title: Chevrolet HHR

text: In the fourth quarter of 2010, Chevrolet announced that the HHR would be discontinued after the 2011 model year, with the last HHRs available in dealerships starting in late January to early February. HHRs were also available for fleet order until May 2011.


title: Chevrolet HHR

text: Flex-Fuel (E85) was added to the 2.2 & 2.4 engines for the 2009 model year; these were the first Four-Cylinder Flex-Fuel Engines from GM in North America.


title: Chevrolet HHR

text: In Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) tests the HHR received a "Good" overall score in the frontal offset crash test, and an "Acceptable" score in side impacts on models equipped with side curtain airbags.


title: Chevrolet HHR

text: Side curtain airbags became standard for 2008 models. However, side torso airbags were never made available.


title: David Hunt (actor)

text: David Hunt is an English actor, producer, and director who has worked in both the United Kingdom and the United States. His best known U.S. film role is Harlan Rook, in the 1988 action film "The Dead Pool", the fifth installment in the "Dirty Harry" series. He has also had guest roles on the television sitcom "Everybody Loves Raymond" as Ray's nemesis neighbor, Bill Parker. He also appeared in the recurring role of Darren McCarthy during season 6 of "24". Back in the UK, Hunt was in the 1991 award-winning period drama, "The Black Velvet Gown", as well as being a regular cast member of the series "Beck" for the BBC.


title: David Hunt (actor)

text: In 2005, Hunt directed the documentary "The Bituminous Coal Queens of Pennsylvania", which won a Crystal Heart Award at the Heartland Film Festival. Other film appearances include "The Deal" with William H. Macy, Meg Ryan and Jason Ritter and "Moms' Night Out".


title: David Hunt (actor)

text: Amongst Hunt's productions are the romantic comedy "The Engagement Ring", a two-hour movie for TNT in which he also starred; "Amazing Grace", a motion picture directed by Michael Apted and starring Albert Finney; and the television comedy "Versailles", which he directed.


title: David Hunt (actor)

text: Hunt graduated from Loughborough University, Leicestershire. He worked as a schoolteacher and American football coach before moving to New York City. Hunt graduated from the Juilliard School in New York. In 2001, he founded a production company, FourBoys Entertainment, with his wife, American actress Patricia Heaton. They have four sons and they divide their time between Los Angeles and Cambridge. In 2019, Broti Gupta, a writer on Hunt's wife's television show "Carol's Second Act", complained that David Hunt had inappropriate contact with her, the claim, which Hunt and his lawyer denied. Gupta and another writer subsequently left the show and Hunt underwent work harassment sensitivity training.


title: Wendy Darling

text: Wendy Moira Angela Darling is a fictional character and one of the main protagonists of the 1904 play and 1911 novel "Peter and Wendy" by J. M. Barrie, as well as in most adaptations in other media. Her exact age is not specified in the original play or novel by Barrie, though it is implied that she is about 12–13 years old or possibly younger, as she is "just Peter's size". As a girl on the verge of adulthood, she stands in contrast to Peter Pan, a boy who refuses to grow up, the major theme of the Peter Pan stories. Wendy hesitates at first to fly off to Neverland, but she comes to enjoy her adventures. Ultimately, she chooses to go back to her parents and accepts that she has to grow up.


title: Wendy Darling

text: In the novel "Peter Pan", and its cinematic adaptations, she is an Edwardian schoolgirl. The novel states that she attends a "kindergarten school" with her younger brothers, meaning a school for pre-adolescent children. Like Peter, in many adaptations of the story she is shown to be on the brink of adolescence. She belongs to a middle class London household of that era, and is the daughter of George Darling, a short-tempered and pompous bank/office worker, and his wife, Mary. Wendy shares a nursery room with her two brothers, Michael and John. However, in the Disney version, her father decides that "it's high time she had a room of her own" out of the nursery for "stuffing the boys' heads with a lot of silly stories", but changes his mind at the end of the film when he returns home with his wife after the party.


title: Wendy Darling

text: Wendy is the most developed character in the story of Peter Pan, and is considered a main protagonist. She is proud of her own childhood and enjoys telling stories and fantasising. She has a distaste for adulthood, acquired partly by the example of it set by her father, whom she loves but fears due to his somewhat violent fits of anger. Her ambition early in the story is to somehow "avoid" growing up. She is granted this opportunity by Peter Pan, who takes her and her brothers to Neverland, where they can remain young forever.


title: Wendy Darling

text: Wendy finds that this experience brings out her more adult side. Peter and the tribe of Lost Boys who dwell in Neverland want her to be their "mother" (a role they remember only vaguely), a request she tentatively accedes to, performing various domestic tasks for them. There is also a degree of innocent flirtation with Peter which incites jealousy in Peter's fairy Tinker Bell. In Barrie's book "Peter and Wendy", Wendy asks Peter at the end if he would like to speak to her parents about "a very sweet subject", implying that she would like him to speak to her parents about someday marrying her. Wendy eventually learns that adulthood has its rewards and returns to London, deciding not to postpone maturity any longer.


title: Wendy Darling

text: Barrie's short play "When Wendy Grew Up – An Afterthought" was first staged in 1908, and the story line included in the novel published in 1911. It was published in 1957 and sometimes incorporated into productions of the play. In this "Afterthought" Wendy has grown up and married, although it's not known whom she married, and has a daughter, Jane. When Peter returns looking for Wendy, he does not understand at first that Wendy is no longer a young girl, as he has no notion of time when in Neverland. He meets Jane and invites her to fly off with him to Neverland. Wendy lets her daughter go, trusting her to make the same choices as her. The narrator states that Jane has a daughter, Margaret, who will one day also go to Neverland with Peter Pan, and "in this way, it will go on for ever and ever, so long as children are young and innocent".


title: Wendy Darling

text: Barrie does not give any description of Wendy, but she is generally depicted as a pretty girl with blond or brown hair. While Tiger Lily and Tinker Bell are usually portrayed as exotic or magical figures, Wendy represents the conventional young mother figure who ultimately captures Peter Pan's attention. Wendy is portrayed in the Disney movie with light brown hair, wearing a blue nightdress and blue ribbon in her hair.


title: Wendy Darling

text: In the original novel and the 1953 Disney movie, Wendy has an easy relationship with her mother, Mary Darling. Her relationship with her father, George Darling, is more difficult as he is always serious and does not like Wendy telling stories to her brothers that he considers childish, threatening to move Wendy to her own room. However, Wendy and her father do love each other and when Wendy comes back from Neverland, she seems to have a better understanding of her father.


title: Wendy Darling

text: Wendy and her brothers, John Darling and Michael Darling, to whom she tells stories, have a good relationship. She shows great concern for them and is very protective of them. In the 1953 cartoon movie, she makes John and Michael realize that they need their real mother and persuades them to return home after their adventures in Neverland.


title: Wendy Darling

text: Wendy believes in Peter Pan and shares his stories with her brothers every night. When Wendy and Peter meet for the first time, she begins to care about him too. Romantic feelings between them are hinted at, but never articulated. In the 2003 film, the feeling is mutual and Wendy shows her love when she gives Peter a hidden kiss in order to save him from Captain Hook. They also have a special moment in the cartoon sequel to the 1953 film, "Return to Neverland", when Peter and a grown-up Wendy are reunited for the first time in years and they share a final goodbye together. Wendy's reaction to seeing him implies she may still harbour feelings towards him. In "Hook", an elderly Wendy hints she still has feelings for Peter (who has grown up and married her granddaughter, Moira), expressing surprise and possibly disappointment that he never stopped her wedding from happening.


title: Wendy Darling

text: The first name "Wendy" was very uncommon in the English-speaking world before J. M. Barrie's work and its subsequent popularity has led some to credit him with "inventing" it. Although the name "Wendy" was used to a limited extent as the familiar-form of the Welsh name Gwendolyn, it is thought that Barrie took the name from a phrase used by Margaret Henley, a five-year-old girl whom Barrie befriended in the 1890s, daughter of his friend William Henley. She called Barrie her "friendy-wendy", which she pronounced as "fwendy-wendy". She died at the age of five and was buried, along with her family, in Cockayne Hatley.


title: Wendy Darling

text: In Great Britain, South Africa, New Zealand and Australia, children's playhouses are commonly known as Wendy houses.


title: Wendy Darling

text: In the first productions of the play at the Duke of York's theatre in London, from 1904 to 1909, she was portrayed by Hilda Trevelyan and at the first US production at the Empire Theatre in New York in 1905, by Mildred Morris.


title: Robbie Jarvis

text: Robert Stephen Jarvis is a British actor who has appeared in films including "Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix", and in television programmes including "Genie in the House", "The History Boys" and "Waking the Dead".


title: Robbie Jarvis

text: Jarvis was born in Yeovil, Somerset. He attended the Littlehampton Community School and Chichester College, He joined the National Youth Theatre aged 16 and performed with the company until he was 18.


title: Robbie Jarvis

text: Jarvis played young James Potter in the film adaptation of "Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix" (2007). In 2006, he made a brief appearance in the Nickelodeon show "Genie in the House" and did voice work for the acclaimed film "The History Boys". He has also guest starred in episodes of "Waking the Dead" for the BBC and ITV's "Trial & Retribution". He returned to the stage in 2012 at the Southwark Playhouse in the latest play by Philip Ridley, "Shivered".


title: Independence Day (Pakistan)

text: Pakistan Establishment Day (colloquially the Fourteenth of August) is a state holiday in Pakistan commemorating the nation's establishment from the United Kingdom on 14 August 1947, establishing the Dominion of Pakistan.


title: Independence Day (Pakistan)

text: Pakistan came into existence as a result of the Pakistan Movement, which aimed for the creation of an independent Muslim state in the north-western and north-eastern regions of British India via partition. The movement was led by the All-India Muslim League under the leadership of Muhammad Ali Jinnah. The event was brought forth by the Indian Independence Act 1947 under which the British Raj gave independence to the Dominion of Pakistan which comprised West Pakistan (present-day Pakistan) and East Pakistan (now Bangladesh). In the Islamic calendar, the day of independence coincided with Ramadan 27, the eve of which, being Laylat al-Qadr, is regarded as sacred by Muslims.


title: Independence Day (Pakistan)

text: The main Establishment Day ceremony takes place in Islamabad, where the national flag is hoisted at the Presidential and Parliament buildings. It is followed by the national anthem and live televised speeches by leaders. Usual celebratory events and festivities for the day include flag-raising ceremonies, parades, cultural events, and the playing of patriotic songs. A number of award ceremonies are often held on this day, and Pakistanis hoist the national flag atop their homes or display it prominently on their vehicles and attire.


title: Independence Day (Pakistan)

text: The area constituting Pakistan was historically a part of the British Indian Empire throughout much of the nineteenth century. The East India Company begun their trade in colonial India in the 17th century, and the company rule started from 1757 when they won the Battle of Plassey. Following the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the Government of India Act 1858 led to the British Crown assuming direct control over much of the Indian subcontinent. All-India Muslim League was founded by the All India Muhammadan Educational Conference at Dhaka, in 1906, in the context of the circumstances that were generated over the division of Bengal in 1905 and the party aimed at creation of a separate Muslim state.


title: Independence Day (Pakistan)

text: The period after World War I was marked by British reforms such as the Montagu-ford Reforms, but it also witnessed the enactment of the repressive Rowlatt Act and strident calls for self-rule by Indian activists. The widespread discontent of this period crystallized into nationwide non-violent movements of non-cooperation and civil disobedience. The idea for a separate Muslim state in the northwest regions of South Asia was introduced by Allama Iqbal in his speech as the President of the Muslim League in December 1930. Three years later, the name of "Pakistan" as a separate state was proposed in a declaration made by Chaudhary Rahmat Ali, in the form of an acronym. It was to comprise the five "northern units" of Punjab, Afghania (erstwhile North-West Frontier Province), Kashmir, Sindh, and Baluchistan. Like Iqbal, Bengal was left out of the proposal made by Rehmat Ali.


title: Independence Day (Pakistan)

text: In the 1940s, as the Indian independence movement intensified, an upsurge of Muslim nationalism helmed by the All-India Muslim League took place, of which Muhammad Ali Jinnah was the most prominent leader. Since a long time, feelings between Hindus and Muslims were intensifying. Being a political party to secure the interests of the Muslim diaspora in British India, the Muslim League played a decisive role during the 1940s in the Indian independence movement and developed into the driving force behind the creation of Pakistan as a Muslim state in South Asia. During a three-day general session of All-India Muslim League from 22–24 March 1940, a formal political statement was presented, known as the Lahore Resolution, which called on for the creation of an independent state for Muslims. In 1956, 23 March also became the date on which Pakistan transitioned from a dominion to a republic, and is known as Pakistan Day.


title: Independence Day (Pakistan)

text: In 1946, the Labour government in Britain, exhausted by recent events such as World War II and numerous riots, realized that it had neither the mandate at home, the support internationally, nor the reliability of the British Indian Army for continuing to control an increasingly restless British India. The reliability of the native forces for continuing their control over an increasingly rebellious India diminished, and so the government decided to end the British rule of the Indian Subcontinent. In 1946, the Indian National Congress, being a secular party, demanded a single state. The All India Muslim League, who disagreed with the idea of single state, stressed the idea of a separate Pakistan as an alternative. The 1946 Cabinet Mission to India was sent to try to reach a compromise between Congress and the Muslim League, proposing a decentralized state with much power given to local governments, but it was rejected by both of the parties and resulted in a number of riots in South Asia.


title: Independence Day (Pakistan)

text: Eventually, in February 1947, Prime Minister Clement Attlee announced that the British government would grant full self-governance to British India by June 1948 at the latest. On 3 June 1947, the British government announced that the principle of division of British India into two independent states was accepted. The successor governments would be given dominion status and would have an implicit right to secede from the British Commonwealth. Viceroy Mountbatten chose 15 August, the second anniversary of Japan's surrender in the World War II, as the date of power transfer. He chose 14 August as the date of the ceremony of power transfer to Pakistan because he wanted to attend the ceremonies in both India and Pakistan.


title: Independence Day (Pakistan)

text: The Indian Independence Act 1947 (10 & 11 Geo 6 c. 30) passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom divided British India into the two new independent dominions; the Dominion of India (later to become the Republic of India) and the Dominion of Pakistan (later to become the Islamic Republic of Pakistan). The act provided a mechanism for division of the Bengal and Punjab provinces between the two nations (see partition of India), establishment of the office of the Governor-General, conferral of complete legislative authority upon the respective Constituent Assemblies, and division of joint property between the two new countries. The act later received royal assent on 18 July 1947. The partition was accompanied by violent riots and mass casualties, and the displacement of nearly 15 million people due to religious violence across the subcontinent; millions of Muslim, Sikh and Hindu refugees trekked the newly drawn borders to Pakistan and India respectively in the months surrounding independence.


title: Independence Day (Pakistan)

text: On 14 August 1947, the new Dominion of Pakistan became independent and Muhammad Ali Jinnah was sworn in as its first governor general in Karachi. Independence was marked with widespread celebration, but the atmosphere remained heated given the communal riots prevalent during independence in 1947. Since the transfer of power took place on the midnight of 14 and 15 August, the Indian Independence Act 1947 recognized 15 August as the birthday of both Pakistan and Modern Day India. The act states;


title: Independence Day (Pakistan)

text: The first commemorative postage stamps of the country, released in July 1948, also gave 15 August 1947 as the independence day. However, in subsequent years 14 August was adopted as the independence day. This is because Mountbatten administered the independence oath to Jinnah on the 14th, before leaving for India where the oath was scheduled on the midnight of the 15th. The night of 14–15 August 1947 coincided with 27 Ramadan 1366 of the Islamic calendar, which Muslims regard as a sacred night.


title: Independence Day (Pakistan)

text: The independence day is one of the six public holidays observed in Pakistan and is celebrated all across the country. To prepare and finalise the plans for independence day celebrations, meetings are held in the provincial capitals by local governments which are attended by government officials, diplomats, and politicians. Public organisations, educational institutions, and government departments organise seminars, sports competitions, and social and cultural activities leading up to the independence day. In Karachi, drives are initiated to clean and prepare the Mazar-e-Quaid (Jinnah Mausoleum) for the celebration.


title: Independence Day (Pakistan)

text: The official festivities take place in Islamabad and commence with the raising of the national flag on the Parliament House and the Presidency followed by a 31-gun salute in the capital and a 21-gun salute in provincial capitals. The President and Prime Minister of Pakistan address the nation in live telecasts. Government officials, political leaders and celebrities deliver messages or speeches during rallies, ceremonies and events, highlighting Pakistani achievements, goals set for the future, and praise the sacrifices and efforts of national heroes. Government buildings including the Parliament House, Supreme Court, President House and Prime Minister's Secretariat are decorated and illuminated with lights and bright colours. A change of guard takes place at national monuments by the Armed Forces. The Army, Air Force and Navy feature prominently in independence day parades. In the cities around the country, the flag hoisting ceremony is carried out by the "nazim" (mayor) belonging to the respective constituency, and in various public and private departments, the ceremony is conducted by a senior officer of that organisation. In 2017, the Pakistan International Airlines introduced a special in-flight jam session to entertain passengers traveling on Independence Day, featuring artists singing national songs on board a domestic flight.


title: Independence Day (Pakistan)

text: International figures including heads of state, public personalities and diplomats extend their messages of felicitation to Pakistan, and flag raising ceremonies are held across Pakistani diplomatic missions abroad. Overseas dignitaries are invited as chief guests in ceremonies, while their military contingents often participate in parades. On the international border, Pakistani paramilitary troops exchange sweets with their cross-border counterparts as a tradition. National flags are displayed on major roads and avenues such as Shahrah-e-Faisal, Shahara-e-Quaideen, and Mazar-e-Quaid Road, leading up to Jinnah's mausoleum in Karachi. The Minar-e-Pakistan in Lahore, where the Pakistan Resolution was passed in 1940, is fully illuminated on the eve of the independence day to signify its importance in the creation of Pakistan.


title: Independence Day (Pakistan)

text: As the month of August begins, special stalls, fun fairs and shops are set up across the country for the sale of national flags, buntings, banners and posters, badges, pictures of national heroes, multimedia, baajas and other celebratory items. Vehicles, private buildings, homes, and streets are decorated with national flags, candles, oil lamps, pennants and buntings.


title: Independence Day (Pakistan)

text: Businesses engage in rigorous marketing, as do leading designer fashion outlets which stock independence-themed clothing, jewellery and self-adornments.


title: Independence Day (Pakistan)

text: The day begins with special prayers for the integrity, solidarity, and development of Pakistan in mosques and religious places across the country. Citizens attending independence day parades and other events are usually dressed in Pakistan's official colours, green and white. Many people meet their friends and relatives, dine over Pakistani food, and visit recreational spots to mark the holiday. Public functions including elaborate firework shows, street parades, seminars, televised transmissions, music and poetry contests, children's shows and art exhibitions are a common part of the celebrations. Along with flag hoisting, the national anthem is sung at various government places, schools, residences, and monuments on the day, and patriotic slogans such as "Pakistan Zindabad" are raised. Musical concerts and dance performances are arranged both inside and outside the country, featuring popular artists. Homage is paid to the people who lost their lives during the migration and riots which followed independence in 1947, as well as martyrs of the Pakistan Army and recipients of Nishan-e-Haider, and political figures, famous artists and scientists.


title: Independence Day (Pakistan)

text: Immigrant communities in Pakistan partake in the festivities as well. In countries where there are significant Pakistani communities or which share strong relations with Pakistan, the national colours and flag of Pakistan are frequently illuminated on prominent structures, squares and public monuments as a show of celebration. The Pakistani diaspora organises cultural events to celebrate independence day, and public parades are held in cities with large Pakistani populations, such as New York, London and Dubai. In addition, some Kashmiris from Jammu and Kashmir who hold pro-Pakistan sentiments are known to observe the day, causing friction with Indian authorities.


title: Independence Day (Pakistan)

text: Security measures in the country are intensified as the independence day approaches, especially in major cities and in troubled areas. The security is set up after various representatives of intelligence and investigation agencies meet. High alert is declared in sensitive areas such as the country's capital, to restrict security threats. Despite this, there have been instances where attacks have occurred on independence day by insurgents who boycott the celebrations as a part of their protest.


title: Independence Day (Pakistan)

text: On 13 August 2010, the country witnessed floods causing deaths of 1,600 people and affecting 14 million lives. On account of the calamity, the president made an announcement that there would not be any official celebration of the independence day that year.


title: Independence Day (Pakistan)

text: From the beginning of August, radio channels play "milli naghmay" (patriotic songs) and various TV shows and programmes highlighting the history, culture, and achievements of Pakistan are broadcast. Popular national songs like "Dil Dil Pakistan" and "Jazba-e-Junoon" are played and sung all over the country. New patriotic songs are also released each year. The film "Jinnah" released in 1998 follows the story of Jinnah and details the events leading up to the independence of Pakistan. The events during the independence of Pakistan are depicted in many literary and scholarly works. Khushwant Singh's novel "Train to Pakistan", Saadat Hasan Manto's short story "Toba Tek Singh", Larry Collins and Dominique Lapierre's book "Freedom at Midnight", and poetic works of Faiz Ahmad Faiz chronicle events during the independence of Pakistan. "Ali Pur Ka Aeeli" by Mumtaz Mufti is an autobiography narrating the account of bringing his family from Batala to Lahore. "Khaak aur Khoon" (Dirt and Blood) by Naseem Hijazi describes the sacrifices of Muslims of South Asia during independence. "Dastaan", a Pakistani drama serial, based on the novel "Bano" by Razia Butt, also tells the story of Pakistan Movement and events surrounding the independence of Pakistan.


title: Independence Day (Pakistan)

text: Pakistan Post released four commemorative stamps in July 1948 for the country's first independence anniversary. Three of the four stamps depicted places from Pakistan while the fourth stamp depicted a motif. The stamps were inscribed "15th August 1947" because of the prevailing confusion of actual date of independence. In 1997, Pakistan celebrated its 50th anniversary of independence. The State Bank of Pakistan issued a special banknote of rupee 5 depicting the tomb of Baha-ud-din Zakariya on 13 August 1997, commemorating the 50th independence day. On the front of the note a star burst is encircled by "Fifty Years Anniversary of Freedom" in Urdu and '1947–1997' in numerals.


title: Independence Day (Pakistan)

text: In November 1997, the 1997 Wills Golden Jubilee Tournament was held in Gaddafi Stadium, Lahore to mark the golden jubilee. During the final of the tournament, Pakistan Cricket Board honoured all the living test cricket captains of Pakistan by parading them in horse-drawn carriages and presenting them with gold medals. On 14 August 2004, Pakistan displayed the largest flag of the time with the dimensions of .


title: Independence Day (Pakistan)

text: Since 2011, the Google Pakistan homepage has featured special doodles designed with Pakistani symbols to mark Pakistan's Independence Day. Such symbols have included the star and crescent, national monuments and colours, historic and artistic representations, geographic landscapes and other national symbols. Facebook allows its users in Pakistan to post an independence day status with a Pakistani flag icon on it or greets users in the country with a special message on the home page.


title: John Diehl

text: John Henry Diehl (born May 1, 1950) is an American character actor. Noted for his work in avant-garde theater, Diehl has performed in more than 140 films and television shows, including "Land of Plenty", "Stripes", "City Limits", "Nixon", "Jurassic Park III" and the TV series "Miami Vice", "The Shield", and "Point Pleasant".


title: John Diehl

text: Diehl has "largely avoided the typecasting that is an accepted part of most character actors' careers." He has been a member of The Actors Studio since 2004.


title: John Diehl

text: Diehl was born in Cincinnati, Ohio in 1950. His father, John A. Diehl, was a civil engineer, and his mother, Mary, was a social worker. Raised in a devoutly Roman Catholic family, he was educated at parochial schools, and graduated from St. Xavier High School in 1968.


title: John Diehl

text: In 1970, Diehl moved to New York, encouraged by his sister, who had just graduated from the Neighborhood Playhouse School of the Theatre. He spent 1971 squatting in Amsterdam and returned to New York in 1972. In 1976, he moved to Los Angeles. He had always been interested in drawing and making things, and intended to pursue a career in the visual arts there. Initially he supported himself in LA by moving furniture and objet d'art.


title: John Diehl

text: Although he had no previous experience as an actor, Diehl's interest turned to acting after he arrived in Los Angeles. He took a three-hour scene studies class in Hollywood twice a week, and in 1979 he was cast in "Action," a one act play written by Sam Shepard. In 1980, he became an acting member of Murray Mednick's Padua Hills Playwrights Festival, an annual event which brought young playwrights from throughout the United States together to live and work with such playwrights as Mednick, Shepard, Maria Irene Fornes, John O’Keefe, John Steppling, and Robert Glaudini. Diehl worked with all of the playwrights in residence over the course of his several years as an acting member of the festival.


title: John Diehl

text: Diehl's first significant film role was in the 1981 movie "Stripes". In the 25th Anniversary DVD release of "Stripes," John Laroquette compared the improvisation of John Candy and Diehl to the improvisation of Stan Laurel and Oliver Hardy. In 1983, Diehl appeared in "National Lampoon's Vacation", which Harold Ramis directed.


title: John Diehl

text: In 1984, Diehl was cast as Detective Larry Zito in "Miami Vice". Diehl found the role unfulfilling, and decided to leave. On January 9, 1987 — the 57th episode of "Miami Vice" — Diehl made his last appearance in a two-part episode, "Down for the Count", in which his character was killed off.


title: John Diehl

text: Diehl moved into a basement apartment in Greenwich Village in New York, and despite a drastic reduction in his income, he declined television roles, and chose instead to continue working in film while pursuing a serious stage career. He subsequently appeared in "The Hanoi Hilton" (1987), a film about the experiences of American prisoners of war in Hanoi in the 1960s/70s, and Alex Cox's "Walker" (1987), which was shot in Nicaragua during the Contra War. In late 1988, Diehl relocated to Los Angeles after he was cast in Sam Shepard's "A Lie of the Mind" at the Mark Taper Forum.


title: John Diehl

text: He continued to work in theater in New York, however, and frequently returned to the stage there, most notably for a Shepherd play at the Public Theater with Shepard in residence at the Signature, and Mednick's "Joe And Betty", which was produced twice on Theater Row in New York.


title: John Diehl

text: In 1997, Diehl reprised his role in "Action" at the Public Theater, and in 2005 he worked once again with Padua Playwrights, appearing in two plays in Mednick's "Gary Trilogy". Among others, his theater credits include "Life of Mine", (with Holly Hunter) at the Mark Taper Forum, Samuel Beckett's "Endgame" and "Happy Days", one of three plays which Diehl directed.


title: John Diehl

text: He has appeared in more than 140 films, including "Joysticks" (1983), "Angel" (1984), "City Limits" (1984), "Madhouse" (1990), "The Dark Side of the Moon" (1990), "Kickboxer 2" (1991), "Mikey" (1992), "Mo' Money" (1992), "Gettysburg" (1993), "The Client" (1994), "Stargate" (1994), "The New Age" (1994), "Mind Ripper" (1995), "A Time to Kill" (1996), "Pearl Harbor" (2001), and "Road to Nowhere" (2010).


title: John Diehl

text: He played G. Gordon Liddy in Oliver Stone's "Nixon" (1995), the mercenary Cooper in "Jurassic Park III" (2001), and in recurring roles on "The Shield," "Friday Night Lights", "The West Wing" and "The John Larroquette Show". In 2000, he appeared in "Fail Safe", which aired live on television. Between 2002 and 2004, he portrayed General Motors' Harley Earl in a series of television commercials for Buick. The commercials were directed by Tony Scott, who had previously directed films including "Top Gun" and "Crimson Tide."


title: John Diehl

text: In 2004, Wim Wenders cast Diehl as the male lead in "Land of Plenty", a film about post 9/11 American life. Shot on digital video in sixteen days, the film centered on Diehl's character, Paul, a troubled Vietnam veteran, and his niece, played by Michelle Williams. In a "The New York Times" review of the film, A.O. Scott wrote that Diehl gave a "wry, cunning performance, allowing glimmers of Paul's intelligence and decency to shine through even in his moments of high self-delusion."


title: John Diehl

text: A member of the Actors Studio since 2004, Diehl won the "Los Angeles Times" Warren Award in 2012, and in 2014 won the Southampton Film Festival's Lead Actor Award for his role in the short film "Kahea".


title: John Diehl

text: Diehl and singer Julie Christensen were married in 1992. They live in Nashville, Tennessee, and have one son, Magnus Jackson Diehl.


title: John Diehl

text: He boxed as a middleweight in two professional matches (one win and one loss), and participated in several exhibition shows for charity.


title: ST elevation

text: ST elevation refers to a finding on an electrocardiogram wherein the trace in the ST segment is abnormally high above the baseline.


title: ST elevation

text: The ST segment starts from the J point (termination of QRS complex and the beginning of ST segment) and ends with the T wave. The ST segment is the plateau phase, in which the majority of the myocardial cells had gone through depolarization but not repolarization. The ST segment is the isoelectric line because there is no voltage difference across cardiac muscle cell membrane during this state. Any distortion in the shape, duration, or height of the cardiac action potential can distort the ST segment.


title: ST elevation

text: An ST elevation is considered significant if the vertical distance inside the ECG trace and the baseline at a point 0.04 seconds after the J-point is at least 0.1 mV (usually representing 1 mm or 1 small square) in a limb lead or 0.2 mV (2 mm or 2 small squares) in a precordial lead. The baseline is either the PR interval or the TP interval. This measure has a false positive rate of 15–20% (which is slightly higher in women than men) and a false negative rate of 20–30%.


title: ST elevation

text: When there is a blockage of the coronary artery, there will be lack of oxygen supply to all three layers of cardiac muscle (transmural ischemia). The leads facing the injured cardiac muscle cells will record the action potential as ST elevation during systole while during diastole, there will be depression of the PR segment and the PT segment. Since PR and PT interval are regarded as baseline, ST segment elevation is regarded as a sign of myocardial ischemia. The opposing leads (such as V3 and V4 versus posterior leads V7–V9) always show reciprocal ST segment changes (ST elevation in one lead is followed by ST depression in the opposing lead). This is highly specific for myocardial infarction. An upsloping, convex ST segment is highly predictive of a myocardial infarction (Pardee sign) while a concave ST elevation is less suggestive and can be found in other non-ischaemic causes. Following infarction, ventricular aneurysm can develop, which leads to persistent ST elevation, loss of S wave, and T wave inversion.


title: ST elevation

text: Weakening of the electrical activity of the cardiac muscles causes the decrease in height of the R wave in those leads facing it. In opposing leads, it manifests as Q wave. However, Q waves may be found in healthy individuals at lead I, aVL, V5 and V6 due to left to right depolarisation.


title: ST elevation

text: In these conditions, there will mostly be concave ST elevations in almost all the leads except for aVR and V1. These two leads, ST depression will be seen because they are the opposing leads of the cardiac axis. PR segment depression is highly suggestive of pericarditis. R wave in most cases will be unaltered. In two weeks after pericarditis, there will be upward concave ST elevation, positive T wave, and PR depression. After several more weeks, PR and ST segments normalised with flattened T wave. At last, there will be T wave inversion which will take weeks or months to vanish.


title: ST elevation

text: The topology and distribution of the affected areas depend on the underlying condition. Thus, ST elevation may be present on all or some leads of ECG.


title: Military career of Napoleon Bonaparte

text: The military career of Napoleon Bonaparte spanned over 20 years. As military leader, he led the French armies to defeat in the Napoleonic Wars. Despite his losing war record and ending in defeat, Napoleon is regarded in Europe as a military genius and one of the finest commanders, his wars and campaigns have been studied at military schools worldwide. He fought more than 80 battles, losing only eleven, mostly at the end when the French army was not as dominant. The French dominion collapsed rapidly after the disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812. Napoleon was defeated in 1814 and exiled to the island of Elba, before returning and was finally defeated in 1815 at Waterloo. He spent his remaining days in British custody on the remote island of St. Helena.


title: Typing

text: Typing is the process of writing or inputting text by pressing keys on a typewriter, computer keyboard, mobile phone or calculator. It can be distinguished from other means of text input, such as handwriting and speech recognition. Text can be in the form of letters, numbers and other symbols. The world's first typist was Lillian Sholes from Wisconsin in the US, the daughter of Christopher Sholes, who invented the first practical typewriter.


title: Typing

text: User interface features such as spell checker and autocomplete serve to facilitate and speed up typing and to prevent or correct errors the typist may make.


title: Typing

text: Hunt and peck ("two-fingered typing") is a common form of typing in which the typist presses each key individually. Instead of relying on the memorized position of keys, the typist must find each key by sight. Although good accuracy may be achieved, the use of this method may also prevent the typist from being able to see what has been typed without glancing away from the keys, and any typing errors that are made may not be noticed immediately. Because only a few fingers are used in this technique, this also means that the fingers are forced to move a much greater distance.


title: Typing

text: In this technique, the typist keeps their eyes on the source copy at all times. Touch typing also involves the use of the home row method, where typists rest their wrist down, rather than lifting up and typing (which can cause carpal tunnel syndrome ). To avoid this, typists should sit up tall, leaning slightly forward from the waist, place their feet flat on the floor in front of them with one foot slightly in front of the other, and keep their elbows close to their sides with forearms slanted slightly upward to the keyboard; fingers should be curved slightly and rest on the home row.


title: Typing

text: Many touch typists also use keyboard shortcuts when typing on a computer. This allows them to edit their document without having to take their hands off the keyboard to use a mouse. An example of a keyboard shortcut is pressing the key plus the key to save a document as they type, or the key plus the key to undo a mistake. Other shortcuts are the key plus the to copy and the key and the key to paste, and the key and the key to cut. Many experienced typists can feel or sense when they have made an error and can hit the key and make the correction with no increase in time between keystrokes.


title: Typing

text: There are many idiosyncratic typing styles in between novice-style "hunt and peck" and touch typing. For example, many "hunt and peck" typists have the keyboard layout memorized and are able to type while focusing their gaze on the screen. Some use just two fingers, while others use 3–6 fingers. Some use their fingers very consistently, with the same finger being used to type the same character every time, while others vary the way they use their fingers.


title: Typing

text: One study examining 30 subjects, of varying different styles and expertise, has found minimal difference in typing speed between touch typists and self-taught hybrid typists. According to the study, "The number of fingers does not determine typing speed... People using self-taught typing strategies were found to be as fast as trained typists... instead of the number of fingers, there are other factors that predict typing speed... fast typists... keep their hands fixed on one position, instead of moving them over the keyboard, and more consistently use the same finger to type a certain letter." To quote doctoral candidate Anna Feit: "We were surprised to observe that people who took a typing course, performed at similar average speed and accuracy, as those that taught typing to themselves and only used 6 fingers on average."


title: Typing

text: A late 20th century trend in typing, primarily used with devices with small keyboards (such as PDAs and Smartphones), is "thumbing" or thumb typing. This can be accomplished using either only one thumb or both the thumbs, with more proficient typists reaching speeds of 100 words per minute. Similar to desktop keyboards and input devices, if a user overuses keys which need hard presses and/or have small and unergonomic layouts, it could cause thumb tendonitis or other repetitive strain injury.


title: Typing

text: Words per minute (WPM) is a measure of typing speed, commonly used in recruitment. For the purposes of WPM measurement a word is standardized to five characters or keystrokes. Therefore, "brown" counts as one word, but "mozzarella" counts as two.


title: Typing

text: The benefits of a standardized measurement of input speed are that it enables comparison across language and hardware boundaries. The speed of an Afrikaans-speaking operator in Cape Town can be compared with a French-speaking operator in Paris.


title: Typing

text: Today, even Written Chinese can be typed very quickly using the combination of a software prediction system and by typing their sounds in Pinyin. Such prediction software even allows typing short-hand forms while producing complete characters. For example, the phrase "nǐ chī le ma" (你吃了吗) meaning "Have you eaten yet?" can be typed with just 4 strokes: "nclm".


title: Typing

text: In one study of average computer users, the average rate for transcription was 33 words per minute, and 19 words per minute for composition. In the same study, when the group was divided into "fast", "moderate" and "slow" groups, the average speeds were 40 wpm, 35 wpm, and 23 wpm respectively. An average professional typist reaches 50 to 80 wpm, while some positions can require 80 to 95 wpm (usually the minimum required for dispatch positions and other typing jobs), and some advanced typists work at speeds above 120 wpm. Two-finger typists, sometimes also referred to as "hunt and peck" typists, commonly reach sustained speeds of about 37 wpm for memorized text and 27 wpm when copying text, but in bursts may be able to reach speeds of 60 to 70 wpm. From the 1920s through the 1970s, typing speed (along with shorthand speed) was an important secretarial qualification and typing contests were popular and often publicized by typewriter companies as promotional tools.


title: Typing

text: A less common measure of the speed of a typist, CPM is used to identify the number of characters typed per minute. This is a common measurement for typing programs, or typing tutors, as it can give a more accurate measure of a person's typing speed without having to type for a prolonged period of time. The common conversion factor between WPM and CPM is 5. It is also used occasionally for associating the speed of a reader with the amount they have read. CPM has also been applied to 20th century printers, but modern faster printers more commonly use PPM (pages per minute).


title: Typing

text: The fastest typing speed ever, 216 words per minute, was achieved by Stella Pajunas-Garnand from Chicago in 1946 in one minute on an IBM electric using the QWERTY keyboard layout. , writer Barbara Blackburn was the fastest English language typist in the world, according to "The Guinness Book of World Records". Using the Dvorak keyboard layout, she had maintained 150 wpm for 50 minutes, and 170 wpm for shorter periods, with a peak speed of 212 wpm. Blackburn, who failed her QWERTY typing class in high school, first encountered the Dvorak layout in 1938, quickly learned to achieve very high speeds, and occasionally toured giving speed-typing demonstrations during her secretarial career. She appeared on "Late Night with David Letterman" on January 24, 1985, but felt that Letterman made a spectacle of her.


title: Typing

text: The recent emergence of several competitive typing websites has allowed fast typists on computer keyboards to emerge along with new records, though many of these are unverifiable. Some notable, verified records include 255 wpm on a one-minute, random-word test by a user under the username slekap and occasionally bailey, 213 wpm on a 1-hour, random-word test by Joshua Hu, 221 wpm average on 10 random quotes by Joshua Hu, and first place in the 2020 Ultimate Typing Championship by Anthony Ermollin based on an average of 180.88 wpm on texts of various lengths. These three people are the most commonly cited fastest typists in online typing communities. All of their records were set on the QWERTY keyboard layout.


title: Typing

text: Using a personalized interface, physicist Stephen Hawking, who suffered from amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, managed to type 15 wpm with a switch and adapted software created by Walt Woltosz. Due to a slowdown of his motor skills, his interface was upgraded with an infrared camera that detected "twitches in the cheek muscle under the eye." His typing speed decreased to approximately one word per minute in the later part of his life.


title: Typing

text: The numeric entry, or 10-key, speed is a measure of one's ability to manipulate a numeric keypad. Generally, it is measured in Keystrokes per Hour or KPH.


title: Typing

text: With the introduction of computers and word-processors, there has been a change in how text-entry is performed. In the past, using a typewriter, speed was measured with a stopwatch and errors were tallied by hand. With the current technology, document preparation is more about using word-processors as a composition aid, changing the meaning of error rate and how it is measured. Research performed by R. William Soukoreff and I. Scott MacKenzie, has led to a discovery of the application of a well-known algorithm. Through the use of this algorithm and accompanying analysis technique, two statistics were used, "minimum string distance error rate" (MSD error rate) and "keystrokes per character" (KSPC). The two advantages of this technique include:


title: Typing

text: Through analysis of keystrokes, the keystrokes of the input stream were divided into four classes: Correct (C), Incorrect Fixed (IF), Fixes (F), and Incorrect Not Fixed (INF). These key stroke classification are broken down into the following


title: Typing

text: Using these classes, the Minimum String Distance Error Rate and the Key Strokes per Character statistics can both be calculated.


title: Typing

text: The minimum string distance (MSD) is the number of "primitives" which is the number of insertions, deletions, or substitutions to transform one string into another. The following equation was found for the MSD Error Rate.


title: Typing

text: With the minimum string distance error, errors that are corrected do not appear in the transcribed text. The following example will show you why this is an important class of errors to consider:


title: Typing

text: in the above example, the incorrect character ('x') was deleted with a backspace ('<-'). Since these errors do not appear in the transcribed text, the MSD error rate is 0%. This is why there is the key strokes per character (KSPC) statistic.


title: Typing

text: Using the classes described above, further metrics were defined by R. William Soukoreff and I.Scott MacKenzie:


title: Typing

text: "Error correction efficiency" refers to the ease with which the participant performed error correction.


title: Typing

text: "Participant conscientiousness" is the ratio of corrected errors to the total number of error, which helps distinguish perfectionists from apathetic participants.


title: Typing

text: If C represents the amount of useful information transferred, INF, IF, and F represent the proportion of bandwidth wasted.


title: Typing

text: Since these three error rates are ratios, they are comparable between different devices, something that cannot be done with the KSPC statistic, which is device dependent.


title: Typing

text: Currently, two tools are publicly available for text entry researchers to record text entry performance metrics. The first is TEMA that runs only on the Android (operating system). The second is WebTEM that runs on any device with a modern Web browser, and works with almost all text entry technique.


title: Typing

text: Keystroke dynamics, or "typing dynamics", is the obtaining of detailed timing information that describes exactly when each key was pressed and when it was released as a person is typing at a computer keyboard for biometric identification, similar to speaker recognition. Data needed to analyze keystroke dynamics is obtained by keystroke logging.


title: Typing

text: The behavioral biometric of Keystroke Dynamics uses the manner and rhythm in which an individual types characters on a keyboard or keypad.


title: 1967 Newark riots

text: The 1967 Newark riots were an episode of violent, armed conflict in the streets of Newark, New Jersey, United States. Taking place over a four-day period (between July 12 and July 17, 1967), the Newark riots resulted in at least 26 deaths and hundreds more serious injuries. Serious property damage, including shattered storefronts and fires caused by arson, left much of the city's built environment damaged or destroyed. At the height of the conflict, the National Guard was called upon to occupy the city with tanks and other military equipment, leading to iconic media depictions that were considered particularly shocking when shared in the national press. In the aftermath of the riots, Newark was quite rapidly abandoned by many of its remaining middle-class and affluent residents, as well as much of its white working-class population. This accelerated flight led to a decades-long period of disinvestment and urban blight, including soaring crime rates and gang activity.


title: 1967 Newark riots

text: The Newark riots represented a flashpoint in a long-simmering conflict between elements of the city's then-growing African-American population, which had recently become a numerical majority, and its old political establishment, which remained dominated by members of white ethnic groups (especially Italian, Jewish, and Irish Americans) who had gained a political foothold in Newark during earlier generations. Endemic corruption in local government, combined with widespread racial prejudice, likely contributed to the city's failure, during the leadup to 1967, to include a more representative cross-section of the city's black population in its political power structure. Additionally, the Newark Riots were part of a larger national phenomenon, being among more than 150 race riots that occurred in the United States in the "Long Hot Summer of 1967". Some historians, focusing on the protest element of the conflict, have termed it the 1967 Newark Rebellion.


title: 1967 Newark riots

text: In the decades leading up to the riots, deindustrialization and suburbanization were major contributors to changes in Newark's demographics. White middle-class residents left for other towns across North Jersey, in one of the largest examples of white flight in the country. Due to the legislation of the Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944, increasing numbers of white veterans, who had recently returned from fighting in World War II, emigrated from Newark to the suburbs where there was improved access to interstate highways, low-interest mortgages, and colleges. The outflow suburban sprawl of white veterans from Newark was rapidly replaced with an influx of black people moving into the Central Ward; blacks, however, faced discrimination in jobs and housing, ultimately making their lives more likely to fall into a cycle of poverty. By 1967, Newark was one of the United States' first majority-black cities, but was still controlled by white politicians.


title: 1967 Newark riots

text: Racial profiling, redlining, and lack of opportunity in education, training, and jobs led the city's African–American residents to feel powerless and disenfranchised. In particular, many felt they had been largely excluded from meaningful political representation and often subjected to police brutality.


title: 1967 Newark riots

text: Newark established a Community Relations Bureau in their police department as early as March 1966. Newark's Police Department director, Dominick Spina, rejected the budget request as he thought it would not be approved. This was much to the disliking to the residents of the Central Ward and it led to more tensions growing in the area as residents saw that in cases of police brutality on black residents, the police would not be held accountable.


title: 1967 Newark riots

text: Unemployment and poverty were very high, with the traditional manufacturing base of the city having been fully eroded and withdrawn by 1967. Further fueling tensions was the decision by the state of New Jersey to clear tenement buildings from a vast tract of land in the Central Ward to build the new University of Medicine and Dentistry. Thousands of low-income African American residents were displaced at a time when housing in Newark was aging and subjected to high tax rates.


title: 1967 Newark riots

text: Many African Americans, especially younger community leaders, felt they had remained largely disenfranchised in Newark, despite massive changes in the city's demographic makeup. Mayor Hugh J. Addonizio–– to date the last white mayor of the city–– took few steps to adjust to the changes and provide African Americans with civil leadership positions and better employment opportunities.


title: 1967 Newark riots

text: Despite being one of the first cities in the country to hire black police officers, the department's demographics remained at odds with the city's population, leading to poor relations between black people and the police department. Only 145 of the 1,322 police officers in the city were black (11%), mirroring national demographics, while the city grew to be over 50% black. Black leaders were increasingly upset that the Newark Police Department remained dominated by white officers, who would routinely stop and question black youths with or without provocation.


title: 1967 Newark riots

text: The riots in Newark occurred 2 years after riots in Los Angeles and came at a time when racial tensions were high. Historians believe that the shrinking of the economy, increased unemployment, and a city with a majority African American population which was being run by white politicians increased tensions during that era.


title: 1967 Newark riots

text: This unrest and social change came to a head when two white Newark police officers, John DeSimone and Vito Pontrelli, arrested a black cab driver, John William Smith, on the evening of July12 at 9:40p.m. After signaling, Smith passed the double-parked police car, after which he was pursued and pulled over by the officers. He was arrested and beaten by the officers and taken to the 4th Police Precinct, where he was charged with assaulting the officers and making insulting remarks.


title: 1967 Newark riots

text: Smith was driving on a revoked license at the time of his arrest, which was a factor. During the week of July 10, he was involved in eight car accidents and the police considered him to be someone who was hazardous. Smith was desperate for money and continued to do his work as a cab driver despite his license being revoked. He was originally from the Southern US and was a trumpet player there. After damaging his front two teeth he had moved to Newark to help pay his dental expenses. Smith got a job at a local taxi company, renting himself a one-room apartment in the Ironbound District along with a yellow taxi cab for $16.50 per day. During the night he was arrested, there were not many other riders on the street.


title: 1967 Newark riots

text: Residents of Hayes Homes, a large public housing project, saw an incapacitated Smith being dragged into the precinct, and a rumor was started that he had been beaten to death while in police custody. The rumor spread quickly, and a large crowd soon formed outside the precinct. At this point, accounts vary, with some saying that the crowd threw rocks through the precinct windows and police then rushed outside wearing hard hats and carrying clubs. Others say that police rushed out of their station first to confront the crowd, and then they began to throw bricks, bottles, and rocks.


title: 1967 Newark riots

text: A person who had witnessed the arrest of Smith contacted members of the Congress of Racial Equality, the United Freedom Party, and the Newark Community Union Project for further investigation; they were subsequently granted access to Smith's 4th Precinct holding cell. After seeing the injuries Smith sustained from the police, they demanded he be moved to Beth Israel Hospital in Newark, New Jersey, and were granted their request.


title: 1967 Newark riots

text: At least five police officers were struck by stones, according to one officer. Some residents went to City Hall and shouted angry protests. After midnight, false alarms caused fire engines to race around a six-block area along Belmont Avenue. Looters smashed windows of a few stores and threw merchandise onto sidewalks. According to police, liquor stores were the main target of looters. As the rumors were dispelled, things calmed.


title: 1967 Newark riots

text: Mayor Addonizio seemed unconcerned about the possibility of further violence occurring. On July 13 he held a meeting with Robert Curvin of CORE, an Essex County official named Earl Harris, a teacher named Harry Wheeler, and Duke Moore, a member of the UCC's board. They made three demands of the mayor:


title: 1967 Newark riots

text: Addonizio said that he needed 48 hours to consider these demands. When he left the meeting, he went to the Central Ward where he realized he would need to take action on them much sooner. At close to the time when the meeting was ending, members of the Students for a Democratic Society's Newark branch distributed handwritten leaflets in the area indicating there would be a rally at the 4th Precinct at 7:30p.m.


title: 1967 Newark riots

text: Governor Hughes and Addonizio assigned James Threatt, the Newark Human Rights Commission's (NHRC) executive director, to surveil the rally. Spina made sure that 500 officers were ready in case violence were to break out. The march/rally that was scheduled to have happened would occur. By 6:30p.m. a group of 10 picketers would form a line outside of the 4th precinct. By 7:30p.m. black residents who were angry and carrying homemade signs would march in front of Hayes Homes, a housing project that was located directly across the street from the 4th precinct. No police officer would be stationed outside of the precinct building when this protest initially occurred. Threatt would announce to the crowd in an attempt he thought would calm them down that an African American man on the police force, Lieutenant Eddie Williams would be promoted to captain. However he didn't mention that Addonizio was also planning on promoting four white lieutenants as well. Violence would begin within a few minutes after his announcement.


title: 1967 Newark riots

text: During the rally, an unknown woman smashed the windows of the 4th Precinct with a metal bar. Looting began soon after and spread quickly along Springfield Avenue, the neighborhood's business district. Molotov cocktails were thrown into shops and entire buildings soon caught fire. A car was burned and shortly after a policeman was injured by a flying brick. In response, shotguns were issued to some police officers.


title: 1967 Newark riots

text: By midnight, looting spread to other areas in proximity to the march and all police were placed on emergency duty. At 1:00a.m. police were told to "fire if necessary." Addonizio called Governor Hughes asking for the New Jersey State Police at 2:20a.m. His request was accepted at 2:29a.m. with 300 state troopers being sent and activated exactly 9minutes later. At 2:30a.m. he called the Governor again saying that his city needed the New Jersey Army National Guard, who were activated 9 minutes later with a total of 3,464 being brought into the city.


title: 1967 Newark riots

text: Detective Frederick Toto was shot while patrolling in the streets of Newark at 7:30p.m. on July14. He was patrolling the streets with Patrolman Butross when a sniper fired at them from a high-rise, striking Detective Toto. He was sent to St. Michael's Medical Center where surgeons unsuccessfully attempted life-saving surgery. Toto was the first police casualty of the riots. After he was shot at from the high-rise, over 200 National Guard soldiers combined with state and city police opened fire on the building where they believed the sniper to be positioned, arresting 25 people in response. Rufus Council was shot and killed a short time after Toto when he was leaving a steakhouse where he had eaten dinner. Isaac Harrison and Robert Lee Martin were both also killed in the vicinity of Toto's shooting. Toto's death attracted national attention to the riots in the city.


title: 1967 Newark riots

text: Early on the evening of July15, a woman named Rebecca Brown was killed in a fusillade of bullets directed at the window of her second-floor apartment, leading to further backlash and discord from the community. By the sixth day, riots, looting, violence, and destruction had left a total of 16 civilians, 8 suspects, a police officer, and a firefighter dead; 353 civilians, 214 suspects, 67 police officers, 55 firefighters, and 38 military personnel injured; and 689 civilians and 811 suspects arrested and property damage is expected to have exceeded $10million.


title: 1967 Newark riots

text: Photographer Bud Lee was in Newark along with "Life" reporter Dale Wittner during the riots. There, Lee took several grim photos of a police officer gunning down 24-year-old William Furr, who was caught in an act of stealing a six pack of beer from the ransacked Mack's Liquors store; both Lee and Wittner had earlier met Furr who barged into the latter's conversation with a Black Muslim man regarding the rioting situation. He also shot a photo of a 12-year-old civilian, Joe Bass Jr. who was bleeding on the ground after stray pellets from the policeman's shotgun blast that killed Furr accidentally struck him. Bass survived the wounds and his image became the cover of "Life" magazine on July 28, 1967.


title: 1967 Newark riots

text: The riots elicited a strong response from law enforcement organizations. 7,917 members of police and National Guard were deployed, leading to 1,465 arrests and 26 deaths. In an effort to contain the riots, every evening at 6:00p.m. the Bridge Street and Jackson Street Bridges, both of which span the Passaic River between Newark and Harrison, were closed until the next morning.


title: 1967 Newark riots

text: Further complicating matters was the fact that National Guard, State Police, and local police forces had difficulty coordinating their actions due to the three organizations communicating on three different assigned radio frequency ranges.


title: 1967 Newark riots

text: While the riots are often cited as a major factor in the decline of Newark and its neighboring communities, longer-term racial, economic, and political forces contributed towards generating inner city poverty. By the 1960s and 1970s, as industry fled the city, so did the white middle class, leaving behind a poor population. During this same time, the population of many suburban communities in northern New Jersey expanded rapidly.


title: 1967 Newark riots

text: The riots caused about $10 million in damages ($ million today) and destroyed multiple plots, several of which are still covered in decay as of 2017.


title: 1967 Newark riots

text: The ratio of Newark officers respective to their ethnicity has increased as of 2000, when Newark was 52% black, 34% Latino, and 14% white, the Newark Police Department was 37% black, 27% Hispanic and 36% white. As of 2016, the force was 35% black, while the Latino portion had increased to 41%.


title: 1967 Newark riots

text: The riots were depicted in the 1997 Philip Roth novel "American Pastoral" as well as its 2016 film adaptation, directed by and starring Ewan McGregor, alongside Jennifer Connelly and Dakota Fanning.


title: 1967 Newark riots

text: "Revolution '67" is a feature-length documentary about the riots by Emmy-nominated, Newark-based filmmakers Marylou and Jerome Bongiorno. It premiered on PBS in 2007 as part of its series "POV" and examines the causes and outcome of the Newark 1967 riots.


title: 1967 Newark riots

text: "The Sopranos" episode "Down Neck" features a flashback in which Tony Soprano's mother, Livia Soprano, is watching the riots live on television.


title: 1967 Newark riots

text: In September 2021, a theatrical prequel to "The Sopranos" premiered, entitled "The Many Saints of Newark", which is partially set during the riots.


title: Scott La Rock

text: Scott Monroe Sterling (March 2, 1962 – August 27, 1987), known by the stage name DJ Scott La Rock, was an American hip-hop disc jockey and music producer from the Bronx, New York. He was a founding member of the East Coast hip hop group Boogie Down Productions.


title: Scott La Rock

text: Scott Sterling was born on March 2, 1962, in the Bronx, New York City. His parents separated when he was four years old, so he was raised by his mother, Carolyn Morant, a municipal employee. They moved from Queens, New York City, to the Bronx: first Morrisania and then Morris Heights.


title: Scott La Rock

text: He excelled in both academics and sports at Our Saviour Lutheran High School, graduating in 1980. He attended Castleton State College in Vermont and earned a varsity letter in basketball there.


title: Scott La Rock

text: La Rock returned to New York City in hopes of finding work and making inroads to the music industry. Through a connection of his mother's, Scott landed a job as a social worker at Franklin Armory Men's Shelter on 166th Street in the Bronx. At night, though, he spun records at the hip hop hot spot, the Broadway Repertoire Theatre.


title: Scott La Rock

text: During his time as a social worker, La Rock met rapper KRS-One in 1986 at Franklin Men's Shelter where KRS resided. The pair formed Boogie Down Productions (BDP) with DJ Derrick "D-Nice" Jones, a cousin of the shelter's security guard, Floyd Payne. The group's 1987 debut album, "Criminal Minded", is considered a hip-hop classic.


title: Scott La Rock

text: On August 27, 1987, D-Nice was assaulted by men upset that he had been talking to one of their ex-girlfriends. D-Nice asked La Rock to help defuse the situation. Later that day, La Rock, Scotty "Manager Moe" Morris, DJ McBooo, D-Nice and BDP bodyguard Darrell rode a Jeep CJ-7 to the Highbridge Homes Projects building on University Avenue in the South Bronx. As they were leaving, bullets were fired through the side and top of the Jeep. La Rock struck his head on the dashboard, not realizing at the time he had been struck by a bullet in the back of his head. He was driven to Lincoln Hospital. He was conscious as he was wheeled into the emergency department, telling doctors he was feeling cold and tired. He died in the operating room.


title: History of Jainism

text: Jainism is a religion founded in ancient India. Jains trace their history through twenty-four "tirthankara" and revere Rishabhanatha as the first "tirthankara" (in the present time-cycle). Some artifacts found in the Indus Valley civilization have been suggested as a link to ancient Jain culture, but very little is known about the Indus Valley iconography and script. The last two "tirthankara", the 23rd "tirthankara" Parshvanatha (c. 9th–8th century BCE) and the 24th "tirthankara" Mahavira () are considered historical figures. Mahavira was a contemporary of the Buddha. According to Jain texts, the 22nd "Tirthankara" Neminatha lived about 85,000 years ago and was the cousin of Krishna.


title: History of Jainism

text: The two main sects of Jainism, the "Digambara" and the "Śvētāmbara" sect, likely started forming about the 3rd century BCE and the schism was complete by about 5th century CE. These sects later subdivided into several sub-sects such as Sthānakavāsī and Terapanthis. Many of its historic temples that still exist today were built in 1st millennium CE. After the 12th century, the temples, pilgrimage and naked (skyclad) ascetic tradition of Jainism suffered persecution during the Muslim rule, with the exception of Akbar whose religious tolerance and support for Jainism led to a temporary ban on animal killing during the Jain religious festival of Dasa Lakshana. Jainism rejects the concept of creator and founder. In the present half cycle of the cosmos, Aadinatha was the first Tirthankara.


title: History of Jainism

text: The origins of Jainism are obscure. The Jains claim their religion to be eternal, and consider Rishabhanatha the founder in the present time-cycle, who lived for 8,400,000 purva years. Rishabhanatha is the first tirthankar among the 24 Tirthankaras who is considered mythical figure by modern day historians, based on loose supports.


title: History of Jainism

text: Different scholars have had different views on the origin. Some artifacts found in the Indus Valley civilization have been suggested as a link to ancient Jain culture, but this is highly speculative and a subjective interpretation. It is speculated by some scholars that Jain traditions might be going back even beyond the Indus valley civilization, and that Vardhamana rather than being a “founder” per se was, rather, simply a leader and reviver of much older tradition.


title: History of Jainism

text: According to a 1925 proposal of Glasenapp, Jainism's origin can be traced to the 23rd Tirthankara Parshvanatha (c. 8th–7th century BCE), and he considers the first twenty-two Tirthankaras as legendary mythical figures. According to another investigation by Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, the first vice president of India, Jainism was in existence long before the Vedas were composed. The last two "tirthankara", Parshvanatha and Mahavira () are considered historical figures. Mahavira was a contemporary of Buddha. Buddha started a mythical and loose tradition of his own, for his inability to follow Jainism According to Jain texts, the 22nd "Tirthankara" Neminatha lived about 85,000 years ago and was the cousin of Krishna.


title: History of Jainism

text: Jain texts and tradition believe in 24 Tirthankaras. They are depicted as five to one hundred times taller than average human beings and to have lived for thousands of years in Jain tradition. Historians only consider the last two generally based on historical figures of the 1st millennium BCE. Buddhist sources don't mention Mahavira as a founder of new tradition, but as part of an ascetic "Nirgranthas" (without knot) tradition. This has led scholars to conclude that Mahavira was not the founder, but a reformer of a tradition just like his predecessor, Parsvanatha.


title: History of Jainism

text: During the 6th century BCE, Mahāvīra became one of the most influential teachers of Jainism. Jains revere him as the twenty-fourth and last Tirthankara of present cosmic age. Though, Mahavira is sometimes mistakenly regarded as the founder, he appears in the tradition as one who, from the beginning, had followed a religion established long ago.


title: History of Jainism

text: Mahavira left his home at the age of 30 and meditated for 12 years and until he became a ' jina' aka the conqueror


title: History of Jainism

text: There is reasonable historical evidence that the 23rd "Tirthankara", Parshvanatha, the predecessor of Mahavira, lived somewhere in the 9th–7th century BCE.


title: History of Jainism

text: The Vedas mention the name Rishabha. However, the context in the "Rigveda", "Atharvaveda" and the "Upanishads" suggests that it means the one with the sign of bull, or sometimes the "most excellent of any kind". Elsewhere, in some distorted Hindu beliefs, it is an epithet for the Hindu god Shiva (Rudra). Original Hindu texts such as the "Bhagavata Purana" include Rishabha Jina as an avatar of Vishnu to cancel the original Jain beliefs and history.


title: History of Jainism

text: After the nirvana of Parshvanatha, his disciple Subhadatta became the head of the monks. Subhadatta was succeeded by Haridatta, Aryasamudra, Prabha and lastly Kesi. Uttaradhyayana, a Svetambara text have records of a dialogue between Mahavira's disciple and Kesi; Kesi along with his community accepted Mahavira as a "tirthankara" and merged with him as a result.


title: History of Jainism

text: The "Tirthankaras" are believed in the Jain tradition to have attained omniscience, known as "kevala gyana". After Mahavira, one of his disciples Sudharma Svami is said to have taken over the leadership. He was the head of Jain community till 600 BCE. After his death, Jambuswami, a disciple of Sudharma Svami became the head of the monks. He was the head till 463 BCE. Sudharma Svami and Jambu Svami are also traditionally said to have attained "keval jnana". It is said that no one after Jambu Svami has attained it till now.


title: History of Jainism

text: The two main sects of Jainism, the "Digambara" and the "Śvētāmbara" sect, likely started forming about the 3rd century BCE and the schism was complete by about 5th century CE. These sects later subdivided into several sub-sects such as Sthānakavāsī and Terapanthis. During Chandragupta Maurya's reign, "Acharya" Bhadrabahu moved to Karnataka to survive a twelve-year-long famine. Sthulabhadra, a pupil of "Acharya" Bhadrabahu, stayed in Magadha. When followers of "Acharya" Bhadrabahu returned, there was a dispute between them regarding the authenticity of the "Jain Agamas". Also, those who stayed at Magadha started wearing white clothes, which was unacceptable to the others who remained naked. This is how the "Digambara" and "Śvētāmbara" sects arose, the "Digambara" being naked whereas the "Svetambara" were white clothed. "Digambara" found this as being opposed to the Jain tenets, which, according to them, required complete nudity for the monks. Some interpret the presence of gymnosophists ("naked philosophers") in Greek records as referring to "Digambaras" Jain "Śramaṇa" practice.


title: History of Jainism

text: Vallabhi council was formed at 454 CE. At this council, Svetambara accepted their texts as the scriptures of Jainism. The "Digambara" sect completely rejects these scriptures as not being authentic. This 5th century event solidified the schism between these major traditions within Jainism.


title: History of Jainism

text: Early Jain images from Mathura depict Digambara iconography until late fifth century A.D. where Svetambara iconography starts appearing.


title: History of Jainism

text: Jainism is related to an extinct Indian religious tradition named Ājīvika. The latter is mentioned in ancient texts of Buddhism and Jainism, and it is attributed to Makkhali Gosala, a contemporary of the Buddha and Mahavira.


title: History of Jainism

text: The Jain "Bhagavati Sutra" refers to the Ajivika founder as Gosala Mankhaliputta ("son of Mankhali"). The text depicts Gosala as having been a disciple of Mahavira's for a period of six years, after which the two fell out and parted ways. The "Bhagavati Sutra" mentions a debate, disagreement and then "coming to blows" between factions led by Mahavira and by Gosala. Jainism also flourished under the Nanda Empire (424–321 BCE). Both Ajivika and Jainism championed asceticism. This is an earliest documented schism between Mahavira and a likely disciple of his.


title: History of Jainism

text: The earliest archeological evidence is in the form of a naked headless torso discovered in 1937 near Patna (Bihar), which is called the "Lohanipur Torso". This has been dated by modern scholarship to about 2nd-century BCE. It is a highly polished stone artwork of precise human form, but it is unclear if it belongs to Jainism, Ajivikas or some other Indian religious ascetic tradition. While it is not Buddhist, and is naked like the Jinas, it may also not be a Jain statue because it lacks the Jain iconography, and because similar high-quality Jain artworks are missing for many centuries. Further, Jain artworks that have been found from the same period in north India show quite different forms and symbols. It may belong to Ajivikas or another ancient Indian naked ascetic tradition, but ruling out that it may indeed reflect Jainism arts in 2nd-century BCE is also not possible. Ancient naked terracotta statues discovered in the 1970s near Ayodhya are similar to the Lohanipur Torso, but terracotta arts are also missing in Jaina tradition and the Ayodhya terracotta statues too lack Jain iconography.


title: History of Jainism

text: Information regarding the political history of Jainism is certain. Jains consider the kings Bimbisara, also known as Shrenik popularly (c. 558–491 BCE), Ajatashatru (c. 492–460 BCE), Ashoka and Udayin (c. 460-440 BCE) of the Haryanka dynasty as patrons of Jainism.


title: History of Jainism

text: Ashoka (273–232 BCE), the grandson of Chandragupta followed and was inspired by Jain ideologies. There is a reference to Jains in the edicts of Ashoka where the duties of "dhammamahatma" (law-authorities) are dealt with. The inscription reads:


title: History of Jainism

text: Ashoka's grandson Samprati (c. 224–215 BCE), is said to have also promoted Jainism along with a Jain monk named Suhasti according to the tradition. He lived in a place called Ujjain. It is believed that he erected many Jain temples, and the temples whose origins are forgotten were often ascribed to him in later times.


title: History of Jainism

text: Emperor Kharavela of Mahameghavahana dynasty, was religiously tolerant, while being a patron of Jainism. Inscriptions found in Udayagiri mentions that he erected a statue of the Rishabhanatha, the first "Tirthankara" and made cave-dwellings for monks. In first century CE, "Acharya" Bhutabali lead a group of Jain monks to the caves surrounding Madurai for spreading Jainism.


title: History of Jainism

text: According to the "Ashokavadana", a non-Buddhist in Pundravardhana drew a picture showing the Buddha bowing at the feet of the Nirgrantha leader Jnatiputra. The term nirgrantha ("free from bonds") was originally used for a pre-Jaina ascetic order, but later came to be used for Jaina monks. "Jnatiputra" is identified with Mahavira, 24th Tirthankara of Jainism. The legend states that on complaint from a Buddhist devotee, Ashoka, influenced by his cunning wife Tishyaraksha, issued an order to arrest the non-Buddhist artist, and subsequently, another order to kill all the Ajivikas in Pundravardhana. Around 18,000 followers of the Ajivika sect were executed as a result of this order. Sometime later, another Nirgrantha follower in Pataliputra drew a similar picture. Ashoka, again influenced by the devious Tishyaraksha burnt him and his entire family alive in their house. He also announced an award of one dinara (silver coin) to anyone who brought him the head of a Nirgrantha heretic. According to "Ashokavadana", as a result of this order, his own brother was mistaken for a heretic and killed by a cowherd. Ashoka realised his mistake, and withdrew the order. and went back to following Jainism.


title: History of Jainism

text: According to a chronicle of von Glasenapp, Gardabhilla (c. 19th century BCE), the king of Ujjain, abducted a nun who was the sister of a Jain monk named Kalaka. The brother sought the help of the Indo-Scythian ruler Saka Sahi. The Saka went to war with Gardabhilla, defeated him, and expelled the king of Ujjain. The Sakas settled in the new lands, and "danced like bees" around the foot of monk Kalaka. The story continues to the son of the vanquished king Gardabhilla who was Vikramaditya. He is claimed to have defeated the Sakas, expelled them, himself followed Jainism and gave ancient India the Vikrami calendar with the zero date of 57 or 58 BCE. The story is likely true, because the expulsion of Sakas by Vikramaditya has complete historical basis. Jains have not followed the Vikrami zero year and instead used Mahavira's moksha date as their zero year Vira Nirvana Samvat, the oldest system of chronological reckoning which is still used in India. The use of the Vikrami calendar has been surprisingly widespread in Hinduism. According to Heinrich von Stietencron, Vikramaditya and Saka interaction occurred many centuries later.


title: History of Jainism

text: According to another Jain legend, the King Salivahana of the late 1st century CE was a patron of Jainism, as were many others in the early centuries of the 1st millennium CE. But, states von Glasenapp, the historicity of these stories are difficult to establish.


title: History of Jainism

text: Jainism co-existed with Buddhism and Hinduism in ancient and medieval India. Many of its historic temples were built near Buddhist and Hindu temples in the 1st millennium CE.


title: History of Jainism

text: Mahavira and Buddha are generally accepted as contemporaries (circa 5th century BCE). Buddhist texts refer to Mahavira as "Nigantha Nataputta".


title: History of Jainism

text: Buddhist scriptures record that during Prince Siddhartha's ascetic life (before he attained enlightenment and became Buddha) he undertook many fasts, penances, and austerities, mentioned in the Jain tradition. In "Majjhima Nikaya", Buddha shares his experience:


title: History of Jainism

text: The Buddha tried ascetic methods found in Jainism, abandoned that path and taught the Middle Way instead. Many "suttas" of Buddhism got stated about the Nigantha Nataputta. The "Samaññaphala Sutta" (D i.47), for example, states:


title: History of Jainism

text: The Buddha disagreed with the Mahavira's concept of soul or self ("jiva"). Similarly, he found the Jain theory of karma and rebirths incompatible and inflexible with his own ideas for these.


title: History of Jainism

text: Beyond the times of the Mahavira and the Buddha, the two ascetic Sramana religions competed for followers, as well merchant trade networks that sustained them. Their mutual interaction, along with those of Hindu traditions have been significant, and in some cases the titles of the Buddhist and Jaina texts are the same or similar but present different doctrines. Jainism had a tradition of itinerant mendicants with less emphasis on a monastery style living for monks. Buddhism, in contrast, emphasized "sangha" or monasteries. According to Akira Hirakawa, the monasteries were easier targets for destruction and elimination, and Buddhism almost vanished from the Indian subcontinent after the Muslim invasions. In contrast, the roaming mendicants and the Jain tradition survived during this period of religious violence and turmoil.


title: History of Jainism

text: According to Jain texts, some of the Hindu gods as blood relatives of legendary "tirthankara". Neminatha, the 22nd "tirthankara" for example is a cousin of Krishna in Jain Puranas and other texts. However, Jain scholars such as Haribhadra also wrote satires about Hindu gods, mocking them with novel outrageous stories where the gods misbehave and act unethically. The Hindu gods as recorded by some Jain writers as persecuting, tempting, afraid of, or serving a legendary Jina before he gains omniscience. In other stories, the Hindu deities such as Vishnu, or Rama and Sita come to pay respect to a Jina at a major Jain pilgrimage site such as Mount Satrunjaya and Mount Sammed Shikhar Ji. The languid Hindu scholars rewrote the original pre historic stories into their Hindu versions. According to Paul Dundas, these satires were aimed at the Hindu lay householder community, were means to inculcate piety and subvert the actual religious teachings offered by their Jain neighbors. True to their origins, Buddhist and Hindu scholars engaged in creating similar satire, mythology and parody-filled fiction targeting the Jains and each other. The emergence of major philosophical ideas within Hinduism impacted Jainism. According to a 1925 publication by von Glasenapp, around the 8th century CE, Adi Shankara brought forward the doctrine of Advaita, and either converted Jain temples to Hindu ones or completely destroyed them. The Vaishnavism and Shaivism also began to rise. This, states von Glasenapp, contributed to a decline of "Jaina church", particularly in South India.


title: History of Jainism

text: Shaivite poets like Sambandar, Appar (c. 7th century CE), Sundaramurti and Manikkavacakar introduced Jains to Shaivism. Under these influences, "Jaina" kings became Shaivite. Sambandar converted the contemporary Pandya king to Shaivism. The rulers of Chola dynasty also supported Shaivism.


title: History of Jainism

text: According to a Shaivite legend, an alleged massacre of 8,000 Jain monks happened in the 7th century. This was claimed for the first time in an 11th-century Tamil language text of Nambiyandar Nambi on Sampantar. According to this text, a 7th-century Shaivite saint defeated the Jain monks in a series of debates and contests on philosophy, and thereby converted a Jain Pandyan king, variously called "Koon Pandiyan" or "Sundara Pandyan" in the legend, to Shaivism. Subsequently, the king allegedly ordered the impalement of 8,000 Jains. This event is not mentioned in texts of Campantar, nor any other Hindu or Jain texts for four centuries. After Nampi Antar's work, the story appears in many versions. Scholars question whether this story is a fiction created in the 11th century, or reflects an actual massacre. K. A. Nilakanta Sastri falsely states that the story is "little more than an unpleasant legend and cannot be treated as history".


title: History of Jainism

text: According to British era scholar von Glasenapp, during the 11th century, Basava, a minister to the "Jaina" king Bijjala II, converted numerous Jains to Lingayatism that was hostile to Jains. According to legend, they destroyed various temples belonging to Jains and adapted them to their use. A saint named Ekdanta Ramaya further propagated the loosely existing Lingayatism. He convinced Bijjala II to grant a land near Abdlur for a temple of Shiva. Lingayatism gradually expanded. It was the state religion of Telugu and Kannada speaking territories like Wodeyar of Mysore and Ummatur (1399–1610), Nayaks of Keladi (1550–1763). They were hostile to Jains. In 1683, they stamped linga symbol in the main "basati" of Jains in Halebid. Jains were forced to perform Shiva rites.


title: History of Jainism

text: According to von Glasenapp writing in the 1920s, it is said Hoysala King Bittideva (c. 1108–1152 CE) converted from Jainism and became a follower of Ramanuja. According to more contemporary scholars such as T. K. Tukol, the rule of Bitti Deva did not persecute or force convert Jains. He converted, but his queen Shantaladevi remained a Jaina. She was the patron of art and built Jain temples. Bittideva's general and prime minister Gangaraja, states Tukol, was "a Jaina who under the guidance of his Guru Subhachandra did many acts of piety and religion to advance the cause of Jainism". Bittideva employed a female general who was a Jaina lady named Jakkiyabbe. His era saw temples being installed for all 24 Tirthankaras.


title: History of Jainism

text: The Vijayanagara Empire king Bukka Raya I, states von Glasenapp, ensured that both Vaishnava and Jaina traditions enjoyed same cultural and religious freedoms, and helped repair Jain temples. Anandatirtha, a Hindu thinker, preached a dualistic theology, which attracted many Jains to convert to Hinduism.


title: History of Jainism

text: The Jain and Hindu communities have often been very close and mutually accepting. Some Hindu temples have included a Jain Tirthankara within its premises in a place of honor. Similarly numerous temple complexes feature both Hindu and Jain monuments, with Badami cave temples and Khajuraho among some of the most well known.


title: History of Jainism

text: The Muslim invaders who conquered parts of Northern India, like Mahmud Ghazni (1001 CE) and Mohammad Ghori (1175 CE), oppressed the "Jaina" community.


title: History of Jainism

text: Jainism faced persecution during and after the Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent. This period witnessed the destruction of Jain temples, their pilgrimage centers and other forms of persecution. There were significant supporters of Jainism, such as Emperor Akbar (15421605) whose legendary religious tolerance, out of respect for Jains, ordered the release of caged birds and banned the killing of animals on the Jain festival of Paryusan. After Akbar, Jains faced an intense period of Muslim persecution in the 17th century.


title: History of Jainism

text: Jain scholars of the Mughal era debated religious ideas with Muslim scholars. Hiravijaya, in chapters thirteen and fourteen of "Hirasaubhagya" for example, presents the interaction and views of the two religions. The text mentions him stating to a Muslim sheikh, that "a creator god (called "khuda") is impossible, one who presides over others, allots reward and punishment", instead it is karma that determines man's ultimate destiny. He asserts that the two religions are different, Islam involves violence, while Jainism is based on compassion. Jain scholars were supportive of Akbar and Jain texts praise his religious tolerance.


title: History of Jainism

text: According to Paul Dundas, in and after the 12th century, Muslim destruction caused Jain scholars to revisit their theory of Ahimsa (non-violence). For example, Jinadatta Suri in the 12th century, wrote during a time of widespread destruction of Jain temples and blocking of Jaina pilgrimage by Muslim armies, that "anybody engaged in a religious activity who was forced to fight and kill somebody" in self-defense would not lose merit. After the 12th century, the temples, pilgrimage and naked ascetic digambara tradition of Jainism suffered persecution during the Muslim rule, with the exception of Akbar whose religious tolerance and support for Jainism led to a temporary ban on animal killing during the Jain religious festival of Paryusan.


title: History of Jainism

text: Colonial era Christian missions wrote about Jainism, but typically stereotyping it as "a coldly austere religion of pure asceticism, with no 'heart', preoccupied only with not harming microorganisms". The discussion emphasized the ascetic extremes, rather than the values. They criticized the Jain theories on non-violence stating that this value is essentially equal to "doing nothing", because it entails not "hurting" other beings, but does not demand the "positive ethic of helping someone suffering". According to Jeffrey Long, these missionary writings were a distortion of Jain theology because Jainism does teach, value and has a historic record of charity, and compassion is an essential value in Jainism for spiritual development.


title: History of Jainism

text: Some Christian writers critiqued Jainism for its cosmology, with extraordinary time scales and cyclic time periods. However, Long states, the genesis theories in Christianity and other religions suffer from equivalent issues and they present the world to have been created few thousand years ago, in a short period of time. Similarly, historic Christian writers critiqued the lack of "saving grace" in Jainism. For example, Sinclair Stevenson wrote in 1915 that the "heart of Jainism was empty because it lacked the saving grace of Jesus".


title: History of Jainism

text: The British colonial rule era, according to von Glasenapp in 1925, allowed Jains to pursue their religion without persecutions they had faced before. Further, the British government promoted trade, which allowed members of the Jain community to pursue their traditional economic activity. According to von Glasenapp, Jain businessmen and Jainism thrived during this period, and they used their financial success during the British Raj to rebuild Jain temples. For example, the Dharmanatha temple was built in Ahmedabad (Gujarat) in 1848. The British census reported a drop in Jain population between 1891 and 1921, from 1.417 million to 1.179 million. This may be from the Jain conversions to Hinduism and causes such as famines and epidemics.


title: History of Jainism

text: M. Whitney Kelting in 2001 states, in contrast, that in Gujarat and Maharashtra, British merchants actually took over the trades that Jains traditionally engaged in. This was in part responsible for major Jain community migrations during the British colonial era.


title: History of Jainism

text: The British colonial government in India, as well as Indian princely states, passed laws that made monks roaming naked in streets a crime, one that led to arrest. This law particularly impacted the Digambara tradition monks. The Akhil Bharatiya Jaina Samaj opposed this law, and argued that it interfered with the religious rights of Jains. Acharya Shantisagar entered Bombay (now Mumbai) in 1927, but was forced to cover his body. He then led an India-wide tour as the naked monk with his followers, to various Digambara sacred sites, and he was welcomed by kings of the Maharashtra provinces. Shantisagar fasted to oppose the restrictions imposed on "Digambara" monks by British Raj and prompted their discontinuance. The colonial-era laws that banned naked monks were abolished after India gained independence.


title: History of Jainism

text: It is unclear when Jain scriptures were written down, with oldest surviving Jain manuscripts dated to the 11th-century CE. Jain literature, like those of Buddhism and Hinduism, is believed to have been transmitted by an oral tradition. The texts were largely lost over time. The Svetambara tradition has a collection of Agamas and texts, which it believes are ancient. However, the "Digambara" sect of Jainism rejects the authority of the Jain "Aagams" in the Svetambara tradition. They believe that by the time of Dharasena, the twenty-third teacher after Indrabhuti Gautama, knowledge of only one Anga had survived. This was about 683 years after the Nirvana of Mahavira. After Dharasena's pupils Pushpadanta and Bhutabali, even that was lost.


title: History of Jainism

text: In course of time, the canons of Svetambara were also progressively lost. About 980 to 993 years after the death of Mahavira, a council was held at Vallabhi in Gujarat. This was headed by Devardhi Ksamashramana. It was found that the 12th Anga, the Ditthivaya, was lost too. The other Angas were written down. This is a traditional account of schism. According to Svetambara, there were eight schisms ("Nihvana").


title: History of Jainism

text: According to "Digambara" tradition, "Ganadhara" knew fourteen "Purva" and eleven "Anga". Knowledge of "Purva" was lost around 436 years after Mahavira and "Anga" were lost around 683 years after Mahavira. The texts that do not belong to "Anga" are called "Angabahyas". There were fourteen "Angabahyas". The first four "Angabahayas", "Samayika", "chaturvimasvika", "Vandana" and "Pratikramana" corresponds to sections of second "Mulasutra" of "Svetambara". The only texts of "Angabahyas" that occurs in "Svetambara" texts are "Dasavaikalika", "Uttaradhyayana" and "Kalpavyavahara".


title: History of Jainism

text: Umaswati's "Tattvartha Sutras" are accepted as authoritative texts by all Jain traditions. Kundakunda's mystical texts are revered in the Digambara tradition. A text on differences between "Digambara" and "Svetambara" sects of Jainism was composed by Hemraj Pande in 1652 named "Chaurasi Bol".


title: Pricing

text: Pricing is the process whereby a business sets the price at which it will sell its products and services, and may be part of the business's marketing plan. In setting prices, the business will take into account the price at which it could acquire the goods, the manufacturing cost, the marketplace, competition, market condition, brand, and quality of product.


title: Pricing

text: Pricing is a fundamental aspect of product management and is one of the four Ps of the marketing mix, the other three aspects being product, promotion, and place. Price is the only revenue generating element amongst the four Ps, the rest being cost centers. However, the other Ps of marketing will contribute to decreasing price elasticity and so enable price increases to drive greater revenue and profits.