title: Japanese street fashion

text: Fairy is a childlike style based on 1980s fashion. Outfits are made up of pastel colors, angels, toys and generally cute motifs and elements and accessories from Western toy lines of the 1980s and early 1990s, such as Polly Pocket, My Little Pony, Strawberry Shortcake, Rainbow Brite, Popples, Lady Lovely Locks, Barbie, Wuzzles, and Care Bears. Pastel-colored hair is common, although natural hair is also popular, and hairstyles are usually kept simple and decorated with anything cute or pastel; bows are a common theme. The term "Fairy " originated from the magazine called "Zipper" (despite common belief that Sayuri Tabuchi [Tavuchi], the owner of Tokyo fashion store "Spank!", was the accidental creator of the style).


title: Japanese street fashion

text: Peeps is a 90s inspired sporty goth style that has been popularized in Harajuku's underground scene by the online magazine PEEPS. It was voted one of the major trends for 2020 in the yearly trend forecast by the japanese women's magazine Mery.


title: Japanese street fashion

text: Despite the widespread nature of Western clothing in Japan, Japanese fashion is still influenced by traditional clothing, with people still wearing the kimono in daily life, though most people wear it only for weddings, graduations and other formal occasions.


title: Japanese street fashion

text: Despite the heavily-reduced numbers of people wearing kimono as everyday clothing, the younger generation in Japan can still be seen to mix kimono and modern style in fashion, wearing modern footwear and accessories instead of the typical and usually worn. There are even modern designers who have used the kimono as inspiration, such as the "TANZEN" collection from designer Issey Miyake.


title: Japanese street fashion

text: In the mid 2010s, genderless fashion became widespread and focused on people wearing clothing that do not conform to their assigned gender. The subculture is mostly dominated by men, where they are known as "genderless men."


title: Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)

text: "Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)" is a song by American singer Katy Perry from her third studio album, "Teenage Dream". The song was produced by Dr. Luke and Max Martin, who also co-wrote the song with Perry and Bonnie McKee. Perry stated that she was inspired to write the track after a night of wild partying and streaking. It was released as the album's fifth single on June 6, 2011, by Capitol Records, with a remix featuring American rapper Missy Elliott released to US radio stations and digital retailers on August 8, 2011; this version was included in "" edition. It is a dance-pop song with lyrics about drunken fun and debauchery. Some of the risqué lyrics are often censored in radio versions of the song.


title: Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)

text: The song had chart success worldwide, reaching number one in Canada, Slovakia and the Czech Republic, and has attained top-ten positions in Austria, Ireland, Italy, and Poland. When it topped the US "Billboard" Hot 100, Perry became the first female solo artist to have five number-one singles on the Hot 100 from a single album; it also was Perry's sixth number-one single on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart, and her fifth consecutive number one single. The single has sold 3.8 million digital copies in the US and was the tenth most played single on US radio during 2011.


title: Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)

text: The song's accompanying music video was directed by Marc Klasfeld. The clip features Perry, as her teenage alter-ego Kathy Beth Terry, at a house party filled with music and dancing. While at the party, Terry is made over by her friend and draws attention to herself as the life of the party. Rebecca Black, Corey Feldman, Debbie Gibson, Kenny G, Hanson, Kevin McHale, and Darren Criss all appear in the video. According to the director, the inspiration behind the video was "Sixteen Candles", works by American filmmaker John Hughes, and other 1980s high school films. The music video won Favorite Music Video award at the 38th People's Choice Awards.


title: Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)

text: Perry has revealed that she was inspired to write the track after running naked through a park with her friends. According to Music Rooms, Perry claims that after a wild night of partying and streaking, she wrote the song about her antics and what she remembered the next day. Perry revealed: "There's nothing better than an impromptu dance party with my friends. My track 'Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)' is a song about debauchery because I had one of those nights in Santa Barbara. We went out to this place called Wildcat and got crazy," Perry admitted: "We had a couple of beers and danced until we died, then brought the party back to the hotel room." She added: "Most of that song is actual truth, apart from the ménage à trois... unfortunately! But, yes, streaking in the park, that's what we did, so we had to write a song about it the next day!" One of the friends in this trip was co-writer Bonnie McKee, who said the song encapsulated "Katy and my wild drinking days" from their younger days. McKee stated "TGIF is pretty much a word for word description of our trip to Santa Barbara, so I love that one. It's really catchy and fun and makes me nostalgic." The official artwork for "Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)" using scenes from the music video, shows Perry both before and after a makeover. She revealed the cover artwork for "Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.) Remixes!" on her Facebook page. The photo features Perry in nerdy gear, including mouth guard and glasses, and was taken when she hosted the Teen Choice Awards in summer 2010. The image is surrounded by 1980s-style neon colors and swirly graphics. A remixed version of "Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)", featuring Missy Elliott, was released on August 8, 2011, to radio and as a digital download. It was released as the album's fifth single on June 6, 2011, through Capitol Records.


title: Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)

text: "Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)" is a dance-pop song, with elements of indie rock, which runs for three minutes and 50 seconds. It is set in common time and has a moderate tempo of 126 beats per minute. It is written in the key of F♯ major, and Perry's vocals span one octave, from C♯ to F♯. It follows the chord progression B–G♯m–D♯m–C♯.


title: Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)

text: AllMusic picked it among the top tracks on the album, and said that Perry "salutes fellow attention-whore Kesha on 'Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)'". "Rolling Stone" said that "Perry likes her songs chatty; in the kegger romp "Last Friday Night," she chirps, "Think I need a ginger ale/That was such an epic fail". "Slant Magazine" said that "'Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)' is a lifeless roller-rink jam with a 'T! G! I! F!' shout-along that will no doubt provide the soundtrack to any number of trashy sorority parties this semester". "Spin Magazine" said that "Last Friday Night recounts an evening of nonstop naughtiness – think streaking, skinny-dipping, and ménage à trois-ing."


title: Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)

text: Jason Richards from "Now" wrote, "The singer recently said that the catchy 'Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)' is her version of 'I Gotta Feeling'. With lyrics about photos ending up online after a debauched evening, it's also reminiscent of Lady Gaga singing about drunkenly losing her keys and phone on 'Just Dance.' Derivative, sure, but the song strikes a perfect equilibrium between Perry's sex appeal and goofy, self-effacing charm". Marc Hawthorne from "The A.V. Club" said that "assuming that everything here is based on real life also means we have to accept that she's had a ménage à trois on the indie-rock-meets-American Idol cut Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)".


title: Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)

text: Chris Richards from "The Washington Post" said that "Over strummy guitars and zigzagging keyboards, Perry recounts an evening of debauchery with no repercussions, her innocent transgressions (streaking, skinny-dipping) mentioned in the same breath as more serious trouble (mysterious bruises, a blackout), but... [when] it's time for Perry to reflect on her 3 am follies, she stiffly sings, "That was such an epic fail." It sounds like a clueless parent's attempt to speak teenager." "Billboard" included the song in their "Five Potential Pop Hits for 2011" list. Tom Hawthorne from "Future Music Charts" said that it sounds like a pop song as it should be without any auto-tune voice changes and hard DJ beats, which is the song's strength and weakness at the same time".


title: Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)

text: "Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)" made Perry the first and only female artist to have five number one singles from one album in the "Billboard" Hot 100, tying Michael Jackson's "Bad", with his last number one single being "Dirty Diana", on July 2, 1988. Perry's song debuted at number 67 on the "Billboard" Hot 100. It also charted at number 49 on the Canadian Hot 100 chart that same week. Following its single release, the song re-entered the "Billboard" Hot 100 on June 18, 2011, at number 63 and at number 31 on the "Billboard" Pop Songs. The following week, the song jumped 63–31 with the Hot 100's "Greatest Gainer" award. In its fourth week on the chart, "Friday" leaped to number four, spurred by a number one ranking on Hot Digital Songs. This made "Teenage Dream" the first album to have five songs hit number one on the chart. The song reached number three on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart, on July 30. The following week, "Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)", reached a new position of number two, where it remained for three additional weeks, behind "Party Rock Anthem" by LMFAO feat. Lauren Bennett and GoonRock.


title: Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)

text: The song finally reached the number-one position on the "Billboard" Hot 100 on August 17, 2011, and spent two straight weeks there. The song became Perry's sixth number-one single on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart, and her fifth consecutive number-one single. Perry became the first woman in the 53-year history of "Billboard" to take five singles from the same album to number one on the "Billboard" Hot 100, equaling the record established by Michael Jackson 23 years earlier. As of August 2020, the single has been certified 6 times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and sold 3.8 million copies in the US. According to Nielsen Broadcast Data Systems, "Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F)" was the tenth most played single on US radio during 2011 with 450,000 plays. The song has also peaked at number-one on the Canadian Hot 100 and received a quadruple platinum certificatio from Music Canada (MC). "Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)" peaked at number two on the Irish Singles Chart. On the New Zealand Singles Chart it peaked at number four, marking Perry's first top spot miss, though it still managed to receive platinum by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand, making it her fifth platinum selling single from her album. The song debuted at number 40 in Australia, and later peaked at number five in the country and going platinum. In the UK, the song peaked at No. 9 in the UK Singles Chart. September 17, 2011 marked Perry' 69th consecutive week in the Top 10 with the single.


title: Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)

text: In an interview with MTV, director Marc Klasfeld said that the video's storyline was inspired by "Sixteen Candles" and other works of John Hughes, as well as "all those great '80s high school movies." Including a long series of outtakes during the ending credits was influenced by a similar idea in "The Cannonball Run". The costume for Perry's character, Kathy Beth Terry, was inspired by the character Betty Suarez, played by America Ferrera on the series "Ugly Betty". The music video for "Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)" was filmed around May 3–6, 2011 at the home of John Schneider. It was directed by Marc Klasfeld, and co-directed by Danny Lockwood. Perry tweeted, "I told someone about my new music video I just filmed & they responded with 'wow, that's gonna break the internet.'... Should I knock on wood?"


title: Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)

text: Before the video premiered, Perry created Facebook and Twitter profiles for a "brace-faced nerd-turned-hottie" thirteen-year-old she plays named Kathy Beth Terry. Starting from June 8, a series of short video clips was uploaded on the Facebook profile, YouTube and Perry's official web version premiered later on the same day on Funny or Die. On July 11, after crossing the half-million "likes" mark, Perry released an interview in character as Terry on Digital Spy.


title: Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)

text: Perry, in character as Kathy Beth Terry made various references to Rebecca Black and other guests on the video on her Twitter and Facebook. She also gave interviews to the Digital Spy, Australian Cosmopolitan, and BOP Tiger Beat.


title: Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)

text: The video went on to win Favorite Music Video award at the 38th People's Choice Awards. As of August 2022, the video has over 1.4 billion views on YouTube.


title: Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)

text: "Kathy Beth Terry" (Perry), a teenager with braces, headgear, and oversized glasses, has just awakened the morning after a house party, surrounded by passed-out partygoers. A male guest, Aaron Christopherson ("Glee" star Darren Criss) opens the door to her bedroom and congratulates her on having the "best party ever." Puzzled as to what happened, she goes online, only to find pictures of herself in various compromising positions, including one picture of her licking the stomach of the boy in bed next to her. The video then goes into a flashback of the events that occurred the night before. While doing a Sudoku puzzle, Kathy hears loud music from the house next door, and goes over to complain. She is greeted by Rebecca Black (who appears as a homage to Black's viral video "Friday"), who invites her in. Another teen (portrayed by "Glee" star Kevin McHale) ogles Kathy from afar and fantasizes about being with her.


title: Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)

text: However, Kathy is more interested in football player Steve Johnson (model Richie Nuzzolese), who turns her down because of her appearance and appears more interested in a blonde (Angela Frezza). To cheer her up, Black gives Kathy a makeover, ripping off her headgear with pliers, waxing her upper lip, dressing her in tight-fitting neon clothes, and teasing her hair out. Steve becomes enamored with her, and everyone starts dancing. Kathy and Rebecca are also seen playing a "Just Dance" dancing video game (a series that features songs by Perry). The band Hanson acts as the house band. In the climax Kathy's uncle Kenny (musician Kenny G) appears and plays the saxophone solo on the roof of the house in a mimed performance, as he did not play the instrument in the actual recording. The entire party ends up moving to Kathy's house, where she throws up after drinking too much. McHale's character punches the football player for grabbing Kathy's buttocks (visualized by him as a medieval sword fight with Kathy as a damsel in distress).


title: Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)

text: At the end of the night, Kathy finally passes out next to the football player. The video shifts back to the next morning, where she looks at the photos with regret, but is also ecstatic to have a naked football player sleeping in her bed. The film ends with Corey Feldman and Debbie Gibson as Kathy's parents, Kirk and Tiffany Terry, confronting Kathy about the state of the house after hearing about uncle Kenny playing the saxophone, but forgiving her after recalling their own wild youth. The video's ending credits feature various deleted lines, bloopers, and extra scenes from the party, as well as McHale's character bringing Kathy breakfast in bed. After the credits end, it repeats the shot where Kathy gets tape ripped off her upper lip, but her scream is heard this time.


title: Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)

text: On September 5, 2010, Perry performed the song live for the first time along with "Teenage Dream", "Firework" and "Not Like the Movies" in the show's launch of the "Teenage Dream" in Berlin. Though the song has never been performed live as part of a televised performance, the song is featured on the set lists of the Teenage Dream Tour, California Dreams Tour, Prismatic World Tour and . The first televised performance was during her presentation at Rock In Rio, which was broadcast live by the Multishow. During this song, photos of fans are displayed on the screens.


title: Paul L. Smith

text: Paul Lawrence Smith (June 24, 1936 – April 25, 2012) was an American-Israeli actor. Burly, bearded and imposing, he appeared in feature films and occasionally on television since the 1970s, generally playing "heavies" and bad guys. His most notable roles include Hamidou, the vicious prison guard in "Midnight Express" (1978), Bluto in Robert Altman's "Popeye" (1980), Gideon in the ABC miniseries "Masada" (1981), Glossu Rabban in David Lynch's "Dune" (1984) and Falkon in "Red Sonja" (1985).


title: Paul L. Smith

text: Smith's first acting role was in "Exodus", which was filmed in Israel. This was his first visit to the country.


title: Paul L. Smith

text: Smith made a series of films with Michael Coby (pseudonym of Antonio Cantafora), a Terence Hill lookalike in "Bud & Terence"-fashion from 1973 to 1977. One of these films "Convoy Buddies" was selected for American release by Film Ventures International, and producer Edward L. Montoro changed Smith's name to Bob Spencer and Cantafora's name to Terrance Hall. Smith sued, successfully arguing that an actor's name recognition is vital to his career. The judicial system agreed and ruled against FVI, which paid Smith damages and court costs.


title: Paul L. Smith

text: Smith made appearances in such films as "21 Hours at Munich" (1976), "Midnight Express" (1978), as Bluto in "Popeye" (1980), and as Glossu Rabban in "Dune" (1984). On television he appeared in such established series as "Emergency!", "CHiPS", "Wonder Woman", "Barney Miller" and "Hawaii Five-O".


title: State of the art

text: The state of the art (sometimes cutting edge or leading edge) refers to the highest level of general development, as of a device, technique, or scientific field achieved at a particular time. However, in some contexts it can also refer to a level of development reached at any particular time as a result of the common methodologies employed at the time.


title: State of the art

text: The term has been used since 1910, and has become both a common term in advertising and marketing, and a legally significant phrase with respect to both patent law and tort liability.


title: State of the art

text: In advertising, the phrase is often used to convey that a product is made with the best or latest available technology, but it has been noted that "the term 'state-of-the-art' requires little proof on the part of advertisers", as it is considered mere puffery. The use of the term in patent law "does not connote even superiority, let alone the superlative quality the ad writers would have us ascribe to the term".


title: State of the art

text: The origin of the concept of "state-of-the-art" took place in the beginning of the twentieth century. The earliest use of the term "state-of-the-art" documented by the Oxford English Dictionary dates back to 1910, from an engineering manual by Henry Harrison Suplee (1856 – post 1943), an engineering graduate (University of Pennsylvania, 1876), titled "Gas Turbine: progress in the design and construction of turbines operated by gases of combustion". The relevant passage reads: "In the present state-of-the-art this is all that can be done". The term "art" refers to technics, rather than performing or fine arts.


title: State of the art

text: Over time, use of the term increased in all fields where this kind of art has a significant role. In this relation it has been quoted by the author that "Although eighteenth century writers did not use the term, there was indeed in existence a collection of scientific and engineering knowledge and expertise that can be identified as the state-of-the-art for that time".


title: State of the art

text: Despite its actual meaning, which does not convey technology that is ahead of the industry, the phrase became so widely used in advertising that a 1985 article described it as "overused", stating that "[it] has no punch left and actually sounds like a lie". A 1994 essay listed it among "the same old tired clichés" that should be avoided in advertising.


title: State of the art

text: In the context of European and Australian patent law, the term "state of the art" is a concept used in the process of assessing and asserting novelty and inventive step, and is a synonym of the expression "prior art". In the European Patent Convention (EPC), "[the] state-of-the-art shall be held to comprise everything made available to the public by means of a written or oral description, by use, or in any other way, before the date of filing of the European patent application" according to . Due account should be taken of as well, but merely for the examination of novelty.


title: State of the art

text: The expression "background art" is also used in certain legal provisions, such as (previously ), and has the same meaning.


title: State of the art

text: The state-of-the-art is important in the law of tort liability, specifically in the areas of negligence and products liability. With respect to negligence, "an engineer may defend against a claim of negligence by contending that he met the standards of his profession and the state-of-the-art". With respect to products liability, manufacturers generally have strict liability for any injury caused by defects in their products. However, in some jurisdictions a manufacturer may raise as a legal defense the assertion that their product represents the "state-of-the-art", and that the manufacturer therefore could not have made the product any safer in light of the knowledge available at the time. For example, "[u]nder German law, the producer can also raise the state-of-the-art defense: general tort law does not hold him liable if he could not know or discover the defect for lack of fault, and the Product Liability Statute expressly provides for this defense". This defense is available throughout the European Community under the Product Liability Directive, art. 7(e). Pursuant to this article:


title: State of the art

text: In the United States, the state of an industry is "merely evidence of due care rather than a controlling factor", but a number of states have State-of-the-Art statutes that "make a manufacturer's compliance with technological feasibility an absolute defense to a products liability suit". Because the state-of-the-art is constantly advancing, the ability of manufacturers to claim that their products are "state-of-the-art" tracks their potential liability when these products are defective. As an industry journal explained in the 1980s:


title: Hamleys

text: Hamleys is a British multinational toy retailer, owned by Reliance Retail. The world's oldest toy store, it was founded by William Hamley as "Noah's Ark" in High Holborn, London, in 1760. It moved to its current site on Regent Street in London's West End in 1881. This flagship store is set over seven floors, with more than 50,000 lines of toys on sale. It receives around five million visitors each year. The chain has 15 outlets in the United Kingdom and also has more than 90 franchises worldwide.


title: Hamleys

text: Hamleys is the oldest and in 1994 was the largest toy shop in the world. It is named after William Hamley, who founded a toy shop called "Noah's Ark" at No. 231 High Holborn, London, in 1760. Ownership of the shop passed through the family, and by the time it was operated by Hamley's grandsons in 1837, the store had become famous, counting royalty and nobility among its customers.


title: Hamleys

text: A branch at 200 Regent Street in the West End of London was opened in 1881. The original High Holborn store was destroyed by fire in 1901 and subsequently relocated to 86–87 High Holborn.


title: Hamleys

text: Hamleys suffered a downturn through the 1920s and closed, entering receivership, in 1931. After ensuring that it would not alienate their suppliers, the Lines Bros toy company, Hamleys' largest creditor, purchased the company and reopened the Regent Street store by the end of that year, keeping it largely independent. The High Holborn branch, opened in 1901, would not reopen under the new ownership


title: Hamleys

text: In 1938, Queen Mary, consort of King George V, gave Hamleys a royal warrant. During the Second World War, the Regent Street store was bombed five times. In 1955, Queen Elizabeth II gave the company a second royal warrant as a "toys and sports merchant".


title: Hamleys

text: In 1981, Hamleys would move to 188–196 Regent Street.The following year, it was purchased by the department store chain Debenhams. Debenhams itself was the subject of a takeover in August 1985 by the Burton Group. Burton Group divested Hamleys in August 1986 to Harris Queensway, a retail group led by Philip Harris. At the time it was said that a strategic plan had been formulated to build on the strength of the brand to ensure the company lived up to its reputation. The Harris Queensway group, including Hamleys, was taken over in 1988 to become Lowdnes Queensway. Hamleys was sold by Lowndes Queensway in May 1989 to a group led by Duncan Chadwick for £22 million.


title: Hamleys

text: Hamleys was bought in June 2003 by the Baugur Group, an Icelandic investment company. When Baugur collapsed, its stake in the toy store was taken over by the Icelandic bank Landsbanki. In September 2012 Groupe Ludendo, a toy retailer based in France with shops also located in Belgium, Spain and Switzerland, bought Hamleys for a reported £60 million.


title: Hamleys

text: In October 2015 it was reported that Groupe Ludendo was negotiating the sale of Hamleys, possibly to a Hong Kong company owned by a relative of the owner of department store House of Fraser. It was subsequently purchased by C.Banner, a large Chinese footwear and fashion wear conglomerate based in Nanjing.


title: Hamleys

text: In May 2019, Indian retail company, Reliance Retail, part of the Reliance Industries, announced that it has acquired Hamleys for £67.96 million (around ₹620 crore) using international bank receipt.


title: Hamleys

text: Hamleys expanded and moved its flagship store in London from No. 200 Regent Street to its current site at Nos. 188–196, Regent Street, in 1981, which in 1994 was the largest toy shop in the world.


title: Hamleys

text: Hamleys' flagship store has seven floors covering , all devoted to toys, with different categories of toy on each floor. The ground floor is traditionally for stuffed toys (including Steiff), and is decked out with a diverse array of stuffed animals, from regular teddy bears to more exotic plushes such as turtles and dolphins, and enormous life-sized giraffes and elephants.


title: Hamleys

text: In 1987 Hamleys opened a new store in one of the richest shopping streets in the UK, Northumberland Street, Newcastle upon Tyne. Surprisingly, it operated for only 12 months, and closed in 1988. It had seemed a "perfect combination" (Hamleys and Northumberland Street), but it did not work out. Again, in 1987, Hamleys opened a new store in Milsom Street, in the city of Bath, North East Somerset, and just like the other stores, it also closed within 12 months.


title: Hamleys

text: As of 2022, there are thirty Hamleys stores across the UK, including sites at the St Enoch Centre in Glasgow, at the Trafford Centre in Greater Manchester, at Lakeside Shopping Centre in Essex, Bluewater Shopping Centre in Kent, St James Quarter in Edinburgh, St David's Centre in Cardiff, the Merry Hill Centre in the West Midlands, York, and at airports including London Heathrow, London Gatwick, London Luton and London Stansted, and also at Meadowhall Shopping Centre in Sheffield, Liverpool ONE, Cheshire Oaks Outlet, Gateshead Metrocentre and Manchester.


title: Hamleys

text: Hamleys' European footprint existed in Denmark (three small stores) and, since October 2008, the Republic of Ireland, when it opened a store in Pembroke Avenue, located adjacent to the Town Square in Dundrum, Dublin. On 12 October 2012, a Hamleys store opened at Nacka in Stockholm, Sweden. On 19 September 2013, a Hamley store opened as part of Steen og Strøm department store in Oslo, Norway. In April 2014 the Hamleys Denmark toy chain closed all four of its Danish locations when its Nordic parent company, Kids Retails, filed for bankruptcy.


title: Hamleys

text: Hamleys opened its first store outside Europe in Amman, Jordan, on 18 June 2008. The three-storey store on Mecca Street is run by the group's franchisee Jordan Centre. A Dubai franchise opened with two stores on 4 November 2008.


title: Hamleys

text: The first store in South Asia was opened in Mumbai, India, on 9 April 2010. The store is located in an upmarket shopping district in India's financial capital. A second store in India is located in the city of Chennai at the Express Avenue Mall. The store has a London bus that customers can walk up through. It now has 78 stores in India, including three stores in Punjab with a recently opened store in Amritsar on 1 February 2018. Hamleys also opened its first store in Bhubaneswar at Esplanade One Mall On 10 January 2019. Hamleys also opened its first store in Lucknow at Fun Republic Mall. With this addition, the brand is now present in 26 cities with 50 stores across India. In Gujarat, Hamleys opened its first store at Ahmedabad One mall with on 9 November 2014.


title: Hamleys

text: Hamleys' opened a store in the Saudi capital Riyadh on 26 January 2012. The shop is located in the Panorama mall at Takhassusi Street's intersection with Prince Mohammed Road.


title: Hamleys

text: In 2012 Hamleys opened its first store in Russia. It now operates two in Moscow, one in Saint-Petersburg and one in Krasnodar.


title: Hamleys

text: In 2013, Hamleys announced plans to open 20 stores across India in collaboration with Reliance Brands Ltd. The company also announced that a store would open in the One Utama Shopping Mall in Kuala Lumpur, in November 2013, the first in Southeast Asia. Malaysia is now a home for three Hamleys stores, with new outlets opened in the Quill Mall, Kuala Lumpur and in the satellite terminal of Kuala Lumpur International Airport.


title: Hamleys

text: In 2014, Hamleys opened its first store in the Philippines. The store opened in Central Square, Bonifacio Highstreet, Bonifacio Global City, Taguig City. A second Philippine Hamleys store is also set to open the following year. Stores Specialists Inc. (SSI) Group is the exclusive distributor of Hamleys in the Philippines.


title: Hamleys

text: In 2015, an Abu Dhabi franchise opened with two stores in World Trade Centre Mall (WTC) and Yas Mall, Yas Island.


title: Hamleys

text: In July 2015, a store opened in Plaza Singapura, Singapore. This is the first Hamleys store to be established in Singapore. Subsequently, a second store was introduced at Marina Bay Sands.


title: Hamleys

text: On 27 August 2015, a store opened in Victoria & Alfred Waterfront, Cape Town, South Africa. Six other stores have opened in South Africa: at Mall of Africa, Sandton City, Gateway Mall, Fourways Mall, The Zone @ Rosebank and Eastgate Mall.


title: Hamleys

text: In November 2015, a store opened at Antara Polanco Fashion Mall in Mexico City, its first store in Mexico. As of June 2018, there are four stores in Mexico: one in Querétaro at Antea LifeStyle Center, one in Veracruz at Andamar Lifestyle Center and two in Mexico City at Antara Polanco Fashion Mall and Artz Pedregal.


title: Hamleys

text: In 2017, a Hamleys store was opened in Hull, England to celebrate the UK City of Culture, in the shopping centre, Princes Quay.


title: Hamleys

text: In December 2018, it was also announced that the Trafford Centre branch would close after a short time in operation.


title: Hamleys

text: In April 2019 it was reported that an Indian Company Reliance Retail was planning to buy out the British toy store chain.


title: Hamleys

text: In May 2019 it was confirmed that Reliance Retail, a subsidiary of Reliance Industries Limited on 9 May 2019 signed a definitive agreement for Reliance Retail to acquire 100 per cent shares of Hamleys Global Holdings Limited. Hamleys is planning to open a Hamleys in The Gate Mall in Kuwait.


title: Hamleys

text: In the 1990s Hamleys had two websites, one for the UK which did not sell anything, and a U.S. version with a basic inventory. This changed in 1999 with the launch of hamleys.com. The site offered worldwide shipping and focused on user experience, customer service and the sale of traditional products and collectables. The chief executive of Hamleys told "Marketing" magazine "I do not want to become embroiled with the likes of Toys 'R'Us, Toyzone and eToys, which are fighting on price alone and will end up making next to no margin".


title: Hamleys

text: Econsultancy critiqued the site for its basic approach in 2013, and felt that it "doesn't do a lot to represent the brand; in fact, it may even detract from it".


title: Saltine cracker

text: A saltine or soda cracker is a thin, usually square cracker usually made from white flour, sometimes yeast (although many are yeast free), and baking soda, with most varieties lightly sprinkled with coarse salt. It has perforations over its surface, as well as a distinctively dry and crisp texture.


title: Saltine cracker

text: Some familiar brand names of saltine crackers in the Americas are Christie's "Premium Plus" (Canada), Nabisco's "Premium" (U.S.), Sunshine Biscuits' "Krispy" (U.S.), Keebler's "Zesta" (U.S.) (both owned by Kellogg's), Molinos Modernos' "Hatuey" (Dominican Republic) and Noel's Saltín (Colombia). Unsalted tops as well as whole grain saltines can also be found.


title: Saltine cracker

text: In 1876, F. L. Sommer & Company of St. Joseph, Missouri started using baking soda to leaven its wafer thin cracker. Initially called the Premium Soda Cracker and later "Saltines" because of the baking salt component, the invention quickly became popular and Sommer's business quadrupled within four years. That company merged with other companies to form American Biscuit Company in 1890 and then after further mergers became part of National Biscuit Company (Nabisco) in 1898.


title: Saltine cracker

text: In the early 20th century, various companies in the United States began selling soda crackers in Puerto Rico and referred to them as "Export Soda". Rovira Biscuit Corp. of Puerto Rico also started selling their soda crackers with the same name. The term "Export Soda" became a generic term in Puerto Rico for these crackers. In 1975, Keebler Co. was refused a trademark for the term because it was "merely descriptive".


title: Saltine cracker

text: In the United States, Nabisco lost trademark protection after the term "saltine" began to be used generically to refer to similar crackers; it appeared in the 1907 "Merriam Webster Dictionary" defined as "a thin crisp cracker usually sprinkled with salt." In Australia, Arnott's Biscuits Holdings still holds a trademark on the name "Saltine".


title: Saltine cracker

text: They were made in the United Kingdom by Huntley and Palmers, and in Australia and New Zealand under the brand name Arnott's Salada.


title: Saltine cracker

text: Saltines are commonly dipped or crumbled in soups, chilis, stews, and eaten with, or crumbled into, salads. Typically they are sold in boxes containing two to four stacks of crackers, each wrapped in a sleeve of waxed paper or plastic. In restaurants, they are sometimes found in small wrapped plastic packets of two crackers, which generally accompany soup or salad. Cracker meal, a type of coarse to semi-fine flour made of crushed saltine crackers, may be used as toppings for various dishes; breading for fried or baked poultry, fish or red meats; or as a thickener for meatloaf, soups, stews, sauces, and chilis.


title: Saltine cracker

text: As a home remedy, saltines are consumed by many people in order to ease nausea, diarrhea (see bland diet), and to settle an upset stomach.


title: Saltine cracker

text: Saltine crackers have also been frequently included in military field rations (Meal, Ready-to-Eat, or MRE) in the United States.


title: Saltine cracker

text: Saltines have been compared to hardtack, a simple unleavened cracker or biscuit made from flour, water, and sometimes salt. However, unlike hardtack, saltines include yeast as one of their ingredients. Soda crackers are a leavened bread that is allowed to rise for twenty to thirty hours. After the rise, alkaline soda is added to neutralize the excessive acidity produced by the action of the yeast. The dough is allowed to rest for three to four more hours, to relax the gluten, before being rolled in layers and then baked.


title: Saltine cracker

text: Flat saltine crackers have perforations on their surfaces. During baking, the outer layer of the dough hardens first, restricting out-gassing of evolved gasses. The perforations connect the top surface to the bottom surface to prevent the cracker from pillowing as a result of these evolved gasses.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: The Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland took place during the late 12th century, when Anglo-Normans gradually conquered and acquired large swathes of land from the Irish, over which the kings of England then claimed sovereignty, all allegedly sanctioned by the Papal bull "Laudabiliter". At the time, Gaelic Ireland was made up of several kingdoms, with a High King claiming lordship over most of the other kings. The Norman invasion was a watershed in Ireland's history, marking the beginning of more than 800 years of direct English and, later, British, involvement in Ireland.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: In May 1169, Anglo-Norman mercenaries landed in Ireland at the request of Diarmait mac Murchada (Dermot MacMurragh), the deposed King of Leinster, who sought their help in regaining his kingship. They achieved this within weeks and raided neighbouring kingdoms. This military intervention was sanctioned by King Henry II of England. In return, Diarmait had sworn loyalty to Henry and promised land to the Normans.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: In 1170, there were further Norman landings, led by the , Richard "Strongbow" de Clare. They seized the important Norse-Irish towns of Dublin and Waterford, and Strongbow married Diarmait's daughter Aífe. Diarmait died in May 1171 and Strongbow claimed Leinster, which Diarmait had promised him. Led by High King Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair (Rory O'Connor), a coalition of most of the Irish kingdoms besieged Dublin, while Norman-held Waterford and Wexford were also attacked. However, the Normans managed to hold most of their territory.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: In October 1171, King Henry landed with a large army to assert control over both the Anglo-Normans and the Irish. This intervention was supported by the Roman Catholic Church, who saw it as a means of ensuring Irish religious reform, and a source of taxes. At the time, Irish marriage laws conflicted with those of the broader Church, and the Gregorian Reform had not been fully implemented. Henry granted Strongbow Leinster as a fiefdom, declared the Norse-Irish towns to be crown land, and arranged the synod of Cashel to reform the Irish church. Many Irish kings also submitted to him, likely in the hope that he would curb Norman expansion, but Henry granted the unconquered kingdom of Meath to Hugh de Lacy. After Henry's departure in 1172, fighting between the Normans and Irish continued.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: The 1175 Treaty of Windsor acknowledged Henry as overlord of the conquered territory and Ruaidrí as overlord of the remainder of Ireland, with Ruaidrí also swearing fealty to Henry. The Treaty soon collapsed: Norman lords continued to invade Irish kingdoms and the Irish continued to attack the Normans. In 1177, Henry adopted a new policy. He declared his son John to be the "Lord of Ireland" (i.e. claiming the whole island) and authorised the Norman lords to conquer more land. The territory they held became the Lordship of Ireland, part of the Angevin Empire. The Normans' success has been attributed to military superiority and castle-building, the lack of a unified opposition from the Irish and the support of the church for Henry's intervention.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: In the 12th century, Gaelic Ireland was made up of several over-kingdoms, which each comprised several lesser kingdoms. At the top was the High King, who received tribute from the other kings but did not rule Ireland as a unitary state, though it had a common culture and legal system. The five port towns of Dublin, Wexford, Waterford, Cork, and Limerick were inhabited by the Norse-Irish and had their own rulers.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: The Normans conquered England between 1066 and 1075, with all earldoms thereafter held by Normans, as were all bishoprics after 1096. In parallel, the Treaty of Abernethy created a limited settlement between the Norman conquerors and Scotland, with lands in Cumbria exchanged for peace. Over the following decades, Norman lords conquered much of south Wales and established their own semi-independent lordships there. According to historian John Gillingham, after the Norman conquest, an imperialist attitude emerged among England's new French-speaking ruling elite, and they came to view their Celtic neighbours as inferior and barbarous.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: It is thought that the Dublin-Leinster army in the 1014 battle of Clontarf may have included troops from the Duchy of Normandy.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: After the Norman conquest of England in 1066, the Normans became aware of the role Ireland played in providing refuge and assistance to their enemies. They also contemplated the conquest of Ireland. It is recorded in the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" that if William the Conqueror had lived for two more years (until 1089) "he would have conquered Ireland by his prudence and without any weapons". William's son, William II, is stated as having said "For the conquest of this land, I will gather all the ships of my kingdom, and will make of them a bridge to cross over".


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: There were contacts between the Irish and Normans well before 1169. The Norman lord of Pembroke, Arnulf de Montgomery (d. 1118–22), was the son-in-law of Murtough O'Brien (d. 1119), king of Munster and High King of Ireland. De Montgomery and his family had rebelled against Henry I in 1100 and sought Irish aid. De Montgomery married O'Brien's daughter and obtained the assistance of his fleet, but was still forced to flee to Ireland in 1102. Orderic Vitalis' account says De Montgomery used his troops to aid O'Brien in Ireland and hoping to succeed his father-in-law as king, but had to flee after his hosts turned against him. William of Malmesbury states it was only after the Normans imposed a trade embargo on Ireland that the situation died down and the O'Brien-de Montgomery alliance ended.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: In September 1155, King Henry II of England held a council at Winchester. According to Robert of Torigni, Henry discussed plans to invade Ireland and grant it to his brother William FitzEmpress as a provision. The Anglo-Norman clergy strongly backed the proposal. The plans came to nothing, allegedly due to opposition from his mother, the Empress Matilda.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: From at least 1144, the king of Leinster, Dermot MacMurrough, had been on good terms with the future Henry II. After becoming king of England in December 1154, Henry II had allied with Somerled, Lord of Argyll, and Muirchertach Mac Lochlainn, king of the Cenél nEógain, to put pressure on the new king of Scotland, Malcolm IV. The fruits of this alliance saw Malcolm cede parts of Scotland to England in 1157 and make peace with Somerled in 1160. In Ireland, Mac Lochlainn invaded the Kingdom of Breifne, forced the submission Rory O'Connor, king of Connacht, and in 1161 gave MacMurrough eastern Meath.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: For six months in 1165, the fleet of Dublin, which was under the control of Dermot MacMurrough, was used to aid Henry II's forces in an abortive campaign in north Wales.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: Some of the initiative for political and military intervention came from Anglo-Norman church leaders – especially Theobald, Archbishop of Canterbury – who wanted to control the Irish church and fully implement the Gregorian Reforms. Irish church leaders had legislated for reform, notably at the synods of Cashel (1101), Ráth Breasail (1111) and Kells (1152). However, implementing the reforms was slow and difficult. It "would demand the abandonment of features of Gaelic society going back to pre-Christian times and of practises which had been accepted for centuries by the church in Ireland." These included attitudes towards marriage, clerical celibacy, the sacramental system, and control of church lands.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: At the Synod of Kells, the church of Canterbury had its claims to primacy over the Irish church dismissed by Pope Eugene III, who felt the Irish church could handle its own affairs. This did not go down well with the Anglo-Norman clergy. In 1155 John of Salisbury, Secretary to the Archbishop of Canterbury, and good friends with the recently elected Anglo-Norman Pope Adrian IV, made an "extraordinary intervention" at the Roman Curia. He called for Norman involvement in Ireland to reform its "barbaric and impious" people. This resulted in the Papal bull Laudabiliter, or an equivalent, which purported to grant Henry II Papal authority to intervene in Ireland, such as by conquest. Salisbury had been inspired in his views on the Irish by the "Life of Malachy", written by Malachy's friend, Bernard of Clairvaux. This hagiography, written within a year of Malachy's death in 1148, depicted the Irish, in fact highly Christianised, in exaggerated terms as barbaric, semi-pagan and in need of reform. Historian F. X. Martin writes that Ireland was "barbaric" in Bernard's eyes because it "had retained its own culture and had remained outside the Latin secular world". This depiction of Ireland and the Irish became established as the mainstream view throughout Europe.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: In 1166, Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair (Rory O'Connor), king of Connacht, was acknowledged as High King of Ireland by most of the Irish kings. He led a coalition—that included Tigernán Ua Ruairc (Tiernan O'Rourke) of Bréifne (Breffny), Diarmait Ua Maelsechlainn (Dermot O'Melaghlin) of Míde (Meath), the Norse-Irish of Dublin, and several Leinster princes—which ousted Diarmait mac Murchada (Dermot MacMurragh) as king of Leinster. Diarmait refusing to accept his fate sailed from Ireland on the 1 August for Bristol with his daughter Aoife and sought help from Henry II in regaining his kingship. Henry gave Diarmait permission to recruit forces and authorised his subjects to help Diarmait, in return for Diarmait swearing loyalty to Henry. Among other benefits, a loyal Diarmait restored to power would allow the fleet of Dublin to be used in Anglo-Norman campaigns against the Welsh and Scots.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: Several Marcher Lords agreed to help: Richard FitzGilbert de Clare (also known as Strongbow), Robert FitzStephen, Maurice FitzGerald, and Maurice de Prendergast. Diarmait promised Strongbow his daughter Aífe in marriage and the kingship of Leinster upon Diarmait's death. He promised Robert and Maurice the town of Wexford and two neighbouring cantreds. Under Irish law, Diarmait had no right to do this. Having secured their help, he returned to his home territory of Uí Ceinnselaig (Hy Kinsella) in 1167 with one knight, Richard FitzGodebert, and a small number of soldiers. He smoothly resumed power as chief and awaited the arrival of his allies. King Ruaidrí and Tigernán confronted him with a small force and there was a skirmish at Killistown. Diarmait gave hostages to Ruaidrí and a hundred ounces of gold to Tigernán, and FitzGodebert left Ireland.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: On 1 May 1169, Robert FitzStephen and Maurice de Prendergast landed at Bannow Bay, on the south coast of County Wexford, with a force of at least 40 knights, 60 men-at-arms and 360 archers. This force merged with about 500 men led by Diarmait. They set about conquering Leinster and the territories Diarmait had claimed sovereignty over. First they besieged the Norse-Irish seaport of Wexford, which surrendered after two days. They then raided and plundered the territories of north Leinster, which had refused to submit to Diarmait. They also raided the neighbouring kingdom of Ossory, defeating the forces of king Donnchad Mac Gilla Patraic (Donagh MacGillapatrick) in the battle of Achad Úr. However, Donnchad withdrew his forces to safety. Prendergast then announced he was withdrawing from Ireland with his 200 men, but Diarmait would not let them set sail from Wexford. In response, Prendergast offered his men as mercenaries to Donnchad of Ossory, which Donnchad accepted. He used these mercenaries to temporarily subdue Loígis. However, Prendergast refused to fight his former companions, and he soon left Ireland with his men.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: In response, High King Ruaidrí led an army into Leinster to confront Diarmait and the Normans. The army included contingents from Connacht, Breffny, Meath, and Dublin, each led by their respective kings. An agreement was reached at Ferns: Diarmait was acknowledged as king of Leinster, in return for acknowledging Ruaidrí as his overlord and agreeing to send his foreign allies away permanently. To ensure compliance, Diarmait agreed to give Ruaidrí hostages, one of whom was his son. However, Diarmait apparently sought to use his Anglo-Norman allies to make himself High King. Shortly after the Ferns agreement, Maurice FitzGerald landed at Wexford with at least 10 knights, 30 mounted archers and 100-foot archers. In a show of strength, Maurice and Diarmait marched an army north and laid waste to the hinterland of Dublin.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: By 1170, Strongbow appears to have been funded financially for his invasion by a Jewish merchant by the name of Josce of Gloucester: "Josce, Jew of Gloucester, owes 100 shillings for an amerciament for the moneys which he lent to those who against the king's prohibition went over to Ireland." In May of that year, Raymond FitzGerald landed at Bannow Bay with at least 10 knights and 70 archers. This was the advance guard for Strongbow's army and was to be the springboard for an assault on Waterford. Raymond's force occupied an old promontory fort at Baginbun and plundered the surrounding countryside. They were then besieged by a much larger force of Irish and Norse-Irish. The outnumbered Anglo-Normans drove a large herd of cattle into the opposing army. In the ensuing havoc, the Normans routed the besiegers, killing up to 500 and capturing 70. These captives were then executed: the Normans broke their limbs before beheading them and throwing their bodies off the cliff.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: On 23 August, Strongbow landed at Passage with at least 200 knights and 1,000 soldiers. They met with Raymond's force and assaulted Waterford. The walls were eventually breached and there followed fierce fighting in the streets, in which 700 defenders were killed. Diarmait and the other Norman commanders then arrived in Waterford, where Strongbow married Diarmait's daughter, Aífe.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: The Normans and Diarmait held a council of war at Waterford and agreed to take Dublin. High King Ruaidrí encamped a large army near Dublin to intercept them. As well as troops from Connacht, it included troops from Breffny (led by King Tigernán), Meath (led by King Máel Sechlainn), and Oriel (led by King Murchad Ua Cerbaill). The Normans and Diarmait bypassed them by travelling over the Wicklow Mountains, forcing Ruaidrí's army to abandon their plans.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: When they reached Dublin, Diarmait began negotiations with its king, Ascall mac Ragnaill (Ascall MacRannall). On 21 September, while talks were ongoing, a force of Normans—led by Miles de Cogan and Raymond FitzGerald—stormed the town and took it. Ascall and his followers fled in their ships but vowed to re-take the town. Strongbow and Diarmait then launched "a devastating campaign" through Meath and into Breffny, burning Clonard, Kells, and several other monastic towns. In response to these violations of the Ferns agreement, Ruaidrí executed three hostages, including Diarmait's son.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: Diarmait returned to Ferns and died there suddenly in May 1171. Strongbow then claimed Leinster, as Diarmait had promised Strongbow he would inherit the kingdom upon his death, as his son-in-law through Aífe. However, Strongbow would not have been deemed Diarmait's heir under either Irish or English law, with Diarmait having two wives, as well as sons and other daughters. It is suggested that Strongbow's succession was justified in English law by having Aífe's mother deemed to be his only legitimate wife, leaving Aífe as his only legitimate heir. Furthermore, Strongbow's succession was not justified in Irish law, as succession to kingship was elective, and could only be passed on through the male line. Diarmait's son Domnall Cáemánach (Donal Cavanagh) backed Strongbow, perhaps because he felt it gave his family their best chance of holding on to power. Strongbow gave Domnall jurisdiction over his Irish subjects in most of Leinster.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: Shortly after Diarmait's death, the Anglo-Normans came under attack, both from within Leinster and from outside. Diarmait was succeeded as ruler of Uí Ceinnselaig (his home territory) by his brother Murchad, who opposed Strongbow along with other Leinster rulers. The Irish of Desmond launched a devastating attack on Norman-held Waterford. At about the same time, a Norse-Gaelic army, in a fleet of at least 60 ships, landed outside Dublin. Led by Ascall, they tried to re-take the town, but were repulsed by de Cogan's forces. Ascall was captured and publicly executed.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: A great army, led by Ruaidrí, surrounded Dublin. It comprised troops from most of the Irish kingdoms: contingents from Connacht, Breffny (led by King Tigernán), Meath (led by King Máel Sechlainn), Thomond (led by King Domnall Ua Briain), Oriel (led by King Murchad Ua Cerbaill), Ulster (led by King Magnus Mac Duinnsléibe), and Leinster (led by Diarmait's brother Murchad). A Norse-Gaelic fleet of 30 ships, sent by Godred Olafsson, blockaded Dublin bay. Robert FitzStephen sent his best troops out of Wexford to help the Anglo-Norman garrison in Dublin. The remaining garrison in Wexford was then attacked and forced out of the town. The Normans fled to a military encampment at nearby Carrick, where they were besieged. The siege of Dublin went on for two months. There were several skirmishes, but the Irish army apparently sought to starve the city into surrender.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: With Dublin and Carrick under siege, Strongbow and his council agreed to negotiate. Strongbow proposed that if the Anglo-Normans were allowed to keep what they had conquered, they would acknowledge Ruaidrí as their overlord. Ruaidrí responded that he would only allow the Normans to keep Dublin, Wexford, and Waterford. This was unacceptable to Strongbow. A Norman sortie slipped out of Dublin and made a surprise attack on Ruaidrí's camp at Castleknock. The Normans killed hundreds of soldiers, many of whom were resting or bathing, and seized supplies. Following this defeat, the Irish army withdrew. In the meantime, FitzStephen had surrendered to the Norse-Irish at Carrick. When they learned that Strongbow was on his way, they burnt Wexford and withdrew to a nearby island with FitzStephen as a hostage.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: King Henry apparently feared that Strongbow would set up an independent kingdom in Ireland, which could control the Irish Sea and interfere in English affairs. In early 1171, Henry ordered that his subjects return to his realm or all their possessions would be seized. Strongbow reminded Henry that he had gone to Ireland with Henry's permission, to restore Diarmait to the kingship, and that whatever he had gained in Ireland was "by the grace and favour of Henry, and was at his disposal". In July, before the siege of Dublin, Henry granted Strongbow most of the land he had gained and honored him with the post of "royal constable in Ireland".


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: By September 1171, Henry had decided to lead a military expedition to Ireland, and summoned Strongbow to meet him at Pembroke while the army was assembling. "The Song of Dermot and the Earl" recounts that the meeting was friendly, while Gerald of Wales pictures the king's anger gradually subsiding until a friendly agreement was reached. Strongbow's actions may have been only a catalyst for Henry's intervention. Historian Peter Crooks writes that, "No less than his predecessors, Henry II was happy to add Ireland to his empire." An English historian of the time, William of Newburgh, wrote that Henry wanted to have "the glory of such a famous conquest" and its proceeds for himself.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: On 17 October 1171, King Henry landed at Waterford with a large army of at least 500 mounted knights and 4,000 men-at-arms and archers. Several siege towers were also shipped over, should he need to assault the Norman-held towns, or others such as Cork and Limerick. This was the first time a reigning King of England had set foot on Irish soil, and marked the beginning of England's claim to sovereignty in Ireland. Henry led his army to Lismore, the site of an important monastery, and chose the site for a castle. He then moved on to Cashel, which he had in mind as the venue for a church council. Henry then led his army to Dublin.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: The Norman lords affirmed their loyalty to Henry and handed over the territory they had conquered to him. He let Strongbow hold Leinster in fief and declared Dublin, Wexford and Waterford to be crown land. Fifteen Irish kings and chiefs submitted to Henry, likely in the hope that he would curb unprovoked Norman expansion into their territories. Those who did not submit included Ruaidrí (the High King and king of Connacht) and the kings of Meath and the Northern Uí Néill. Against this, the Annals of Tigernach stated that the kings' submissions to Henry II were in two stages; firstly in Waterford by the king of Desmond, and then in Dublin by the kings of Leinster, Meath, Breffny, Oriel and Ulster.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: The Irish church hierarchy also submitted to Henry, believing his intervention would bring greater political stability. Henry "used the church as a vehicle of conquest". He organised the synod of Cashel, at which Irish church leaders acknowledged him as their "temporal overlord". This may have been due to their realisation that the Gregorian Reforms were not compatible with Gaelic society. Pope Adrian's successor, Pope Alexander III, sent letters to the Irish bishops, telling them to accept Henry as their overlord in accordance with the oaths sworn by its kings, or face ecclesiastical censure. He ratified the "Laudabiliter" and purported to give Henry dominion over Ireland, to ensure religious reform and ensure the Irish paid their tax to Rome. The synod sought to bring Irish church practices into line with those of England, and new monastic communities and military orders (such as the Templars) were introduced into Ireland.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: Henry granted Meath to Hugh de Lacy; as that kingdom had not been conquered this meant that Henry would let de Lacy hold it if he could conquer it. In early 1172, Henry allowed de Lacy to take royal troops into Meath, where they plundered and burned the monastic towns of Fore and Killeigh. Henry also made Dublin available for the freemen of Bristol to colonise. Many of the Norse-Irish inhabitants were forced to re-settle outside the walls, at what became Oxmantown.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: Henry left Ireland on 17 April 1172, setting sail from Wexford. Some English writers – such as William of Canterbury and Ralph Niger – condemned Henry's military intervention, describing it as an unlawful "hostile invasion" and "conquest". A poem in the Welsh "Black Book of Carmarthen" describes Henry "crossing the salt sea to invade the peaceful homesteads of Ireland", causing "war and confusion". Gerald de Barri felt obliged to refute what he called the "vociferous complaints that the kings of England hold Ireland unlawfully".


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: Shortly after Henry left Ireland, Hugh de Lacy invaded Meath and was confronted by Tigernán Ua Ruairc. The two leaders met on the Hill of Ward for negotiations. During these negotiations, there was a dispute, and de Lacy's men killed Ua Ruairc. His head was then impaled over the gate of Dublin Castle. Strongbow also invaded and plundered Offaly, but failed to subdue it.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: In early 1173, many of the Anglo-Norman leaders left Ireland to fight for King Henry in the Revolt of 1173–74. When Raymond FitzGerald returned later that year, he led a successful plundering raid into the kingdom of the Déisi, by both land and sea - even though, as their king had submitted to Henry, the kingdom should have been exempt from attack. The Norman raid on the monastic town of Lismore was interrupted by a Norse-Irish fleet from Cork. After a naval engagement, the Normans withdrew to Waterford. FitzGerald then returned to Wales, due to the death of his father.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: In late 1173, Diarmait Mac Murchada's son, Domhnall Caomhánach (Donal Cavanagh), attacked Strongbow's forces in Leinster, killing 200 men. Around the same time, an Irish army from Thomond and Connacht, led by Domnall Ua Briain (Donal O'Brian), forced the Normans out of Kilkenny and destroyed Strongbow's motte-and-bailey castle there. Strongbow responded in early 1174 by marching an army into Thomond and advancing towards Limerick. At the Battle of Thurles, Domnall Ua Briain's forces defeated a contingent of Strongbow's army, killing thousands and forcing him to abandon the march to Limerick.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: Norman power in Ireland seemed to be disintegrating, and in the words of Gerald de Barri, "the entire population of Ireland took the opportunity of this disorder to rise with one consent against the English". Shortly after the Norman defeat at Thurles, the Norse-Irish of Waterford rose up and killed the Norman garrison of 200 soldiers. Ruaidrí gathered an army that included contingents from Connacht, Meath, Breffny, Oriel, Ulster, and the Northern Uí Néill, along with their kings. It marched into Meath, destroying the castles at Trim and Duleek, before advancing on Dublin. Raymond FitzGerald landed at Wexford with at least 30 knights, 100 mounted soldiers and 300 archers. When this army arrived at Dublin and reinforced the garrison there, Ruaidrí's army withdrew.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: In 1175, the Anglo-Normans rebuilt their castles in Meath and raided or "laid waste" the province from Athlone in the west to Drogheda in the east. They also hanged the Irish king of Meath, Magnus Ua Máel Sechlainn (Manus O'Melaghlin).


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: On 6 October 1175, Henry II of England and High King Ruaidrí agreed to the Treaty of Windsor. The treaty divided Ireland into two spheres of influence: Henry was acknowledged as overlord of the Norman-held territory, and Ruaidrí was acknowledged as overlord of the rest of Ireland. Ruaidrí also swore fealty to Henry and agreed to pay him a yearly tribute in cow hides, which Ruaidrí could levy from throughout his kingdom. A Connacht-based annalist reported the treaty in triumphal terms: "Cadla Ua Dubthaig [archbishop of Tuam] came out of England from [Henry] the son of the Empress, having with him the peace of Ireland, and the kingship thereof, both Foreigner and Gael, to Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair".


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: However, the Windsor Treaty soon fell apart. Henry was "unable or unwilling" to rein in the Anglo-Norman lords, and Ruaidrí was unable to control all of the Irish kings. Contemporary English historian William of Newburgh wrote that "the military commanders left there by him [Henry] for the government of this subjugated province, desirous either of booty or fame, by degrees extended the boundaries allotted to them". In April 1176, a large Anglo-Norman army from Dublin marched north into what is now County Armagh. This was part of Oriel, a kingdom meant to be free from encroachment under the treaty. However, the Irish of Oriel forced the Anglo-Normans to retreat and killed up to 500 of their soldiers. That summer, the forces of Oriel and the Northern Uí Néill, under Cenél nEógain (Kinel Owen), invaded Meath, led by King Mael Sechlainn Mac Lochlainn. They destroyed the castle at Slane and forced the Anglo-Normans to abandon Galtrim, Kells, and Derrypatrick.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: Strongbow died in May 1176, and Henry appointed William FitzAldelm as his new representative in Ireland. He was replaced the following year by Hugh de Lacy.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: In February 1177, John de Courcy left Dublin with a force of about 22 knights and 500 soldiers. De Courcy swiftly marched north, into the kingdom of Ulaid, and captured the town of Downpatrick. The Ulaid, led by king Ruaidrí Mac Duinnsléibe (Rory MacDunleavy), tried to re-take the town but were repelled after a fierce battle.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: King Henry held a council at Oxford in May 1177, which marked a change of policy towards Ireland. He declared his son John (aged ten) to be "Lord of Ireland", and made plans for him to become king of all Ireland when he came of age. The territory held by the Anglo-Normans thus became known as the Lordship of Ireland and formed part of the Angevin Empire. Henry also encouraged the Anglo-Norman lords to conquer more territory. He granted the kingdom of Thomond to Philip de Braose and granted Desmond to Robert FitzStephen and Miles de Cogan.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: Over the following months, the Anglo-Normans invaded the kingdoms of Desmond, Thomond, and Connacht, while John de Courcy continued his conquest of east Ulster.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: The arrival of the Normans altered the agricultural landscape of Ireland. Elements that appear afterwards include: large-scale hay-making; cultivated pears and cherries; larger white-fleeced breeds of sheep; and the introduction of various animals such as rabbits, perch, pike and carp.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: Another economic effect was the widespread usage of coinage, originally introduced by the Vikings. In the late 1180s during John's lordship, the first Norman coins in Ireland were minted. Other mints operated in the major towns, with De Courcy in Ulster even minting coins in his own name.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: Whether as a direct consequence of the arrival of the Normans or not, the commoner's independence decreased in both Norman and Gaelic controlled areas. Where once they could serve more than one lord or even transfer from one lord to another, they were now unfree tenants bound to the land.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: The Normans also instigated the widespread building of castles by aristocrats, a key component of the feudal system they brought to Ireland, and round towers. From 1169 until the mid-fourteenth century, castles were mostly associated with Norman lordships and formed the basis of new settlements. Not until after 1205, during the reign of king John, was a royal castle built in Ireland.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: De Courcy who had conquered Ulaid instigated a large-scale program of ecclesiastic patronage from 1179. This included the building of new abbeys and priories. He formally reburied in Downpatrick the recently "found" bodies of three prominent Irish saints, Patrick, Brigit and Columba, as well as commissioned as a "Life of Patrick".


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: Whilst some Irish kings had charters recording transactions to monastic foundations prior to the arrival of the Normans, charters for all land transactions would become commonplace.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: Whilst elements of English Common Law had been used by some of the colonists, a charter drawn up by John in 1210 introduced the principle of it being applied to Ireland.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: The Normans in Ireland in the years after their arrival developed competing rivalries amongst themselves in the desire for land, resulting in the manipulation of the "factious Gaelic political system". This saw them back Gaelic lords competing with those allied to their rivals. Despite a king in this time being notionally seen as symbol of justice and arbiter, Henry II seems to have unofficially adopted a system of promoting inter-Norman rivalry, possibly as a means to rein in the power of his subordinates in Ireland so they posed him no threat whilst he was occupied with continental European affairs. This was exemplified in 1172 by Henry II's granting of the Irish kingdom of Meath to Hugh I de Lacy to counterbalance Strongbow's domain in Leinster. De Lacy however had to seize it for himself, though his grant was not recognised by Tiernan O'Rourke, king of Breifne, and after stalled negotiations which saw an attempt to kill de Lacy, O'Rourke was killed.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: During Lord John's revolt against his brother Richard I between 1193 and 1194, the Normans in Ireland were divided in their allegiance. De Courcy, Walter de Lacy, Lord of Meath, along with Cathal Crobderg O'Connor, King of Connacht, who remained loyal to the English king, joined forces against William de Burgh. Despite de Courcy and Hugh II de Lacy of Meath combining to invade Connacht on behalf of O'Connor in 1200, de Courcy and de Lacy would become enemies and after several battles saw de Lacy granted de Courcy's possessions in Ulster. De Courcy rebelled and took refuge in the Irish kingdom of Tyrone. In 1196, de Courcy and Niall MacMahon of Oriel attacked English Uriel. A year later Irishmen assisted de Courcy in wasting the north-west after his brother had been killed by an Irishman in his company.


title: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

text: In contemporary or near-contemporary sources, the invaders are overwhelmingly described as English. This was merely because they were vassals of the king of England, and not because they were culturally Anglo-Saxon. "Expugnatio Hibernica" almost always describes them as English; so too does "The Song of Dermot and the Earl", a source which uses the term "English" about eighty times, whilst using "French", "Flemings", and "Normans" in only one particular line. Despite the modern employment of terms such as "Normans", "Anglo-Normans" (itself an eighteenth-century construct), and "Cambro-Normans", contemporary sources virtually never use "Norman" in an Irish context. Irish sources usually describe the men as "foreigners" and "grey foreigners", or else as "Saxain" ("Saxons" or "English"). In consequence, it is apparent that contemporaries regarded the incomers as English, despite the fact that they were actually of varied ethnic origins and spoke several different languages. In the nineteenth century, however, during a period of intense and sensitive political debate, the term was dropped by historians and replaced with ahistorical terms. In modern historiography on Irish history, historians differ in describing the Anglo-Norman invasion as being carried out by "Normans" or the "English".


title: Rabi crop

text: rabi harvest, also known as winter crops, are agricultural crops that are sown in winter and harvested in the spring in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. The complimentary of the rabi crop is the kharif crop, which is grown after the rabi and zaid (zaa-id) crops are harvested one after another respectively.


title: Rabi crop

text: The words "Kharif" and "rabi" have their origins in Arabic. These came to be used in India with the ascent of the Mughal empire in the Indian subcontinent and have been widely used ever since. The term is derived from the Arabic word for "spring", which is used in the Indian subcontinent, where it is the spring harvest (also known as the "winter crop").


title: Rabi crop

text: The rabi crops are sown around mid-November, preferably after the monsoon rains are over, and harvesting begins in April / May. The crops are grown either with rainwater that has percolated into the ground or using irrigation. Good rain in winter spoils the rabi crops but is good for kharif crops.


title: Rabi crop

text: The major rabi crop in India is wheat, followed by barley, mustard, sesame and peas. Peas are harvested early, as they are ready early: Indian markets are flooded with green peas from January to March, peaking in February.


title: Rabi crop

text: Many crops are cultivated in both kharif and rabi seasons. The agriculture crops produced in India are seasonal in nature and highly dependent on these two monsoons. The table below contains a list of differences between the three cropping seasons in India.


title: Rabi crop

text: The Indian government also offers Minimum Support Price for these crops, so that the farmers can be benefited from the harvest.


title: Rabi crop

text: List as follows. These are rabi harvests rather than crops as that term is usually applied to annuals and not perennials:


title: Dobie Gray

text: Dobie Gray (born Lawrence Darrow Brown; July 26, 1940 – December 6, 2011) was an American singer and songwriter whose musical career spanned soul, country, pop, and musical theater. His hit songs included "The 'In' Crowd" in 1965 and "Drift Away", which was one of the biggest hits of 1973, has sold over one million copies and remains a staple of radio airplay.


title: Dobie Gray

text: Gray was born in Simonton, Texas. His birth name was most likely Lawrence Darrow Brown, listed in Fort Bend County birth records as being born in 1940 to Jane and Jethro C. Brown. Other sources suggest he may have been born Leonard Victor Ainsworth, a name he used on some early recordings.


title: Dobie Gray

text: In the early 1960s Gray moved to Los Angeles, intending to pursue an acting career while also singing to make money. He recorded for several local labels under the names Leonard Ainsworth, Larry Curtis, and Larry Dennis, before Sonny Bono directed him toward the small independent Stripe Records. They suggested that he record under the name "Dobie Gray", an allusion to the then-popular sitcom "The Many Loves of Dobie Gillis".


title: Dobie Gray

text: His first taste of success came in 1962 when his seventh single "Look At Me", on the Cor-Dak label and recorded with bassist Carol Kaye, reached No. 91 on the "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: Dobie Gray

text: However, his first album "Look!" failed to sell. Greater success came in early 1965 when his original recording of "The 'In' Crowd" (recorded later that year as an instrumental by Ramsey Lewis and also covered in 1965 by Petula Clark) reached No. 13. Written by Billy Page and arranged by his brotherGene and produced by Fred Darian, Gray's record reached No. 11 on the US R&B chart and No. 25 in the UK. The follow-up, "See You at the Go-Go", recorded with such top session musicians as Kaye, Hal Blaine, and Larry Knechtel, also reached the Hot 100, and he issued an album, "Dobie Gray Sings for 'In' Crowders That Go 'Go Go",' which featured some self-penned songs.


title: Dobie Gray

text: Gray continued to record, albeit with little success, for small labels such as Charger and White Whale, as well as contributing to movie soundtracks. He also spent several years working as an actor, including two and a half years in the Los Angeles production of "Hair".


title: Dobie Gray

text: In 1970, while working there, he joined the band Pollution as singer and percussionist. They were managed by actor Max Baer Jr. (best known as "Jethro" in "The Beverly Hillbillies") and released two albums of soul-inspired psychedelic rock, "Pollution I" and "Pollution II". The band included singer Tata Vega and guitarist/singer James Quill Smith. He also worked at A&M Records on demo recordings with songwriter Paul Williams.


title: Dobie Gray

text: In 1972, he signed a recording contract with Decca Records (shortly before it became part of MCA) to make an album with producer Mentor Williams—Paul's brother—in Nashville. Among the songs they recorded at the Quadrafonic Sound Studios, co-owned by session musicians Norbert Putnam and David Briggs, was Mentor Williams' "Drift Away", featuring a guitar riff by Reggie Young. Released as a single, the song rose to No. 5 on the US pop chart and remains Dobie Gray's signature song. It placed at No. 17 in the Billboard Year-End Hot 100 singles of 1973, sold over 1 million copies, and was awarded a gold disc by the RIAA on July 5, 1973. The follow-up, a version of Tom Jans' much-covered song "Loving Arms", hit No. 61. Gray also released three albums with MCA, "Drift Away", "Loving Arms", and "Hey, Dixie", but later stated that MCA were unsure of how to market the albums -- "They didn't know where to place a black guy in country music."


title: Dobie Gray

text: In the mid-1970s, he moved permanently to Nashville and signed with Capricorn Records, writing songs in collaboration with Troy Seals. His last solo hit singles were "If Love Must Go", No. 78 in 1976, and "You Can Do It", No. 37 in 1978. He increasingly concentrated on songwriting, writing songs for a variety of artists including Ray Charles, George Jones, Johnny Mathis, Charley Pride, and Don Williams. He also toured in Europe, Australia and Africa in the 1970s. He performed in South Africa only after persuading the apartheid authorities to allow him to play to integrated audiences, becoming the first artist to do so. His popularity in South Africa continued through numerous subsequent concert tours.


title: Dobie Gray

text: In 1981, Dobie Gray was included on a Word Records/Myrrh Contemporary Christian Music showcase called Premier Performance. Dobie was featured on two selections: "Everything To Me" and Walter Carter's "Last Train to Glory".


title: Dobie Gray

text: Dobie Gray re-emerged as a recording artist for Capitol Records in the mid-1980s, recording with producer Harold Shedd. He placed two singles on the US country chart in 1986–87, including "That's One to Grow On" which peaked at No. 35. His country albums included "From Where I Stand" in 1986, and he made several appearances at Charlie Daniels' popular Volunteer Jam concerts. He also sang on a number of TV and radio jingles. Gray sang the song "Paradise Road", which appeared in the 1988 film "Blind Justice", starring Christopher Cazenove, Patrick Shai, Oliver Reed and Edita Brychta.


title: Dobie Gray

text: In 1997, he released the album "Diamond Cuts", including both new songs and re-recordings of older material.


title: Dobie Gray

text: In 2000, Wigan Casino DJ Kev Roberts, compiled "The Northern Soul Top 500", which was based on a survey of Northern soul fans. Gray's "Out on the Floor", a 1966 recording which would become a British hit in 1975, peaking at No. 42.


title: Dobie Gray

text: "Drift Away" became a hit again in 2003, when he covered the song as a duet with Uncle Kracker on the latter's "No Stranger to Shame" album. The re-recording peaked at No. 9 one week to the day after Gray's 63rd birthday and placed at No. 19 in the Billboard Year-End Hot 100 singles of 2003 as well as logging a record-setting 28 weeks atop the Adult Contemporary chart in 2003–04.


title: Dobie Gray

text: Gray died on December 6, 2011, of complications from cancer surgery in Nashville, Tennessee, aged 71. His remains were buried at Woodlawn Memorial Park And Mausoleum in Nashville. Upon his passing, he bequeathed 100% of his musical assets and royalties in trust to benefit St. Jude Children's Research Hospital and the Tennessee School for the Blind.


title: BMD-2

text: The BMD-2 is a Soviet airborne infantry fighting vehicle, introduced in 1985. It is a variant of BMD-1 with a new turret and some changes done to the hull. BMD stands for "Boyevaya Mashina Desanta" (Боевая Машина Десанта, which literally translates to "Airborne Combat Vehicle").


title: BMD-2

text: It was developed as a replacement for the BMD-1 but it failed to replace it completely because of the downfall of the Soviet economy in the 1980s. NATO gave it the designation BMD M1981/1.


title: BMD-2

text: When the Soviet–Afghan War broke out, the Soviet forces operated BMP-1 IFVs and BMD-1 airborne IFVs. They were both armed with a 73 mm 2A28 Grom low-pressure smoothbore short-recoil semi-automatic gun, a 9S428 ATGM launcher capable of firing the 9M14 Malyutka, the 9M14M Malyutka-M and the 9M14P Malyutka-P ATGMs and a coaxial 7.62 mm PKT machine gun. Although their armament made for strong anti-tank firepower, it did not provide sufficient firepower against unarmoured vehicles, infantry, firing points and light fortified positions, especially during mountain battles because of the low elevation angles of the main gun.


title: BMD-2

text: In 1981 the units fighting in Afghanistan started receiving new BMP-2 IFVs. Its 30 mm 2A42 multi-purpose autocannon with two-belt loading system and very high elevation angle solved some of the serious drawbacks of the 73 mm 2A28 gun. The 9S428 ATGM launcher was replaced by a pintle-mounted 9P135M-1 ATGM launcher with semi-automatic control.


title: BMD-2

text: It was now capable of firing the SACLOS-guided 9M113 Konkurs, the 9M113M Konkurs-M, the 9M111 Fagot and the 9M111-2 Fagot ATGMs, which proved to be much more effective and reliable than its previously listed missiles. The Soviet airborne forces command decided to arm their units with similar vehicles.


title: BMD-2

text: In the beginning it became obvious that the hull of BMD-1 was too small for the BMP-2 turret. Therefore, it was decided to design two vehicles. The first one was supposed to satisfy the immediate need of a new airborne IFV by modifying the BMD-1/BMP-1 turret, arming it with the same armament as the one on the BMP-2 and then fitting it onto the BMD-1 hull. The second vehicle was supposed to be much bigger to allow fitting of the BMP-2 turret and later became the BMD-3.


title: BMD-2

text: The modernised variant of the BMD-1 was developed in 1983 and incorporated the new B-30 turret armed with a 30 mm 2A42 multi-purpose autocannon, a 7.62 mm PKT coaxial machine gun and a pintle-mounted 9P135M ATGM launcher. It entered production in 1985.


title: BMD-2

text: The crew of the BMD-2 is the same as that in the BMD-1. The commander received the R-123M radio set for communication.


title: BMD-2

text: The new turret seats the gunner on the left hand side of the main gun. On top of the turret there is one single piece circular hatch opening to the front. Located in front of the hatch is the gunner's sight which is the same one as the one used in BMP-2. Another gunner's sight is located on the left hand side of the main gun and moves in vertical planes along with it. It is a high angle of fire sight used when the gunner is aiming at air targets. The vehicle has additional periscopes that provide it with vision on the sides. A white searchlight is mounted in front of the turret.


title: BMD-2

text: The vehicle is armed with a stabilized 30 mm 2A42 multi-purpose autocannon and a 7.62 mm PKT coaxial machine gun. The vehicle carries 300 rounds for the main gun (180 AP and 120 HE) and 2,940 rounds for the machine gun. The main gun can be elevated or depressed between 85° and -5° and can be used to fire at air targets.


title: BMD-2

text: The turret is armed with a pintle-mounted 9P135M ATGM launcher. It is capable of firing 9M113 "Konkurs", 9M113M "Konkurs-M", 9M111 "Fagot" and 9M111-M "Faktoria" ATGMs.


title: BMD-2

text: The BMD-2 has the same engine and same suspension as the BMD-1, with a maximum road operational range of 450 km.


title: BMD-2

text: The vehicle can be transported by An-12, An-22, Il-76, An-124 airplanes and Mi-6 and Mi-26 helicopters.


title: BMD-2

text: A rocket parachute, the PRSM-915, was developed to ensure the vehicle's safe landing. To use the parachute, the BMD is first packed onto a special pallet before takeoff. To drop the BMD, a drogue chute is released that initially drags the BMD out of the Il-76 transport plane. Once clear of the plane a single large main chute opens. The deployment of the main chute triggers the deployment of four long rods which hang beneath the pallet.


title: BMD-2

text: As soon as the rods touch the ground a retrorocket fires, slowing the BMD to a descending speed between 6 m/s and 7 m/s and giving it a relatively soft landing. It allowed a BMD to be relatively safely parachuted with both the driver and the gunner. This system entered service in 1975 for the BMD-1, and was always used for the BMD-2 afterwards.


title: BMD-2

text: The BMD-2 is fully amphibious. It can swim after switching on the two electric bilge pumps, erecting the two piece trim vane which improves vehicle's stability and displacement in water and prevents the water from flooding the bow of the tank. The driver switches the periscope to a swimming periscope that enables the driver to see over the trim vane.


title: BMD-2

text: The aluminium armour thickness is 7 mm on the turret, 15 mm on the front of the hull and 10 mm on the rest of the hull. The hull's front armour has two sections: upper and lower. The upper section is angled at 78° while the lower one is angled at 50°. It is resistant to small arms fire and shrapnel.


title: BMD-2

text: The design was made in order to save necessary weight, and sacrifices crew comfort. Like the BMD-1, the BMD-2 has an extremely cramped interior space. It is much smaller than the BMP-1 and BMP-2 IFV’s. It can carry five infantrymen, including the vehicle commander, bow machine gunner and three soldiers seated behind the turret.


title: BMD-2

text: It is equipped with periscope vision blocks on the sides and rear of the vehicle. There are three firing ports, two on each side of the hull and one in the rear.


title: BMD-2

text: The BMD-2 has the same equipment as the BMD-1, except for the R-123 radio set which was replaced by the R-123M radio set.


title: BMD-2

text: The BMD-2 entered service with Soviet airborne forces in 1985. They took part in the Soviet–Afghan War. Later they were used by Russian airborne units of SFOR including the Russian airborne brigade stationed in Tojsici which supported Operation Joint Guard.


title: BMD-2

text: It is used by Russian airborne units stationed in Abkhazia. BMD-2’s were employed by the Russian 234th Airborne Assault Regiment in the Russo-Georgian War in 2008, with one being lost in action.


title: BMD-2

text: BMD-2s were used by units of the Ukrainian Airmobile Forces, and by separatists of Novorossiya. Ukrainian Airborne BMD-2’s were some of the first armored vehicles destroyed in the conflict. At least one BMD-2 was reported to have been used by separatists while they were besieged in the city of Sloviansk, and others separatist BMD-2’s were recorded in action.


title: BMD-2

text: The BMD-2 has been used by Russian airborne forces in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. After Russian forces failed to capture Kyiv, British journalist Mark Urban suggested the BMD-2 and other "armoured vehicles designed to be light enough to be carried on planes do not give much protection from enemy fire." As of 18 December 2022, the open-source intelligence site, Oryx has visually confirmed the loss of 190 Russian BMD-2s (126 destroyed, 5 damaged, 6 abandoned and 53 captured).


title: Natalie Hall

text: Natalie Elise Hall or Natalie Melinda Hall (born January 25, 1990) is a Canadian actress and singer. She has appeared in various Broadway, film and TV productions. One of her first TV appearances was when she portrayed the role of Colby Chandler on the soap opera "All My Children" from 2009 to 2011. Hall appeared opposite Miles Teller, Josh Brolin and Jeff Bridges in the 2017 film "Only the Brave".


title: Natalie Hall

text: Hall grew up in Vancouver, British Columbia. Her mother was a ballerina. Hall grew up with two brothers, of which she has said "I grew up loving the arts but I also was such a tomboy, I loved sports and was very competitive." She grew up playing soccer on an all-boys soccer team. Hall played the leading role in a community theatre production of "Annie". She earned a first place representing British Columbia in a national singing competition. Hall was trained at the London Academy of Ballet and graduated with honors of distinction in dance when she was sixteen.


title: Natalie Hall

text: Hall initially moved to New York City. She performed as Val in a national touring production of "A Chorus Line". Hall says about her first role, "It was an amazing experience. I had to grow up so fast working with such talent on a big stage". Her portrayal of Val earned a nomination for an Ovation award.


title: Natalie Hall

text: ABC announced that Hall had been cast in the role of Colby Chandler in the soap "All My Children". Hall made her debut on November 25, 2009. Hall filmed her first scenes in mid October just before the show relocated to Los Angeles. She relocated to Los Angeles in 2010. Hall made her last appearance in the final network broadcast of "All My Children" on September 23, 2011.


title: Natalie Hall

text: On June 29, 2011, it was announced that Hall would be replacing Natalie Floyd as Hanna's soon-to-be stepsister, Kate Randall, in the ABC Family series "Pretty Little Liars", playing the role until 2012. She played Ellie King née Davis, in "Love's Christmas Journey", a four-part mini-series in 2011.


title: Natalie Hall

text: In 2013, she was cast as Taylor in The CW series "Star-Crossed". Hall described her character as the "Queen Bee with a big heart" and a risk-taker in love. Hall played Britney in the series revival of Lifetime comedy drama "Drop Dead Diva" originally for two episodes however came back for another episode. Hall joined the cast of HBO's "True Blood" for its final season, appearing as resident villain Sarah Newlin's (Anna Camp) newly turned vampire sister, Amber Mills, for three episodes. She appeared on the cover of the Canadian fashion magazine "Fave".


title: Natalie Hall

text: Hall guest starred in USA Network medical comedy-drama "Royal Pains" as Hope, a burlesque dancer who turns to Jeremiah for help when she begins experiencing pain during her act. Hall is also a member of the Prestigious "Actors Studio" in New York. Hall was most recently cast in the upcoming untitled Marc Cherry ABC pilot. Natalie Hall was seen in UnREAL season four on Lifetime. Also, in the CW series "Charmed" playing Lucy.


title: Natalie Hall

text: Hall performs in various musicals in New York. In the film "Rising Stars", Hall performed "Better with You", the music video for the song featuring Hall was later released. She was also featured in the song "Free To Fall" which also appeared in the film and the official soundtrack. Hall performed "Hallelujah I Love Her So" by Ray Charles at the "It Gets Better Project's "A Better Holiday" concert benefiting The Ali Forney Center on December 16, 2012.


title: Natalie Hall

text: On July 1, 2017, Hall married Jack H. Robbins; a U.S. Marine who formerly served on active duty. In May 2021, Hall announced that they had welcomed their first child, a son.


title: Lou Dobbs

text: Louis Carl Dobbs (born September 24, 1945) is an American political commentator, author, and former television host who presented "Lou Dobbs Tonight" from 2003 to 2009 and 2011 to 2021. Since 2021, he hosts "The Great America Show" on iHeart Radio and loudobbs.com.


title: Lou Dobbs

text: Dobbs started working with CNN at its inception in 1980, serving as a reporter and network vice president. On the air, he served as host and managing editor of the network's business program, "Moneyline", which premiered in 1980. The show was renamed "Lou Dobbs Tonight" in 2003. Dobbs resigned from CNN in 1999 but rejoined the network in 2001. He resigned once again in November 2009. He is the former talk radio host of "Lou Dobbs Radio". From 2011, he hosted "Lou Dobbs Tonight" on the Fox Business Network until its cancellation in February 2021.


title: Lou Dobbs

text: Dobbs was an early promoter of Birtherism, a conspiracy theory that falsely stated that former U.S. President Barack Obama is not a natural born US citizen. He is known for anti-immigration views, as well as for opposition to NAFTA and other trade deals. A staunch Donald Trump supporter, he infused his show with pro-Trump coverage. He was one of three Fox Corporation program hosts named in a $2.7 billion defamation suit by Smartmatic relating to false conspiracy theories used in attempts to overturn the 2020 United States presidential election.


title: Lou Dobbs

text: Born in Childress County, Texas in 1945, Dobbs is the son of Frank Dobbs, a co-owner of a propane business, and Lydia Mae (née Hensley), a bookkeeper. When Dobbs was age twelve, his father's propane business failed and the family moved to Rupert, Idaho. Although accepted at the University of Idaho and Idaho State University, he was persuaded by the staff at Minico High School to apply to Harvard University, where he was accepted and graduated in 1967 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in economics. While at Harvard, Dobbs lived in Quincy House and was elected to the Owl Club.


title: Lou Dobbs

text: After college, Dobbs worked for federal anti-poverty programs in Boston and Washington, D.C., then returned to Idaho. He briefly attended the University of Idaho College of Law in Moscow, and then worked as a cash-management specialist for Union Bank of California in Los Angeles. He married his high school sweetheart in 1969, and in 1970 their first son was born. Dobbs moved to Yuma, Arizona, and got a job as a police and fire reporter for KBLU. By the mid-1970s, he was a television anchor and reporter in Phoenix, and he later joined Seattle's KING-TV. In 1979, he was contacted by a recruiter for Ted Turner, who was in the process of forming CNN.


title: Lou Dobbs

text: Dobbs joined CNN when it launched in 1980, serving as its chief economics correspondent and as host of the business news program "Moneyline" on CNN. Dobbs also served as a corporate executive for CNN, as its executive vice president and as a member of CNN's executive committee. He founded CNN fn (CNN financial news), serving as its president and anchoring the program "Business Unusual", which examined business creativity and leadership.


title: Lou Dobbs

text: Dobbs repeatedly clashed with Rick Kaplan, who became president of CNN in 1997. Dobbs said Kaplan, a friend of then president Bill Clinton, was "clearly partisan" and "was pushing Clinton stories", while Kaplan said Dobbs was "a very difficult person to work with."


title: Lou Dobbs

text: On April 20, 1999, CNN was covering Clinton's speech in Littleton, Colorado, following the Columbine High School massacre. Dobbs ordered the producer to cut away from the speech and return to broadcast "Moneyline." Dobbs was countermanded by Kaplan, who ordered CNN to return to the speech. Kaplan later said, "Tell me what journalistic reason there was not to cover the president at Columbine soon after the shootings? Everyone else was doing it". Dobbs announced on the air that "CNN President Rick Kaplan wants us to return to Littleton." A few days later, Dobbs announced that he was leaving the network to start Space.com, a website devoted to astronautical news. Dobbs was subsequently replaced as host of "Moneyline" by Willow Bay and Stuart Varney.


title: Lou Dobbs

text: Dobbs announced that he was leaving CNN to start up the site Space.com in July 1999. Dobbs was one of the primary shareholders in that company and later that year became Space.com's chief executive officer. Dobbs returned to CNN in 2001.


title: Lou Dobbs

text: Kaplan left CNN in August 2000, and Dobbs returned the following year, at the behest of his friend and CNN founder Ted Turner, becoming host and managing editor of the new and initially more general news program "Lou Dobbs Reporting", which later became "CNN News Sunday Morning". He also regained the helm of the newly renamed "Lou Dobbs Moneyline" (which became "Lou Dobbs Tonight" in June 2003).


title: Lou Dobbs

text: According to "The Washington Post", Dobbs started to increasingly focus on the alleged dangers of illegal immigration after returning to CNN. Dobbs became a self-described populist after his return to CNN, and criticized the "greed" of big corporations and their opposition to raising the minimum wage.


title: Lou Dobbs

text: In July 2009, controversy around Dobbs began when he was the only mainstream news anchor to give airtime to the birther theory. Several liberal advocacy groups, including Media Matters and the Southern Poverty Law Center, criticized Dobbs for his reporting. The controversy eventually caused CNN President Jon Klein to rein Dobbs in via an internal memorandum. In September, advocates challenged Dobbs for appearing at a conference organized by the pro-border security group Federation for American Immigration Reform. Multiple campaigns were launched, including "Drop Dobbs" (NDN, Media Matters). The campaigns also attacked CNN for alleged hypocrisy towards Latinos, citing CNN's "Latino in America" special as incompatible with their continued support of Dobbs. The campaigns generated considerable anti-Dobbs press.