title: 1980 Indian general election

text: The Janata Party, an amalgam of socialists and nationalists, split in 1979 when several coalition members including the Bharatiya Lok Dal and several members of the Socialist Party withdrew support for the government. Subsequently, Desai lost a vote of confidence in parliament and resigned. Charan Singh, who had retained some partners of the Janata alliance, was sworn in as Prime Minister in June 1979. the INC promised to support Singh in parliament but later backed out just two days before the Govt was scheduled to prove its majority on the floor of Lok Sabha. Charan Singh, forced to resign, called for elections in January 1980 and is the only Prime Minister of India never to have obtained the confidence of Parliament. In the run up to the general elections, Indira Gandhi's leadership faced a formidable political challenge from a galaxy of regional satraps and prominent leaders of Janata party like Satyendra Narayan Sinha and Karpuri Thakur in Bihar, Ramakrishna Hegde in Karnataka, Sharad Pawar in Maharashtra, Devi Lal in Haryana & Biju Patnaik in Orissa. Janata Party contested the election with Jagjivan Ram as its Prime Ministerial candidate. However, internal feud between Janata Party leaders and the political instability in the country worked in favour of Indira Gandhi's Congress (I), that reminded voters of the strong government of Indira Gandhi during campaigning.


title: 1980 Indian general election

text: In the ensuing elections, the INC won 353 seats and the Janata Party just 31 seats, with Charan Singh's Janata Party (Secular) taking 41. The Janata Party alliance continued to split over the subsequent years.


title: Receipt

text: A receipt (also known as a packing list, packing slip, packaging slip, (delivery) docket, shipping list, delivery list, bill of the parcel, manifest, or customer receipt) is a document acknowledging that a person has received money or property in payment following a sale or other transfer of goods or provision of a service. All receipts must have the date of purchase on them. If the recipient of the payment is legally required to collect sales tax or VAT from the customer, the amount would be added to the receipt, and the collection would be deemed to have been on behalf of the relevant tax authority. In many countries, a retailer is required to include the sales tax or VAT in the displayed price of goods sold, from which the tax amount would be calculated at the point of sale and remitted to the tax authorities in due course. Similarly, amounts may be deducted from amounts payable, as in the case of taxes withheld from wages. On the other hand, tips or other gratuities that are given by a customer, for example in a restaurant, would not form part of the payment amount or appear on the receipt.


title: Receipt

text: In some countries, it is obligatory for a business to provide a receipt to a customer confirming the details of a transaction. In most cases, the recipient of money provides the receipt, but in some cases, the receipt is generated by the payer, as in the case of goods being returned for a refund. A receipt is not the same as an invoice.


title: Receipt

text: There is usually no set form for a receipt, such as a requirement that it be machine-generated. Many point-of-sale terminals or cash registers can automatically produce receipts. Receipts may also be generated by accounting systems, be manually produced, or generated electronically, for example, if there is no face-to-face transaction. To reduce the cost of postage and processing, many businesses do not mail receipts to customers unless specifically requested or required by law, with some transmitting them electronically. Others, to reduce time and paper, may endorse an invoice, account, or statement as "paid".


title: Receipt

text: The practice in most shops at the point of sale is for a salesperson to scan or record the price of a customer's proposed purchases, including tax, discounts, credits, and other adjustments. In traditional situations and still in some family businesses today, the salesperson would then show the customer the summary, the invoice, for their agreement; but many shops today bypass this stage. The practice of presenting an invoice is most common in restaurants where a "bill" is presented after a meal.


title: Receipt

text: The salesperson would indicate to the customer (whether by way of an invoice or otherwise) the total amount payable, and the customer would indicate the proposed method of payment of the amount. Payment in cash is regarded as payment of the amount tendered, but payment by store account is not. After processing the payment, the salesperson would then generate in one document an invoice and receipt. If payment was made by a payment card, a payment record would normally also be generated.


title: Receipt

text: The invoice and receipt are the printed record of the transaction and are legal documents. A copy of these documents would normally be handed to the customer, though this step may be dispensed with. In many countries, a retailer may be under a legal obligation to provide a receipt to a customer which shows the details of a transaction and the shop and other information so that the tax authority can check that sales and related taxes are not being hidden. The document may also include messages from the retailer, warranty or return details, special offers, advertisements, or coupons, but these are merely promotional and not part of the formal receipt.


title: Receipt

text: Shops that use barcode readers may generate receipts with a barcode of the receipt identification number, which enables a salesperson to scan the barcode and quickly retrieve the details of the original transaction, for example: if a customer seeks to return or exchange goods or there is some other query.


title: Receipt

text: If linked to a customer shop account, some retailers' point-of-sale systems also allow the salesperson to see a complete record of the customer's buying history. A receipt (or a copy of a receipt) is the proof of purchase usually needed to make a return and often plays a vital part in a company's return and exchange policy.


title: Receipt

text: An invoice goes to the person responsible for paying the bill while the shipping list (or packaging slip) goes to the recipient. The shipping list is included in the shipped box. In some scenarios, the same person will pay the bill and receive the shipment. However, a person can buy and pay for a product and send it to someone else (e.g. a gift).


title: Receipt

text: Shipping lists vary depending on the business and its products. Every shipment to a customer should contain a shipping list with the order date, the products included, and the quantity of each product. Some businesses may include the weight of each product. Many recipients use them as checklists when unpacking their shipments. If something they ordered is missing or shipped in error, they alert the seller.


title: Receipt

text: Hand-written or hand-completed receipts are more often used for infrequent or irregular transactions, or for transactions conducted in the absence of a terminal, cash register or point of sale: for example, as provided by a landlord to a tenant to record the receipt of rent. They can also be required when company representatives buy goods, because tax deduction rules might require hand signed receipts.


title: Receipt

text: Organizing receipts and similar financial documents is a multimillion-dollar industry in the United States. Consumers can use both desktop and online software to organize electronic receipts; sometimes, receipts are sent digitally from point of sale devices directly to consumers. The growing trend of digital receipts has led to the launch of new businesses focused on digital receipt management.


title: Siobhán Donaghy

text: Siobhán Emma Donaghy (born 14 June 1984) is an English-Irish singer and songwriter. She is best known as a founding member of the girl group Sugababes. Donaghy left the Sugababes in 2001 and released her debut solo album, "Revolution in Me", in 2003, which contained three single releases. Her second studio album, "Ghosts", was released in 2007. Donaghy appeared in a remixed version of the hit stage show "Rent" (titled "Rent Remixed") for its 2007–2008 run, playing the role of Mimi alongside Denise van Outen.


title: Siobhán Donaghy

text: In 2012, Donaghy and her former Sugababes colleagues, Buena and Buchanan confirmed their reunion. The original trio were not able to release music under the name "Sugababes" as it was still owned by the management company. They instead released music under the new name, Mutya Keisha Siobhan, until they secured the legal rights to the Sugababes name again in 2019.


title: Siobhán Donaghy

text: Donaghy was born on 14 June 1984 in London to Irish parents and has two sisters called Beibhinn and Róisín, who works as her make-up artist. She was discovered by former All Saints manager Ron Tom, who went on to manage Sugababes.


title: Siobhán Donaghy

text: The group was created when Donaghy and Mutya Buena hooked up with Buena's best friend Keisha Buchanan while working together in a studio. Manager Ron Tom decided they were to be a trio and came up with the name "the Sugababies". Within a year they were offered a record contract by London Records and started calling themselves the Sugababes.


title: Siobhán Donaghy

text: Their debut single, "Overload", was a top ten hit in the UK and was nominated for a BRIT Award for "Best Single". It was a top five hit in Germany and New Zealand. The group co-wrote most of the tracks on "One Touch", with the help of All Saints producer Cameron McVey. "One Touch" produced three more top forty singles in the UK: "New Year", "Run for Cover" and "Soul Sound".


title: Siobhán Donaghy

text: According to Donaghy, she left the group because she never got along with Keisha Buchanan, whom she described as a "bully". Donaghy became depressed (eventually being diagnosed with clinical depression) and could no longer be a part of the Sugababes. In an interview with "thelondonpaper", Donaghy said: "It's difficult to leave a band and then make sort of a solo career. I left for a very good reason and I've never for a second wanted to go back there." Despite this, Donaghy maintained contact with Buena, saying she was always pleased to see her.


title: Siobhán Donaghy

text: In March 2010, it was reported that Donaghy's former colleague, Mutya Buena, was pursuing legal rights to the Sugababes name. Buena was doing it by herself and only listed Donaghy and Buchanan's names on the documentation to register the Sugababes' name with the EU's trademark office OHIM.


title: Siobhán Donaghy

text: Donaghy started writing music with the help of former producer Cameron McVey to help overcome her depression, and began performing under the alias of "Shanghai Nobody", an anagram of "Siobhán Donaghy". In March 2003, Donaghy released the 7-inch vinyl single "Nothing but Song" under this title as she did not want to be known as "the girl who left the Sugababes". For the release of her first commercial single in June 2003, "Overrated" (co-written with McVey and Paul Simm), Donaghy reverted to her given name. "Overrated" peaked at No. 19 in the UK. It was followed by the single "Twist of Fate", which was released in September 2003 and charted at No. 52.


title: Siobhán Donaghy

text: Donaghy's debut album "Revolution in Me" was released by London Records in September 2003, and entered the UK Albums Chart at No. 117. Working with her on the album were father-son producers and writers Cameron McVey and Marlon Roudette from Mattafix. Each of the twelve tracks on the album were co-written by Donaghy with McVey, Silvio Pacini, Preetesh Hirji, Matt Kent and others.


title: Siobhán Donaghy

text: In 2005, Donaghy appeared as a backing vocalist on the Mattafix album "Signs of a Struggle" and on the Morcheeba album "The Antidote".


title: Siobhán Donaghy

text: Donaghy parted with London Records in a mutual decision with the company. She recorded a second album independently which was picked up by Parlophone, part of the EMI group, which also bought the rights to "Revolution in Me". The album's title track, "Ghosts", was released in February 2007 as a 12-inch promotional two-track single with the song "Don't Give It Up". The latter song was given a wider release in April 2007 and peaked at No. 45 in the UK. The second single, "So You Say", was released in June 2007 and peaked at No. 76. A remix of "Don't Give It Up" by Jerry Bouthier is featured on the Kitsuné release "BoomBox", released in November 2007.


title: Siobhán Donaghy

text: The album, "Ghosts", was also released in June 2007 and peaked at No. 92. Donaghy had said of the release that she wanted commercial success only so that she could continue to make music. She told The London Paper: "I make left field pop music, and it's a difficult genre to be in because it's not straight pop, it's not alternative, and it's quite hard to market. You have to push it and work it." The album was recorded in a small studio near Barneville-Carteret, France with producer James Sanger; other producers/songwriters include Jony Rockstar, Carl McIntosh ("There's a Place"), Ben Ranyard ("12 Bar Acid Blues"), Charles Lucy of Lucy Tuning ("Sometimes") and Marius De Vries.


title: Siobhán Donaghy

text: Donaghy appeared as the character of Mimi, a lead role, in the William Baker-directed production of "RENT" in London's West End at the Duke of York's Theatre, which opened in October 2007 and ran until February 2008. She said she was "overwhelmed that she got the part and was looking forward to the challenge". In August 2007 she flew to New York to watch "RENT" on Broadway to get inspiration for her interpretation of her part. This was Donaghy's West End debut. From 2006 to 2011 she worked as a model booker in London.


title: Siobhán Donaghy

text: In a January 2009 interview with the music site We7, Donaghy indicated that there would be no further solo albums released for the time being. "At this point in time I have no further plans to undertake another record of my own. Ultimately, the true nature of the business side of the music industry is enough to keep me away. Nonetheless, if I find myself in the future bursting with ideas and experiences I feel the need to share through music, I will be back," Donaghy stated.


title: Siobhán Donaghy

text: In June 2009, Donaghy was featured on the Square1 single "Styfling" produced by Silvio Pacini. Later in the year, she said in an interview with fashion site ponystep.com that she feels she had "had the break" she wanted from the industry and was currently working on new music but was unsure when it would be finished.


title: Siobhán Donaghy

text: In October 2011, several news outlets reported that the original line-up of the Sugababes would reform. In January 2012, further circulations that the group would reunite were sparked, after both Buena and Buchanan tweeted that they were in the studio with "two other females" and British rapper Professor Green. However, Buena later denied this on Twitter, saying: "No track [with] keisha or professor G he was around tha studio. im jus workin on my stuff @ tha moment. (sic)" Despite this, Scottish singer-songwriter Emeli Sandé confirmed to MTV UK that she had written new songs for Buena, Buchanan and Donaghy, saying: "Yes, that is true. I've written for the original line-up of the Sugababes, which I'm very happy about because I just loved them when they first came out. I loved their sound, it was so cool. It was very different, so I'm happy to kind of be involved in what started the whole Sugababes journey. It sounds amazing." In April 2012, it was reported that the line-up had signed a £1 million record real with Polydor Records. In June 2012, Donaghy confirmed on Twitter that new music would be released, saying: "the soonest it'll be is in 2 weeks. The latest is 10 weeks."


title: Siobhán Donaghy

text: In July 2012, it was officially confirmed that the group had reformed under the name Mutya Keisha Siobhan and were writing songs for a new album under Polydor. The group attended the 2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony on 27 July 2012 and posted pictures on their official Instagram page, marked Buena, Buchanan and Donaghy's first public appearance together in eleven years. On 6 August the group confirmed they had written two songs with Shaznay Lewis, former member of All Saints. The next day, Siobhan Donaghy tweeted "With the girls in the studio. I think the album is finished!!!" before adding "Whoop!" In an interview with Popjustice in August 2012, Donaghy stated that she had no interest in releasing any more solo material, saying that she felt her 2007 album Ghosts was her best work and didn't see why she needed to release any more material and that she was completely focused on MKS. An album was confirmed by Donaghy in 2016 to be released in early 2017 however this never materialised for unknown reasons and the group have not made any announcements or stated if they have remained together since.


title: Siobhán Donaghy

text: In February 2019, Mutya Buena confirmed that a leak of the demos resulted in the album being postponed. Donaghy has a writing credit on the Bananarama song "Love in Stereo" along with Keisha Buchanan, a song that was originally written for MKS's album. In August 2019, Donaghy, Buena and Buchanan reunited for a cover of Sweet Female Attitude's "Flowers", produced by DJ Spoony, as part of his album "Garage Classical". The trio is credited as Sugababes, making it the first time since 2001 that Donaghy performs under the name. Sugababes headlined the second day of June 2022's “Mighty Hoopla” festival in Herne Hill, London. On 20 May 2022 it was announced the band would be supporting Westlife on their Dublin leg. They will make a number of further appearances at music festivals over the summer, including Glastonbury, Portsmouth's Victorious Festival and the Margate Pride Festival.


title: Siobhán Donaghy

text: On 3 June 2022, the 2013 Mutya Keisha Siobhan single, "Flatline", was re-released under the Sugababes name. Sugababes announced their 17-date headlining tour, their first in 9 years, on 23 June 2022, starting on 16 October 2022 in Bristol and concluding on 7 November 2022 in Glasgow.


title: Siobhán Donaghy

text: In October 2022, it was announced that the band would support Take That at BST Hyde Park on 1 July 2023 alongside The Script.


title: Siobhán Donaghy

text: Donaghy married Chris McCoy in 2013. She gave birth to a son on 13 August 2017. She then gave birth to a daughter in 2020.


title: Visa requirements for Iranian citizens

text: Visa requirements for Iranian citizens are administrative entry restrictions imposed on citizens of Iran by the authorities of other states.


title: Visa requirements for Iranian citizens

text: As of February 2020, Iranian citizens had visa-free or visa on arrival access to 41 countries and territories, ranking the Iranian passport 98th in terms of travel freedom (tied with passports from Bangladesh, Dem. Rep. of Congo and Eritrea) according to the Henley Passport Index.


title: Visa requirements for Iranian citizens

text: Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, several countries have imposed temporary travel restrictions on Iranian citizens or persons arriving from Iran.


title: 2021 United States gubernatorial elections

text: United States gubernatorial elections were held on November 2, 2021, in two states, New Jersey and Virginia, and a recall election was held in California on September 14. These elections form part of the 2021 United States elections. The last gubernatorial elections for New Jersey and Virginia were in 2017, and the last regular gubernatorial election for California was in 2018. Going into the elections, all three seats were held by Democrats.


text: In Virginia, term-limited incumbent Ralph Northam was succeeded by Republican businessman Glenn Youngkin. In New Jersey, incumbent Phil Murphy won re-election. In California, an unsuccessful special election to recall incumbent Gavin Newsom was held on September 14, 2021.


text: Despite failing to flip the state, Republican nominee Jack Ciattarelli had actually swung the state of New Jersey slightly more Republican from the 2020 presidential election than fellow Republican Glenn Youngkin did in the election in Virginia, where he managed to flip the seat. This was the first time since 1981, that every gubernatorial election in this cycle was won by single digits.


text: Several sites and individuals published predictions of competitive seats. These predictions looked at factors such as the strength of the incumbent (if the incumbent is running for re-election), the strength of the candidates, and the partisan leanings of the state (reflected in part by the state's Cook Partisan Voting Index rating). The predictions assigned ratings to each seat, with the rating indicating a party's predicted advantage in winning that seat.


text: Governor Gavin Newsom was elected in 2018 with 61.9% of the vote. In 2020 and 2021, a recall petition gained momentum due to the COVID-19 pandemic in California and Newsom's responses, eventually triggering a recall election. The ballot featured two questions, whether to recall Newsom and who would have replaced him if he had been recalled. Newsom was ineligible to run as a candidate for the second question.


text: A large number of candidates announced their intention to replace Newsom. Among the most prominent Republicans in the race included 2018 Republican nominee John H. Cox, former San Diego mayor Kevin Faulconer, media personalities Caitlyn Jenner and Larry Elder, in addition to former U.S. representative Doug Ose.


text: The recall failed, and thus Newsom will remain in office for the rest of his term, which expires on January 2, 2023.


text: Governor Phil Murphy was elected in 2017 with 56% of the vote. He ran for re-election to a second term and was unopposed in the Democratic primary.


text: Republican Jack Ciattarelli was the earliest to announce his candidacy for the governorship in February 2018. He was followed by New Jersey Republican Party chairman Doug Steinhardt, who announced his campaign in December 2020 and withdrew his candidacy the next month. Pastor Phil Rizzo and businessman Hirsh Singh ran for the nomination. Ciattarelli won the Republican primary.


text: The Libertarian Party announced activist Gregg Mele as their nominee in March. The Green Party nominated their candidate Madelyn Hoffman at a convention in April. Other minor candidates included Socialist Workers Party nominee Joanne Kuniansky and perennial candidate Ed Forchion of the Legalize Marijuana Party who ran as a write-in after challenges to signatures from the Murphy campaign.


text: Murphy won re-election after several media outlets called the race for him over Ciattarelli on November 3, 2021. Murphy's close election was surprising given he had the lead in every poll leading up to the election day. Moreover, Murphy trailed Ciattarelli from early voting at the start of the ballot count, taking the lead early Wednesday morning.


text: Governor Ralph Northam was elected in 2017 with 53.9% of the vote. He was term-limited in 2021, as the Virginia Constitution does not allow governors to serve consecutive terms.


text: Lieutenant Governor Justin Fairfax, former governor of Virginia Terry McAuliffe, state senator Jennifer McClellan, state delegate Jennifer Carroll Foy, and state delegate Lee Carter announced their candidacies for the Democratic nomination for the governorship. Virginia attorney general Mark Herring previously announced his intention to run for the governorship but withdrew from the race to seek reelection as attorney general. McAuliffe won the Democratic primary by a wide margin despite the large field of candidates.


text: State senator Amanda Chase announced her candidacy for the Republican nomination for the governorship in February 2020. After initially indicating a brief attempt at an independent run because of the state Republicans' decision to hold a convention instead of a primary, Chase later returned to seek her party's nomination once more. Kirk Cox, the former Republican speaker of the Virginia House of Delegates, filed the paperwork to run for the governorship in September 2020. Businessman Glenn Youngkin won the Republican nomination after six rounds of voting at the convention.


text: Princess Blanding, a teacher and sister of the late Marcus-David Peters, was the newly-founded Liberation Party's gubernatorial candidate.


text: In the general election on November 2, Republican Glenn Youngkin defeated Democrat and former Governor Terry McAuliffe, making him the first Republican to win a statewide election in Virginia since 2009. Republicans also flipped the lieutenant governor, attorney general and House of Delegates races that were held concurrently.


title: 34+35

text: "34+35" (pronounced "thirty-four thirty-five") is a song recorded by American singer Ariana Grande, included as the second track on her sixth studio album, "Positions" (2020). It was written by Grande, Albert Stanaj, Courageous Xavier Herrera, Scott Nicholson, Steven Franks, Tayla Parx, Victoria Monét, and its producers Peter Lee Johnson and Tommy Brown. The song was released through Republic Records on November 3, 2020, serving as the second official single from "Positions". The song's title and chorus reference the 69 sex position, while the rest of its lyrics feature several sexual puns, double entendres, and sex jokes.


title: 34+35

text: "34+35" debuted at number eight on the US "Billboard" Hot 100, becoming Grande's 18th top ten single. The song later rose to reach a peak of number two following the release of the remix. It also debuted at number five on the "Billboard" Global 200, becoming Grande's second top ten single on the chart; it later reached a peak of number two there. Additionally, "34+35" peaked within the top ten in Australia, Canada, Ireland, Malaysia, Singapore and the United Kingdom, giving Grande her 19th top ten single in the latter.


title: 34+35

text: Its music video, directed by Director X, premiered on November 17, 2020. A remix of the song, featuring American rappers Doja Cat and Megan Thee Stallion, was released on January 15, 2021. A live performance music video of "34+35" was released on July 15, 2021.


title: 34+35

text: "34+35" was first revealed when Grande announced the track list of "Positions" via social media on October 24, 2020. Grande started working on the song in 2019, and finished it in September 2020 after she decided it was going to be on the album. It was originally intended to be the lead single of the album before being replaced by title track "Positions", after Grande decided that it was more appropriate as it gave a more accurate representation of the album. Given the explicit nature of the song, which has been compared to Grande's past works such as "Side to Side" and "Dangerous Woman", Grande said that she was "very nervous" about the song initially, fearing that it would "distract from the vulnerability and the sweetness that is the rest of the album". She stated that it was sonically "one of [her] favorite things [she and her team have] ever done", adding: "it deserve[d] a home on the album for sure...I think that everything I do has a little bit of humor, and the people know that I'm not really sitting here 'til dawn."


title: 34+35

text: To promote the song, Grande released a "34+35 dad hat" on her official merchandise store, which features "34+35" graphics embroidered on the front of a baseball cap. "34+35" was sent to contemporary hit radio in Australia and the United States on October 30 and November 3, 2020, respectively. It was later sent to hot adult contemporary radio on January 19, 2021. A lyric video was released on YouTube on October 30, 2020.


title: 34+35

text: "34+35" is an uptempo pop song with influences of R&B and an instrumentation utilizing violins, plucked strings, and elements of trap music. The song is written with a tempo of 110 beats per minute in the key of F major, while Grande's vocals range from a low note of G to a high note of D The song's lyrics include sexual puns, double entendres, and sex jokes, while the song's title (which, as a mathematical expression, evaluates to 69) and chorus reference the sex position 69, with the outro's lyrics including "Means I wanna 69 witcha". Other lyrics include explicit sexual references, such as "Can you stay up all night?/Fuck me 'til the daylight". The song was written about Grande's sex life with her boyfriend Dalton Gomez. According to Grande, the line, "Just gimme them babies" was suggested by songwriter Scott Nicholson as a joke to complete the first verse, on the night they started writing the song, but she liked it so much that it ended up in the final version. The earthquake referenced in the third verse ("Got the neighbours yellin' "Earthquake!"/4.5 when I make the bed shake") was based on an actual earthquake of magnitude 4.5 that occurred in Southern California in September 2020. Grande wrote the bridge together with songwriters Tayla Parx and Victoria Monét.


title: 34+35

text: Mary Siroky of "Consequence of Sound" called the track "overwhelmingly playful" and "no-holds-barred", with Heather Taylor-Singh of "Exclaim!" writing that it featured an "overt sexiness". Adam White of "The Independent" called the song's lyrics "dirty-minded" and "cutely tongue-in-cheek", while Brenton Blanchet of "Clash" regarded "34+35" as "Grande's most sexually explicit track yet". Similarly, Natalie Morin of Refinery29 named the song "Grande's sex magnum opus".


title: 34+35

text: On his ranking of every song on "Positions", where "34+35" was positioned at number two, Jason Lipshutz of "Billboard" praised Grande for being one of the "few artists working today [who] could release an explicit sex track that sounds this luxurious and ornately detailed", describing the song as "unapologetic and dizzyingly fun, with Grande shrugging off the need for euphemism and rightfully confident in her approach". Writing for "The Line of Best Fit", Ross Horton identified "34+35" as the best song on and the "mission statement" for the album, writing that "the amount of puns, double entendres and jokes littered throughout is staggering". Brenton Blanchet of "Clash" wrote that the song "hits just as hard as its lyrical prowess", calling it the "baby-making-ist track" on "Positions" and referring to its "NSFW" chorus as "addictive".


title: 34+35

text: "Variety"s Chris Willman remarked that "34+35" was "a little bit on the schoolgirl-sniggering side" and that the outro's literalization of the song's 69 joke was "unnecessary". Shaad D'Souza of "The Fader" referred to the song as a "hammy ode to 69-ing" which "makes no attempts at even the most vaguely clever innuendo". "Slant Magazine"s Alexa Camp considered the song's lyrics "a lot of empty pillow talk and plentiful dog whistles." Emma Madden of "Entertainment Weekly" criticized the song's lyrics, writing, "Grande sings that she was 'never good' in math class on '34+35,' and it seems she might be equally bad at math-related wordplay."


title: 34+35

text: Uproxx ranked "34+35" as the 9th best song of 2020, with Caitlin White commenting that the song is more carefree and funnier than the lead single "Positions", and that it "has all the makings of a late album hit, and will go down in Ari's catalogue as one of her most clever offerings". LaTesha Harris from NPR ranked "34+35" as the 8th best song of 2020. Tidal ranked "34+35" as the 32nd best pop song of 2020. Jessica McKinney of Complex ranked "34+35" as the 42nd best song of 2020. Calling its production "immaculate", she commented that the song is "sexually explicit, seductive, luxurious, and elegant, guided by Grande's sultry vocals".


title: 34+35

text: Following the release of "Positions", "34+35" debuted at number eight on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 chart issue dated November 14, 2020, drawing in 21.7 million streams, 5.7 million airplay audience impressions and 3,000 digital downloads sold within its first tracking week. It became Grande's eighteenth top ten single, tying her with Beyoncé for the eighth-most among women in the chart's 62-year history. Since earning her first top 10 hit with "The Way" in April 2013, no other female artist has earned as many Hot 100 top ten hits as Grande. "34+35" also debuted at number five on the "Billboard" Global 200 chart issue dated November 9, 2020, becoming Grande's second top ten hit. With the help of "34+35" and "Positions", the latter of which was at number one, Grande became the first woman, and third artist overall, joining Justin Bieber and BTS, with two top five hits apiece on the Global 200 so far.


title: 34+35

text: Following the release of its remix, "34+35" soared to a new peak of number two on the Hot 100, blocked from the top spot by Olivia Rodrigo's "Drivers License", lodging over 24.2 million on-demand streams and 8,000 digital downloads, thus marking Grande's twelfth top 5 hit on the Hot 100, and the second track off of "Positions" to do so. "34+35" also marked the highest-charting song credited to three or more female soloists on the Hot 100 since Christina Aguilera, Mýa, Pink and Lil' Kim's "Lady Marmalade" in 2001. Additionally, it also reached a new peak of number two on the "Billboard" Global 200 chart and entered the Global 200 Excl. U.S. chart for the first time at number five, becoming Grande's third top ten hit on the chart. Following the release of the music video of the remix, "34+35" re-peaked at number two on the chart dated February 27, 2021, drawing in 18.1 million streams, 60.2 million airplay audience impressions and 16,000 digital downloads sold within its 16th tracking week. This time Grande was solely credited on the chart.


title: 34+35

text: On the US "Billboard" Mainstream Top 40 airplay chart, "34+35" peaked at number one on the issue dated February 13, 2021, becoming the second consecutive chart topper from the parent album "Positions" and earning Grande her eighth number one single and 18th overall top ten single. It replaced Grande's own "Positions" which dominated the chart for seven consecutive weeks, making Grande the first artist to succeed herself at number one as the only act credited on both tracks. Joining Mariah Carey, Outkast, Iggy Azalea and Halsey, Grande also became just the fifth artist in "Billboard" history to replace themselves on the Pop Songs airplay chart. It remained at number one for a second consecutive week. The same week Grande simultaneously occupied the top two of pop airplay chart with "34+35" and "Positions", making Grande the first artist to simultaneously occupy the top two with two solo songs. Joining Mariah Carey, Outkast, Pharrell Williams, Iggy Azalea and Halsey, Grande also became just the sixth artist in "Billboard" history to simultaneously occupy the entire top two of Pop Songs airplay chart. It remained at number one for three consecutive weeks. It also peaked at number one on the "Billboard" Rhythmic Top 40 airplay chart on the issue dated March 13, 2021, becoming Grande's third number one hit and 13th overall top ten single on the rhythmic airplay chart.


title: 34+35

text: On April 6, 2021, "34+35" was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for moving 2 million units in the United States.


title: 34+35

text: In Canada, "34+35" entered the Canadian Hot 100 chart at number eight on the issue dated November 14, 2020, becoming Grande's 18th top ten single in the country. Following the release of the remix featuring Doja Cat and Megan Thee Stallion, "34+35" reached a peak of number five on the issue dated January 30, 2021, becoming the second top five hit from the parent album "Positions".


title: 34+35

text: In the United Kingdom, "34+35" debuted at number nine on the UK Singles Chart on the week ending November 12, 2020, becoming Grande's 19th top ten entry in Britain. It rebounded to a new peak of number eight on the week ending January 14, 2021. Following the release of the remix featuring Doja Cat and Megan Thee Stallion, "34+35" reached a peak of number three on the week ending January 28, 2021, becoming Grande's 15th top five hit in the United Kingdom. On October 15, 2021, "34+35" was certified Platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for moving 600,000 units in the United Kingdom. In Ireland, "34+35" debuted at number four on the Irish Singles Chart, becoming Grande's 18th top ten single in the country.


title: 34+35

text: "34+35" also achieved success in Oceania; the song debuted at number nine on the ARIA Singles Chart, earning Grande her 17th top ten single in the country. Following the release of the remix featuring Doja Cat and Megan Thee Stallion, "34+35" reached a new peak of number five on the ARIA Singles Chart, becoming the second top five hit from "Positions" after the title track which debuted and peaked at number one. In New Zealand, "34+35" peaked at number three on the New Zealand Singles Chart chart issue dated January 25, 2021.


title: 34+35

text: A music video directed by Director X was released on November 17, 2020, on Grande's YouTube channel. The video premiered at 9 am PST. The video starts with Grande in a lab, wearing a lab coat. She can be seen scribbling notes and maneuvering machinery. Grande also studies a robot version of herself and struggles to make the robot come to life. After many attempts, the robot awakens and transforms all of the scientists' clothes into nightgowns reminiscent of fembots


title: 34+35

text: as they all start dancing. The video is also interspersed with scenes of Grande and her dancers dancing and posing in a white room with projecting black polka dots. The music video contains references to the 1927 movie "Metropolis".


title: 34+35

text: Doja Cat originally had a verse in the original, but it was later scrapped in favor of "Motive". A short snippet of the scrapped version was leaked and surfaced shortly after the album was released. On November 7, 2020, Doja Cat performed her verse during a live stream on Instagram.


title: 34+35

text: Doja Cat first hinted at a collaboration between her, Grande and Stallion on January 5, 2021. Eight days later, Grande teased a remix of "34+35" through a social media post of a short video of TV displaying the cover art with two then-unknown artists besides her. The next day, she revealed that the remix would feature American rappers Doja Cat and Megan Thee Stallion. The singer also revealed the full cover art, featuring artists dressed as replicas of the fembots in the original "34+35" music video. The remix was officially released on January 15, 2021, alongside an accompanying lyric video that was based on the cover art. As the original version of the song was serviced to pop and hot AC radio stations, the remix was serviced to rhythmic radio on January 19, 2021. On February 12, alongside the music video premiere, a CD of "34+35 Remix" was released. That version of the song was announced to be included in the deluxe edition of "Positions", which appeared a week later.


title: 34+35

text: "34+35 Remix" features a "sparkly" pop sound and sees Doja Cat and Megan Thee Stallion perform the second and third verses, respectively. Doja Cat's verse includes the notable line "I want that 69 without Tekashi", a reference to Tekashi69. In Megan's verse, she mentions streaming media apps Netflix and Hulu, DIY videos created on the video-sharing app YouTube, and coffeehouse chain Starbucks.


title: 34+35

text: Bianca Betancourt of "Harper's Bazaar" wrote that the trio "does not disappoint" and that Doja Cat and Megan Thee Stallion "effortlessly float over their respective verses". "Insider"s Callie Ahlgrim dubbed the remix version as "cheeky".


title: 34+35

text: On February 1, 2021, Grande teased a music video with two pictures posted to her social media. On February 5, Grande, Doja Cat and Megan all posted the same picture of them in lingerie to social media, hinting at a possible video. On February 9, Grande confirmed the music video and announced that it was scheduled for release on February 12, 2021. It was directed by Stefan Kohli.


title: 34+35

text: The music video begins with Grande at a swimming pool reclining on a lawn chair reading a magazine while swans float by. The camera zooms out to reveal Doja Cat and Megan on two other lawn chairs. All acts later drink champagne. After Doja Cat's verse, Grande orders room service through an intercom. During her verse, Megan is twerking in a bathtub, and all the artists play around with a camcorder in bed. Grande is wearing Victoria's Secret Lace Plunge Teddy lingerie throughout most of the video.


title: 34+35

text: Steffanie Wang of "Nylon" summarised that in the video all acts are "serving nothing but looks and aspirational lifestyle goals." "Billboard"s Katie Atkinson called the video "perfect girls' day video."


title: Sarah Carter

text: Sarah Sanguin Carter (born October 30, 1980) is a Canadian-American actress. She is known for her recurring role as Alicia Baker in the superhero series "Smallville" (2004–2005), Madeleine Poe in "Shark" (2006–2008), and main role as Maggie in the TNT science fiction series "Falling Skies" (2011–2015).


title: Sarah Carter

text: Carter was born in Toronto and raised in Winnipeg, Manitoba. She was in the prestigious Royal Winnipeg Ballet. Carter was also on the debate team and named one of the top three public speakers in the world. She competed in various countries including Austria, England, and Argentina.


title: Sarah Carter

text: After graduating high school, Carter moved to Switzerland where she studied fine arts at Neuchâtel Junior College for one year. She subsequently attended Ryerson Theatre School in Toronto. At some point, Carter took time off from acting, spending time in India and Cuba, where she worked in an orphanage.


title: Sarah Carter

text: Carter's early television career included appearances in "Wolf Lake", "Dark Angel", and "Undeclared", and she was also cast in "Final Destination 2". She also appeared in three episodes of "Smallville", in which she played fan favorite Alicia Baker, who has a romantic relationship with Clark Kent. In 2006, Carter starred in the film "", playing the character Helena Douglas, a fighter who enters a martial arts contest.


title: Sarah Carter

text: Her later television career has included playing the character Madeline Poe, a rookie prosecutor in "Shark" between 2006 and 2008, appearing in all 38 episodes of the series. In 2009, she also appeared in "", as the character , a forensic school graduate.


title: Sarah Carter

text: Carter became a regular character, Maggie, on the TNT series "Falling Skies", which debuted in June 2011. An apocalyptic alien invasion story, season 2 began on June 17, 2012 and concluded on August 19, 2012. Season 3 premiered June 9, 2013. On the heels of "Falling Skies" airing its series finale in 2015, Carter booked a recurring arc on CBS’ "Hawaii Five-0" as a potential love interest to Steve McGarrett.


title: Sarah Carter

text: She is part of the duo SanguinDrake, founded in 2010. , the band has released four self-produced music videos on their website. On May 12, 2012, SanguinDrake released their first album "Pretty Tricks".


title: Sarah Carter

text: On June 19, 2011, Carter was one of thirty-five climbers who scaled Mount Shasta to raise money for the Breast Cancer Fund, for which she is a spokesperson. She has also hiked the West Coast Trail.


title: Elize Ryd

text: Hanna Elise Isabell Maj Höstblomma Ryd (born 15 October 1984), known professionally as Elize Ryd, is a Swedish singer, best known as one of the three vocalists and co-lyricist in the metal band Amaranthe. She also gained some popularity prior to the band's inception by performing guest vocals for the symphonic power metal band Kamelot, both on tour and in the studio. She sings in the soprano range.


title: Elize Ryd

text: Hanna Elise Isabell Maj Höstblomma Ryd was born in Värnamo on 15 October 1984, the daughter of a Swedish father and a Finnish mother, both of whom were musicians. She performed in public for the first time when she was four years old. During her childhood, she was influenced by everything from Walt Disney to heavy metal. At the age of 13, she attended and won a 1998 talent show in Gothenburg as the youngest participant. The first prize was a record deal, but since she did not meet the minimum of age of 15, she was ineligible to receive the prize. She received a scholarship for the most promising singer and a spot in a musical called "Brödupploppet" that was played 76 times at Exercishuset in Gothenburg. She received another scholarship award in 2003, when she graduated from high school


title: Elize Ryd

text: After graduating from a three-year education at a performing arts school, Ryd started her professional singing career as a cabaret performer at the Cabaret Lorensberg in Gothenburg. She also did songs for various local bands such as Falconer. When she met Joacim "Jake E" Lundberg in a club in Gothenburg, he requested that she record vocals for a song with his band Dreamland, titled "Fade Away". Lundberg later introduced her to Olof Mörck, who proposed a collaboration with his band Dragonland, to which she agreed. It was around this time that symphonic metal band Nightwish took interest in Ryd as a replacement for their previous singer Tarja Turunen, although she was ultimately not chosen for the role. At the same time, she, Mörck, and Lundberg talked about starting their own band with her as a lead singer and composer. The band was named Avalanche, which was later renamed to Amaranthe for legal reasons.


title: Elize Ryd

text: In early 2009, Amaranthe released their debut EP, "Leave Everything Behind". In early 2011, they released their first two singles, "Hunger" and "Rain" before releasing their debut album "Amaranthe", which reached a peak position of 35th on Swedish charts and 16th on Finnish Charts. With this album, the band released two music videos: one for the aforementioned song "Hunger" and another for the song "Amaranthine". Both were directed by Patric Ullaeus for Revolver Films. There was also a video shot for "1.000.000 Lightyears", the fourth single from their debut album.


title: Elize Ryd

text: On January 25, 2013, Amaranthe released a new single titled "The Nexus" and a music video on 13 March. Amaranthe's second album, "The Nexus", was released in March 2013. Later in 2013, Amaranthe released two videos for their singles "Burn with Me" and "Invincible."


title: Elize Ryd

text: Amaranthe released a new single and video for "Drop-dead cynical" in September 2014. Their third album, "Massive Addictive", was released on October 21, 2014, as well as two more videos for "Digital World" and "True" and a lyric video for "Trinity".


title: Elize Ryd

text: Amaranthe released their fourth album "Maximalism" in October 2016, with "That Song" as the lead single.


title: Elize Ryd

text: "Manifest" is their sixth album, which was released in October 2020 via Nuclear Blast. The first single "Viral" was released on June 26, 2020.


title: Elize Ryd

text: Throughout 2011 and 2012, Ryd joined Kamelot on stage as one of their primary touring vocalists, and recorded guest vocals on three tracks for Kamelot's tenth album "Silverthorn", and was featured in one music video.


title: Elize Ryd

text: On September 28, 2012, whilst supporting Nightwish's North American leg of the Imaginaerum World Tour with Kamelot, Ryd and fellow Kamelot touring vocalist Alissa White-Gluz of The Agonist joined symphonic metal band Nightwish for a one-time concert in Denver when their lead vocalist Anette Olzon was hospitalized.


title: Elize Ryd

text: In September 2018, Ryd was part of the DVD recording of "I Am The Empire Live From The 013", released on August 14, 2020.


title: Elize Ryd

text: Since Amaranthe's explosion in popularity, Ryd has been featured on songs by several different artists she had not previously collaborated with. In 2011, she had three notable collaborations that were all released commercially. These consisted of guest vocals for Swedish rock band Takida's fourth album "The Burning Heart" and Renegade Five's September 2011 EP "Life Is Already Fading". Beside fellow Amaranthe vocalists Jake E. and Andreas Solveström, Elize was once again featured on a Dragonland album; this time being the band's fifth album "Under the Grey Banner".


title: Elize Ryd

text: In 2012, Ryd performed guest vocals on the debut single "Evolution" by the musical project Dreamstate set up by Takida guitarist Tomas Wallin.


title: Elize Ryd

text: In 2013, Ryd performed vocals in the album "The Land of New Hope", from a new metal opera project by Timo Tolkki called Avalon, in which she is the main character. The album was released on May 17, 2013. She was also confirmed as one of the vocalists for the second album called "Angels of the Apocalypse".


title: Elize Ryd

text: Also in 2013, she recorded a song with the Russian composer Alexey Soloviev. The song is called "Alone in the Universe".


title: Elize Ryd

text: In the end of 2013, Ryd took part in the Raskasta Joulua project, incorporating the sound of metal to Christmas carols. She sang the song "Julen är här" as a duet with Tony Kakko from Sonata Arctica. She also joined the Raskasta Joulua tour for the final gigs. During that visit in Finland, she performed on Finnish national television. There, she sang Ave Maria together with Marko Hietala, the bassist from Nightwish. They sold over 20,000 copies of Raskasta Joulua, which received platinum certification as a result. In 2014, she once again participated on Raskasta Joulua's recordings. She appeared on the album "Raknarok Juletide" with the song "Christmas Is Here", which is the English version of "Julen är här", also with Tony Kakko on vocals. She also appeared on the follow-up album, "Raskasta Joulua 2", where she sang on a cover of Carola Häggkvist's "Himlen i min famn". "Raskasta Joulua 2" sold over 20,000 copies and it, too, received platinum certification.


title: Elize Ryd

text: Ryd also performed guest vocals on Timo Tolkki's Avalon album "Angels of the Apocalypse", along with Simone Simons, Floor Jansen, Fabio Lione, and other power metal vocalists, which was released on May 16, 2014.


title: Elize Ryd

text: She is also featured on the new Nergard album "A Bit Closer to Heaven". It was released in May 2015. The album also features Nils K. Rue (Pagan's Mind), Michael Eriksen (Circus Maximus), and Ralf Scheepers (Primal Fear). Ryd performs on the song "On Through the Storm" and was a duet with the Swedish singer Andi Kravljaca.


title: Elize Ryd

text: She is featured on the second Smash into Pieces album, performing on the song "My Cocaine". It was released in February 2015.


title: Elize Ryd

text: She took part in Swedish Melodifestivalen 2015 with Swedish opera tenor Rickard Söderberg. They both sang a song called "One by One", which was composed by Ryd and Jimmy Jansson. They came in 5th place in the first semi-final (2nd of the 2nd round), but, unfortunately, they were eliminated after a big crash of the application.


title: Elize Ryd

text: Ryd is featured on the Gus G. album "Brand New Revolution", released on July 24, 2015. The song is called "What Lies Below".


title: Elize Ryd

text: She is featured on Docker's Guild album called "The Heisenberg Diaries – Book A: Sounds of Future Past", released on January 21, 2016, where she sings the sci-fi soundtrack tunes "Never Ending Story" and "Suspension" (from the Buck Rogers in the 25th Century movie soundtrack) in duet with Douglas R. Docker. (2016)


title: Elize Ryd

text: On March 5, 2016, a new single, "At the Break of Dawn", featuring Ryd, was released by the Finnish band Arion.


title: Elize Ryd

text: In December 2016, Ryd once again joined the Raskasta Joulua tour for eight gigs in Finland. In March 2017, she joined the guitarist Gus G. for a few dates in Japan.


title: Elize Ryd

text: In December 2017, Ryd joined the Raskasta Joulua tour for their tour in Finland. She is also featured on their song "Stjärnan i min hand".


title: Elize Ryd

text: In December 2018, Ryd once again joined Raskasta Joulua on seven dates in Finland as part of their tour.


title: Elize Ryd

text: Ryd is featured on "Lucky Star" from the 2020 self-titled debut album of Amahiru, a musical project led by Frédéric Leclercq and Saki.


title: Amanda de Cadenet

text: Amanda de Cadenet (; born 19 May 1972) is an English photographer, author, and media personality based in Los Angeles, United States. She began her entertainment career in the 1990s, first as a presenter for British series "The Word" and "The Big Breakfast" before moving to Los Angeles to briefly pursue an acting career. A tabloid figure at the time, she transitioned to a more private career as a photographer in the 2000s. More recently, she has hosted an eponymous interview series on the Lifetime Channel.


title: Amanda de Cadenet

text: At age 18, de Cadenet began her career as a co-presenter for "The Word", a late-night Channel 4 entertainment show in 1990–1995. She also co-hosted the British television show "The Big Breakfast".


title: Amanda de Cadenet

text: Her career and reputation as a 'wild child' made her a British tabloid figure and she became only more well known when she married Duran Duran bassist John Taylor in 1991 at age 19. They moved from the United Kingdom to Los Angeles the following year. She embarked upon a short-lived movie career, appearing in Allison Anders's segment of the 1995 anthology film "Four Rooms", "Fall" (1997) and "Brokedown Palace" (1999).


title: Amanda de Cadenet

text: Her career then turned to fashion and portrait photography, working for magazines such as "Spin", "Jane" and "Harper’s Bazaar", among others. In 2005, she published a photo book entitled "Rare Birds". Her celebrity subjects have included Drew Barrymore, Sofia Coppola, Demi Moore, Olivia Wilde, Mary J. Blige, Keanu Reeves, Beck Hansen, and the members of The Strokes.


title: Amanda de Cadenet

text: In the 2010s, she returned to television and worked on a series of eponymous interview projects. In 2011, it was announced that de Cadenet would be the host of a new television interview series called "The Conversation with Amanda de Cadenet", airing on the Lifetime Channel, with Demi Moore as a co-executive producer. On the show, de Cadenet has interviewed female guests such as Hillary Clinton, Lady Gaga, Portia de Rossi, Rita Wilson, Gwyneth Paltrow, Zoe Saldana and Jane Fonda. During the production of "The Conversation", she developed a second show with Lifetime, a weekly late-night television talk show featuring de Cadenet entitled, "Undone with @AmandadeCadenet". The show ran for six episodes in 2014. In 2018, she worked with Showtime to develop a pilot for a half-hour weekly news-magazine show tentatively titled "Now What With Amanda de Cadenet". The show did not air. In 2019, she developed a ten-episode spin-off podcast of "The Conversation" in partnership with Spotify"."


title: Amanda de Cadenet

text: In 2016, de Cadenet founded Girlgaze, a global online, multi-sided platform which connects women and non-binary creatives with different businesses, companies and brands. Speaking on her role as CEO and past experience as a photographer, she said “I’m interested in the stories [women and nonbinary] people have to tell, because of my own experience of being shut out of so many creative opportunities because of my gender.” For this work, Fast Company named her one of 2020's "Most Creative People in Business."


title: Amanda de Cadenet

text: In 2017, she released her second book and collection of photography, "#girlgaze: How Girls See the World." This was followed in 2018 by a book of essays published by Harper Wave titled "It's Messy: On Boys, Boobs, and Badass Women".


title: Amanda de Cadenet

text: De Cadenet was born in Hampstead, London. She is the daughter of Anna and racing car driver Alain de Cadenet. De Cadenet lived in England until 1992, when she moved to the United States.


title: Amanda de Cadenet

text: De Cadenet was married to Duran Duran bassist John Taylor from 1991 until 1997. At the time of their marriage, according to de Cadenet herself, she was only 19 and pregnant. Taylor and de Cadenet have one daughter, Atlanta Noo de Cadenet Taylor.


title: Amanda de Cadenet

text: In 2006, she married guitarist Nick Valensi of American rock band the Strokes, after meeting at one of the band's performances in 2002. Their twin children Ella and Silvan were born in 2007.


title: Steatoda nobilis

text: Steatoda nobilis is a spider in the genus "Steatoda", known in the United Kingdom as the noble false widow, as it superficially resembles and is frequently mistaken for the black widow and other spiders in the genus "Latrodectus". It is often referred to as "the" false widow, although "false widow" is a more general term applied to a wider group of species with this resemblance. It is a moderately medically significant spider, with most bites resulting in symptoms similar to a bee or wasp sting. Some bites may cause more significant harm, partly due to pathogenic bacteria from the spiders.


title: Steatoda nobilis

text: "S. nobilis" is spotted all year round, both indoors and outdoors in a variety of habitats including cacti, roadside cuttings, and demolished buildings. The spiders prey on both invertebrates and small vertebrates using an "attack wrap" strategy where silk is wrapped around the victim.


title: Steatoda nobilis

text: "Steatoda nobilis" is native to Madeira and the Canary Islands from where it is thought to have spread to Europe, and continued to spread to other parts of the world including the United States, Chile and Colombia. They are considered to be one of the world's most invasive species of spider.


title: Steatoda nobilis

text: "Steatoda nobilis" has a brown bulbous abdomen with cream coloured markings that are often likened to the shape of a skull. Their legs are reddish-orange. Both female and male "S. nobilis" can be distinguished from other spiders of the same genus by their large size and typical colouration. Females range in size from about 9.5 to 14 mm in size, while males are 7 to 11 mm. The largest females are 13.7 mm in size, while the largest males can be 11.66mm in size. The males can be distinguished by their conformation of the palp and by their ventral abdominal markings. The females can be distinguished by their epigyne. The variation in size, shape and markings that have been observed is not thought to be due to location. Spiders found centimetres apart and siblings born from the same egg sac can look very different.


title: Steatoda nobilis

text: The spider is an introduced species across Europe, plus parts of North Africa, and likely spreading. It was found for the first time in 2011 in Cologne, Germany. It is originally from the Canary Islands and Madeira. In England it has been reported mostly in southern counties, but its range was reported to be expanding northwards in the 21st century. In 2011, the spider was reported as an established invasive species in the USA, in Ventura County, California. In January 2016, it was reported that "Steatoda nobilis" had been found in Chile, the first time that the species had been recorded in the southern hemisphere. Research published in December 2018 showed that it was also established in Colombia and Ecuador. It is considered to be one of the world's most invasive species of spider. Seaside cities and villages with a temperate climate are especially favourable habitats for "S. nobilis".


title: Steatoda nobilis

text: The first recorded observation of "S. nobilis" in England dates back to 1879. The first recorded observation of "S. nobilis" in Ecuador was in 2014 at several locations as high as 2800 meters.


title: Steatoda nobilis

text: Between 1985 and 2010 there was no reporting of large numbers of "S. nobilis" anywhere, and scientists consider this to be a typical lag phase that is a phenomenon observed in many invasive species. Afterwards there was a large accelerated spread observed all over the globe.


title: Steatoda nobilis

text: "S. nobilis" can be found year round, regardless of the climate, and they can be found both indoors and outdoors. They have been observed in a variety of different places from cacti and agave to roadside cuttings and buildings. They have also been found on telegraph poles, concrete fence posts, and ivy growing on walls. In Ireland they have been observed to be restricted to man-made habitats such as on steel, concrete or timber structures in urbanised area and not commonly found in forests or dunes. In another study conducted in Ireland, the adult spiders were exclusively only found on steel, concrete or timber structures in urban areas. In California they have also been observed in urban habitats but have also been observed to spread into natural habitats.


title: Steatoda nobilis

text: Juveniles are observed living in small crevices and holes, which can make their eradication difficult. In Dublin, juveniles have been observed on vegetation and leaves.


title: Steatoda nobilis

text: In Ireland, they were observed to be captured by common suburban spiders like the cellar spider or the lace-webbed spider.


title: Steatoda nobilis

text: The distribution of "Steatoda nobilis" is expected to increase northwards in the UK, due at least partly to mild winters in recent years. This prediction was reported by Stuart Hine of the Natural History Museum, and is substantiated by the National Recording Scheme.


title: Steatoda nobilis

text: The spider is reported to be an established species in Ireland. The first recorded sighting of the species occurred in the east of Ireland in Bray, Co. Wicklow in 1997.


title: Steatoda nobilis

text: "Steatoda nobilis" uses an effective "attack wrap" strategy to immobilise would-be prey or predators, meaning that they are in close contact to their prey/predator. Prey is captured in typical theridiid fashion, where silk is wrapped around the victim using the spider’s fourth legs, allowing the spider to bite the victim. Their venom allows them to immobilise their prey by inducing paralysis. "S. nobilis" have been observed biting insects and spiders which causes a rapid reduction in motor function, most likely due to the release of venom. Their potent venom allows them to capture vertebrates much larger than themselves; the spider has been observed feeding on pipistrelle bats.


title: Steatoda nobilis

text: "S. nobilis" can eat both vertebrates and invertebrates. In Ireland, they were observed to eat woodlice. All of "S. nobilis"’s liquid requirements are observed to come from its prey. In laboratories they seem to thrive without water and in extremely dry conditions. In Ireland they have been observed to prey on protected reptile species.


title: Steatoda nobilis

text: As with other members of the family Theridiidae, "Steatoda nobilis" constructs a cobweb which is an irregular tangle of sticky silken fibres. Its scaffold web differs from others of the genus in the exceptional strength of the silk, and in the tubular retreat that is at least partly concealed in a deep crack or hole. They produce three dimensional cobwebs. The web is developed slowly, starting as a typical theridiid tangled web and gradually takes on the characteristic form over several days. They have poor eyesight and depend mostly on vibrations reaching them through their webs to orient themselves to prey or warn them of larger animals that could injure or kill them.


title: Steatoda nobilis

text: Before oviposition, the female produces an irregular, silky brooding chamber that does not have an entrance. They spend about two to ten days in the chamber producing the egg sacs. The egg sacs are spherical or pear-shaped.  When the egg sacs are produced a first layer of loose silk is wrapped around the eggs and then a second layer of denser silk is added. The egg sacs are about 5-12mm in diameter and are suspended by threads inside the brooding chamber. Each egg sac contains 94 eggs on an average but the numbers can range from 34 to 208 eggs.


title: Steatoda nobilis

text: The spiderlings will emerge from their chorion 18 days after egg production, and remain within the egg sac. After the first moult, the spiderlings will emerge from the egg sac. At this point they are able to capture and consume small live prey.


title: Steatoda nobilis

text: The period of time between mating, egg-laying and emergence of spiderlings can vary, and is temperature dependent. They are able to build several egg sacs within one season, and one study found that one female spider produced four egg sacs within four months.


title: Steatoda nobilis

text: The "S. nobilis" spiders have a high longevity, with a lifespan of up to five years. They have a fast reproductive rate and are cold tolerant with year-round activity.


title: Steatoda nobilis

text: Adult females are observed to be long-lived and persistent. One adult "S. nobilis" female was reported to live almost five and a half years in captivity.


title: Steatoda nobilis

text: After locating a female’s web, "Steatoda nobilis" males pluck or tap the web in a rhythmic way with the second pair of legs. This is accompanied by brief bursts of abdominal vibrations, during which the male uses his first pair of legs to search for the female. If the legs make contact with the female, the male will repeatedly jab his palps into the epigyne until the palps are inserted.


title: Steatoda nobilis

text: Males are able to produce stridulation sounds during courtship, by scraping 10-12 teeth on the abdomen against a file on the rear of the carapace.


title: Steatoda nobilis

text: "S. nobilis" presents a unique risk because of their synanthropic habits, especially in temperate regions, that bring them in close contact to humans. They are considered one of the most dangerous spiders in western Europe. The mechanical bite from an adult "S. nobilis" is usually painless. It is the release of venom that causes the intense pain commonly reported. Male bites are less severe than those of females.


title: Steatoda nobilis

text: Two thirds of the venom is composed of latrodectus-like toxins. Their venom is mainly composed of peptidase, serine protease, alpha latrotoxin and delta lactroinsectotoxin. Peptidase and serine protease are both pancreatic lipases and chitinases (enzymes) that help with digestion. Alpha-latrotoxin and delta latroinsectotoxin are toxins. About 49% of the venom is toxins, 15% are enzymes, 18% are proteins with other functions and 18% are proteins with unknown functions.


title: Steatoda nobilis

text: Alpha-latrotoxin works by creating a pore in the neurons and allowing an influx of Ca2+. This triggers an efflux of neurotransmitters, and once all the neurotransmitters leave, the signals between nerve and muscles are blocked. This leads to neuromuscular paralysis.


title: Steatoda nobilis

text: The venom of "S. nobilis" serves two functions: immobilisation of prey or predators and the predigestion of prey. The spider is able to efficiently and safely capture prey that are often much larger or stronger than themselves via the rapid paralysis and immobilisation tactic. Their venom is fast acting and can subdue both invertebrate and vertebrate prey. The range of enzymes in the venom suggest that the venom also functions to pre-digest the prey. One example is the enzyme Chitinase which can breakdown the exoskeleton (shell) of arthropods.


title: Steatoda nobilis

text: The symptoms of a bite are typically similar to a bee or wasp sting. However, the bite of "Steatoda nobilis", along with others in its genus, can also produce a set of symptoms known as steatodism. These symptoms


title: Steatoda nobilis

text: include intense pain radiating from the bite site, along with feverishness or general malaise. Other symptoms observed in humans after envenomation include prolonged, moderate to intense pain, swelling, erythema, piloerection, diaphoresis, facial flushing, feverishness, vasodilation of capillaries localized near the site of the bite. Anaphylactic shock has been reported in some unconfirmed cases. There are also many reports of more severe reactions to suspected noble false widow bites. In November 2006, it was reported that a man from Dorchester spent three days in Dorset County Hospital with symptoms of heart seizure, which the doctor attributed to a spider bite.


title: Steatoda nobilis

text: Bacterial ulceration, a common risk arising from many minor injuries, may be most common complication relating to the bite of "Steatoda nobilis". Without proper treatment, this issue may develop into life-threatening gangrene or sepsis. In December 2020, a study by scientists at NUI Galway determined that the noble false widow vectors pathogenic bacteria, and that some are antibiotic resistant. It carries bacteria on its chelicerae and the surface of its body. Twelve pathogenic bacterial species were isolated, including " K. intermedia" and "P. putida". This showed that infections may be due to the spider bite directly, rather than opportunistic bacteria present on the skin. In October 2013, a man from Romford, London was treated for bacterial infection with antibiotics and needed to have his leg drained of pus after being bitten.


title: Steatoda nobilis

text: Sensationalised stories about the bite of "Steatoda nobilis" have featured in UK newspaper articles. Stuart Hine from the Natural History Museum, London responded on the naturenet blog, stating, "Of course I also explain the great value of spiders and how rare the event of spider bite in the UK actually is. I also always explain that up to 12 people die from wasp/bee stings in the UK each year and we do not panic so much about wasps and bees – but this never makes it past editing." Steven Falk, an entomologist, cautioned that without "hard evidence", it is difficult to know how many of the bites reported in the media have been caused by false widow spiders. The arrival of "Steatoda nobilis" in Chile in 2016 led to a similar media reaction.


title: Steatoda nobilis

text: While the media response is often exaggerated, Oxford University zoologist Clive Hambler noted that arachnologists should be careful not to automatically dismiss stories of extreme reactions. Instead, he argues that they should collaborate with medical professionals to compile these stories, and examine them with a critical eye to better understand the risks posed by bites.


title: Steatoda nobilis

text: a. The full English name for "Steatoda nobilis" is "noble false widow". Media coverage usually abbreviates this to "false widow", although "Steatoda nobilis" is one of several false widows; "Steatoda grossa" and "Steatoda paykulliana" are other examples of false widow spiders.


title: Nucleosome

text: A nucleosome is the basic structural unit of DNA packaging in eukaryotes. The structure of a nucleosome consists of a segment of DNA wound around eight histone proteins and resembles thread wrapped around a spool. The nucleosome is the fundamental subunit of chromatin. Each nucleosome is composed of a little less than two turns of DNA wrapped around a set of eight proteins called histones, which are known as a histone octamer. Each histone octamer is composed of two copies each of the histone proteins H2A, H2B, H3, and H4.


title: Nucleosome

text: DNA must be compacted into nucleosomes to fit within the cell nucleus. In addition to nucleosome wrapping, eukaryotic chromatin is further compacted by being folded into a series of more complex structures, eventually forming a chromosome. Each human cell contains about 30 million nucleosomes.


title: Nucleosome

text: Nucleosomes are thought to carry epigenetically inherited information in the form of covalent modifications of their core histones. Nucleosome positions in the genome are not random, and it is important to know where each nucleosome is located because this determines the accessibility of the DNA to regulatory proteins.


title: Nucleosome

text: Nucleosomes were first observed as particles in the electron microscope by Don and Ada Olins in 1974, and their existence and structure (as histone octamers surrounded by approximately 200 base pairs of DNA) were proposed by Roger Kornberg. The role of the nucleosome as a regulator of transcription was demonstrated by Lorch et al. in vitro in 1987 and by Han and Grunstein and Clark-Adams et al. in vivo in 1988.


title: Nucleosome

text: The nucleosome core particle consists of approximately 146 base pairs (bp) of DNA wrapped in 1.67 left-handed superhelical turns around a histone octamer, consisting of 2 copies each of the core histones H2A, H2B, H3, and H4. Core particles are connected by stretches of linker DNA, which can be up to about 80 bp long. Technically, a nucleosome is defined as the core particle plus one of these linker regions; however the word is often synonymous with the core particle. Genome-wide nucleosome positioning maps are now available for many model organisms including mouse liver and brain.


title: Nucleosome

text: Linker histones such as H1 and its isoforms are involved in chromatin compaction and sit at the base of the nucleosome near the DNA entry and exit binding to the linker region of the DNA. Non-condensed nucleosomes without the linker histone resemble "beads on a string of DNA" under an electron microscope.


title: Nucleosome

text: In contrast to most eukaryotic cells, mature sperm cells largely use protamines to package their genomic DNA, most likely to achieve an even higher packaging ratio. Histone equivalents and a simplified chromatin structure have also been found in Archaea, suggesting that eukaryotes are not the only organisms that use nucleosomes.


title: Nucleosome

text: Pioneering structural studies in the 1980s by Aaron Klug's group provided the first evidence that an octamer of histone proteins wraps DNA around itself in about 1.7 turns of a left-handed superhelix. In 1997 the first near atomic resolution crystal structure of the nucleosome was solved by the Richmond group, showing the most important details of the particle. The human alpha satellite palindromic DNA critical to achieving the 1997 nucleosome crystal structure was developed by the Bunick group at Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee. The structures of over 20 different nucleosome core particles have been solved to date, including those containing histone variants and histones from different species. The structure of the nucleosome core particle is remarkably conserved, and even a change of over 100 residues between frog and yeast histones results in electron density maps with an overall root mean square deviation of only 1.6Å.


title: Nucleosome

text: The nucleosome core particle (shown in the figure) consists of about 146 base pair of DNA wrapped in 1.67 left-handed superhelical turns around the histone octamer, consisting of 2 copies each of the core histones H2A, H2B, H3, and H4. Adjacent nucleosomes are joined by a stretch of free DNA termed linker DNA (which varies from 10 - 80 bp in length depending on species and tissue type).The whole structure generates a cylinder of diameter 11 nm and a height of 5.5 nm.


title: Nucleosome

text: Nucleosome core particles are observed when chromatin in interphase is treated to cause the chromatin to unfold partially. The resulting image, via an electron microscope, is "beads on a string". The string is the DNA, while each bead in the nucleosome is a core particle. The nucleosome core particle is composed of DNA and histone proteins.


title: Nucleosome

text: Partial DNAse digestion of chromatin reveals its nucleosome structure. Because DNA portions of nucleosome core particles are less accessible for DNAse than linking sections, DNA gets digested into fragments of lengths equal to multiplicity of distance between nucleosomes (180, 360, 540 base pairs etc.). Hence a very characteristic pattern similar to a ladder is visible during gel electrophoresis of that DNA. Such digestion can occur also under natural conditions during apoptosis ("cell suicide" or programmed cell death), because autodestruction of DNA typically is its role.


title: Nucleosome

text: The core histone proteins contains a characteristic structural motif termed the "histone fold", which consists of three alpha-helices (α1-3) separated by two loops (L1-2). In solution, the histones form H2A-H2B heterodimers and H3-H4 heterotetramers. Histones dimerise about their long α2 helices in an anti-parallel orientation, and, in the case of H3 and H4, two such dimers form a 4-helix bundle stabilised by extensive H3-H3' interaction. The H2A/H2B dimer binds onto the H3/H4 tetramer due to interactions between H4 and H2B, which include the formation of a hydrophobic cluster.


title: Nucleosome

text: The histone octamer is formed by a central H3/H4 tetramer sandwiched between two H2A/H2B dimers. Due to the highly basic charge of all four core histones, the histone octamer is stable only in the presence of DNA or very high salt concentrations.


title: Nucleosome

text: The nucleosome contains over 120 direct protein-DNA interactions and several hundred water-mediated ones. Direct protein - DNA interactions are not spread evenly about the octamer surface but rather located at discrete sites. These are due to the formation of two types of DNA binding sites within the octamer; the α1α1 site, which uses the α1 helix from two adjacent histones, and the L1L2 site formed by the L1 and L2 loops. Salt links and hydrogen bonding between both side-chain basic and hydroxyl groups and main-chain amides with the DNA backbone phosphates form the bulk of interactions with the DNA. This is important, given that the ubiquitous distribution of nucleosomes along genomes requires it to be a non-sequence-specific DNA-binding factor. Although nucleosomes tend to prefer some DNA sequences over others, they are capable of binding practically to any sequence, which is thought to be due to the flexibility in the formation of these water-mediated interactions. In addition, non-polar interactions are made between protein side-chains and the deoxyribose groups, and an arginine side-chain intercalates into the DNA minor groove at all 14 sites where it faces the octamer surface.


title: Nucleosome

text: The distribution and strength of DNA-binding sites about the octamer surface distorts the DNA within the nucleosome core. The DNA is non-uniformly bent and also contains twist defects. The twist of free B-form DNA in solution is 10.5 bp per turn. However, the overall twist of nucleosomal DNA is only 10.2 bp per turn, varying from a value of 9.4 to 10.9 bp per turn.


title: Nucleosome

text: The histone tail extensions constitute up to 30% by mass of histones, but are not visible in the crystal structures of nucleosomes due to their high intrinsic flexibility, and have been thought to be largely unstructured. The N-terminal tails of histones H3 and H2B pass through a channel formed by the minor grooves of the two DNA strands, protruding from the DNA every 20 bp. The N-terminal tail of histone H4, on the other hand, has a region of highly basic amino acids (16-25), which, in the crystal structure, forms an interaction with the highly acidic surface region of a H2A-H2B dimer of another nucleosome, being potentially relevant for the higher-order structure of nucleosomes. This interaction is thought to occur under physiological conditions also, and suggests that acetylation of the H4 tail distorts the higher-order structure of chromatin.


title: Nucleosome

text: The organization of the DNA that is achieved by the nucleosome cannot fully explain the packaging of DNA observed in the cell nucleus. Further compaction of chromatin into the cell nucleus is necessary, but it is not yet well understood. The current understanding is that repeating nucleosomes with intervening "linker" DNA form a "10-nm-fiber", described as "beads on a string", and have a packing ratio of about five to ten. A chain of nucleosomes can be arranged in a "30 nm fiber", a compacted structure with a packing ratio of ~50 and whose formation is dependent on the presence of the H1 histone.


title: Nucleosome

text: A crystal structure of a tetranucleosome has been presented and used to build up a proposed structure of the 30 nm fiber as a two-start helix.


title: Nucleosome

text: There is still a certain amount of contention regarding this model, as it is incompatible with recent electron microscopy data. Beyond this, the structure of chromatin is poorly understood, but it is classically suggested that the 30 nm fiber is arranged into loops along a central protein scaffold to form transcriptionally active euchromatin. Further compaction leads to transcriptionally inactive heterochromatin.


title: Nucleosome

text: Although the nucleosome is a very stable protein-DNA complex, it is not static and has been shown to undergo a number of different structural re-arrangements including nucleosome sliding and DNA site exposure. Depending on the context, nucleosomes can inhibit or facilitate transcription factor binding. Nucleosome positions are controlled by three major contributions: First, the intrinsic binding affinity of the histone octamer depends on the DNA sequence. Second, the nucleosome can be displaced or recruited by the competitive or cooperative binding of other protein factors. Third, the nucleosome may be actively translocated by ATP-dependent remodeling complexes.


title: Nucleosome

text: Work performed in the Bradbury laboratory showed that nucleosomes reconstituted onto the 5S DNA positioning sequence were able to reposition themselves translationally onto adjacent sequences when incubated thermally. Later work showed that this repositioning did not require disruption of the histone octamer but was consistent with nucleosomes being able to "slide" along the DNA "in cis". In 2008, it was further revealed that CTCF binding sites act as nucleosome positioning anchors so that, when used to align various genomic signals, multiple flanking nucleosomes can be readily identified. Although nucleosomes are intrinsically mobile, eukaryotes have evolved a large family of ATP-dependent chromatin remodelling enzymes to alter chromatin structure, many of which do so via nucleosome sliding. In 2012, Beena Pillai's laboratory has demonstrated that nucleosome sliding is one of the possible mechanism for large scale tissue specific expression of genes. The work shows that the transcription start site for genes expressed in a particular tissue, are nucleosome depleted while, the same set of genes in other tissue where they are not expressed, are nucleosome bound.


title: Nucleosome

text: Work from the Widom laboratory has shown that nucleosomal DNA is in equilibrium between a wrapped and unwrapped state. Measurements of these rates using time-resolved FRET revealed that DNA within the nucleosome remains fully wrapped for only 250 ms before it is unwrapped for 10-50 ms and then rapidly rewrapped. This implies that DNA does not need to be actively dissociated from the nucleosome but that there is a significant fraction of time during which it is fully accessible. Indeed, this can be extended to the observation that introducing a DNA-binding sequence within the nucleosome increases the accessibility of adjacent regions of DNA when bound. This propensity for DNA within the nucleosome to "breathe" has important functional consequences for all DNA-binding proteins that operate in a chromatin environment. In particular, the dynamic breathing of nucleosomes plays an important role in restricting the advancement of RNA polymerase II during transcription elongation.


title: Nucleosome

text: Promoters of active genes have nucleosome free regions (NFR). This allows for promoter DNA accessibility to various proteins, such as transcription factors. Nucleosome free region typically spans for 200 nucleotides in "S. cerevisiae" Well-positioned nucleosomes form boundaries of NFR. These nucleosomes are called +1-nucleosome and −1-nucleosome and are located at canonical distances downstream and upstream, respectively, from transcription start site. +1-nucleosome and several downstream nucleosomes also tend to incorporate H2A.Z histone variant.


title: Nucleosome

text: Eukaryotic genomes are ubiquitously associated into chromatin; however, cells must spatially and temporally regulate specific loci independently of bulk chromatin. In order to achieve the high level of control required to co-ordinate nuclear processes such as DNA replication, repair, and transcription, cells have developed a variety of means to locally and specifically modulate chromatin structure and function. This can involve covalent modification of histones, the incorporation of histone variants, and non-covalent remodelling by ATP-dependent remodeling enzymes.


title: Nucleosome

text: Since they were discovered in the mid-1960s, histone modifications have been predicted to affect transcription. The fact that most of the early post-translational modifications found were concentrated within the tail extensions that protrude from the nucleosome core lead to two main theories regarding the mechanism of histone modification. The first of the theories suggested that they may affect electrostatic interactions between the histone tails and DNA to "loosen" chromatin structure. Later it was proposed that combinations of these modifications may create binding epitopes with which to recruit other proteins. Recently, given that more modifications have been found in the structured regions of histones, it has been put forward that these modifications may affect histone-DNA and histone-histone interactions within the nucleosome core. Modifications (such as acetylation or phosphorylation) that lower the charge of the globular histone core are predicted to "loosen" core-DNA association; the strength of the effect depends on location of the modification within the core.


title: Nucleosome

text: Some modifications have been shown to be correlated with gene silencing; others seem to be correlated with gene activation. Common modifications include acetylation, methylation, or ubiquitination of lysine; methylation of arginine; and phosphorylation of serine. The information stored in this way is considered epigenetic, since it is not encoded in the DNA but is still inherited to daughter cells. The maintenance of a repressed or activated status of a gene is often necessary for cellular differentiation.


title: Nucleosome

text: Although histones are remarkably conserved throughout evolution, several variant forms have been identified. This diversification of histone function is restricted to H2A and H3, with H2B and H4 being mostly invariant. H2A can be replaced by H2AZ (which leads to reduced nucleosome stability) or H2AX (which is associated with DNA repair and T cell differentiation), whereas the inactive X chromosomes in mammals are enriched in macroH2A. H3 can be replaced by H3.3 (which correlates with activate genes and regulatory elements) and in centromeres H3 is replaced by CENPA.


title: Nucleosome

text: A number of distinct reactions are associated with the term ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling. Remodeling enzymes have been shown to slide nucleosomes along DNA, disrupt histone-DNA contacts to the extent of destabilizing the H2A/H2B dimer and to generate negative superhelical torsion in DNA and chromatin. Recently, the Swr1 remodeling enzyme has been shown to introduce the variant histone H2A.Z into nucleosomes. At present, it is not clear if all of these represent distinct reactions or merely alternative outcomes of a common mechanism. What is shared between all, and indeed the hallmark of ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling, is that they all result in altered DNA accessibility.


title: Nucleosome

text: Studies looking at gene activation "in vivo" and, more astonishingly, remodeling "in vitro" have revealed that chromatin remodeling events and transcription-factor binding are cyclical and periodic in nature. While the consequences of this for the reaction mechanism of chromatin remodeling are not known, the dynamic nature of the system may allow it to respond faster to external stimuli. A recent study indicates that nucleosome positions change significantly during mouse embryonic stem cell development, and these changes are related to binding of developmental transcription factors.


title: Nucleosome

text: Studies in 2007 have catalogued nucleosome positions in yeast and shown that nucleosomes are depleted in promoter regions and origins of replication.


title: Nucleosome

text: About 80% of the yeast genome appears to be covered by nucleosomes and the pattern of nucleosome positioning clearly relates to DNA regions that regulate transcription, regions that are transcribed and regions that initiate DNA replication. Most recently, a new study examined "dynamic changes" in nucleosome repositioning during a global transcriptional reprogramming event to elucidate the effects on nucleosome displacement during genome-wide transcriptional changes in yeast ("Saccharomyces cerevisiae"). The results suggested that nucleosomes that were localized to promoter regions are displaced in response to stress (like heat shock). In addition, the removal of nucleosomes usually corresponded to transcriptional activation and the replacement of nucleosomes usually corresponded to transcriptional repression, presumably because transcription factor binding sites became more or less accessible, respectively. In general, only one or two nucleosomes were repositioned at the promoter to effect these transcriptional changes. However, even in chromosomal regions that were not associated with transcriptional changes, nucleosome repositioning was observed, suggesting that the covering and uncovering of transcriptional DNA does not necessarily produce a transcriptional event. After transcription, the rDNA region has to protected from any damage, it suggested HMGB proteins play a major role in protecting the nucleosome free region.


title: Nucleosome

text: DNA twist defects are when the addition of one or a few base pairs from one DNA segment are transferred to the next segment resulting in a change of the DNA twist. This will not only change the twist of the DNA but it will also change the length. This twist defect eventually moves around the nucleosome through the transferring of the base pair, this means DNA twists can cause nucleosome sliding. Nucleosome crystal structures have shown that superhelix location 2 and 5 on the nucleosome are commonly found to be where DNA twist defects occur as these are common remodeler binding sites. There are a variety of chromatin remodelers but all share the existence of an ATPase motor which facilitates chromatin sliding on DNA through the binding and hydrolysis of ATP. ATPase has an open and closed state. When the ATPase motor is changing from open and closed states, the DNA duplex changes geometry and exhibits base pair tilting. The initiation of the twist defects via the ATPase motor causes tension to accumulate around the remodeler site. The tension is released when the sliding of DNA has been completed throughout the nucleosome via the spread of two twist defects (one on each strand) in opposite directions.


title: Nucleosome

text: Nucleosomes can be assembled "in vitro" by either using purified native or recombinant histones. One standard technique of loading the DNA around the histones involves the use of salt dialysis. A reaction consisting of the histone octamers and a naked DNA template can be incubated together at a salt concentration of 2 M. By steadily decreasing the salt concentration, the DNA will equilibrate to a position where it is wrapped around the histone octamers, forming nucleosomes. In appropriate conditions, this reconstitution process allows for the nucleosome positioning affinity of a given sequence to be mapped experimentally.


title: Nucleosome

text: A recent advance in the production of nucleosome core particles with enhanced stability involves site-specific disulfide crosslinks. Two different crosslinks can be introduced into the nucleosome core particle. A first one crosslinks the two copies of H2A via an introduced cysteine (N38C) resulting in histone octamer which is stable against H2A/H2B dimer loss during nucleosome reconstitution. A second crosslink can be introduced between the H3 N-terminal histone tail and the nucleosome DNA ends via an incorporated convertible nucleotide. The DNA-histone octamer crosslink stabilizes the nucleosome core particle against DNA dissociation at very low particle concentrations and at elevated salt concentrations.


title: Nucleosome

text: Nucleosomes are the basic packing unit of DNA built from histone proteins around which DNA is coiled. They serve as a scaffold for formation of higher order chromatin structure as well as for a layer of regulatory control of gene expression. Nucleosomes are quickly assembled onto newly synthesized DNA behind the replication fork.


title: Nucleosome

text: Histones H3 and H4 from disassembled old nucleosomes are kept in the vicinity and randomly distributed on the newly synthesized DNA. They are assembled by the chromatin assembly factor-1 (CAF-1) complex, which consists of three subunits (p150, p60, and p48). Newly synthesized H3 and H4 are assembled by the replication coupling assembly factor (RCAF). RCAF contains the subunit Asf1, which binds to newly synthesized H3 and H4 proteins. The old H3 and H4 proteins retain their chemical modifications which contributes to the passing down of the epigenetic signature. The newly synthesized H3 and H4 proteins are gradually acetylated at different lysine residues as part of the chromatin maturation process. It is also thought that the old H3 and H4 proteins in the new nucleosomes recruit histone modifying enzymes that mark the new histones, contributing to epigenetic memory.


title: Nucleosome

text: In contrast to old H3 and H4, the old H2A and H2B histone proteins are released and degraded; therefore, newly assembled H2A and H2B proteins are incorporated into new nucleosomes. H2A and H2B are assembled into dimers which are then loaded onto nucleosomes by the nucleosome assembly protein-1 (NAP-1) which also assists with nucleosome sliding. The nucleosomes are also spaced by ATP-dependent nucleosome-remodeling complexes containing enzymes such as Isw1 Ino80, and Chd1, and subsequently assembled into higher order structure.


title: Nucleosome

text: The crystal structure of the nucleosome core particle () - different views showing details of histone folding and organization. Histones , , , and are coloured.


title: Tom Byron

text: Tom Byron (born Thomas Bryan Taliaferro Jr.; April 4, 1961) is an American former pornographic actor, director and producer. A member of the XRCO and the AVN Halls of Fame, he was voted #20 in AVN's list of top 50 pornstars of all time.


title: Tom Byron

text: Byron is of Italian descent and was raised in Orange, Texas. He attended Stark High School and later West Orange-Stark high school where he graduated in 1979. He is an alumnus of the University of Houston.


title: Tom Byron

text: Byron first started acting in hardcore films in May 1982, and continued to perform mostly in roles portraying doctors or "coming of age" scenarios, as he resembled a teenager even though he was in his early to mid-20s. He starred alongside the underage Traci Lords in many films including her porn debut in early 1984, "What Gets Me Hot!". He performed with porn legend Ginger Lynn in her second-ever scene, and claims that experience convinced the actress to remain in porn after her first scene with Ron Jeremy had her contemplating quitting the business. "America, you have me to thank for Ginger Lynn", Byron has said.


title: Tom Byron

text: In porn's 1980s heyday, Byron says that pills such as Viagra didn't yet exist to help male performers, and many including himself regularly smoked cannabis before filming as a means of getting in the mood. Byron did, however, begin to turn to pills for help later in his career. "Viagra kept me in the game for at least ten years after my due date", he says.


title: Tom Byron

text: He was rumored to have had an ongoing off-screen relationship with Lords in the mid-80s, though in the years since he has alternately downplayed their relationship and admitted that he had been in love with her. He says he "fell hard" in love with porn actress Jill Kelly in the early 90s before she married Cal Jammer. Byron also dated porn actress Tera Patrick early in her career.


title: Tom Byron

text: He has changed his image several times throughout his career, frequently portraying a clean-shaven, adolescent virgin in his early years in porn. His late 1980s long-haired hard rock persona was no pretense, as Byron was at that time moonlighting as a struggling hard rock musician in Hollywood with hopes of a legitimate career in music. In 1986 he released a music video for his song "Cat Alley". By the early 1990s, Byron again changed his persona and appearance to that of a clean-cut "businessman" type.


title: Tom Byron

text: Byron says Jamie Summers was his all-time favorite co-star, citing her "amazing pussy". He lists Jada Stevens and Gia Derza as his favorite current performers, though he retired before he had an opportunity to work with either of them.


title: Tom Byron

text: In August 2003, Byron announced his retirement from performing to focus on his directing career. However, in the fall of 2006, after just three years, he returned to performing in numerous scenes, most notably his "House of Ass" series for his own company, Evolution Erotica.


title: Tom Byron

text: In February 2007, he founded Tom Byron Pictures. In December 2012, he announced that he was no longer part of this first company, and was forming a second, Tom Byron Company.


title: Tom Byron

text: Byron currently resides in upstate New York. He says that a return to performing in porn is extremely unlikely, as age has caught up with him and he currently has problems maintaining an erection. "What am I... 59 now? I'm done! It's all over with," he said.


title: Tom Byron

text: In 2020, Byron revealed that he is busy writing his autobiography with the help of author Mike Sager, whose work inspired the award-winning 1997 motion picture "Boogie Nights". Byron has said there is already interest in turning his story into a major motion picture.


title: Tom Byron

text: Byron appeared in about 3,200 videos in his pornographic career, making him the most credited actor in the Internet Adult Film Database.


title: Tom Byron

text: His earliest video that can be dated with certainty is "Anything Goes" from 1982. Other videos include the "Asseaters Unanimous" series.