title: Chung Ju-yung

text: Chung once again found himself in Asan, where he remained for a year helping his father work on the family farm. Once his duties to the family were complete, Chung decided it was time to make another attempt at getting out of poverty. He managed to get a train ticket for 70 won by selling one of his father's cows. Once he arrived in Keijō, Chung enrolled himself in a local bookkeeping school hoping to start a career as an accountant. Things went smoothly for two months when his father managed to find him and after a mild argument, took him back to Gasan.


title: Chung Ju-yung

text: In 1933, at the age of 18, Chung decided to make a fourth attempt to escape. He left during the night with a friend who was trying to escape a forced marriage. Once Chung reached Keijō, he jumped at any job he could find. He worked first as a laborer at Jinsen Harbor (Incheon, currently in South Korea), a construction worker at Boseong Professional School and as a handyman for a starch syrup factory.


title: Chung Ju-yung

text: After working at the syrup factory for nearly a year, Chung managed to land a job as a deliveryman at the Bokheung Rice Store in Keijō. Chung's new job offered him room for advancement and as he became more successful at it, he decided to stay on full-time. He eventually won the praise of the rice store's core customers which impressed the owner so much that he allowed Chung to manage the store's accounting after only six months on the job. His experiences as the store accountant helped him to thoroughly develop his business sense.


title: Chung Ju-yung

text: In 1937, the owner of the rice store became ill and decided it would be in his best interest to give the store to Chung. At 22 years of age, Chung became the store owner and changed the name of the store to Kyungil Rice Store. The store grew and made good profits until early 1939 when Japan, in its war efforts to secure rice supplies for the country and its military, imposed an oppressive rice-rationing system which forced Korean businesses out of trading rice.


title: Chung Ju-yung

text: Chung returned to his village once his business failed and remained there until 1940, when he decided to try again in Keijō. After considering the reality of restrictions imposed on Koreans in certain industries by the Japanese colonial government, Chung decided to enter the automobile repair business. Using a service garage he purchased from a friend, Chung started the A-do Service Garage on a 3,000 won loan. Within three years, the number of employees grew from 20 to 70 and Chung was able to earn a good income. In 1943, the Japanese colonial government forced the garage to merge with a steel plant as part of the war effort. Although his businesses were shut down due to suppression by the Japanese, Chung returned to Gasan with 50,000 yen in savings to try to make the best of the situation.


title: Chung Ju-yung

text: In 1946, after the liberation of Korea from Japanese control, Chung started Hyundai and Hyundai Civil Industries in anticipation of the post-war reconstruction and industrialization. Chung won major government contracts and became responsible for building much of South Korea's transportation infrastructure, including the Soyang Dam in 1967, the Gyeongbu Expressway in 1970, the world's largest shipyard in Ulsan, the Kori Nuclear Power Plant among others. Chung also won contracts from the United States Forces Korea to build facilities for their personnel as his younger brother could speak English and was on good terms with the U.S. Army engineers.


title: Chung Ju-yung

text: During the North Korean invasion of 1950, Chung abandoned his construction projects and fled with his younger brother to Busan for safety. His son, Chung Mong-joon was born there. Chung continued to build onto the company by gathering any kind of work he could get from the United Nations Command and the Korean Ministry of Transportation. Once Seoul was retaken by U.N. forces, Chung reestablished the company and continued to gather more work from the Americans.


title: Chung Ju-yung

text: From then on, Chung continued to grow and diversify the company into one of South Korea's major chaebol (conglomerate). With no experience in shipbuilding, he created the Ulsan shipyard, the largest shipyard in the world. The first vessel was completed in three years (rather than the expected five) as Chung had the shipyard and vessel built simultaneously. He introduced the Hyundai Pony in 1975 and the Hyundai Excel in 1986 using European expertise.


title: Chung Ju-yung

text: From the 1980s until recently, the Hyundai Group was split into many satellite groups. Chung had a very successful career. In Seosan, he carried out a successful reclamation project, using a decommissioned oil tanker as a cofferdam. In 1998, he herded 1,001 cows through the Korean Demilitarized Zone to North Korea, which he claimed was a repayment 1,000 times over for a cow he took to afford his ticket when he escaped his father's farm. Chung was the first civilian to cross the Korean DMZ since the division of Korea. He was the first to propose the Geumgangsan sightseeing excursions. He founded the Hyundai Heavy Steel Company which developed a non-dock ship-making method.


title: Chung Ju-yung

text: Chung's philanthropy distinguished him from the other businessmen of his generation. In 1977, he founded the Asan Foundation with a scope of activities comparable to those of the Ford or Rockefeller foundations. The foundation was organized into four major areas of service: medical support, social welfare, research and development, and a scholarship fund. Through its efforts, the foundation established nine hospitals throughout South Korea, built Ulsan Medical College, and funded the Asan Life Sciences Research Institute. The foundation also initiated cooperative arrangements between industry and academic institutions by supporting such academic research as the Sinyoung Research Fund.


title: Chung Ju-yung

text: Chung is credited with successfully lobbying for South Korea to host the 1988 Summer Olympics. This success highlighted the accomplishments of his generation in the eyes of the world and became a source of great pride to the people of Seoul. In 1992 the International Olympic Committee awarded Chung an IOC Medallion for his contributions to sports as a vehicle of international understanding.


title: Chung Ju-yung

text: Chung ran unsuccessfully as a Unification National Party presidential candidate for the 1992 South Korean presidential election.


title: Chung Ju-yung

text: Chung also worked to normalize relations between the two Koreas. In 1998, at the age of 82, he worked with the South Korean government to provide economic assistance to the North. President Kim Dae-jung wanted to provide a $100 million donation as a way to jump-start economic development in North Korea under his Sunshine Policy. However, Kim could not find a legal way to transfer the funds. He turned to Chung, who was already negotiating a large program with the North. Kim persuaded Chung to increase his investment by $100 million with money from secret loans provided by the government-controlled Korea Development Bank. The historic 2000 inter-Korean summit took place, with Chung traveling across the border in a motorcade of cars containing some 1001 "unification cows" as a gift to the North Korean people.


title: Chung Ju-yung

text: Chung died at the age of 85 of natural causes at his home in Seoul, and he was buried in accordance to Buddhist and Confucian customary rites. His wife, Byun Joong-seok, died on August 17, 2008, at the age of 88, due in part to long-term heart complications, and was buried in a family graveyard in Hanam, along with her husband and their son.


title: Chung Ju-yung

text: As one of the most recognized and admired business men in Korean history, Chung's identity still pervades modern Korean society and industry. Business-related events emphasizing creativity and innovation have been named after him. Much of the current success of Hyundai is widely attributed to Chung's insight and resolution, ideals that the contemporary Hyundai leadership vow to keep.


title: Chung Ju-yung

text: Chung Ju-yung had five brothers and one sister; he had eight sons and one daughter with his wife. In addition, he had two illegitimate daughters with a younger woman, with whom he started a relationship in 1973; these daughters were not acknowledged until after his death.


title: The Horse and His Boy

text: The Horse and His Boy is a novel for children by C. S. Lewis, published by Geoffrey Bles in 1954. Of the seven novels that comprise "The Chronicles of Narnia" (1950–1956), "The Horse and His Boy" was the fifth to be published. The novel is set in the period covered by the last chapter of "The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe" during the reign of the four Pevensie children as . Though three of the Pevensies appear as minor characters in "The Horse and His Boy", the main characters are two children and two talking horses who escape from Calormen and travel north into Narnia. On their journey, they learn of the Prince of Calormen's plan to attack Archenland, and warn the King of Archenland of the impending strike.


title: The Horse and His Boy

text: Like the other novels in "The Chronicles of Narnia", "The Horse and His Boy" was illustrated by Pauline Baynes; her work has been retained in many later editions.


title: The Horse and His Boy

text: Shasta is a boy who lives in southern Calormen with Arsheesh, a fisherman, whom Shasta believes to be his father. A powerful nobleman demands hospitality one evening, and haggles with Arsheesh to buy Shasta as his slave. It emerges that Arsheesh is not Shasta's father, having found him in a washed-up boat as a baby. In the stable, Bree, the nobleman's stallion, astounds the boy by speaking. He tells Shasta that the nobleman is very cruel to his slaves, and suggests they both flee to his homeland of Narnia, from where he was captured as a foal. Shasta agrees, and they sneak away at night.


title: The Horse and His Boy

text: After weeks of northwards travel, during which the two companions bond, a brief chase to escape lions leads to their meeting another pair of refugees: another Narnian Talking Horse, the mare Hwin, who like Bree desires to return home, and Aravis, a young noblewoman who wants to escape a political marriage to Ahoshta, the ugly Grand Vizier. Although Shasta and Aravis immediately dislike each other, the four decide to travel together. In Tashbaan, the capital of Calormen, a party of Narnians mistake Shasta for Corin, the prince of Archenland, a Narnian ally, who has gone missing. Taken from the others, Shasta overhears the Narnians planning to escape Calormen to prevent a forced marriage between Queen Susan and Rabadash, son of the Tisroc, the Calormen ruler. Shasta escapes when Corin returns, but not before learning of a hidden route through the desert.


title: The Horse and His Boy

text: Meanwhile, Aravis is spotted by her friend Lasaraleen. Although Lasaraleen cannot understand Aravis' motives, she helps Aravis escape through the Tisroc's garden. On the way, they overhear the Tisroc discussing the Narnians' escape with Rabadash and Ahsota. The Tisroc gives Rabadash permission to raid Archenland and Narnia to kidnap Queen Susan while High King Peter is away battling giants in the north, but notes that he cannot openly support such a raid and will renounce Rabadash if he fails. The four reunite at a necropolis where Shasta has had supernatural dreams, and they pool their information. They set out across the desert along the hidden route to warn Archenland; they are again chased by a lion, which injures Aravis.


title: The Horse and His Boy

text: A hermit tends to Aravis' wounds, while Shasta carries on on foot. He finds Lune, King of Archenland, and warns him of the raiders. He is separated from Lune in thick fog, and encounters an unseen presence, who claims to have been not only the lion who injured Aravis, but also the lion who caused the four to join forces, and even the one who guided Shasta's boat to Arsheesh. The presence disappears, and Shasta finds himself in Narnia. He again meets Corin, who is travelling southwards with the Narnian party (who escaped from Calormen successfully) to assist Archenland. The Narnians, led by King Edmund and Queen Lucy, arrive at the Archenland capital, they defeat the Calormenes, who were unable to take the castle because of Shasta's warning.


title: The Horse and His Boy

text: Rabadash is captured and most of his men are killed. Lune realises that Shasta is his son Cor, the long-lost identical twin of Prince Corin and the heir to the Archenland throne. Cor had been kidnapped as a baby in an attempt to thwart a prophecy which foretold that he would save Archenland; Shasta's return fulfilled the prophecy. Shasta's unseen presence is revealed to be Aslan, who turns Rabadash into a donkey after he refuses to accept defeat. His human form is restored when he returns to Tashbaan, but thereafter he is forbidden to travel more than ten miles from the city, on pain of permanent transformation. His reign as Tisroc is therefore very peaceful.


title: The Horse and His Boy

text: Corin is delighted that Shasta, now called Cor, is heir, as he didn't want to be king; he eventually becomes the best boxer in the north. Aravis and Cor eventually marry and rule Archenland after Lune's death; their son, Ram, becomes the most famous king of Archenland. Bree and Hwin would find love separately, and all four would reunite regularly.


title: The Horse and His Boy

text: After meeting King Lune of Archenland and warning him of the impending Calormene invasion, Shasta becomes lost in a fog and separated from the Archenlanders. While walking in the fog, he senses a mysterious presence nearby. Engaging in conversation with the unknown being, Shasta tells of his misfortunes, including twice being chased by lions. His companion, who turns out to be Aslan, responds as follows:


title: The Horse and His Boy

text: "I was the lion who forced you to join with Aravis. I was the cat who comforted you among the houses of the dead. I was the lion who drove the jackals from you while you slept. I was the lion who gave the horses the new strength of fear for the last mile so that you should reach King Lune in time. And I was the lion you do not remember who pushed the boat in which you lay, a child near death, so that it came to shore where a man sat, wakeful at midnight, to receive you."


title: The Horse and His Boy

text: The incidents which Shasta perceived as misfortunes were orchestrated by Aslan, in his Divine Providence, for greater purposes.


title: The Horse and His Boy

text: Bree and Shasta use the phrase "Narnia and the North" as their "rallying cry" as they make their escape from their life in Calormen. They are both motivated by a deep longing to find their way to their true homeland. In the setting of "The Horse and His Boy", the reader finds a departure from the landscapes, culture, and people of the Narnian realms which have become familiar in the other books. The placement of the action in the realm of Calormen helps to convey a sense of "unbelonging" on the part of the characters and the reader, which reinforces the motif of longing for a true home.


title: The Horse and His Boy

text: The association of Cor with horses, and his twin brother Corin with boxing, recalls the traditional associations of the Spartan twins Castor and Pollux of Greek mythology.


title: The Horse and His Boy

text: Researcher Ruth North has noted that the plot element of a sinful human being transformed into a donkey as a punishment and then restored to humanity as an act of Divine mercy is reminiscent of "The Golden Ass" by Apuleius, a classic of Latin literature.


title: The Horse and His Boy

text: BBC Radio 4 dramatised "The Chronicles of Narnia", including "The Horse and His Boy", in 1998. The dramatisation is entitled "The Complete Chronicles of Narnia: The Classic BBC Radio 4 Full-Cast Dramatisations".


title: The Horse and His Boy

text: Walden Media made movie adaptations of "", "" and "". Walden Media obtained an option to make "The Chronicles of Narnia: The Horse and His Boy" in the future.


title: Olaf Tryggvason

text: Olaf Tryggvason (960s – 9 September 1000) was King of Norway from 995 to 1000. He was the son of Tryggvi Olafsson, king of Viken (Vingulmark, and Rånrike), and, according to later sagas, the great-grandson of Harald Fairhair, first King of Norway. He is numbered as Olaf I.


title: Olaf Tryggvason

text: Olaf is seen as an important factor in the conversion of the Norse to Christianity. He is said to have built the first Christian church in Norway, in 995, and to have founded the city of Trondheim in 997. A statue of Olaf Tryggvason is located in the city's central plaza.


title: Olaf Tryggvason

text: Historical information on Olaf is sparse. He is mentioned in some contemporary English sources, and some skaldic poems. The oldest narrative source mentioning him briefly is Adam of Bremen's "Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum" of "circa" 1070.


title: Olaf Tryggvason

text: In the 1190s, two Latin versions of ""Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar"" were written in Iceland, by Oddr Snorrason and by Gunnlaugr Leifsson – these are now lost, but are thought to form the basis of later Norse versions. Snorri Sturluson gives an extensive account of Olaf in the "Heimskringla" saga of "circa" 1230, using Oddr Snorrason's saga as his primary source. Modern historians do not assume that these late sources are accurate, and their credibility is debated. The most detailed account is named "Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar en mesta" ("Greatest Saga of Óláfr Tryggvason") and is recorded in the "Flateyjarbók", and in the early 15th-century "Bergsbók".


title: Olaf Tryggvason

text: There is uncertainty of both the date and the place of Olaf's birth. The earliest Norwegian written source, the "Historia Norwegiæ" of the late twelfth century, states that Olaf was born in the Orkney Islands after his mother fled there to escape the killers of Olaf's father. Another late 12th-century source, "Ágrip af Nóregskonungasögum", states that Olaf's mother fled to Orkney with Olaf when he was three years old for the same reason. All the sagas agree that Olaf eventually came to Kievan Rus', specifically the court of Vladimir the Great of Kiev.


title: Olaf Tryggvason

text: The version in "Heimskringla" is the most elaborate, but also the latest, and introduces elements to the story that are not found in earlier sources. It states that Olaf was born shortly after the murder of his father in 963, while other sources suggest a date between 964 and 969. The later dates cast doubt over Olaf's claim to be of Harald Fairhair's kin, and the legitimacy of his claim to the throne. Snorri Sturluson claims in "Olaf Tryggvson's saga" that Olaf was born on an islet in Fjærlandsvatnet, where his mother Astrid Eiriksdottir, daughter of Eirik Bjodaskalle, was hiding from her husband's killers, led by Harald Greycloak, the son of Eirik Bloodaxe. Greycloak and his brothers had seized the throne from Haakon the Good. Astrid fled to her father's home in Oppland, then went on to Sweden where she thought she and Olaf would be safe. Greycloak sent emissaries to the king of Sweden, and asked for permission to take the boy back to Norway, where he would be raised by Greycloak's mother Gunhild. The Swedish king gave them men to help them claim the young boy, but to no avail. After a short scuffle Astrid (with her son) fled again. This time their destination was Gardarike (Kiev), where Astrid's brother Sigurd was in the service of Vladimir the Great. Olaf was three years old when they set sail on a merchant ship for Novgorod. The journey was not successful: in the Baltic Sea they were captured by Estonian vikings, and the people aboard were either killed or taken as slaves. Olaf became the possession of a man named Klerkon, together with his foster father Thorolf and his son Thorgils. Klerkon considered Thorolf too old to be useful as a slave and killed him, and then sold the two boys to a man named Klerk for a ram. Olaf was then sold to a man called Reas for a fine cloak. Six years later, Sigurd Eirikson traveled to Estonia to collect taxes for King Vladimir. He saw a boy who did not appear to be a native. He asked the boy about his family, and the boy told him he was Olaf, son of Tryggve Olafson and Astrid Eiriksdattir. Sigurd then went to Reas and bought Olaf and Thorgils out from slavery, and took the boys with him to Novgorod to live under the protection of Vladimir.


title: Olaf Tryggvason

text: Still according to "Heimskringla", one day in the Novgorod marketplace Olaf encountered Klerkon, his enslaver and the murderer of his foster father. Olaf killed Klerkon with an axe blow to the head. A mob followed the young boy as he fled to his protector Queen Allogia, with the intent of killing him for his misdeed. Only after Allogia had paid blood money for Olaf did the mob calm down. As Olaf grew older, Vladimir made him chief over his men-at-arms, but after a couple years the king became wary of Olaf and his popularity with his soldiers. Fearing he might be a threat to the safety of his reign, Vladimir stopped treating Olaf as a friend. Olaf decided that it was better for him to seek his fortune elsewhere, and set out for the Baltic.


title: Olaf Tryggvason

text: "Heimskringla" states that after leaving Novgorod, Olaf raided settlements and ports with success. In 982 he was caught in a storm and made port in Wendland, where he met Queen Geira, a daughter of King Burizleif. She ruled the part of Wendland in which Olaf had landed, and Olaf and his men were given an offer to stay for the winter. Olaf accepted and after courting the Queen, they were married. Olaf began to reclaim the baronies which while under Geira's rule had refused to pay taxes. After these successful campaigns, he began raiding again both in Skåne and Gotland.


title: Olaf Tryggvason

text: Olaf Tryggvason's relationship with Geira began when Geira was warned that were a large number of ships sitting in the harbor outside of her kingdom. Queen Geira told the man who informed her to invite them to her kingdom, telling him that she would have them over for a feast. Once Olaf and his men arrived, Queen Geira welcomed them in, held a feast for them, and engaged in very meaningful conversation with Olaf. This conversation led to Olaf and his men staying for a few days, and a relationship starting between the two leaders. Eventually these two would agree to a marriage while Olaf and his troops were still there. Later, during one of their conversations, Olaf asked Geira if there were any towns that she had lost control over. She replied, "Lord, I can name for you the towns that have escaped from our control; we have suffered their arrogance for a long time." Following this conversation, Olaf went out and recaptured these towns for Geira. Following this, and their marriage, Olaf would stay in the country until the untimely death of Geira.


title: Olaf Tryggvason

text: Holy Roman Emperor Otto II assembled a great army of Saxons, Franks, Frisians, and Wends to fight the Norse pagan Danes. Olaf was part of this army because his father-in-law was king of Wendland. Otto's army met the armies of King Harald Bluetooth and Haakon Jarl, the ruler of Norway under the Danish king, at Danevirke, a great wall near Schleswig. Otto's army was unable to break the fortification, so he changed tactics and sailed around it to Jutland with a large fleet. Otto won a large battle there, and forced Harald and Haakon with their armies to convert to Christianity. The constituents of Otto's army then returned to their homelands. Harald held to his new religion, but Haakon returned to worshipping the pagan gods when he came home.


title: Olaf Tryggvason

text: After Olaf had spent three years in Wendland, his wife Geira died. He felt so much sorrow from her death that he could no longer bear to stay in Wendland, and set out to plunder in 984. He raided from Friesland to the Hebrides. After four years he landed on one of the Scilly Isles. He heard of a seer who lived there. Desiring to test the seer, he sent one of his men to pose as Olaf. But the seer was not fooled. So Olaf went to see the hermit, now convinced he was a real fortune teller. And the seer told him:


title: Olaf Tryggvason

text: Thou wilt become a renowned king, and do celebrated deeds. Many men wilt thou bring to faith and baptism, and both to thy own and others' good; and that thou mayst have no doubt of the truth of this answer, listen to these tokens. When thou comest to thy ships many of thy people will conspire against thee, and then a battle will follow in which many of thy men will fall, and thou wilt be wounded almost to death, and carried upon a shield to thy ship; yet after seven days thou shalt be well of thy wounds, and immediately thou shalt let thyself be baptized.


title: Olaf Tryggvason

text: After the meeting mutineers attacked Olaf, and he was wounded but survived, and as a result he converted to Christianity.


title: Olaf Tryggvason

text: David Hugh Farmer, in the Oxford Dictionary of Saints, writes 'it is tempting' to identify the seer with Saint Lide who lived on the island of St Helen's in the Isles of Scilly.


title: Olaf Tryggvason

text: By another account, Saint Ælfheah of Canterbury baptised him near Andover, Hampshire, England in 994. However, Henrietta Leyser, the author of Ælfheah's entry in the "Oxford National Dictionary of Biography", states that Olaf was already baptised and that the 994 event at Andover was a confirmation of his faith, part of a Danegeld treaty in which he agreed to no longer raid in England.


title: Olaf Tryggvason

text: Following the death of Geira, it states in "The Saga of Olaf" that he travelled to Russia. During his stay here, he had a dream in which God spoke to him. The voice he heard said, "Hear me, you who promise to be a good man, for you never worshipped gods or paid them any reverence. But rather you disgraced them, and for that reason your works will be multiplied for good and profitable ends. Still you are very deficient in those qualities that would allow you to be in these regions and make you deserving to live here in eternity, because you do not know your Creator and you do not know who the true God is."


title: Olaf Tryggvason

text: In 988, Olaf sailed to England, because a "thing" had been called by Queen Gyda, sister of Olaf Cuaran, King of Dublin. Gyda was the widow of an earl, and was searching for a new husband. A great many men had come, but Gyda singled out Olaf, though he was wearing his bad weather clothes, and the other men wore their finest clothing. They were to be married, but another man, Alfvine, took objection, and challenged Olaf and his men to the Scandinavian duel or holmgang. Olaf and his men fought Alfvine's crew and won every battle, but did not kill any of them; instead, they bound them. Alfvine was told to leave the country and never come back again. Gyda and Olaf married, and spent half their time in England and the other half in Ireland.


title: Olaf Tryggvason

text: In 995, rumours began to surface in Norway of a king in Ireland of Norwegian blood. This caught the ear of Jarl Haakon, who sent Thorer Klakka to Ireland, posing as a merchant, to see if he was the son of Tryggve Olafson. Haakon told Thorer that if it were him, to lure him to Norway, so Haakon could have him under his power. Thorer befriended Olaf and told him of the situation in Norway, that Jarl Haakon had become unpopular with the populace, because he often took daughters of the elite as concubines, which was his right as ruler. He quickly grew tired of them and sent them home after a week or two. He had also been weakened by his fighting with the Danish king, due to his rejection of the Christian faith.


title: Olaf Tryggvason

text: Olaf seized this opportunity, and sailed for Norway. When he arrived many men had already revolted against Haakon, who was forced to hide in a hole dug in a pigsty, together with his slave, Kark. When Olaf met the rebels they accepted him as their king, and together they started to search for Haakon. They eventually came to the farm where Haakon and Kark were hiding, but did not find them. Olaf held a meeting just outside the swine-sty and promised a great reward for the man who killed Haakon. The two men in the hole heard this speech, and Haakon became distrustful of Kark, fearing he would kill him for the reward. He could not leave the pigsty, nor could he stay awake indefinitely, and when he fell asleep Kark decapitated Haakon with a knife. The next day Kark went to Olaf and presented him the head of Haakon. King Olaf did not reward him, and instead decapitated him.


title: Olaf Tryggvason

text: After his confirmation as King of Norway, Olaf traveled to the parts of Norway that had not been under the rule of Haakon, but that of the King of Denmark; they also swore allegiance to him. He then demanded that they all be baptised, and most reluctantly they agreed.


title: Olaf Tryggvason

text: In 997, Olaf founded his seat of government in Trondheim, where he had first held a "thing" with the revolters against Haakon. It was a suitable site because the River Nid twisted itself before going into the fjord, creating a peninsula that could be easily defended against terrestrial attacks by only one short wall.


title: Olaf Tryggvason

text: Olaf continued to promote Christianity throughout his reign. He baptized the explorer Leif Ericson, who took a priest with him back to Greenland to convert the rest of his kin. Olaf also converted the people and Earl of the Orkney Islands to Christianity. At that time, the Orkney Islands were part of Norway.


title: Olaf Tryggvason

text: It has been suggested that Olaf's ambition was to rule a united Christian Scandinavia, and it is known that he made overtures of marriage to Sigrid the Haughty, queen of Sweden, but negotiations failed because of her steadfast pagan faith. Instead, he made an enemy of her, and did not hesitate to involve himself in a quarrel with King Sweyn I of Denmark by marrying Sweyn's sister Tyra, who had fled from her heathen husband Burislav, the semi-legendary "King of Wends", in defiance of her brother's authority.


title: Olaf Tryggvason

text: Both his Wendish and his Irish wife had brought Olaf wealth and good fortune, but, according to the Sagas, his last wife, Tyra, was his undoing, for it was on an expedition undertaken in 1000 to wrest her lands from Burislav that he was waylaid off the island Svolder by the combined Swedish, Danish, and Wendish fleets, together with the ships of Earl Haakon's sons.


title: Olaf Tryggvason

text: He died at the sea Battle of Svolder when his forces were defeated by a combined armada from Denmark, Sweden and the Jarls of Lade. Finally surrounded on his flagship the "Ormrinn Langi" (Long Serpent), Danish sources report that when all was lost he committed suicide by throwing himself into the sea, "the end befitting his life", according to Adam of Bremen. Saxo Grammaticus says that Olaf preferred suicide to death at the hands of the enemy and jumped overboard in full armour rather than see his foes victorious. The Norwegian and Icelandic accounts are more complex and more favourable to Olaf. Hallfreðr's memorial poem for his lord had already alluded to rumours that Olaf escaped death at Svolder. The sagas offer a variety of possibilities. "Ágrip" reports:


title: Olaf Tryggvason

text: Other sagas suggest that one way or another Olaf made his way to the shore; perhaps by swimming, perhaps with the help of angels, most likely rescued by one of the Wendish ships present. After his escape, Olaf supposedly sought salvation for his soul abroad, perhaps joining a monastery. "Mesta" describes a series of "sightings" of him in the Holy Land, the last in the 1040s.


title: Olaf Tryggvason

text: In the early 11th century, a Viking chieftain named Tryggvi invaded Norway, claiming to be the son of Olaf and Gyda. His invasion was defeated by forces loyal to Cnut the Great's son Svein Knutsson. An account preserved in "Morkinskinna" relates that Tryggvi was killed by a farmer after the battle. Many years later, when Harald Hardrada was king of Norway, he passed by the site of the battle. The king met an old friend of his who pointed out the alleged assassin. After questioning the purported killer and hearing him confess, King Harald had the man hanged, citing the familial bond between him and Tryggvi and his duty to avenge the latter's death.


title: Olaf Tryggvason

text: For some time after the Battle of Svolder, there were rumors that Olaf had survived his leap into the sea and had made his way to safety. Accounts reported by Oddr Snorrason included sightings of Olaf in Rome, Jerusalem, and elsewhere in Europe and the Mediterranean. Both King Ethelred the Unready and Olaf's sister Astrid allegedly received gifts from Olaf long after he was presumed dead. The latest sighting reported by Oddr took place in 1046.


title: Olaf Tryggvason

text: Olaf routinely used force to compel conversion to Christianity, including execution and torture of those who refused. Raud the Strong refused to convert and, after a failed attempt using a wooden pin to pry open his mouth to insert a snake, was killed by a snake goaded by a hot poker through a drinking horn into Raud's mouth and down his throat. Eyvind Kinnrifi likewise refused and was killed by a brazier of hot coals resting on his belly. The possibly apocryphal figure, Sigrid the Haughty was said to have refused to marry Olaf if it meant forgoing her forefathers' religion, upon which Olaf slapped her with his glove, an act that prompted her to unite his enemies against him years later.


title: Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor

text: The Focke-Wulf Fw 200 "Condor", also known as "Kurier" to the Allies (English: Courier), was a German all-metal four-engined monoplane originally developed by Focke-Wulf as a long-range airliner. A Japanese request for a long-range maritime patrol aircraft led to military versions that saw service with the "Luftwaffe" as long-range reconnaissance and anti-shipping/maritime patrol bomber aircraft. The Luftwaffe also made extensive use of the Fw 200 as a transport aircraft.


title: Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor

text: It achieved success as a commerce raider until mid-1941, by which time it was being harried by long-range RAF Coastal Command aircraft and the Hurricane fighters being flown from CAM ships.


title: Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor

text: The Fw 200 resulted from a proposal by Kurt Tank of Focke-Wulf to Dr. Rudolf Stuessel of Deutsche Lufthansa to develop a landplane to carry passengers across the Atlantic Ocean to the US. At the time, it was an unusual concept because airlines used seaplanes on long over-water routes. To fly long distances economically, the Fw 200 was designed to cruise at an altitude of over - as high as possible without a pressurized cabin. Existing airliners were designed to cruise at altitudes below . The Fw 200 was briefly the world's most modern airliner, until other high-altitude airliners started operating: the Boeing 307 Stratoliner in 1940 and the Douglas DC-4 in 1942. The designation "Condor" was chosen because, like the condor bird, the Fw 200 had a very long wingspan relative to other planes of its era, to facilitate then high-altitude flight.


title: Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor

text: Deutsche Lufthansa issued a specification in June 1936 after discussions between Tank, Stüssel and Carl August von Gablenz. The plane was designed by Ludwig Mittelhuber with Wilhelm Bansemir as project director. The first prototype, the Fw 200 V1, made its first flight after just over one year of development on 27 July 1937 with Tank at the controls. It was an all-metal, four-engined monoplane powered by four American Pratt & Whitney Hornet radial engines, and intended to carry 26 passengers in two cabins for up to . Two further prototypes were powered by German BMW 132G-1 radials.


title: Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor

text: The Japanese Navy requested a military version of the Fw 200 for search and patrol duties, so Tank designed the Fw 200 V10 with military equipment. This Fw 200 was held in Germany because war had broken out in Europe by that time. This aircraft became the basis for all later military models used by the "Luftwaffe".


title: Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor

text: To adapt it for wartime service, hardpoints were added to the wings for bombs, the fuselage was strengthened and extended to create more space. Fore and aft dorsal gun positions were added, in addition to an extended-length version of the "Bola" ventral gondola typical of World War II German bomber aircraft; incorporating a central bomb bay (usually used for additional long-range fuel tanks), as well as heavily glazed fore and aft ventral flexible machine gun emplacements at either end. The extra weight introduced by its military equipment meant that some early Fw 200 aircraft broke up on landing, a problem that was never entirely solved. Later models were equipped with Lorenz FuG 200 "Hohentwiel" low UHF-band ASV radar in the nose. In 1943 a version entered service that could carry the Henschel Hs 293 guided missile, mandating fitment of the associated "Funkgerät" FuG 203 "Kehl" radio guidance gear on a Condor to steer them.


title: Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor

text: The Fw 200 was operated by Deutsche Lufthansa, DDL and Lufthansa's Brazilian subsidiary Syndicato Condor. Dai Nippon KK of Japan also ordered Fw 200 airliners. These could not be delivered to Japan once the war began, so they were delivered to Deutsche Lufthansa instead. On 14 April 1945 an Fw 200 flew Lufthansa's last scheduled service before the end of World War II, from Barcelona to Berlin. Other airlines continued to operate the Fw 200 after the end of World War II.


title: Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor

text: The first prototype, the Fw 200 V1, upgraded with extra fuel tanks and redesignated Fw 200 S-1, made several record flights. It was the first heavier-than-air craft to fly nonstop between Berlin and New York City, about , making the flight from Berlin-Staaken to Floyd Bennett Field on 10/11 August 1938 in 24 hours and 56 minutes. The return trip on 13 August 1938 took 19 hours and 47 minutes. These flights are commemorated with a plaque in Böttcherstraße, a street in Bremen. Beginning on 28 November 1938 it flew from Berlin to Tokyo via Basra, Karachi and Hanoi.


title: Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor

text: The German Foreign Minister, Joachim von Ribbentrop, used a specially outfitted Condor "Grenzmark", on his two flights to Moscow in 1939, during which he negotiated and signed the "Treaty of Non-Aggression between Germany and the Soviet Union", better known as the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. His aircraft bore the German civil registration of D-ACVH.


title: Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor

text: A Danish-owned Fw 200 aircraft named "Dania" was seized by the British at Shoreham Airport after Denmark was invaded by German forces in 1940. It was subsequently operated by the British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) and was then pressed into service with the Royal Air Force. It was damaged beyond repair in 1941.


title: Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor

text: The "Luftwaffe" initially used the aircraft to support the "Kriegsmarine", making great loops out across the North Sea and, following the fall of France, the Atlantic Ocean. The aircraft was used for maritime patrols and reconnaissance, searching for Allied convoys and warships that could be reported for targeting by U-boats. The Fw 200 could also carry a bomb load or naval mines to use against shipping, and it was claimed that from June 1940 to February 1941, they sank 331,122 tonnes (365,000 tons) of shipping despite a rather crude bombsight. The attacks were carried out at extremely low altitude in order to "bracket" the target ship with three bombs; this almost guaranteed a hit. Winston Churchill called the Fw 200 the "Scourge of the Atlantic" during the Battle of the Atlantic due to its contribution to the heavy Allied shipping losses.


title: Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor

text: Following the debut of what would become the Luftwaffe's primary "seaborne" maritime patrol aircraft, the rival trimotored BV 138C flying boat in March 1941; from mid-1941, Condor crews were instructed to stop attacking shipping and avoid all combat in order to preserve numbers. In August, the first Fw 200 was shot down by a CAM ship-launched Hawker Hurricane, and the arrival of the U.S.-built Grumman Martlet, operating from the Royal Navy's new escort carriers, posed a serious threat. The six Martlets operated by the Royal Navy from the first escort carrier shot down a total of seven Condors while escorting three convoys during her short career in the final months of 1941. On 14 August 1942, an Fw 200C-3 was the first German aircraft to be destroyed by USAAF pilots, after it was attacked by a Curtiss P-40C Warhawk and a Lockheed P-38F Lightning over Iceland.


title: Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor

text: The Fw 200 was also used as a transport aircraft, notably flying supplies into Stalingrad in 1942. After late-1943, the Fw 200 came to be used solely for transport. For reconnaissance, it was replaced by the Junkers Ju 290, and even some examples of the Heinkel He 177 Greif bombers serving with Kampfgeschwader 40. With the Allied advance into France, maritime reconnaissance by the Luftwaffe became impossible as the Atlantic coast bases were captured. Production ended in 1944 with a total of 276 aircraft produced.


title: Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor

text: Several damaged Fw 200s landed in Spain during the war. In the beginning, they were repaired and returned to their bases in France. After Operation Torch (the Allied invasion of French North Africa), the Spanish government interned four aircraft that arrived (although their crews were still allowed to return to Germany). Since the aircraft could not be used, they were sold by Germany to Spain. One of the three flyable aircraft was then operated by the Spanish Air Force and the others used for spares. Because of damage and lack of spares, and for political reasons, they were grounded and scrapped around 1950.


title: Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor

text: Some Condors also crashed in Portugal. Their crews were allowed to return to Germany while the British authorities were allowed to inspect the aircraft and accompanying documentation. Some crew members died in these crashes and were buried in the civilian cemetery of Moura in Alentejo Province, Portugal. The aircraft that crashed in Spain and Portugal had been based in Bordeaux-Merignac, France since 1940. Before then, the operational base of the Fw 200 squadrons had been in Denmark.


title: Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor

text: At the suggestion of his personal pilot Hans Baur, Adolf Hitler specified a modified and unarmed prototype Condor, the Fw 200 V3, as his personal transport, as a replacement for his Junkers Ju 52. Originally configured as a 26-passenger "Lufthansa" transport (Works No. 3099), it was reconfigured as a plush two-cabin airliner. Hitler's armchair-style seat in the cabin was equipped with a wooden table, seat-back armour plating, and a parachute in the seat cushion, with an escape hatch in the floor. In line with Hitler's aircraft preferences, it carried the markings "D-2600" and was named "Immelmann III" in honour of World War I flying ace Max Immelmann. As the war progressed it changed designation to "WL+2600" and finally "26+00"; it was destroyed at Berlin Tempelhof Airport in an Allied bombing raid on 18 July 1944. FW 200s of various types were configured as VIP transports, for the use of Hitler and his staff, and also other aircraft assigned to Heinrich Himmler, Albert Speer, Hermann Göring, and Karl Dönitz.


title: Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor

text: There were three variants of the aircraft: the Fw 200A, B, and C. The Model A was a purely civilian variant used by Deutsche Lufthansa, DDL in Denmark, and "Syndicato Condor" in Brazil. The Fw 200B and Fw 200C models were used as long-range bombers, reconnaissance, troop and transport aircraft.


title: Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor

text: Only one complete reconstructed Fw 200 exists today, an aircraft that ditched in February 1942 and sank to a depth of 60 m (197 ft). This aircraft was raised from Trondheim Fjord in Norway on 26 May 1999. Although the airframe disintegrated while being lowered onto a recovery platform, the remains were transported to Airbus Bremen and spent 22 years being rebuilt. A request from the Berlin museum for a set of separate wings to be recovered from the Kvitanosi mountain near Voss in Norway to complete the rebuilding was at first denied, because the local population wanted the wings to be left "in situ" as a war memorial. A compromise was reached in 2008, where parts not needed for the restoration would be left on the mountain. In 2009, parts were moved down by helicopter and made ready for transport to Bremen. Other wrecks were also found, but in extremely poor conditions, one at 68 m deep. The aircraft was finished in June 2021, then dismantled and transported to the former Berlin Tempelhof Airport for final assembly as an exhibit in Hangar 7.


title: Religious ecstasy

text: Religious ecstasy is a type of altered state of consciousness characterized by greatly reduced external awareness and expanded interior mental and spiritual awareness, frequently accompanied by visions and emotional (and sometimes physical) euphoria.


title: Religious ecstasy

text: Although the experience is usually brief in time, there are records of such experiences lasting several days or even more, and of recurring experiences of ecstasy during one's lifetime.


title: Religious ecstasy

text: In Sufism, the term is referred to as "wajad" and the experience is referred to as either "jazbah (jadbah o jedbah for Maghreb)" or "majzoobiyat".


title: Religious ecstasy

text: The adjective "religious" means that the experience occurs in connection with religious activities or is interpreted in context of a religion. Journalist Marghanita Laski writes in her study "Ecstasy in Religious and Secular Experiences", first published in 1961:


title: Religious ecstasy

text: "Epithets are very often applied to mystical experiences including ecstasies without, apparently, any clear idea about the distinctions that are being made. Thus we find experiences given such names as nature, religious, aesthetic, neo-platonic, etc.. experiences, where in some cases the name seems to derive from a trigger, sometimes from the over belief.


title: Religious ecstasy

text: Yoga provides techniques to attain an ecstasy state called samādhi. According to practitioners, there are various stages of ecstasy, the highest being Nirvikalpa Samadhi. Bhakti Yoga especially, places emphasis on ecstasy as being one of the fruits of its practice.


title: Religious ecstasy

text: In Buddhism, especially in the Pali Canon, there are eight states of trance also called absorption. The first four states are Rupa or, materially-oriented. The next four are Arupa or non-material. These eight states are preliminary trances which lead up to final saturation. In Visuddhimagga, great effort and years of sustained meditation are practiced to reach the first absorption, and not all individuals are able to accomplish it at all.


title: Religious ecstasy

text: In the Dionysian Mysteries of ancient Greece, initiates used intoxicants, ecstatic dance and music to remove inhibitions and social constraints.


title: Religious ecstasy

text: Modern meditator experiences in the Thai Forest Tradition, as well as other Theravadan traditions, demonstrates that this effort and rarity is necessary only to become completely immersed in the absorptions and experience no other sensations. It is possible to experience the absorptions in a less intense state with much less practice.


title: Religious ecstasy

text: In the monotheistic tradition, ecstasy is usually associated with communion and oneness with God. However, such experiences can also be personal mystical experiences with no significance to anyone but the person experiencing them. Some charismatic Christians practice ecstatic states (such as "being slain in the Spirit") and interpret these as given by the Holy Spirit. The firewalkers of Greece dance themselves into a state of ecstasy at the annual Anastenaria, when they believe themselves under the influence of Saint Constantine.


title: Religious ecstasy

text: Historically, large groups of individuals have experienced religious ecstasies during periods of Christian revivals, to the point of causing controversy as to the origin and nature of these experiences. In response to claims that all emotional expressions of religious ecstasy were attacks on order and theological soundness from the Devil, Jonathan Edwards published his influential "Treatise on Religious Affections". Here, he argues, religious ecstasy could come from oneself, the Devil, or God, and it was only by observing the fruit, or changes in inner thought and behaviour, that one could determine if the religious ecstasy had come from God.


title: Religious ecstasy

text: In modern Pentecostal, charismatic and spirit-filled Christianity, numerous examples of religious ecstasy have transpired, similar to historic revivals. These occurrences however, have changed significantly since the time of the Toronto Blessing phenomena and several other North American so-called revivals and outpourings from the mid 1990s. From that time, religious ecstasy in these movements has been characterized by increasingly unusual behaviors that are understood by adherents to be the anointing of the holy spirit and evidence of God's "doing a new work". One of the most controversial and strange examples is that of spiritual birthing a practice during which women, and at times even men, claim to be having actual contractions of the womb while they moan and retch as though experiencing childbirth. It is said to be a prophetic action bringing spiritual blessings from God into the world. Many believe spiritual birthing to be highly demonic in nature and more occult-like than Christian. Religious ecstasy in these Christian movements has also been witnessed in the form of squealing, shrieking, an inability to stand or sit, uttering apocalyptic prophecies, holy laughter, crying and barking. Some people have made dramatic claims of sighting "gold dust", "angel feathers", "holy clouds", or the spontaneous appearance of precious gem stones during ecstatic worship events. Others have claimed to have received spontaneous gold tooth fillings. The Range Christian Fellowship in the conservative Australian city of Toowoomba demonstrates such displays of religious ecstasy on an almost weekly basis. In addition to all the above, worshippers there also use textile banners and during moments of religious ecstasy believe these banners carry special powers of "anointing" as a result of divinely inspired artwork.


title: Religious ecstasy

text: In hagiography (writings about Christian saints) many instances are recorded in which saints are granted ecstasies. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia religious ecstasy (called "supernatural ecstasy") includes two elements: one, interior and invisible, in which the mind rivets its attention on a religious subject, and another, corporeal and visible, in which the activity of the senses is suspended, reducing the effect of external sensations upon the subject and rendering him or her resistant to awakening. The witnesses of a Marian apparition often describe experiencing these elements of ecstasy.


title: Religious ecstasy

text: Modern Witchcraft traditions may define themselves as "ecstatic traditions", and focus on reaching ecstatic states in their rituals. The Reclaiming Tradition and the Feri Tradition are two modern ecstatic Witchcraft examples.


title: Religious ecstasy

text: As described by the Indian spiritual teacher Meher Baba, God-intoxicated souls known in Sufism as masts experience a unique type of spiritual ecstasy: "[M]asts are desperately in love with Godor consumed by their love for God. Masts do not suffer from what may be called a disease. They are in a state of mental disorder because their minds are overcome by such intense spiritual energies that are far too much for them, forcing them to lose contact with the world, shed normal human habits and customs, and civilized society and live in a state of spiritual splendor but physical squalor. They are overcome by an agonizing love for God and are drowned in their ecstasy. Only the divine love embodied in a Perfect Master can reach them."


title: Offender profiling

text: Offender profiling, also known as criminal profiling, is an investigative strategy used by law enforcement agencies to identify likely suspects and has been used by investigators to link cases that may have been committed by the same perpetrator. Multiple crimes may be linked to a specific offender and the profile may be used to predict the identified offender's future actions. In the 1980s, most researchers believed offender profiling was relevant only to sex crimes, like serial rape or sexual homicide, but since the late 1990s research has been published to support its application to arson (1998), and then later terrorism (2000) and burglary (2017).


title: Offender profiling

text: Psychological profiling is described as a method of suspect identification which seeks to identify a person's mental, emotional, and personality characteristics based on things done or left at the crime scene.


title: Offender profiling

text: There are two major assumptions made when it comes to offender profiling: behavioral consistency and homology. Behavior consistency is the idea that an offender's crimes will tend to be similar to one another. Homology is the idea that similar crimes are committed by similar offenders.


title: Offender profiling

text: Fundamental assumptions that offender profiling relies upon, such as the homology assumption, have been proven outdated by advances in psychology and behavioral science. The majority of profiling approaches assume that behavior is primarily determined by personality, not situational factors, an assumption that psychological research has recognized as a mistake since the 1960s.


title: Offender profiling

text: In a 2021 article it was noted that out of 243 cases, around 188 were solved with the help of criminal profiling


title: Offender profiling

text: Results of the famous “Coals to Newcastle” study found that the predictions made by profilers were accurate about 66% of the time. However, the profiles led to an arrest in just 5 of the 184 cases. In other words, there was just a 2.7% success rate when the profiles were applied out in the field.


title: Offender profiling

text: , although the practice of offender profiling is widely used, publicized and researched globally, there is a significant lack of empirical research or evidence to support the validity of psychological profiling in criminal investigations. Critics question the reliability, validity, and utility of criminal profiles generally provided in police investigations. Even over the years common criminal profiling methods have changed and been looked down upon due to weak definitions that differentiate the criminal's behaviors, assumptions and their psychodynamic process of the offender actions and characteristics that occur. In other words, this leads to poor and misleading profiles on offenders because they are based on opinions and decisions made up from one profiler conducting research on the offender. Research in 2007-2008 into profiling's effectiveness have prompted researchers to label the practice as pseudoscientific. At the time, Malcolm Gladwell of "The New Yorker" compared profiling to astrology and cold reading. Other critics described criminal profiling as an investigative tool hidden behind a lack of scientific evidence and support.


title: Offender profiling

text: The profession of criminal profiling is highly unregulated. There is no governing body which determines who is and who is not qualified to be a criminal profiler, and therefore those who identify themselves as criminal profilers may range from someone with minimal to someone with extensive experience in the realm of criminal investigation. In addition to the lack criteria as to what makes an expert in the field of criminal profiling, there is little empirical evidence supporting the accuracy of criminal profiling. There is an abundance of anecdotal support for criminal profiling, much of which originates from reports made by police officers and investigators regarding the performance of criminal profilers. However, law enforcement agents have been found to greatly support the use of criminal profiling, but studies have shown that detectives are poor profilers themselves. One study presented police officers with two different profiles for the same perpetrator, each of which varied greatly from the officers’ own description. It was found that the officers were unable to determine whether one profile was more accurate than the other, and felt that all profiles accurately described the perpetrator. Officers were able to find truth in whichever profile they viewed, believing it accurately described the perpetrator, demonstrating the presence of the Barnum effect. In addition, an investigator's judgement of the accuracy of a profile is impacted by the perceived source of the information; if the officer believes that the profile was written by an “expert” or “professional”, they are likely to perceive it as more accurate than a profile written by someone who is identified as a consultant. This poses a genuine problem when considering that there are no true criteria which determine who may be considered a “professional” criminal profiler, and when considering that support for criminal profiling is largely based on the opinion of police officers.


title: Offender profiling

text: The most routinely used typology in profiling is categorizing crime scenes, and by extension offender's personalities, as either "organized" or "disorganized". The idea of classifying crime scenes according to organized/disorganized dichotomy is credited to the FBI profiler Roy Hazelwood.


title: Offender profiling

text: A typology of serial sexual homicides advocated by Robert Keppel and Richard Walter categorizes them as either power–assertive, power–reassurance, anger–retaliatory, or anger–excitation.


title: Offender profiling

text: Criminal profiling can also be ex-ante or ex-post. Descriptive profiling of a perpetrator is a type of ex-post profiling, and can be used to prevent a serial killer from striking again.


title: Offender profiling

text: There are three leadings approaches in the area of offender profiling: the criminal investigative approach, the clinical practitioner approach, and the scientific statistical approach. The criminal investigative approach is what is used by law enforcement and more specifically by the Behavioral Analysis Unit (BAU) within the FBI. The BAU "assists law enforcement agencies by their review and assessment of a criminal act, by interpreting the offender's behavior during the crime and the interactions between the offender and the victim during the commission of the crime and as expressed in the crime scene." The clinical practitioner approach focuses on looking at each case as unique, making the approach very individualistic. One practitioner, Turco, believed that all violent crimes were a result of the mother-child struggle where female victims represent the offender's mother. This is also recognized as the psychodynamic approach. Another practitioner, Copson, outlined some principles for profiling which include being custom made, interactive and reflexive. By following these principles, the profile should include advice that is unique and not from a stereotype, should be easy to understand for all levels of intelligence, and all elements in the profile should influence one another. The Scientific approach relies heavily on the multivariate analysis of behaviors and any other information from the crime scene that could lead to the offender's characteristics or psychological processes. According to this approach, elements of the profile are developed by comparing the results of the analysis to those of previously caught offenders.


title: Offender profiling

text: Wilson, Lincon and Kocsis list three main paradigms of profiling: diagnostic evaluation, crime scene analysis, and investigative psychology. Ainsworth identified four: clinical profiling (synonymous with diagnostic evaluation), typological profiling (synonymous with crime scene analysis), investigative psychology, and geographical profiling.


title: Offender profiling

text: Five steps in profiling include: One- Analyzing the criminal act and comparing it to similar crimes in the past. Two- An in-depth analysis of the actual crime scene, Three- Considering the victim's background and activities for possible motives and connections, Four- Considering other possible motives. Five- Developing a description of the possible offender that can be compared with previous cases.


title: Offender profiling

text: One type of criminal profiling is referred to as linkage analysis. Gerard N. Labuschagne defines linkage analysis as "a form of behavioral analysis that is used to determine the possibility of a series of crimes as having been committed by one offender." Gathering many aspects of the offender's crime pattern such as modus operandi (MO), ritual or fantasy-based behaviors exhibited, and the signature of the offender, help to establish a basis for a linkage analysis. An offender's modus operandi is the habits or tendencies during the killing of the victim. An offender's signature is the unique similarities in each of the kills. Mainly, linkage analysis is used when physical evidence, such as DNA, cannot be collected.


title: Offender profiling

text: Labuschagne states that in gathering and incorporating these aspects of the offender's crime pattern, investigators must engage in five assessment procedures: One- Obtaining data from multiple sources. Two- Reviewing the data and identifying significant features of each crime across the series. Three- Classifying the significant features as either modus operandi or ritualistic. Four- Comparing the combination of modus operandi and ritual or fantasy-based features across the series to determine if a signature exists. Five- Compiling a written report highlighting the findings.


title: Offender profiling

text: There are six stages to developing a criminal profile: profiling inputs, decision process models, crime assessment, criminal profiling, investigation, and apprehension. The FBI and BAU tend to study specific categories of crimes such as white collar and serial murder.


title: Offender profiling

text: An Italian psychologist Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909) was a criminologist who attempted to formally classify criminals based on age, gender, physical characteristics, education, and geographic region. When comparing these similar characteristics, he better understood the origin of motivation of criminal behavior, and in 1876, he published the book "The Criminal Man". Lombroso studied 383 Italian inmates. Based on his studies, he suggested that there were three types of criminals. There were born criminals, who were degenerates and insane criminals, who suffered from a mental illness. Also, he studied and found specific physical characteristics. A few examples included asymmetry of the face, eye defects and peculiarities, and ears of unusual size, etc.


title: Offender profiling

text: One of the first offender profiles was assembled by detectives of the Metropolitan Police on the personality of Jack the Ripper, a serial killer who had murdered a series of prostitutes in the 1880s. Police surgeon Thomas Bond was asked to give his opinion on the extent of the murderer's surgical skill and knowledge. Bond's assessment was based on his own examination of the most extensively mutilated victim and the post mortem notes from the four previous canonical murders. In his notes, dated November 10, 1888, Bond mentioned the sexual nature of the murders coupled with elements of apparent misogyny and rage. Bond also tried to reconstruct the murder and interpret the behavior pattern of the offender. Bond's basic profile included that "The murderer must have been a man of physical strength and great coolness and daring... subject to periodic attacks of homicidal and erotic mania. The characters of the mutilations indicate that the man may be in a condition sexually, that may be called Satyriasis."


title: Offender profiling

text: In 1912, a psychologist in Lackawanna, New York delivered a lecture in which he analyzed the unknown murderer of a local boy named Joey Joseph, dubbed "The Postcard Killer" in the press.


title: Offender profiling

text: In 1932, Dr. Dudley Schoenfeld gave the authorities his predictions about the personality of the kidnapper of the Lindbergh baby.


title: Offender profiling

text: In 1943, Walter C. Langer developed a profile of Adolf Hitler that hypothesized the Nazi dictator's response to various scenarios, including losing the war. The United States Office of Strategic Services asked William L. Langer's brother Walter C. Langer, a psychiatrist, to draw up a profile of Adolf Hitler and hypothesize their response to various scenarios including losing the World War II. After the World War II, British psychologist Lionel Haward, while working for the Royal Air Force police, drew up a list of characteristics which high-ranking war criminals might display. These characteristics were used to identify high-ranking war criminals amongst captured soldiers and airmen.


title: Offender profiling

text: Offender profiling was first introduced to the FBI in the 1960s, when several classes were taught to the American Society of crime lab directors. There was little public knowledge of offender profiling until publicization with TV. Later films based on the fictional works of author Thomas Harris that caught the public eye as a profession in particular "Manhunter" (1986) and "Silence of the Lambs" (1991). The fastest development occurred when the FBI opened its training academy, the Behavioral Analysis Unit, in Quantico, Virginia. It led to the establishment of the National Center for the Analysis of Violent Crime and the Violent Criminal Apprehension Program.


title: Offender profiling

text: James Brussel was a psychiatrist who rose to fame after his profile of New York City's "Mad Bomber" George Metesky was published in the "New York Times" in 1956. The media dubbed him "The Sherlock Holmes of the Couch." In his 1968 book "Casebook of a Crime Psychiatrist", Brussel relates how he predicted that the bomber would wear a buttoned-up double-breasted suit, but edited out the many incorrect predictions he had made in his profile, claiming he had successfully predicted the bomber would be a Slav who lived in Connecticut, when he had actually predicted he would be "born and educated in Germany," and live in White Plains, New York. In 1964, Brussel profiled the Boston Strangler for the Boston Police Department.


title: Offender profiling

text: In 1972, after the death of J. Edgar Hoover, who was skeptical of psychiatry, the Behavioral Science Unit of the FBI was formed by Patrick Mullany and Howard Teten.


title: Offender profiling

text: Investigations of serial killers Ted Bundy and the Green River Killer were performed in 1974 by Robert Keppel and psychologist Richard Walter. They went on to develop the four subtypes of violent crime and the Hunter Integrated Telemetry System (HITS) database which compiled characteristics of violent crime for research.


title: Offender profiling

text: At the FBI's BSU, Robert Ressler and John Douglas began an informal series of ad hoc interviews with 36 convicts starting in early 1978. Douglas and Ressler later created a typology of sexually motivated violent offenders and formed the National Center for the Analysis of Violent Crime.


title: Offender profiling

text: The March 1980 issue of the "FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin" invited local police to request profiles from the FBI. An article in the April 1980 issue, "The Lust Murderer," introduced the dichotomy of "organized" and "disorganized" offenders. The August 1985 issue described a third, "mixed" category.


title: Offender profiling

text: In 1985, Dr. David Canter in the United Kingdom profiled "Railway Rapists" John Duffy and David Mulcahy. David Canter assisted police detectives from the mid-1980s to an offender who had carried out a series of serious attacks, but Canter saw the limitations of offender profiling – in particular, the subjective, personal opinion of a psychologist. He and a colleague coined the term investigative psychology and began trying to approach the subject from what they saw as a more scientific point of view.


title: Offender profiling

text: The Crime Classification Manual was published in 1992, and introduced the term "criminal investigative analysis."


title: Offender profiling

text: In 1999, The percentage of accurate criminal profilers was only estimated to be at 21%, whereas in 2020 the accuracy was estimated to be at 86%.


title: Offender profiling

text: accurate throughout the years. In the year 2008, only 42% of cases were solved using criminal profiling. In 2019 the FBI was able to solve 56% of the cases that were not solved back in the year 2008.


title: Offender profiling

text: Profiling as an investigative tool has a high level of acceptance among both the general public and police.


title: Offender profiling

text: In the United States, between 1971 and 1981, the FBI had only profiled cases on 192 occasions. By 1986, FBI profilers were requested in 600 investigations in a single year. By 1996, 12 FBI profilers were applying profiling to approximately 1,000 cases per year.


title: Offender profiling

text: In the United Kingdom, 29 profilers provided 242 instances of profiling advice between 1981 and 1994, its usage increasing steadily over that period.


title: Offender profiling

text: The usage of profiling has been documented in Sweden, Finland, New Zealand, South Africa, Germany, Canada, Ireland, Malaysia, Russia, Zimbabwe, and the Netherlands.


title: Offender profiling

text: Surveys of police officers in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Canada have found an overwhelming majority consider profiling to be useful. A 2007 meta-analysis of existing research into offender profiling noted that there was "a notable incongruity between [profiling's] lack of empirical foundation and the degree of support for the field."


title: Offender profiling

text: Profiling's continued popularity has been speculatively attributed to broad use of anecdotes and testimonials, a focus on correct predictions over the number of incorrect ones, ambiguous profiles benefiting from the Barnum effect, and the popular appeal of the fantasy of a sleuth with deductive powers like Hercule Poirot and Sherlock Holmes.


title: Offender profiling

text: Notable profilers include Roy Hazelwood, who profiled sexual predators; Ernst Gennat, a German criminologist, who developed an early profiling scheme for the police of Berlin; Walter Charles Langer, who predicted Hitler's behavior and eventual suicide; Howard Teten, who worked on the case of Martin Luther King Jr.'s assassination; and John E. Douglas, who worked on a wave of child murders in Atlanta in the 1980s.


title: Offender profiling

text: According to the BAU the probability of a profiler being used as "expert testimony" in court and leading to a guilty verdict is 85%.


title: Offender profiling

text: There is a difference between the hard sciences and the social sciences related to testimony and evidence in the courtroom. Some experts contend that offender profiling should not be used in court until such processes can be reliably validated, but as seen, it is still used successfully to this day.


title: Offender profiling

text: The historical roots of criminal profiling in the United States and Europe have been discussed elsewhere (1). Many European countries have now developed their own approaches to criminal profiling and established specialized academic research institutions and trained police units (1,6), for


title: Offender profiling

text: example, the German Bundeskriminalamt (7,8), implementing the first quality standards in 2003 (9,10), as well as Austria (11), Scandinavia (12), and the United Kingdom (13). Switzerland has only recently adopted ViCLAS, the computerized Violent Crime Linkage Analysis System, and is now training its own case analysis specialists (1,14,15)


title: Offender profiling

text: In a review of the literature by Eastwood et al. (2006), one of the studies noted, Pinizzotto and Finkel (1990), showed that trained criminal profilers did not do any better than non-profilers in producing an accurate profile. A 2000 study also showed that profilers were not significantly better at creating a profile than any other participating groups.


title: Offender profiling

text: A study showed there is an 83% success rate in criminal profiling. Looking at research from 2019-2020 regarding cases that had no real evidence pointing to anyone, and 83% of the time profilers were able to help assist in cases that lead to an arrest. Surveys of police officers in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Canada have found an overwhelming majority consider profiling to be useful.[11] A 2007 meta-analysis of existing research into offender profiling noted that there was "a notable incongruity between [profiling's] lack of empirical foundation and the degree of support for the field."[12]


title: Offender profiling

text: Profiling's continued popularity has been speculatively attributed to broad use of anecdotes and testimonials, a focus on correct predictions over the number of incorrect ones, ambiguous profiles benefiting from the Barnum effect, and the popular appeal of the fantasy of a sleuth with deductive powers like Hercule Poirot and Sherlock Holmes.[10]


title: Offender profiling

text: A survey of statements made in offender profiles done for major cases from 1992 to 2001 found that "72% included repetition of the details of what occurred in the offence (factual statements already known by the police), references to the profiler’s competence [...] or caveats about using the material in the investigation." Over 80% of the remaining statements, which made claims about the offender's characteristics, gave no justification for their conclusion.


title: Offender profiling

text: A 2003 study which asked two different groups of police to rate how accurately a profile matched a description of the apprehended offender, with one group given a description of a completely fabricated offender instead of the real one, found that the profile was rated equally accurate in both cases.


title: Offender profiling

text: There is a lack of clear, quantifiable evidence of a link between crime scene actions (A) and offender characteristics (C), a necessary supposition of the A to C paradigm proposed by Canter (1995). A 2002 review by Alison et al. concluded, "The notion that particular configurations of demographic features can be predicted from an assessment of particular configurations of specific behaviors occurring in short-term, highly traumatic situations seems an overly ambitious and unlikely possibility. Thus, until such inferential processes can be reliably verified, such claims should be treated with great caution in investigations and should be entirely excluded from consideration in court."


title: Hyperandrogenism

text: Hyperandrogenism is a medical condition characterized by high levels of androgens. It is more common in women than men. Symptoms of hyperandrogenism may include acne, seborrhea (inflamed skin), hair loss on the scalp, increased body or facial hair, and infrequent or absent menstruation. Complications may include high blood cholesterol and diabetes. It occurs in approximately 5% of women of reproductive age.


title: Hyperandrogenism

text: Polycystic ovary syndrome accounts for about 70% of hyperandrogenism cases. Other causes include adrenal hyperplasia, hirsutism, insulin resistance, hyperprolactinemia, Cushing's disease, certain types of cancers, and certain medications. Diagnosis often involves blood tests for testosterone, 17-hydroxyprogesterone, and prolactin, as well as a pelvic ultrasound.


title: Hyperandrogenism

text: Treatment depends on the underlying cause. Symptoms of hyperandrogenism can be treated with birth control pills or antiandrogens, such as cyproterone acetate or spironolactone. Other palliative measures may include hair removal techniques.


title: Hyperandrogenism

text: In 2011, the International Association of Athletics Federations (now World Athletics) and IOC (International Olympic Committee) released statements restricting the eligibility of female athletes with high testosterone, whether through hyperandrogenism or as a result of a difference in sex development (DSD). These regulations were referred to by both bodies as hyperandrogenism regulations and have led to athletes with DSDs being described as having hyperandrogenism. They were revised in 2019 to focus more specifically on DSDs.


title: Hyperandrogenism

text: Hyperandrogenism affects 5–10% of women of reproductive age. Hyperandrogenism can affect both men and women but is more noticeable in women since elevated levels of androgens in women may facilitate virilization. Because hyperandrogenism is characterized by elevated male sex hormone levels, symptoms of hyperandrogenism in men are often negligible. Hyperandrogenism in women is typically diagnosed in late adolescence with a medical evaluation. The medical evaluation usually consists of a pelvic exam, observation of external symptoms, and a blood test measuring androgen levels. Symptoms may include the following:


title: Hyperandrogenism

text: Hyperandrogenism, especially high levels of testosterone, can cause serious adverse effects if left untreated. High testosterone levels are associated with other health conditions such as obesity, hypertension, amenorrhea (cessation of menstrual cycles), and ovulatory dysfunction, which can lead to infertility. Prominent signs of hyperandrogenism are hirsutism (unwanted growth of hair, especially in the abdominal region and on the back), adult acne, deepening of the voice, and alopecia (balding).


title: Hyperandrogenism

text: Hyperandrogenism has also been observed to increase insulin tolerance, which can lead to type two diabetes and dyslipidemia, such as high cholesterol. These effects may have psychological impacts, sometimes leading to social anxiety and depression, especially in adolescent girls and young women. Paired with obesity and hirsutism, it can cause the individual to have low self-esteem.


title: Hyperandrogenism

text: Administration of high-dose testosterone in men over a course of weeks can cause an increase in aggression and hypomanic symptoms, though these were see in only a minority of subjects. Acute high-dose anabolic-androgenic steroid administration in males attenuates endogenous sex hormone production and affects the thyroid hormone axis. Effects on mood and aggression observed during high-dose anabolic-androgenic steroid administration may occur secondarily to hormonal changes. Many of the same signs and symptoms that are seen in women, such as alopecia and acne, may also be found in men. Enlargement of the prostate may also occur.


title: Hyperandrogenism

text: Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is an endocrine disorder characterized by an excess of androgens produced by the ovaries. It is estimated that approximately 90% of women with PCOS demonstrate hypersecretion of these hormones. The cause of this condition is unknown. Speculations include genetic predisposition; however, the gene or genes responsible for this remain unidentified. The condition may have a hereditary basis. Other possible causes include elevated insulin production. Most cases of PCOS involve insulin resistance. It is thought that adipose tissue dysfunction plays a role in the insulin resistance seen in PCOS. Insulin can induce excess testosterone secretion from the ovaries. A complication associated with polycystic ovary syndrome is high cholesterol, which is treated with statins. In a meta-analysis, atorvastatin was shown to decrease androgen concentrations in people with hyperandrogenism.


title: Hyperandrogenism

text: Elevated insulin leads to lower production of sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG), a regulatory glycoprotein that suppresses the function of androgens. High blood levels of insulin also work in conjunction with ovarian sensitivity to insulin to cause hyperandrogenemia, the primary symptom of PCOS. Obese individuals may be more biologically inclined to PCOS due to markedly higher insulin. This hormonal imbalance can lead to chronic anovulation, in which the ovaries fail to release mature eggs. These cases of ovulatory dysfunction are linked to infertility and menstrual disturbances. A post hoc analysis from a randomized, placebo-controlled, multi-centre study carried out at 11 secondary care centres, as well as a longitudinal single-centre study on pregnant women in Norway, also determined that metformin had no effect on maternal androgens in pregnancies occurring in the setting of PCOS.


title: Hyperandrogenism

text: One systemic review suggested that polymorphisms in the vitamin D receptor gene are associated with the prognosis of polycystic ovary syndrome, though this is based on small sample sizes and is debated. Studies have shown benefits for vitamin D supplementation in women with vitamin D deficiency and PCOS.


title: Hyperandrogenism

text: Hyperinsulinemia can increase the production of androgens in the ovaries. One context in which this occurs is HAIR-AN syndrome, a rare subtype of PCOS.


title: Hyperandrogenism

text: Hyperthecosis occurs when the cells of the ovarian stroma transition from interstitial cells, located between other cells, into luteinized theca cells. Theca cells are located in the ovarian follicles and become luteinized when the ovarian follicle bursts and a new corpus luteum is formed. The dispersal of luteinized theca cells throughout the ovarian stroma — in contrast to their distribution in PCOS, in which luteinized theca cells occur around cystic follicles only — causes women with hyperthecosis to have higher testosterone levels and virilization) than women with PCOS. Elevated insulin is also characteristic of hyperthecosis. Hyperthecosis most commonly develops in postmenopausal women and is linked to acne, hirsutism, growth of the clitoris, baldness, and voice deepening.


title: Hyperandrogenism

text: Obesity can play a role in insulin resistance. It makes thecal cells more responsive to luteinizing hormone. Therefore, obesity increases ovarian androgen production. Additionally, obesity elevates inflammatory adipokines which leads to not only adipogenesis, but also heightened insulin resistance.


title: Hyperandrogenism

text: Cushing's syndrome develops as a result of long-term exposure to the hormone cortisol. Cushing's syndrome can either be exogenous or endogenous, depending on whether it is caused by an external or internal source, respectively. The intake of glucocorticoids, a type of corticosteroid, is a common cause for the development of exogenous Cushing's syndrome. Endogenous Cushing's syndrome can occur when the body produces excess cortisol. This occurs when the hypothalamus of the brain signals to the pituitary gland with excess corticotropin-releasing hormone, which in turn secretes adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH). ACTH then causes the adrenal glands to release cortisol into the blood. Signs of Cushing's syndrome include muscle weakness, easy bruising, weight gain, male-pattern hair growth (hirsutism), coloured stretch marks, and an excessively reddish complexion in the face. Cushing's syndrome can cause androgen excess and hence the signs and symptoms of hyperandrogenism.


title: Hyperandrogenism

text: Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) describes a group of autosomal recessive disorders that cause a lack of an enzyme necessary for the production of cortisol and/or aldosterone, steroid hormones produced by the adrenal cortex. Most cases of CAH are due to 21-hydroxylase deficiencies. The heightened androgen levels seen in congenital adrenal hyperplasia affect the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis. Heightened androgen levels can also affect the ovaries, which can lead to infertility as well as chronic anovulation.


title: Hyperandrogenism

text: Since CAH consists of multiple disorders, the signs, symptoms and severity of hyperandrogenism may stem from a variety of specific mutations. Genotyping is therefore critical to verify diagnoses and to establish prognostic factors for individuals. Genotyping is also crucial for people seeking to use genetic counselling as an aid to family planning.


title: Hyperandrogenism

text: In women, CAH causes ambiguous genitals at birth and excessive pubic hair, enlargement of the clitoris, and hirsutism in adolescence. Although CAH causes rapid growth in childhood, adult women with CAH are shorter than average due to early puberty and closure of the growth plates in the long bones. Symptoms in males include early showings of pubic hair, enlargement of the penis, and rapid musculoskeletal growth.


title: Hyperandrogenism

text: Adrenocortical carcinoma occurs rarely; the average incidence rate is estimated to be 1–2 cases per million annually. The disease involves the formation of cancerous cells within the cortex of one or both of the adrenal glands. Although these tumors are identified in fewer than two percent of patients diagnosed with hyperandrogenism, the possibility must be considered within this population. In one study, more than half of tumor-affected patients had elevated levels of the androgens androstenedione, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate, and testosterone. The elevation of androgens caused by adrenocortical carcinomas often causes patients to develop Cushing's syndrome, primary aldosteronism, and hyperandrogenism. The molecular basis of the disease has yet to be elucidated.


title: Hyperandrogenism

text: Adrenal adenomas are benign tumors of the adrenal gland. In most cases, the tumors display no symptoms and require no treatment. In rare cases, however, some adrenal adenomas may become activated. When activated, the adenoma begins to produce hormones in much larger quantities than what the adrenal glands would normally produce, leading to health complications including primary aldosteronism and hyperandrogenism.


title: Hyperandrogenism

text: Arrhenoblastoma is an uncommon tumor of the ovary. It is composed of sterol cells, Leydig cells, or some combination of the two. The tumor can produce male or female hormones and may cause masculinization. In a prepubescent child, a tumor may cause precocious puberty. Malignant arrhenoblastoma accounts for 30% of cases of arrhenoblastoma, the other 70% being largely benign and curable with surgery.


title: Hyperandrogenism

text: A hilar cell tumor is an androgen-producing ovarian tumor that is most commonly found in older women and often leads to the development of male sex characteristics. The tumor tends to occur around the region of the ovary where the blood vessels enter the organ, known as the hilum. This type of tumor tends to be small in size and in most cases can be entirely removed and its symptoms reversed through surgery.


title: Hyperandrogenism

text: A Krukenberg tumor is a quickly developing malignant tumor found in one or both ovaries. In most cases, the tumor primarily originates from tissues in the stomach, pancreas, gallbladder, colon, or breast. It colonized the ovary by spreading through the peritoneal cavity. These tumors cause virilization. Increased androgen production due to elevations in human chorionic gonadotropin is hypothesized as the main cause of hyperandrogenism in people with Krukenberg tumors.


title: Hyperandrogenism

text: The end of ovulation and the beginning of menopause can result in hyperandrogenism. During this transition, the body stops releasing estrogen at a faster rate than it stops releasing androgens. In some cases, the difference between the lower estrogen levels and higher androgen levels can produce hyperandrogenism. A decrease in sex hormone levels while the free androgen index increases can also contribute to this process.


title: Hyperandrogenism

text: Many drugs can provoke symptoms of hyperandrogenism. These symptoms include, but are not limited to hirsutism, acne, dermatitis, androgenic alopecia, irregularities in menstruation, clitoral hypertrophy, and the deepening of the voice. Drugs most frequently implicated in hyperandrogenism include anabolic steroids, synthetic progestins, and antiepileptics; however, many other drugs may also cause hyperandrogenism. This can happen through one of five mechanisms: the direct introduction of androgens to the body, the binding of the drug to androgen receptors (as is the case with anabolic-androgenic steroids), a reduction of sex hormone-binding globulin plasma concentration that leads to an increase in free testosterone, interference with the hypothalamic–pituitary–ovarian (HPO) axis, or an increase in the release of adrenal androgens. Certain drugs cause hyperandrogenism through mechanisms that remain unclear. For example, the molecular basis by which valproate induces hyperandrogenism and polycystic ovary syndrome has yet to be determined. However, one study showed that women taking valproic acid had higher testosterone levels and incidences of hyperandrogenism compared to women who were not taking valproic acid.


title: Hyperandrogenism

text: Hyperandrogenism can appear as a symptom of many different genetic and medical conditions. Some of the conditions with hyperandrogenic symptoms, including PCOS, may sometimes be hereditary. Additionally, it is thought that epigenetics may contribute to the pathogenesis of polycystic ovary syndrome.


title: Hyperandrogenism

text: One potential cause of PCOS is maternal hyperandrogenism, whereby hormonal irregularities in the mother can affect the development of the child during gestation, resulting in the passing of polycystic ovary syndrome from mother to child. However, no androgen elevations in were found in the umbilical cord blood of children born to mothers with PCOS.


title: Hyperandrogenism

text: Diagnosing hyperandrogenism can be complex due to the wide variety and severity of signs and symptoms that may present. It is most often diagnosed by checking for signs of hirsutism according to a standardized method that scores the range of excess hair growth.


title: Hyperandrogenism

text: Girls may show symptoms of hyperandrogenism early in life, but physicians become more concerned when the patient is in her late teens or older.


title: Hyperandrogenism

text: Checking medical history and a physical examination of symptoms are used for an initial diagnosis. Patient history assessed includes age at thelarche, adrenarche, and menarche; patterns of menstruation; obesity; reproductive history; and the start and advancement of hyperandrogenism symptoms. Patterns of menstruation are examined since irregular patterns may accompany hyperandrogenism. Other conditions that may present alongside hirsutism that can contribute to diagnosis include androgenic alopecia and acne. If hyperandrogenism is severe, virilization may occur.


title: Hyperandrogenism

text: Family history is also assessed for occurrences of hyperandrogenism symptoms or obesity in other family members.


title: Hyperandrogenism

text: Laboratory tests can measure FSH, luteininzing hormone, DHEAS, prolactin, 17α-hydroxyprogesterone, and total and free testosterone in the blood. Abnormally high levels of any of these hormones help in diagnosing hyperandrogenism.


title: Hyperandrogenism

text: Since risk factors are not known and vary among individuals with hyperandrogenism, there is no sure method to prevent the condition. Accordingly, more long-term studies are needed to find a cause of the condition before a sufficient method of prevention can be established.


title: Hyperandrogenism

text: Despite this, there are a few things that can help avoid long-term medical issues related to hyperandrogenism and PCOS. Getting checked by a medical professional for hyperandrogenism — especially if one has a family history of the condition, irregular periods, or diabetes — can be beneficial. A healthy weight and diet may reduce the chances, as continued exercise and a healthy diet lead to an improved menstrual cycle, decreased insulin levels, and lowered androgen concentrations.


title: Hyperandrogenism

text: There is no definitive treatment for hyperandrogenism as it varies with the underlying condition that causes it. As a hormonal symptom of PCOS, menopause, and other endocrine conditions, it is primarily treated as a symptom of these conditions. Drugs may be considered only in women who do not plan on becoming pregnant in the near future. Some effective drugs for facial hirsutism includes eflornithine, which may cause birth defects in pregnant women. Retinoids and antibiotics can be used for acne and minoxidil for alopecia. Systemically, it is treated with antiandrogens such as cyproterone acetate, flutamide and spironolactone to reduce androgenic signaling. For hyperandrogenism caused by late-onset congenital adrenal hyperplasia (LOCAH), treatment is primarily focused on providing the patient with glucocorticoids to combat the low cortisol production and the corresponding increase in androgens caused by the increase in size of the adrenal glands. Estrogen-based oral contraceptives are used to treat both LOCAH- and PCOS-associated hyperandrogenism. These hormonal treatments reduce the androgen excess and suppress adrenal androgen production, bringing about a significant decrease in hirsutism.


title: Hyperandrogenism

text: Hyperandrogenism is often managed symptomatically. Hirsutism and acne both respond well to the hormonal treatments described above, with 60–100% of patients reporting an improvement in hirsutism. Androgenic alopecia however, does not show an improvement with hormonal treatments and requires other treatments, such as hair transplantation.


title: Hyperandrogenism

text: Supplementation can also contribute to the managing the symptomatic effects of hyperandrogenism. In a meta-analysis, high-dose vitamin D supplements given to women with vitamin D deficiency due to PCOS improved glucose levels, insulin sensitivity, and cholesterol levels, as well as lowering testosterone, sex hormone-binding globulin, and the free androgen index, all of which are associated with hyperandrogenism. Vitamin D supplementation in women with vitamin D deficiency but without PCOS did not show the same results.


title: Hyperandrogenism

text: Lifestyle modifications are the first-line treatment for PCOS. They help improve body composition, insulin resistance, and hyperandrogenism. However, it is unclear whether they help improve mood, quality of life, and reproductive outcomes. A meta-analysis study in 2017 showed that bariatric surgery in women with severe obesity and PCOS decreased levels of total and free testosterone and helped correct hirsutism and menstrual dysfunction.


title: Hyperandrogenism

text: Insulin resistance in women with PCOS is typically treated with insulin-sensitizer drugs such as metformin. Metformin can help to decrease weight and androgen levels. When combined with lifestyle modifications (changes in diet and exercise), it has been linked with lower body mass index and a reduction in menstrual problems. However, the use of metformin in women with PCOS should only be considered in patients with impaired glucose tolerance.


title: Hyperandrogenism

text: Because androgen excess is manifested in noticeable physical features (such as hirsutism), social stigma may be associated with it.


title: Hyperandrogenism

text: Current evidence-based studies show that unusually high levels of circulating testosterone are associated with increased athletic performance in women, unless they lack androgen sensitivity. However, controversy has emerged in the form of the claim that testosterone is not unlike any other physical parameter with reference to bestowing advantages or disadvantages on female athletes. Existing regulations throughout competitive sports are currently being refined to specifically address this particular claim.


title: Hyperandrogenism

text: Following the case of South African athlete Caster Semenya, an athlete with a difference in sex development (DSD), the International Association of Athletics Federations introduced its hyperandrogenism regulations, which restricted women with high testosterone levels, whether the hormones were produced by ovaries, adrenals, or testes. These regulations replaced the earlier sex verification rules.


title: Hyperandrogenism

text: Following a series of legal challenges, regulations called the Eligibility Regulations for the Female Classification (Athletes with Differences of Sexual Development) were released on 1 May 2019. These regulations apply only to athletes who have a DSD, high testosterone and virilization, and no longer include hyperandrogenism from non-DSD-related causes such as PCOS. Such DSDs, often seen in people who have a Y chromosome and testes, include 5α‐reductase deficiency, partial androgen insensitivity, and congenital adrenal hyperplasia.


title: Hyperandrogenism

text: Cultural variation can define hyperandrogenism socially—apart from clinical and chemical definitions—to make some hair growth unacceptable even if it is considered clinically normal based on metrics like the Ferriman-Gallwey score. For example, only pubic and axillary hair may be tolerated in North American women, while other androgen-dependent hair such as growth on the upper lip, over the linea alba, on the thighs, and around the areola is not.


title: Hyperandrogenism

text: Professional organizations such as the Androgen Excess and PCOS Society exist to promote the research, treatment, diagnosis, and prevention of such disorders and to educate the public and scientific community about them.


title: J Hus

text: Momodou Lamin Jallow (born 27 May 1995), known professionally as J Hus, is a British rapper and singer who has been credited with pioneering the genre afroswing. He is currently signed to Black Butter Records. He gained popularity in 2015 following the release of his song "Dem Boy Paigon".