown, although the chief royal residence of Bobovac and the Usoran town of Srebrenik were captured and restored to Ostoja. All major noble families remained loyal to Tvrtko, while Ostoja functioned as Sigismund's puppet whose territory included little more than Bobovac. The fortress, however, housed the crown, which Tvrtko was not able to reach.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: Following a few minor disputes with the maritime republics of Venice and Ragusa over Konavli and Pomorje, Tvrtko gained recognition as the legitimate king from both states. By 1406, Ostoja was losing what little support he had left in Bosnia, with the nobility now unanimously favouring Tvrtko, but the former king's decision to remain in the country continued to trouble Tvrtko. Ragusans described the beginning of Tvrtko's reign as more tumultuous than anything "since the Flood", but he soon succeeded in uniting the country by bringing together his feuding vassals.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: Hungarian attacks on Bosnia took place annually, making Tvrtko's life "a constant hassle". In 1408, Sigismund defeated the Bosnian nobility and Tvrtko and in 1409 he restored Ostoja to the throne. One hundred and seventy minor noblemen were captured and killed in Dobor by being tossed over the city walls. Tvrtko is said to have been captured as well, but this does not appear to be true, as he demanded the customary tribute from the Ragusans in February 1409. The hostilities continued until the end of November, with Tvrtko retreating southwards with his noblemen and resisting Hungarian attacks, which enabled Ostoja to reestablish control over Central Bosnia.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: Tvrtko remained on the throne until mid-1409, when Ostoja prevailed. Sigismund's claim became untenable, but Bosnians acknowledged his overlordship over Ostoja; only Tvrtko refused to submit to the King of Hungary. He appears to have evaded capture by Hungarian troops by fleeing to the mountains of northern Zachlumia. Ostoja ended the decade-long dispute with the Hungarians by recognizing the suzerainty of the Hungarian crown and, in 1412, visiting the Hungarian throne in Buda with the rest of the Bosnian and Serbian nobility including Serbian Despot Stefan Lazarević. After that Tvrtko faded into obscurity and had no part in Bosnian affairs for several years.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: The first Ottoman troops attacked Bosnia in May 1414; in August they also brought the deposed monarch, Tvrtko, and set him up as anti-king. His alliance with the Ottomans may have been due to their mutual hostility towards Sigismund. Pavle Radenović immediately declared for Tvrtko, but no other major nobleman appears to have followed his example – not even Hrvoje. While Tvrtko hoped for an Ottoman victory, Ostoja expected that a Hungarian triumph would rid him of Ottoman raiders and secure his position against both his rival and his ambitious magnates. The Battle of Doboj in August 1415 saw the disastrous defeat of Sigismund's army. Contrary to expectations, however, the Ottomans recognized Ostoja as the legitimate king. Tvrtko lost his ground, while the united Bosnians for the first time shifted their allegiance from the Hungarian crown to the Ottoman Sultanate.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: Ostoja died in September 1418. Despite expectations that Tvrtko would take over, Ostoja's son Stephen was elected king. When the Ottomans invaded Bosnia in early 1420, Tvrtko once again accompanied them and installed himself as anti-king. Sandalj immediately declared for him. Fearing the Ottomans, Sandalj's example was soon followed by other noblemen. In June Tvrtko convoked a stanak, and Ragusa recognized him as king. He had the support of almost all of the nobility in Visoko, including duke Vukmir, mayor Dragiša, knez Juraj Vojsalić, knez Pribić, knez Radič Radojević, knez Batić Mirković, knez Juraj Dragičević, knez Petar Klešić, duke Ivko, and duke Pavao Jurjević. By the end of the year, Tvrtko had completely ousted Stephen, who continued to advance his claim until the summer of 1421. He appears to have died soon after.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: Internal troubles forced the Ottomans to withdraw their troops from Bosnia, which enabled Tvrtko to strengthen his hold on the kingdom and for its economy to recover. Tvrtko's second accession had to be legitimized with a new coronation, which took place during a stanak in August 1421. Tvrtko's second reign was marked by his quick resolution to restore royal authority and the king's pre-eminence among Bosnia's feudal rulers. With Hrvoje and Pavle gone, and Sandalj preoccupied by conflict with Pavle's sons, Tvrtko was able to significantly expand the royal domain. In December 1422 Tvrtko signed a beneficial trade treaty with the Republic of Venice and discussed plans for joint military action against Sigismund in Dalmatia. Tvrtko's association with Venice bothered not only Ragusa, but also the Ottoman Turks; the former resented losing their monopoly on trade, while the latter's poor relationship with Venice was the result of territorial disputes over Albania and Zeta. Ottomans proceeded to raid Bosnia in the spring of 1424 to make it clear to Tvrtko that close relations with Venice would not be tolerated. Tvrtko understood that Venice would not be able to provide him with help against the Ottomans, and thus slowly dismantled their alliance. In 1425, Tvrtko realized that he needed a strong ally in the event of further Ottoman attacks. The Ottomans responded with severe attacks that forced Tvrtko to accept their suzerainty and to agree to pay an annual tribute.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: In 1432, Stefan Lazarević's successor Đurađ, Sandalj, and the Ottomans helped Radivoj, the elder illegitimate son of the long-deceased Ostoja, to lay claim to the throne and take control of much of the country. Tvrtko's only noteworthy support came from Hrvoje's nephew and successor, Juraj Vojsalić, and he managed to retain only central and northwestern Bosnia. Tvrtko retreated to Visoko, but soon found that Sandalj had become too ill to support Radivoj's cause. After years of pleading for their help, Tvrtko finally saw Hungarians march into Bosnia in mid-1434. They recovered for him Jajce, Hodidjed, Bočac and the Komotin Castle, but he lost it all as soon as they retreated. In fact, he himself appears to have left with the troops on their way back to Hungary, as he is known to have resided at the court in Buda in 1435. Radivoj ceased being a threat when he lost Ottoman support that year, while Sandalj's death presented Tvrtko with a new and more vital rebellious vassal in the form of Sandalj's nephew and successor, Stjepan Vukčić Kosača.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: Thomas succeeded Tvrtko, but his accession was not recognized by the leading magnate of Bosnia, Stjepan Vukčić Kosača. The two engaged in a civil war which ended when Thomas repudiated his wife Vojača and married the insubordinate nobleman's daughter Catherine. Thomas and his second wife, both raised in the Bosnian Church tradition, converted to Roman Catholicism and sponsored the construction of churches and monasteries throughout Bosnia.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: Throughout his reign, Thomas waged a war with the Serbian Despotate over the lucrative mining town of Srebrenica and its surroundings, in addition to (or in conjunction with) multiple conflicts with his father-in-law. Having failed to expand into Croatia proper, Thomas turned again to the east in 1458, arranging a match between his son Stephen Tomašević and the Serbian heiress Helena. His control over the remnants of the Serbian Despotate lasted merely a month before the Ottoman conquest of the state. Thomas's failure to defend Serbia permanently damaged his reputation in Europe. Wishing to improve his image among Europe's Catholics, Thomas turned against the Bosnian Church, thus becoming the first ruler of Bosnia to engage in religious persecution.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: Radivoj styled himself as King of Bosnia for the remainder of Tvrtko's reign. He was nominally supported by the Ottomans and by Stjepan Vukčić Kosača. This alliance could have easily deposed Tvrtko II in Radivoj's favor if they wished, but it appears that their only goal was to weaken and divide Bosnia for their own future benefit.<br>


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: Notwithstanding, King Tvrtko II maintained himself on the Bosnian throne longer than any of the monarchs who followed Tvrtko I. He also did more to restore royal dignity and centralize the state than any other, leaving a strong mark on Bosnia's politics, economy, and culture. King Tvrtko II died in September 1443. childless, having expressed a wish to be succeeded by his politically inactive and until then rather obscure cousin Stephen Thomas, Radivoj's younger brother and likewise an illegitimate son of Ostoja.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: Meanwhile, like most Bosnian nobleman of the era, Stjepan Vukčić too considered himself a staunch "Krstjanin", as the Bosnian Church adherents were known and as its members called themselves. His conspicuous attitude toward Bosnian Church was highlighted when king Tvrtko II died and Stjepan refused to recognize a chosen heir, the deceased king's cousin and recent convert to Roman Catholicism, Thomas, as the new King of Bosnia, thus creating a political crisis which culminated in civil war. Apparently, one of the points of contention was Thomas recent conversion Catholicism, move that was deem potentially harmful to the Bosnian Church. And while Thomas' decision to convert was forced political maneuvering, albeit founded in sound reasoning with the saving of the realm on his mind, he also committed himself to demonstrate his devotion by engaging in religious prosecution against his recent fellow co-religionist, thus eventually proving his conversion to be detrimental to the "Kristjani". These developments prompted Stjepan to give followers and members of the Bosnian Church safe haven, and also to join the Ottomans in support of Bosnian anti-King Radivoj, Thomas' exiled brother, who was too Bosnian Church faithful and remained so in face of king's crusade against the church adherents.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: In 1443, the Papacy sent envoys to Thomas and Stjepan about a counter-offensive against the Ottomans, but the two were in the middle of the civil war. Ivaniš Pavlović, sent by King Thomas, attacked Stjepan Vukčić. Thomas had at the same time been recognized by the Hungarian regent John Hunyadi. Stjepan turned to King Alfonso V of Aragon, who made him "Knight of the Virgin", but did not give him troops. On 15 February 1444, Stjepan signed a treaty with the King of Aragon and Naples, becoming his vassal in exchange for Alfonso's help against his enemies, namely King Thomas, Duke Ivaniš Pavlović and the Republic of Venice. In the same treaty Stjepan promised to pay regular tribute to Alfonso instead of paying the Ottoman sultan as he had done until then.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: In 1446 Stjepan Vukčić finally recognized Thomas as king, and the pre-war borders were restored. Peace between two rivals was sealed by the marriage of Stjepan's daughter Catherine (Katarina) and King Thomas in May 1446, with Catherine abandoning Bosnian Church and converting to Roman Catholicism.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: The Ottomans were displeased with the peace as their interest lay primarily in weakening and dividing Bosnia. Serbian Despot Đurađ Branković was also displeased due to the Srebrenica issue, as the principal mining center of Bosnia returned to Bosnia. In 1448, the Ottomans sent an expedition to plunder King Tomaš's lands, but they also plundered Stjepan Vukčić's lands. Stjepan sent envoys to Despot Đurađ to try to improve the relations between himself on one side and Đurađ and Ottomans on the other.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: In the first half of 1448, Stjepan Vukčić, in an attempt to "bolster his case with the Ottomans", added the title of "herzog" and styled himself "Herzog of Hum and the Coast, Grand Duke of Bosnia, Knyaz of Drina, and the rest", first documented in the spring of 1449. Later, toward the end of 1449 and the beginning of 1450, in a public relations stunt, he changed it to "Herzog of Saint Sava, Lord of Hum, Grand Duke of Bosnia, Knyaz of Drina, and the rest".


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: In 1451 Stjepan Vukčić attacked the Republic of Ragusa, and laid siege to the city. As he had earlier been made a Ragusan nobleman, the Ragusan government now proclaimed him a traitor. A reward of 15,000 ducats, a palace in Dubrovnik worth 2,000 ducats, and an annual income of 300 ducats was offered to anyone who would kill him. along with the promise of hereditary Ragusan noble status which also helped hold this promise to whoever did the deed. The threat seems to have worked, as Stjepan abandoned the siege. After King Thomas and Despot Đurađ reconciled sometime prior to late fall 1451, Ragusa proposed a league against Stjepan. Thomas' charter from 18 December 1451, apart from ceding of some of Stjepan's territories to Ragusa, who nevertheless firmly held those, also included the obligation that he would attack Vukčić.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: Stjepan Tomašević succeeded his father on the throne following the latter's death in July 1461 and became the first Bosnian king to receive a crown from the Holy See. Under Tomašević, Bosnia was left to fend for itself by his senior, Matthias Corvinus, who held nominal rule of Bosnia, and by other European powers. After the Ottomans laid siege on Jajce, Tomašević escaped to Ključ, fortress in the western territories of his realm, but Ottomans led by Mahmud Pasha Angelović pursued and caught up with him there. After a four days siege of Ključ and negotiations, Angelović sent a written assurance to the king, stating that his life will be spared. As it happened king was lured back to Jajce based on empty promise, since he was nevertheless beheaded just behind the capital's citadel, since then named Carevo polje (). Kingdom fell in 1463 and eventually became the westernmost province of the Ottoman Empire. After the fall of Bosnia, queen-mother, Catherine, escaped to Rome on horseback by fooling the Ottomans over which route she wanted to take. She stated that she was leaving the country to see her sons or to visit the Holy See.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: The rapid conquest of Bosnia, despite its inaccessible mountain fortresses, was unexpected, but many Bosnians were already aware of the impossible situation. If they were to fall, they preferred the Ottomans to the Hungarians, who they saw as an age-long enemies. They offered their kingdom to Venice in return for aid, but when Venice refused, they preferred to remain under the Ottomans than the Hungarians.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: After the fall in 1463, "herceg" Stjepan Vukčić, lord of the Hum province in the south of the kingdom, lived for another three years, enough to see kingdom's complete demise, for which he blamed his eldest son Vladislav Hercegović. On 21 May 1466, old and terminally ill duke dictated his last words, recorded in a testament, and bypassing Vladislav he condemned him by saying that it was him who "brought the great Turk to Bosnia to the death and destruction of us all". The next day duke died.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: He was succeeded as "herceg" by his second and younger son Vlatko Hercegović, who struggled to retain as much of the territory he could. However, Blagaj, Kosača capital, fell in 1466, while Ključ fort between Nevesinje and Gacko was cut off from the main part of his territory, although Vlatko's actions against Ottomans were mostly concentrated around this fort with limited success. Počitelj fell in 1471, however, "herceg" Vlatko already in 1470 realized that only radical change in his politics could bring him some release, so he pursued and achieved a peace with the Ottomans. In the same year, the Ottomans excluded Hum from the Bosnian Sanjak, and established a new, separate sanjak with its seat in Foča, Sanjak of Herzegovina.<br>


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: The very last remnants of Bosnian state territory were these stretches of land held by Vlatko in Hum, while he moved residence to his last capital, Novi.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: He also gave up his agreement with Ottomans, after just a few years or so, just about the same time when his younger brother, Stjepan, assumed highest office of the Ottoman navy as Ahmed Pasha Hercegović (around 1473) in Istanbul. After his marriage in 1474, he reconciled with his older brother Vladislav.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: Just before death of Sultan Mehmed II, Vlatko tried one more push to the heart of Bosnia, but abandoned by his allies his venture ended in disaster, after which he completely and finitely withdraws to his fortress in Novi. Meanwhile, all this, along with death of Mehmed II, prompted new sultan, Bayezid II, to overtake Novi and its harbor, along with whatever territory remained. In November 1481, Ajaz-Bey of the Sanjak of Herzegovina besieged Novi, however, just before 14 December 1481 Vlatko gave up resisting, and agreed with the Ottomans to move with his family to Istanbul. This signified the ultimate disappearance of what was the last remaining independent point of the Bosnian state.<br>


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: So, the province endured for another fifteen years after Stjepan Vukčić's death, shrinking with time, before it was eventually swallowed by the Ottomans in December 1481, and incorporated into the empire as re-organized territory of already formed and renamed province, Sanjak of Herzegovina.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: The fortified Jajce, the capital of, at that point, all but completely annihilated kingdom, was captured by Hungarians under Matthias on 26 December 1463. Hungarians established a defensive territory between advancing Ottomans and their kingdom further north by constituting the "Banate of Jajce" along with the Banate of Srebrenik and the Banate of Bihać. In Hungarian hands Jajce withstood Ottoman attacks until 1527, when it finally surrendered after a decisive Ottoman victory in the Battle of Mohács. Much of modern northern and western Bosnia and Herzegovina was then incorporated into the Ottoman Sanjak of Bosnia, initially belonging to the Rumelia Eyalet, when in 1580 Bosnian Sanjak became a core province of the newly established Eyalet of Bosnia.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: The territory of Bosnia and today's Herzegovina is littered with medieval gravestones called stećak, which first appeared in the middle of the 12th century. They were a tradition among Bosnian, Catholic and Orthodox Church followers alike. While Bosnia had many architecturally impressive stone fortresses, its medieval churches were small, especially compared to Catholic churches along the coast and Orthodox monasteries in neighboring Serbia, possibly because of the indifference of Bosnian nobles towards formal religion.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: Medieval Bosnia and Herzegovina had three Christian faiths: Catholic and Orthodox Christians, and some who simply called themselves Bosnians, belonging to the so-called Bosnian Church. Most information about this church comes from outside sources and its exact nature is a subject of debate, particularly around its possible dualist teachings. It was accused by the Catholic and Orthodox authorities of heresy and being linked to the Bogomils (Patarenes). The Catholic church was slightly more dominant in towns and in the west and north of Bosnia. The Bosnian Church was present in Donji Kraji and the Drina river valley to some extent, but the majority of population remained Catholic, although most of the population was without priests. When Vukosav Hrvatinić of Donji Kraji pledged allegiance to Stephen II and gained župa Banica and Vrbanja as a result, Bosnian Church officials were present as a guarantee of charter that confirmed those župas.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: The bans and kings of Bosnia were proclaimed Catholics during their reign, except for Ostoja, who showed some interest in the Bosnian Church while he was on the throne, and Radivoj the exiled anti-King, who was openly Bosnian Church faithful and remained so in face of king's crusade against the church adherents. There were, however, several important noblemen who were members of the Bosnian Church, called ""Krstjani"", such as Hrvoje Vukčić, the Radinović-Pavlović family, Sandalj Hranić, Stjepan Vukčić, and Paul Klešić. Conversions were sometimes used as a political tool by high-ranking nobles such as Hrvoje Vukčić of Donji Kraji, who converted to Catholicism to obtain lucrative titles, but when faced with difficult odds in 1413 he openly threatened that he would go back to "pagan religion", as the Catholic Church viewed the Bosnian Church as a dualist religion. Despite the religious hesitancy of the duke, by his death, the Bosnian Church had lost its foothold in Donji Kraji, since his heirs were increasingly referred to as committed Catholics. At the beginning of 15th century, the withdrawal of representatives of the Bosnian Church from political activities in the service of Hrvoje Vukčić allowed members of the Catholic Church to take up those seats, as recorded in a document of Juraj Vojsalić dated 12 August 1434.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: It was common for the Holy See to have Bosnian rulers renounce any relation to the Bosnian Church, or even perform conversions, in return for support. After Stephen Thomas started persecuting Bosnian Church followers, they responded in the traditional stronghold in Visoko and in 1450 demolished the Franciscan monastery in Mile. However, it was quickly rebuilt. Thomas earned the nickname "damned king" for his actions against adherents of the Bosnian Church. Especially detrimental to the "Kristjani" were these developments, which in turn prompted Stjepan Vukčić Kosača to give followers and members of the Bosnian Church safe haven, and also to join the Ottomans in support of Bosnian anti-King Radivoj.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: Important mining towns like Fojnica, Kreševo, Olovo, Srebrenica, Dusina, Kamenica, and Deževice began to be mentioned in contemporary sources during Tvrtko I's reign. Srebrenica was a very lucrative possession with its silver mines. Caravan trade was frequent between the Republic of Ragusa and Bosnia, and Ragusan merchants had trading colonies in Podvisoki, Fojnica, Srebrenica, Kreševo and others. Economic activity allowed for the creation of new župas like Nenavište in Posavina and Trebotić in Podrinje. Via Narenta and Via Drine were economically crucial as they provided access to Drijeva and Dubrovnik, which in turn provided access to the Adriatic Sea. In 1382 Tvrtko built a new fortress in the Bay of Kotor on the Adriatic coast to form the basis of a new salt trading centre. Initially named after Saint Stephen, the city came to be known as Novi (meaning "new").


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: Mining was a major industry in Bosnia. Saxons provided engineering expertise, and the mines were often run by Ragusans. Notable among these Saxon engineers was Hans Sasinović, who together with his brother got the rights for silver mines in Ostružnica and Fojnica. Most of the silver mines laid in the king's lands, except from Srebrenica, and there was a demand for Bosnian silver products in the cities on the Adriatic. Germans working in Bosnia produced firearms and cannons, making it one of the first inland Balkan countries to do so.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: Vlachs in medieval Bosnia carried much of the traffic between inland and coastal cities. With their caravans, led by "kramar", mostly composed of 10 to 100 horses, they conducted much of the trade between inland and coastal cities. A particularly large caravan trade happened on 9 August 1428 between Podvisoki and Ragusa, when Vlachs committed to Ragusan lord Tomo Bunić that they would deliver 1500 modius of salt on 600 horses. At the end of the 14th century, merchants from Podvisoki took part in the slave trade. For example, on November 1389 Bogovac Vukojević sold the small boy Milko for 4 ducats.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: In the twilight years of the Kingdom of Bosnia, Thomas engaged in vigorous commerce and made business deals with Dalmatian traders. He relied heavily on his silver mining, but profited most from his salt trade monopolies. Sultan Mehmed started exerting even greater pressure on Bosnia. In addition to financial extortion, Bosnia under Thomas was now forbidden to export silver, which Mehmed claimed for himself, crippling of the Bosnian economy. Thomas's successor Stephen Tomašević tried to improve the situation, and the economy became stronger than ever during his reign, collecting more profit from the flourishing metalworking trade.


title: Kingdom of Bosnia

text: The most important customs posts were in Drijeva, Vrabač, Deževice, Podvisoki, Trebinje, Foča, Goražde, Borač, Višegrad, Olovo, and Srebrenica. Customs collection was overseen by protovestiarios, who were often Ragusan citizens.


title: Saint Denis of Paris

text: Denis of Paris was a 3rd-century Christian martyr and saint. According to his hagiographies, he was bishop of Paris (then Lutetia) in the third century and, together with his companions Rusticus and Eleutherius, was martyred for his faith by decapitation. Some accounts placed this during Domitian's persecution and incorrectly identified StDenis of Paris with the Areopagite who was converted by Paul the Apostle and who served as the first bishop of Athens. Assuming Denis's historicity, it is now considered more likely that he suffered under the persecution of the emperor Decius shortly after AD250.


title: Saint Denis of Paris

text: Denis is the most famous cephalophore in Christian legend, with a popular story claiming that the decapitated bishop picked up his head and walked several miles while preaching a sermon on repentance. He is venerated in the Catholic Church as the patron saint of France and Paris and is accounted one of the Fourteen Holy Helpers. A chapel was raised at the site of his burial by a local Christian woman; it was later expanded into an abbey and basilica, around which grew up the French city of Saint-Denis, now a suburb of Paris.


title: Saint Denis of Paris

text: The medieval and modern French masculine given name Denis derives from the Latin name Dionysius from Greek Dionysios.


title: Saint Denis of Paris

text: Gregory of Tours states that Denis was bishop of the Parisii and was martyred by being beheaded by a sword. The earliest document giving an account of his life and martyrdom, the ""Passio SS. Dionysii Rustici et Eleutherii"", dates from c. 600, is mistakenly attributed to the poet Venantius Fortunatus, and is legendary. Nevertheless, it appears from the "Passio" that Denis was sent from Italia to convert Gaul in the third century, forging a link with the "apostles to the Gauls" reputed to have been sent out with six other missionary bishops under the direction of Pope Fabian. There Denis was appointed first Bishop of Paris. The persecutions under Emperor Decius had all but dissolved the small Christian community at Lutetia (Paris). Denis, with his inseparable companions Rusticus and Eleutherius, who were martyred with him, settled on the Île de la Cité in the River Seine. Roman Paris lay on the higher ground of the Left Bank, away from the river.


title: Saint Denis of Paris

text: Denis and his companions were so effective in converting people that the pagan priests became alarmed over their loss of followers. At their instigation, the Roman Governor arrested the missionaries. After a long imprisonment, Denis and two of his clergy were executed by beheading on the highest hill in Paris (now Montmartre), which was likely to have been a druidic holy place. The martyrdom of Denis and his companions is popularly believed to have given the site its current name, derived from the Latin "Mons Martyrum" ""The Martyrs' Mountain"", although the name is possibly derived from "Mons Mercurii et Mons Martis", "Hill of Mercury and Mars". After his head was cut off, Denis is said to have picked it up and walked several miles from the summit of the hill, preaching a sermon the entire way, making him one of many cephalophores in hagiology. Of the many accounts of this martyrdom, this is noted in detail in the "Golden Legend" and in Butler's "Lives Of The Saints". The site where he stopped preaching and actually died was marked by a small shrine that developed into the Basilica of Saint-Denis, which became the burial place for the kings of France. Another account has his corpse being thrown into the Seine, but recovered and buried later that night by his converts.


title: Saint Denis of Paris

text: Veneration of Denis began soon after his death. The bodies of Denis, Eleutherius, and Rusticus were buried on the spot of their martyrdom, where the construction of the eponymous basilica was begun by Genevieve, assisted by the people of Paris. Her "Vita Sanctae Genovefae" attests the presence of a shrine near the present basilica by the close of the fifth century.


title: Saint Denis of Paris

text: Dagobert I, great-grandson of Chlothar I, had the first Royal Basilica built. The Merovingian tradition was, originally, to bury kings such as Clovis and Chlothildis in Paris at Abbey St-Genevieve/Genovefa, as Clovis had ordered its construction in 502 AD. Yet Chilperic I had his own mother, Dowager Queen Aregunda, buried at Saint-Denis. His grandson was clearly following a family tradition. Aregunda's (death about 580 AD) tomb was discovered in 1959, and her burial items can be seen at the Saint-Germain-en-Laye museum. A successor church was erected by Fulrad, who became abbot in 749/50 and was closely linked with the accession of the Carolingians to the Merovingian throne.


title: Saint Denis of Paris

text: In time, StDenis came to be regarded as the patron saint of the French people, with StLouis the patron of the monarchy and royal dynasties. "Saint Denis" or "Montjoie! Saint Denis!" became the typical war-cry of the French armies. The oriflamme, which became the standard of France, was the banner consecrated upon his tomb. His veneration spread beyond France when, in 754, Pope Stephen II brought veneration of Saint Denis to Rome. Soon his "cultus" was prevalent throughout Europe. Abbot Suger removed the relics of Denis, and those associated with Rustique and Eleuthére, from the crypt, to reside under the high altar of the Saint-Denis he rebuilt, 1140-44.


title: Saint Denis of Paris

text: In traditional Catholic practice, Saint Denis is honoured as one of the Fourteen Holy Helpers. Specifically, Denis is invoked against diabolical possession and headaches and with Geneviève is one of the patron saints of Paris.


title: Saint Denis of Paris

text: October 9 is celebrated as the feast of Saint Denis and companions, a priest named Rusticus and a deacon, Eleutherius, who were martyred alongside him and buried with him. The names Rusticus and Eleutherius are non-historical. The feast of Saint Denis was added to the Roman Calendar in the year 1568 by Pope Pius V, although it had been celebrated since at least the year 800.


title: Saint Denis of Paris

text: Saint Denis is also remembered with a commemoration in many Anglican Provinces, including the Church of England and the Anglican Church of Canada, on October 9.


title: Saint Denis of Paris

text: Since at least the ninth century, the legends of Dionysius the Areopagite and Denis of Paris have often been confused. Around 814, Louis the Pious brought certain writings attributed to Dionysius the Areopagite to France, and since then it became common among the French legendary writers to argue that Denis of Paris was the same Dionysius who was a famous convert and disciple of Paul of Tarsus. The confusion of the personalities of Denis of Paris, Dionysius the Areopagite, and pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, the author of the writings ascribed to Dionysius brought to France by Louis, was initiated through an "Areopagitica" written in 836 by Hilduin, Abbot of Saint-Denis, at the request of Louis the Pious. "Hilduin was anxious to promote the dignity of his church, and it is to him that the quite unfounded identification of the patron saint with Dionysius the Areopagite and his consequent connexion with the apostolic age are due." Hilduin's attribution had been supported for centuries by the monastic community at Abbey of Saint-Denis and it was one of the origins of their pride. In "Historia calamitatum", Pierre Abelard gives a short account of the strength of this belief and the monastery's harsh opposition to challenges to their claim. Abelard jokingly pointed out a possibility that the founder of the Abbey could have been another Dionysius, who is mentioned as Dionysius of Corinth by Eusebius. This irritated the community so much that eventually Abelard left in bitterness. As late as the sixteenth century, scholars might still argue for an Eastern origin of the Basilica of Saint-Denis: one was Godefroi Tillman, in a long preface to a paraphrase of the "Letters" of the Areopagite, printed in Paris in 1538 by Charlotte Guillard. Most historiographers agree that this conflated legend is completely erroneous.


title: Saint Denis of Paris

text: Denis' headless walk has led to his being depicted in art decapitated and dressed as a bishop, holding his own (often mitred) head in his hands. Handling the halo in this circumstance poses a unique challenge for the artist. Some put the halo where the head used to be; others have Saint Denis carrying the halo along with the head. Even more problematic than the halo was the issue of how much of his head Denis should be shown carrying.


title: Saint Denis of Paris

text: Throughout much of the Middle Ages, the Abbey of St Denis and the canons of Notre-Dame Cathedral were in dispute over ownership of the saint's head. The Abbey claimed that they had the entire body, whilst the Cathedral claimed to possess the top of his head which, they claimed, had been severed by the executioner's first blow. Thus while most depictions of St Denis show him holding his entire head, in others, the patrons have shown their support for the Cathedral's claim by depicting him carrying just the crown of his skull, as for example in the mid 13th century window showing the story at Le Mans Cathedral (Bay 111).


title: Saint Denis of Paris

text: A 1317 illustrated manuscript depicting "The Life of Saint Denis", once owned by King Philip V of France, is preserved in the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris. It was given to the king by his chaplain Gilles, the abbot of Saint-Denis, having been commissioned by Jean de Pontoise, the previous Abbot of Saint-Denis. The manuscript contains seventy-seven miniatures illustrating the life and martyrdom of Saint Denis.


title: Belém

text: Belém (; Portuguese for Bethlehem; initially called Nossa Senhora de Belém do Grão-Pará, in English Our Lady of Bethlehem of Great Pará) often called Belém of Pará, is a Brazilian city, capital and largest city of the state of Pará in the country's north. It is the gateway to the Amazon River with a busy port, airport, and bus/coach station. Belém lies approximately 100 km upriver from the Atlantic Ocean, on the Pará River, which is part of the greater Amazon River system, separated from the larger part of the Amazon delta by "Ilha de Marajó" (Marajo Island). With an estimated population of 1,499,641 people — or 2,491,052, considering its metropolitan area — it is the 11th most populous city in Brazil, as well as the 16th by economic relevance. It is the second largest in the North Region, second only to Manaus, in the state of Amazonas.


title: Belém

text: Founded in 1616 by the Kingdom of Portugal, Belém was the first European colony on the Amazon but did not become part of Brazil until 1775. The newer part of the city has modern buildings and skyscrapers. The colonial portion retains the charm of tree-filled squares, churches and traditional blue tiles. The city has a rich history and architecture from colonial times. Recently it witnessed a skyscraper boom.


title: Belém

text: Belém is also known as the "Metropolis of the Brazilian Amazon region" or the "Cidade das Mangueiras" (City of Mango Trees) due to the vast number of those trees found in the city. Brazilians often refer to the city as "Belém do Pará" ("Belém of Pará") rather than just "Belém", a reference to an earlier name for the city, "Santa Maria de Belém do Grão Pará" ("Saint Mary of Bethlehem of Great Pará"), and also to differentiate it from a number of other towns called Belém in Brazil, as well as the city of Bethlehem in the West Bank of Palestine. It is named after Santa Maria de Belém in Lisbon, also better known by its shortened name, Belém.


title: Belém

text: Belém is served by Val de Cans International Airport, which connects the city with the rest of Brazil and other cities in South America, North America (United States) and Europe (Lisbon). The city is also home to the Federal University of Pará and the Pará State University.


title: Belém

text: The name of Belém has origin in Arabic which means "the house of meat". Initially the city was called "St. Mary of Belém of Pará" () or "Our Lady of Belém of Grão-Pará" (), eventually shortened to "Belém do Pará" (name given by Philip III of Spain), in reference to Christmas; the day when captain Francisco Caldeira Castelo Branco left from the city of São Luís in 1615 to conquer the lands of Pará.


title: Belém

text: In 1615, Portuguese captain-general Francisco Caldeira Castelo Branco of the captaincy of Bahia commanded a military expedition sent by the Governor General of Brazil to check the trading excursions of foreigners (French, Dutch, English) up the river (Amazon) from the Cabo do Norte in Grão Pará.


title: Belém

text: On January 12, 1616, he anchored in what is now known as Guajará Bay, formed by the confluence of the Para and Guamá Rivers, called by the Tupinambás, "Guaçu Paraná". Caldeira mistook the bay for the main channel, and thirty leagues (178 km) upstream, he built a wooden fort, covered with straw, which he called "Presépio" (nativity scene), now known as "Forte do Castelo". The colony formed by the fort was given the name Feliz Lusitânia, "Fortunate Lusitania". It was the embryo of the future city of Belém. The fort failed to suppress Dutch and French trading, but did ward off colonization.


title: Belém

text: Feliz Lusitânia was later called Nossa Senhora de Belém do Grão Pará (Our Lady of Bethlehem of Grao-Para) and Santa Maria de Belém (St. Mary of Bethlehem). Belém was given city status in 1655 and was made capital of the State when Pará state was split off from Maranhão in 1772. The early decades of the 19th century were marked by political instability. Uprisings and internecine strife finally ended in 1836, after considerable loss of life.


title: Belém

text: The sugar trade in the Belém region was important up to the end of the 17th century. Thereafter the city's economic importance alternately rose and fell. Cattle ranching supplanted sugar until the 18th century, when cultivation of rice, cotton and coffee became profitable. With the settlement of southern Brazil, where such crops could be produced more efficiently, Belém declined again. The city subsequently became the main exporting centre of the Amazon rubber industry, and by 1866 its position was further enhanced by the opening of the Amazon, Tocantins and Tapajós rivers to navigation. The rubber era ended after the boom of 1910–12, but Belém continued to be the main commercial centre of northern Brazil and the entrepôt for the Amazon valley.


title: Belém

text: The municipality includes the islands of Mosqueiro, fringed by 14 freshwater beaches, and Caratateua which receive a large number of visitors in summertime. In addition to these and also near Belém, is the island of Tatuoca which is the location of one of the seven geophysical stations in the world, and the only station in Latin America.


title: Belém

text: Belém has a tropical rainforest climate (Köppen: "Af") more subject to the Intertropical Convergence Zone than the maritime trade winds, and with no cyclones, that is a true equatorial climate. In all 12 months of the year, the city on average sees more than 60 mm of rainfall, so the city has no true dry season month. However, Belém features noticeably wetter and drier seasons. The wetter season spans from December through May, while the drier season covers the remaining six months of the year. Like many cities with a tropical rainforest climate, average temperatures vary little throughout the course of the year, generally hovering around 26.5 degrees Celsius. As one would expect, tropical rainforest is the natural vegetation in and around the city.


title: Belém

text: The Amazon represents more than half the planet's remaining rainforests and comprises the largest and most species-rich tract of tropical rainforest in the world. Wet tropical forests are the most species-rich biome, and tropical forests in the Americas are consistently more species rich than the wet forests in Africa and Asia. As the largest tract of tropical rainforest in the Americas, the Amazonian rainforests have unparalleled biodiversity. More than one-third of all species in the world live in the Amazon Rainforest.


title: Belém

text: Many valuable products now exported from the Amazon by way of Belém are aluminium, iron ore, and other metals, nuts (chiefly Brazil nuts), pineapples, cassava, jute, wood veneers, and hardwoods. Japanese immigration after the 1930s was an important factor in developing jute and black pepper, notably at Tomé-Açu, just south of Belém, and near Santarém. Marajó Island, the largest fluvial island in the world, which lies just across the Rio Pará from Belém, has some livestock grazing. Electricity is provided by the massive Tucuruí Dam, some 300 km southwest of the city on the Tocantins River.


title: Belém

text: According to the IBGE of 2018, there were 2,491,052 people residing in the Metropolitan Region of Belém. This region is composed by 7 cities: Belém (1,485.732 people), Ananindeua (525,566 people), Marituba (129,321 people), Benevides (61,689 people), Santa Bárbara do Pará (20,704 people), Santa Izabel do Pará (69,746 people), and Castanhal (198,294 people). In 2012, according to IBGE, the capital city itself had a population density of . The last PNAD (National Research for Sample of Domiciles) census revealed the following numbers: 1,379,655 Pardo (Multiracial) people (64.5%), 588,225 White (27.5%), 156,147 Black (7.3%), 14,973 Asian or Amerindian people (0.7%).


title: Belém

text: According to an autosomal DNA genetic study from 2011, the ancestral composition of the population of Belém is: 68.6% European ancestry, followed by 20.9% Amerindian ancestry and 10.6% African ancestry.


title: Belém

text: Portuguese is the official national language, and thus the primary language taught in schools. But English and Spanish are part of the official high school curriculum.


title: Belém

text: On the second Sunday in October, Pará celebrates the largest religious event in Brazil: the procession of the Círio of Nazaré. This tradition started when a farmer and lumberman called Plácido José de Souza found an image of the Virgin and Child on the edge of the Murucutu creek, where the Basilica of Our Lady of Nazareth of Exile stands today. He decided to take the image home. However, the image would mysteriously go back to the place where it was initially found every time he took it home. So Plácido decided to build a small chapel on the edge of the creek. This episode was regarded as miraculous throughout the region. It attracted hundreds of believers to see the image and pay homage to it.


title: Belém

text: Since then, the Círio has been celebrated as a long procession lasting around five hours, in which thousands of people follow the statue through the streets of Belém. The Círio festival is regarded as the "Christmas of the Amazon" because everyone is involved in the arrangements to receive the saint. In early September, minor celebrations take place as a spiritual preparation for the Círio, with thousands of images scattered all over the capital and neighboring cities.


title: Belém

text: In time it became necessary to incorporate new elements into the tradition due to the people's desire to honor their patron saint. On the Saturday morning prior to the Círio procession the statue is taken to the square of Ananindeua, a nearby city, to begin a Road Pilgrimage to the Icoaraci pier for a Mass. The river pilgrimage then begins. It was created to honor the "water men" who regard the Virgin of Nazareth as their patron saint. There is a traditional ship contest to award the most originally decorated boat. When the Sacred Image leaves Icoaraci in a Navy Corvette, it is followed by dozens of boats and ships through the waters of Guajará Bay to the pier of Belém, from where it is escorted all the way to the Gentil Bittencourt School. The subsequent candle-lit procession symbolizes the story of the discovery of the Saint and its return to where it was found. The procession follows the Carriage, to which a huge rope is tied, which is carried by the faithful until the procession arrives at the Sé Cathedral.


title: Belém

text: During the procession, there is a fireworks show, sponsored by the Stevedores' Union, marking the passage of the Saint until its arrival at the Cathedral. At daybreak of the next day, the faithful start to gather at the Old City, believing that this will bring them closer to the Virgin. At 7 o'clock, the archbishop conducts the image to the carriage as bells toll and fireworks explode. The main procession then goes through the streets of the city to the Architectonic Centre of Nazareth, known for its Sanctuary Square. As it arrives at the square, the image is removed from the carriage for the celebration of a Mass and then lifted so that everybody will be blessed by the patron saint of Pará.


title: Belém

text: The festivities last 15 days, with religious celebrations, like the Children's Círio, and its procession, held two Sundays after the Círio. The Re-Círio marks the end of the celebrations, with a shorter course back to the Gentil Bittencourt chapel.


title: Belém

text: Built in a 23,000-square-metre area, the Hangar Convention and Fair Center of the Amazon has 12 rooms, ticket offices, baggage keeping, press room, and a food court, distributed in two big buildings with a parking lot for 800 vehicles. Genuine Amazonian trees will soon be planted in the outdoor area. With Hangar, Belém joins the market for national conventions that take place in a different city each time, such as the Brazilian Computer Society Congress. National conventions had not been held in the Northern region previously.


title: Belém

text: Hangar, whose auditorium has room for 2,160 participants, has some of the best technologies available in the world and is the most modern and functional space for events in the country. According to the Brazilian Association of Convention and Fair Centers (ABRACCEF), there are 17,500 events happening on average throughout the 53 main convention and exhibition centres of Brazil. These activities bring together approximately 28 million participants. Belém has great potential for this type of tourism.


title: Belém

text: In many ways, Belém's colonial architecture reflects the seventeenth-century architecture of Lisbon in Portugal which served as the inspiration for the main housing projects of the time, with the frequent use of tile-hung façades. Neoclassical architecture is also present in buildings such as the Theatro da Paz, built in 1874. Many of the buildings at the end of the nineteenth century and early twentieth century also echo French architecture.