title: Takeover

text: Takeovers may also benefit from principal–agent problems associated with top executive compensation. For example, it is fairly easy for a top executive to reduce the price of his/her company's stock – due to information asymmetry. The executive can accelerate accounting of expected expenses, delay accounting of expected revenue, engage in off-balance-sheet transactions to make the company's profitability appear temporarily poorer, or simply promote and report severely conservative (i.e. pessimistic) estimates of future earnings. Such seemingly adverse earnings news will be likely to (at least temporarily) reduce the company's stock price. (This is again due to information asymmetries since it is more common for top executives to do everything they can to window dress their company's earnings forecasts.) There are typically very few legal risks to being 'too conservative' in one's accounting and earnings estimates.


title: Takeover

text: A reduced share price makes a company an easier takeover target. When the company gets bought out (or taken private) – at a dramatically lower price – the takeover artist gains a windfall from the former top executive's actions to surreptitiously reduce the company's stock price. This can represent tens of billions of dollars (questionably) transferred from previous shareholders to the takeover artist. The former top executive is then rewarded with a golden handshake for presiding over the fire sale that can sometimes be in the hundreds of millions of dollars for one or two years of work. (This is nevertheless an excellent bargain for the takeover artist, who will tend to benefit from developing a reputation of being very generous to parting top executives.) This is just one example of some of the principal–agent / perverse incentive issues involved with takeovers.


title: Takeover

text: Similar issues occur when a publicly held asset or non-profit organization undergoes privatization. Top executives often reap tremendous monetary benefits when a government owned or non-profit entity is sold to private hands. Just as in the example above, they can facilitate this process by making the entity appear to be in financial crisis. This perception can reduce the sale price (to the profit of the purchaser) and make non-profits and governments more likely to sell. It can also contribute to a public perception that private entities are more efficiently run, reinforcing the political will to sell off public assets.


title: Takeover

text: While pros and cons of a takeover differ from case to case, there are a few recurring ones worth mentioning.


title: Takeover

text: Takeovers also tend to substitute debt for equity. In a sense, any government tax policy of allowing for deduction


title: Takeover

text: of interest expenses but not of dividends, has essentially provided a substantial subsidy to takeovers.


title: Takeover

text: It can punish more-conservative or prudent management that does not allow their companies to leverage themselves


title: Takeover

text: into a high-risk position. High leverage will lead to high profits if circumstances go well but can lead


title: Takeover

text: Corporate takeovers occur frequently in the United States, Canada, United Kingdom, France and Spain. They happen only occasionally in Italy because larger shareholders (typically controlling families) often have special board voting privileges designed to keep them in control. They do not happen often in Germany because of the dual board structure, nor in Japan because companies have interlocking sets of ownerships known as keiretsu, nor in the People's Republic of China because many publicly listed companies are state owned.


title: SummerSlam (2002)

text: The 2002 SummerSlam was the 15th annual SummerSlam professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown! brand divisions. The event took place on August 25, 2002, at the Nassau Veterans Memorial Coliseum in Uniondale, New York. With this event, SummerSlam became the first pay-per-view to have events in the three major indoor venues in the New York metropolitan area. Madison Square Garden hosted the event in 1988, 1991, and 1998, and the Izod Center in East Rutherford, New Jersey hosted the event in 1989, 1997, and later in 2007. This was also the first SummerSlam held under the WWE name, after the promotion was renamed from World Wrestling Federation (WWF) to WWE in May, and the first SummerSlam held following the introduction of the brand extension in March.


title: SummerSlam (2002)

text: The main match on the SmackDown! brand was for the WWE Undisputed Championship between The Rock and Brock Lesnar. Lesnar won the match and the championship after pinning Rock following an "F-5". The main match on the Raw brand featured an Unsanctioned Street Fight between the returning Shawn Michaels and Triple H, which Michaels won after pinning Triple H by reversing Triple H's "Pedigree" attempt into a jackknife roll-up. There was also an interpromotional match for the Intercontinental Championship between Rob Van Dam from Raw and Chris Benoit from SmackDown!, which Van Dam won by pinfall after performing a "Five-Star Frog Splash". The other matches on the undercard included The Undertaker versus Test and Kurt Angle versus Rey Mysterio. SummerSlam 2002 is widely regarded among fans and critics as one of the greatest SummerSlams of all time as well as one of the greatest professional wrestling pay-per-views of all time, often receiving comparisons to WrestleMania X-Seven from the previous year in 2001.


title: SummerSlam (2002)

text: SummerSlam is an annual pay-per-view (PPV), produced every summer by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) since 1988. Dubbed "The Biggest Party of the Summer," it is one of the promotion's original four pay-per-views, along with WrestleMania, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series, referred to as the "Big Four", and was considered one of the "Big Five" PPVs, along with King of the Ring until its discontinuation after its 2002 event. It has since become considered WWE's second biggest event of the year behind WrestleMania. The 2002 event was the 15th event in the SummerSlam chronology and was scheduled to be held on August 25, 2002, at the Nassau Veterans Memorial Coliseum in Uniondale, New York. It was the first SummerSlam to occur under the first brand extension introduced in March, which split the roster between the Raw and SmackDown! brands where wrestlers were exclusively assigned to perform; SummerSlam featured wrestlers from both brands. It was also the first SummerSlam to occur under the WWE name, following the promotion being renamed from World Wrestling Federation (WWF) to WWE in May.


title: SummerSlam (2002)

text: The professional wrestling matches at SummerSlam featured professional wrestlers performing as characters in scripted events pre-determined by the hosting promotion, World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). Storylines between the characters were produced on WWE's weekly television shows "Raw" and "SmackDown!" with the Raw and SmackDown! brands—storyline divisions in which WWE assigned its employees to different programs.


title: SummerSlam (2002)

text: The main feud heading into SummerSlam on the SmackDown! brand was between The Rock and Brock Lesnar, with the two feuding over the WWE Undisputed Championship. On the June 24 episode of "Raw", it was announced that Lesnar would face off against the WWE Undisputed Champion at SummerSlam, as a result of winning the King of the Ring tournament.<ref name="411mania.com - 6/24 RAW results"></ref> At Vengeance, The Rock defeated The Undertaker and Kurt Angle in a triple threat match to win the WWE Undisputed Championship by pinning Angle after executing a "Rock Bottom". On the July 25 episode of "SmackDown!", during The Rock's WWE Tag Team Championship match against The Un-Americans (Lance Storm and Christian), Lesnar interfered by nailing The Rock's tag team partner Hollywood Hulk Hogan with an "F-5". Due to Lesnar's interference, The Rock and Hogan won the match by disqualification, but not the titles. On the August 8 episode of "SmackDown!", Lesnar put his SummerSlam title shot on the line against Hogan with the stipulation added that if Hogan were to defeat Lesnar, he would face The Rock in a WrestleMania X8 rematch at SummerSlam for the WWE Undisputed Championship. At the end, Lesnar locked Hogan in a bear hug. When Hogan (kayfabe) passed out, the referee stopped the contest. After the match, Lesnar then nailed Hogan in the head with the steel chair, causing Hogan to bleed. On the August 15 episode of "SmackDown!", The Rock took on the WWE Intercontinental Champion Chris Benoit in a "Champion vs. Champion" match, which Lesnar interfered once again. During the match, Lesnar taunted The Rock while The Rock was placed in the "Crippler Crossface" by Benoit. The Rock, however, was able to defeat Benoit following a "Rock Bottom". On the August 22 episode of "SmackDown!", after The Rock and Edge defeated Benoit and Eddie Guerrero in a tag team match, Lesnar appeared for another stare down with The Rock, which led to a brawl between the two that ended the show.


title: SummerSlam (2002)

text: On the July 25 episode of "SmackDown!", Rey Mysterio made his WWE debut by defeating Chavo Guerrero. On the August 8 episode of "SmackDown!", the team of Mysterio, Edge and John Cena defeated Chris Benoit, Eddie Guerrero and Kurt Angle when Mysterio pinned Angle. On the August 15 episode of "SmackDown!", Angle insulted Mysterio during a backstage interview and Mysterio confronted him and challenged him to a match at SummerSlam, which Angle accepted. Later that night, Mysterio attacked Angle after his match against Mark Henry and delivered a "619" to Angle. On the August 22 episode of "SmackDown!", Mysterio cost Angle a match against Billy Kidman by attacking Angle.


title: SummerSlam (2002)

text: Another feud heading into SummerSlam was between Shawn Michaels and Triple H. At Vengeance, Michaels returned after being out of wrestling (due to a back injury) for four years. Triple H was given the choice of deciding which brand he would appear for, Raw or SmackDown!, and Michaels helped him decide by offering to reform D-Generation X (D-X) on the Raw brand. Triple H chose to go to the Raw brand, but on the July 22 episode of "Raw", as Michaels and Triple H were in the middle of reforming D-X, Triple H turned on Michaels by nailing him with the "Pedigree". On the July 29 episode of "Raw", Michaels was found in the parking lot, laying motionless following an ambush. He was also bleeding from the head due to someone putting his head through a car window. On the August 5 episode of "Raw", a security camera revealed to be Triple H that had attacked Michaels from behind. Triple H told Michaels that he did it to prove a point that Michaels was "weak". Michaels then told Triple H that he wasn't 100%, but he would be at SummerSlam. On the August 19 episode of "Raw", Raw General Manager Eric Bischoff announced an Unsanctioned Street Fight between Triple H and Michaels for SummerSlam. Later that night, Michaels interfered in Triple H's non-title match with The Rock and assaulted Triple H. At the beginning of the show, Brock Lesnar brought a front-row seat ticket to watch the main event between The Rock and Triple H, but even when Lesnar tried to interfere on Triple H's behalf, Michaels delivered a "Sweet Chin Music" to Lesnar. Michaels then leaped on top of Triple H and the security and ended the show by knocking Triple H down, sending a clear message that he was not weak as they headed into their match at SummerSlam.


title: SummerSlam (2002)

text: Rob Van Dam and Chris Benoit, meanwhile, had been feuding over the WWE Intercontinental Championship since Benoit won it from Van Dam on the July 29 episode of "Raw". Shortly after this match, Benoit took advantage of what was referred to as "open season" on wrestler contracts and took his title with him to the SmackDown! brand, where he had originally been drafted. Benoit was still required to defend the title against a member of the Raw roster at SummerSlam and Van Dam defeated Jeff Hardy on the August 12 episode of "Raw" in a match to determine the #1 contender.


title: SummerSlam (2002)

text: The event unofficially began with a "Sunday Night Heat" match between Spike Dudley and Steven Richards. Dudley pinned Richards.


title: SummerSlam (2002)

text: The first match was between Kurt Angle and Rey Mysterio. The match started off with Mysterio getting the advantage over Angle, as he hid under the ring, and when Mysterio's music hit, he took down Angle with a headscissors. The two entered the ring, which saw Mysterio execute a headscissors takeover. Mysterio attempted the "619" but Angle ducked and dominated Mysterio. However, Mysterio was able to execute a senton from the ring to the floor on Angle. Mysterio then delivered the "619" and the "West Coast Pop" for a near-fall. Angle reversed a diving hurricarana into the ankle lock, to which Mysterio submitted.


title: SummerSlam (2002)

text: The next match was a contest between Ric Flair and Chris Jericho. Jericho put Flair into the figure-four leglock. Jericho insisted that Flair submitted, but the referee ordered the match to continue. Flair then won the match by applying the hold on Jericho.


title: SummerSlam (2002)

text: The third match of the night was between Edge and Eddie Guerrero. During the match, Guerrero targeted Edge's shoulder. Guerrero also countered a spear attempt with a dropkick to the shoulder, and executed a frog splash onto Edge's shoulder. Edge retaliated with an "Edgecution" and a spear for the win.


title: SummerSlam (2002)

text: The next match was for the WWE Tag Team Championship between The Un-Americans (Lance Storm and Christian) and Booker T and Goldust. During the match, Booker T executed a scissors kick to both Storm and Christian, but Test made a run-in and gave Booker T a big boot. Christian pinned Booker T to retain the titles for The Un-Americans.


title: SummerSlam (2002)

text: The fifth match on the card was for the Intercontinental Championship between Chris Benoit and Rob Van Dam. Van Dam won the title by pinning Benoit after a "Five Star Frog Splash".


title: SummerSlam (2002)

text: The Undertaker against Test was next. Lance Storm and Christian both interfered in the match, but received a chokeslam from The Undertaker. The Undertaker won the match with a "Tombstone Piledriver". After the match, The Undertaker waved an American flag.


title: SummerSlam (2002)

text: The seventh match was the Unsanctioned Street Fight between Shawn Michaels and Triple H. This was Shawn Michaels' first wrestling match since WrestleMania XIV. Michaels came out fast, using a punch-kick offense to start and executing a plancha. Triple H executed a series of backbreakers on Michaels. Michaels hit Triple H with a ladder. Michaels executed a splash on Triple H from the top rope through a table on the floor and a diving elbow drop off a ladder. The match came to an end when Michaels went for the "Sweet Chin Music", which Triple H countered into a "Pedigree" attempt, but Michaels countered into a jackknife roll-up for the win. After the match, Triple H hit Michaels with a sledgehammer twice, forcing Michaels to be carried away on a stretcher.


title: SummerSlam (2002)

text: The main event was for the WWE Undisputed Championship between The Rock and Brock Lesnar. Lesnar dominated early with some power moves. The Rock went for the Sharpshooter. Lesnar's manager Paul Heyman got involved in the match, as he was attacked by The Rock, who executed a Rock Bottom through a broadcast table on Heyman. The Rock and Brock Lesnar gave each other a "Rock Bottom". The match came to an end when Lesnar stopped a People's Elbow and a "Rock Bottom" and then executed the "F-5" on The Rock for the win and the title. Lesnar remained the youngest world champion in WWE history until Randy Orton won the World Heavyweight Championship in 2004.


title: SummerSlam (2002)

text: On the August 26 episode of "Raw", due to the requirements of the WWE Undisputed Championship being defended on both shows, Raw General Manager Eric Bischoff expected Brock Lesnar to be able to return on "Raw" the next night. Lesnar and SmackDown! General Manager Stephanie McMahon appeared to announce that Lesnar's contract only required him to defend the title on "SmackDown!"; subsequently Bischoff established the World Heavyweight Championship as a separate world title. On the September 2 episode of "Raw", Bischoff awarded Triple H, "Raw"'s designated number-one contender, the World Heavyweight Championship in the form of the Big Gold Belt.


title: SummerSlam (2002)

text: The Undertaker went on to challenge Lesnar for the now-renamed WWE Championship at Unforgiven, and again at No Mercy in a Hell in a Cell match. Shawn Michaels would return full-time to the ring at Survivor Series and win the World Heavyweight Championship from Triple H in the first ever Elimination Chamber match.


title: SummerSlam (2002)

text: After the broadcasting of the event had stopped after the main event, former WWE Undisputed Champion The Rock was visibly angry at the crowd reaction. The Rock had faced a negative response from fans during the main event. When he tried to do a post-show speech for the crowd, the fans attending the Nassau Coliseum still booed him. He eventually cut a promo, declaring that ""sing-along with The Rock is over!"", before taking a six-month hiatus from WWE. The Rock did not return until late January 2003, where he turned heel on Hulk Hogan, leading to a WrestleMania X8 rematch at No Way Out where special guest referee Sylvain Grenier and Mr. McMahon both interfered and helped The Rock defeat Hogan.


title: Censorship in Japan

text: Censorship in Japan has taken many forms throughout the history of the country. While Article 21 of the Constitution of Japan guarantees freedom of expression and prohibits formal censorship, effective censorship of obscene content does exist and is justified by the Article 175 of the Criminal Code of Japan. Historically, the law has been interpreted in different ways—recently it has been interpreted to mean that all pornography must be at least partly censored, and a few arrests has been made based on this law.


title: Censorship in Japan

text: As of 2022, Japan is ranked 71st on the Press Freedom Index, down from 67th in the previous year. Reporters Without Borders has noted that issues concerning Japan include self-censorship among its journalists, the national media broadcaster NHK maintaining close ties to the ruling Liberal Democratic Party (LDP), as well as the exclusion of freelancers and foreign reporters in government events and interviews, fueling doubts about editorial independence. In 2022, an "online insults" law was introduced that would regulate the kind of speech made in the online public sphere.


title: Censorship in Japan

text: As publishing became more popular in the Edo Period, the Tokugawa shogunate began to turn to censorship. During this period, the shogunate, or military government, had a constant policy to censor anything deemed as indecent by the government. Initial targets included Christianity, criticism of the shogunate, and information on the activities of the Tokugawa clan. With the Kansei Reforms, any material deemed to be disturbing the traditional way of life, as well as luxury publications, came under scrutiny. Under the Tempō Reforms, printing blocks of erotic literature, as well as the novels of Tamenaga Shunsui and Tanehiko Ryūtei were among those seized.


title: Censorship in Japan

text: Their early bans focused on Christian books, military books (gunsho), mainly as a way to restrict regional Daimyo, feudal lord, from using Christianity as a political ideology and challenge the Bakufu's new rule while imposing their moral authority. As military and political instability settled, the shogunate turned their gaze on social unrest. They were noting an increase in civil disobedience and satirical criticism using literature and theater coming from ordinary people. An edict for publications guidelines were issued on Kyoho 7(1722)/11 with an outline of themes that were banned. In addition to literature, the Shogunate also placed limitations on kabuki theater actors. The shogunate prohibited women and children from appearing in plays; however, this law was often ignored by theater houses. These new laws resulted in the rise of male actors who would specialize in female roles called onnagata.


title: Censorship in Japan

text: After the Meiji Restoration in 1868, which marked a major political shift in Japan, the government began heavy censorship of Western ideas, pornography and any political writings critical of the Emperor of Japan and government, wanting to control the spread of information. Censorship of materials increased from this point, often using ongoing wars to increase police penalties. In 1930, the death penalty was added to the list of punishments deemed acceptable for certain violations. This continued, eventually to the being elevated to the in 1940, which consolidated the previously separate information departments from the Army, Navy and Foreign Ministry under the aegis of the Home Ministry. The new Bureau had complete control over all news, advertising and public events. The following year revision of the eliminated freedom of the press entirely, doing things such as forcing papers in each prefecture to either merge into one paper or cease publication, with all articles by the paper having to be screened by government censors before they could be published.


title: Censorship in Japan

text: After the surrender of Japan in 1945, the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers abolished all forms of censorship and controls on freedom of speech. Article 21 of the Constitution of Japan was later integrated in 1947 to guarantee that the Japanese had the freedom to associate with each other and express their thoughts freely. However, press censorship remained a reality during the occupation of Japan, especially in matters of pornography, and in political matters deemed subversive by the American government. Publications submitted by the press were monitored for criticisms about democracy or the problems such as starvation the Japanese citizens experienced during the occupation in the form of regulations set by The Press Code of 1945.


title: Censorship in Japan

text: Censorship of certain events related to the Allied forces left various groups of Japanese citizens to be subjected to discrimination by their peers. Hibakusha experienced life-altering physical changes as a result of the radiation they were exposed to and the lack of press explaining the effects of radiation poisoning made it difficult for Hibakusha to fit in. Unable to speak out against the results of the atomic bombs and to assimilate with other Japanese citizens, most Hibakusha had to live in isolation within the homes of their family.


title: Censorship in Japan

text: The three organizations established by the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers and who were tasked with upholding press censorship were the Civil Communications Section (CCS), the Civil Censorship Detachment (CCD), and the Civil Information and Education Section (CIE). The CCS focused on monitoring what was being broadcast to the Japanese people while the CCD monitored printed and filmed works to ensure that no form of media was spreading messages against democracy. The CIE on the other hand, was primarily used to educate Japanese publishers and producers on how to integrate prodemocratic values into their publications to boost support for the new government.


title: Censorship in Japan

text: Not only did Occupation censorship forbid criticism of the United States or other Allied nations, but the mention of censorship itself was forbidden. This means, as Donald Keene observes, that for some producers of texts "the Occupation censorship was even more exasperating than Japanese military censorship had been because it insisted that all traces of censorship be concealed. This meant that articles had to be rewritten in full, rather than merely submitting XXs for the offending phrases."


title: Censorship in Japan

text: The sale and distribution of pornography in Japan is restricted under Article 175 of the Criminal Code (1907), which states the following:


title: Censorship in Japan

text: The article was amended in 2011 to include "recording media containing [obscene] electronic or magnetic records", as well as materials distributed by electronic means.


title: Censorship in Japan

text: The definition of "obscenity", which is absent from the text of the code itself, has developed through a series of judicial decisions. In the 1957 , the Supreme Court of Japan upheld the convictions of translator Sei Itō and editor Kyujiro Koyama, who were accused of violating the law with their 1950 publication of D. H. Lawrence's erotic novel "Lady Chatterley's Lover". In its opinion, the Court cited a three-part test for obscenity previously established by the Supreme Court of Judicature in 1928; under this test, a work is considered obscene if it "arouses and stimulates sexual desire, offends a common sense of modesty or shame, and violates proper concepts of sexual morality." Due to this legal interpretation, the majority of pornography produced in Japan undergoes self-censorship; the primary means are digital mosaics and/or censor bars placed over genitalia.


title: Censorship in Japan

text: The first film after World War II to be prosecuted on obscenity charges was "Black Snow", a 1965 pink film directed by Tetsuji Takechi and produced by Nikkatsu. The politically and sexually explicit film, which depicts the lives of prostitutes on the outskirts of a US military base in Tokyo, was ruled as "not obscene" by the Tokyo District Court in 1966. The lower court held that the defendants, Takechi and Nikkatsu distributor chief Satoru Murakami, were not culpable because the film had successfully passed Eirin, Japan's self-regulating movie regulator. The ruling was upheld in 1969 at the Tokyo High Court, which deemed that the film was obscene but acquitted the pair on the basis of the approval the film had received from Eirin. The rulings were followed in 1972 by a series of prosecutions against Nikkatsu's "Roman Porno" film series, which similarly ended in acquittals of Nikkatsu employees in 1978 and 1980 on the basis of Eirin approvals.


title: Censorship in Japan

text: In January 2004, Yūji Suwa, Motonori Kishi, and Kōichi Takada were prosecuted for producing and distributing the hentai manga anthology "Misshitsu", in the first manga-related obscenity trial in Japan. Police reports found the depictions of "genitalia and scenes of sexual intercourse" within the manga to have been "drawn in detail and realistically," and that the censor bars meant to obscure genitalia and sexual penetration were "less conservative" than usual. Suwa and Takada pled guilty and were fined ¥500,000 each (about US$4,700), with Kishi receiving a one-year suspended prison sentence. After appealing to the Tokyo High Court, Kishi's sentence was reduced to a 1.5 million yen fine (about US$13,750). He then appealed the case to the Supreme Court, arguing that Article 175 violated Article 21 of the Constitution of Japan and its protection of freedom of expression. In its 2007 decision, the Court upheld the guilty verdict, concluding that "Misshitsu" satisfied the three-part obscenity test and was therefore subject to restriction. After the convictions of Kishi and Suwa, a number of retail bookstores in Japan removed their adults-only section, a phenomenon attributed to the chilling effect of the outcome.


title: Censorship in Japan

text: In July 2013, three people related to Core Magazine, a Japanese publishing company focused on adult material, were arrested for selling "obscene images" with "insufficient censoring". They later pleaded guilty in December 2013.


title: Censorship in Japan

text: Internet censorship in Japan generally focuses on pornography and controversial political material especially in regards to Japanese history during the Empire of Japan.


title: Censorship in Japan

text: In 2022, Japan introduced a law to revise its Penal Code that would mandate a jail time for up to a year and a larger fine for making "online insults". Previously, insult charges apply when it is established that an "individual has insulted another in the public sphere to damage their social reputation." The penalty applied to the crime under the pre-revised law were "detention for less than 30 days" or "a fine of less than 10,000 yen.


title: Supersessionism

text: Supersessionism, also called replacement theology or fulfillment theology, is a Christian theology which asserts that the New Covenant through Jesus Christ has superseded or replaced the Mosaic covenant exclusive to the Jews. Supersessionist theology also holds that the universal Christian Church has succeeded ancient Israel as God's true Israel and that Christians have succeeded the ancient Israelites as the people of God.


title: Supersessionism

text: Often claimed to have originated with Paul the Apostle in the New Testament, supersessionism has formed a core tenet of Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic and Protestant churches for the majority of their history. Many early Church Fathers – including Justin Martyr and Augustine of Hippo – were supersessionist.


title: Supersessionism

text: Most historic Christian Churches, including the Roman Catholic Church, Methodist Churches and Reformed Churches, hold that the Old Covenant has three components: ceremonial, moral, and civil (cf. covenant theology). They teach that while the ceremonial and civil (judicial) laws have been fulfilled, the moral law of the Ten Commandments continues to bind Christian believers.


title: Supersessionism

text: Since the 19th century, certain Christian communities, such as the Plymouth Brethren, have espoused dispensationalist theology as contrasted to covenant theology. Additionally, as part of Christian–Jewish reconciliation, the Roman Catholic Church has placed an increased emphasis on the shared history between Christianity and the modern Jewish faith.


title: Supersessionism

text: Rabbinic Judaism disregards supersessionism as offensive to Jewish history. However Islam teaches that it is the final and most authentic expression of Abrahamic monotheism, superseding both Judaism and Christianity. The Islamic doctrine of "tahrif" teaches that earlier monotheistic scriptures or their interpretations have been corrupted, while the Quran presents a pure version of their divine message.


title: Supersessionism

text: The word "supersessionism" comes from the English verb "to supersede", from the Latin verb "sedeo, sedere, sedi, sessum", "to sit", plus "super", "upon". It thus signifies one thing being replaced or supplanted by another.


title: Supersessionism

text: Throughout Church history, many Christian theologians saw the New Covenant in Christ as a replacement for the Mosaic Covenant and the Church as the new people of God. The word "supersession" is used by Sydney Thelwall in the title of chapter three of his 1870 translation of Tertullian's "An Answer to the Jews".


title: Supersessionism

text: In the New Testament, Jesus and others repeatedly give Jews priority in their mission, as in Jesus' expression of him coming to the Jews rather than to Gentiles and in Paul the Apostle's formula "first for the Jew, then for the Gentile". Yet after the death of Jesus, the inclusion of the Gentiles as equals in this burgeoning sect of Judaism also caused problems, particularly when it came to Gentiles keeping the Mosaic Law, which was both a major issue at the Council of Jerusalem and a theme of Paul's Epistle to the Galatians, though the relationship of Paul and Judaism is still disputed today.


title: Supersessionism

text: Paul's views on the Jews are complex, but he is generally regarded as the first person to make the claim that by not accepting claims of Jesus' divinity, Jews disqualified themselves from salvation. Paul himself was born a Jew, but after a conversion experience he came to accept Jesus' divinity later in his life. In the opinion of Roman Catholic ex-priest James Carroll, accepting Jesus' divinity, for Paul, was dichotomous with being a Jew. His personal conversion and his understanding of the dichotomy between being Jewish and accepting Jesus' divinity, was the religious philosophy he wanted to see adopted among other Jews of his time. However, New Testament scholar N.T. Wright argues that Paul saw his faith in Jesus as precisely the fulfillment of his Judaism, not that there was any tension between being Jewish and Christian. Christians quickly adopted Paul's views.


title: Supersessionism

text: For most of Christian history, supersessionism has been the mainstream interpretation of the New Testament of all three major historical traditions within Christianity – Orthodox, Roman Catholic and Protestant. The text most often evident in favor of the supersessionist view is Hebrews 8:13: "In speaking of 'a new covenant' [Jer. 31.31-32] he has made the first one obsolete."


title: Supersessionism

text: Many Early Christian commentators taught that the Old Covenant was fulfilled and superseded by the New Covenant in Christ, for instance Justin Martyr wrote that the "true spiritual Israel" referred to those who had "been led to God through this crucified Christ". Irenaeus taught that, while the New Covenant had superseded the old, the moral law underlying the Law of Moses continued to stand in the New Covenant. Whereas, Tertullian believed that the New Covenant brought with it a new law, writing: "Who else, therefore, are understood but we, who, fully taught by the new law, observe these practices, the old law being obliterated, the coming of whose abolition the action itself demonstrates. ...Therefore, as we have shown above that the coming cessation of the old law and of the carnal circumcision was declared, so, too, the observance of the new law and the spiritual circumcision has shone out into the voluntary observances of peace."


title: Supersessionism

text: Augustine of Hippo followed the views of the earlier Church Fathers but emphasized the importance to Christianity of the continued existence of the separate Rabbinic Jewish faith: "The Jews ... are thus by their own Scriptures a testimony to us that we have not forged the prophecies about Christ." The Catholic church built its system of eschatology on his theology, where Christ rules the earth spiritually through his triumphant church. Augustine, however, also mentioned to "love" the Jews as a means to convert them to Christianity. Jeremy Cohen, followed by John Y. B. Hood and James Carroll, sees this as having had decisive social consequences, with Carroll saying, "It is not too much to say that, at this juncture, Christianity 'permitted' Judaism to endure because of Augustine."


title: Supersessionism

text: Supersessionism is not the name of any official Roman Catholic Church doctrine and the word appears in no Church documents, but official Catholic teaching has reflected varying levels of supersessionist thought throughout its history, especially prior to the mid-twentieth century. The theology that the Jews dissent by continuing to exist outside the Church is extensive in Catholic liturgy and literature. The Second Vatican Council (1962–65) marked a shift in emphasis of official Catholic teaching about Judaism, a shift which may be described as a move from "hard" to "soft" supersessionism, to use the terminology of David Novak.


title: Supersessionism

text: Prior to Vatican II, Catholic doctrine on the matter was characterized by "displacement" or "substitution" theologies, according to which the Church and its New Covenant took the place of Judaism and its "Old Covenant", the latter being rendered void by the coming of Jesus. The nullification of the Old Covenant was often explained in terms of the "deicide charge" that Jews forfeited their covenantal relationship with God by executing the divine Christ. As recently as 1943, Pope Pius XII stated in his encyclical "Mystici corporis Christi":


title: Supersessionism

text: At the Second Vatican Council, which was convened two decades after the Holocaust, a different framework emerged on how Catholics should think about the status of the Jewish covenant. The declaration "Nostra aetate", which was promulgated in 1965, made several statements which signaled a shift away from "hard supersessionist" replacement thinking which posited that the Jews’ covenant was no longer acknowledged by God. Retrieving Paul's language in chapter 11 of his Epistle to the Romans, the declaration states, "God holds the Jews most dear for the sake of their Fathers; He does not repent of the gifts He makes or of the calls He issues. …Although the Church is the new people of God, the Jews should not be presented as rejected or accursed by God, as if this followed from the Holy Scriptures." Notably, a draft of the declaration contained a passage which originally called for "the entry of that [Jewish] people into the fullness of the people of God established by Christ;" however, at the suggestion of Catholic priest (and convert from Judaism) John M. Oesterreicher, it was replaced in the final promulgated version with the following language: “the Church awaits that day, known to God alone, on which all peoples will address the Lord in a single voice and ‘serve him shoulder to shoulder’ (Zeph 3:9).”


title: Supersessionism

text: Further developments in Catholic thinking on the covenantal status of Jews were led by Pope John Paul II. Among his most noteworthy statements on the matter is that which occurred during his historic visit to the synagogue in Mainz (1980), where he called Jews the "people of God of the Old Covenant, which has never been abrogated by God (cf. Romans 11:29, "for the gifts and the calling of God are irrevocable" [NRSV])." In 1997, John Paul II again affirmed the Jews’ covenantal status: “This people continues in spite of everything to be the people of the covenant and, despite human infidelity, the Lord is faithful to his covenant.”


title: Supersessionism

text: Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger, who later became Pope Benedict XVI writes in his 1999 work "Many Religions - One Covenant" that "the Sinai [Mosaic] Covenant is indeed superseded."


title: Supersessionism

text: The post-Vatican II shift toward acknowledging the Jews as a covenanted people has led to heated discussions in the Catholic Church over the issue of missionary activity directed toward Jews, with some Catholics theologians with Cardinal Avery Dulles reasoning that "if Christ is the redeemer of the world, every tongue should confess him", while others vehemently oppose "targeting Jews for conversion". Weighing in on this matter, Cardinal Walter Kasper, then President of the Pontifical Commission for Religious Relations with the Jews, reaffirmed the validity of the Jews’ covenant and then continued: In his apostolic exhortation "Evangelii gaudium" (2013), Pope Francis emphasized communal heritage and mutual respect for each other, writing:


title: Supersessionism

text: Similarly, the words of Cardinal Kasper, "God's grace, which is the grace of Jesus Christ according to our faith, is available to all. Therefore, the Church believes that Judaism, [as] the faithful response of the Jewish people to God's irrevocable covenant, is salvific for them, because God is faithful to his promises," highlight the covenantal relationship of God with the Jewish people, but differs from Pope Francis in calling the Jewish faith salvific. In 2011, Kasper specifically repudiated the notion of "displacement" theology, clarifying that the "New Covenant for Christians is not the replacement (substitution), but the fulfillment of the Old Covenant."


title: Supersessionism

text: These statements by Catholic officials signal a remaining point of debate, wherein some adhere to a movement away from supersessionism, and others remain with a "soft" notion of supersessionism. Traditionalist Catholic groups, such as the Society of St. Pius X, strongly oppose the theological developments concerning Judaism made at Vatican II and retain "hard" supersessionist views. Even among mainstream Catholic groups and official Catholic teaching, elements of "soft" supersessionism remain. The "Catechism of the Catholic Church" refers to a future corporate repentance on the part of Jews: The glorious Messiah's coming is suspended at every moment of history until his recognition by 'all Israel,' for 'a hardening has come upon part of Israel' in their 'unbelief' toward Jesus [Rom 11:20-26; cf. Mt 23:39]. ... The 'full inclusion' of the Jews in the Messiah's salvation, in the wake of 'the full number of the Gentiles' [Rom 11:12, 25; cf. Lk 21:24], will enable the People of God to achieve 'the measure of the stature of the fullness of Christ,' in which 'God may be all in all.'The Church teaches that there is an integral continuity between the covenants rather than a rupture.


title: Supersessionism

text: In the Second Vatican Council's "Lumen gentium" (1964), the Church stated that God "chose the race of Israel as a people" and "set up a covenant" with them, instructing them and making them holy. However, "all these things. …were done by way of preparation and as a figure of that new and perfect covenant" instituted by and ratified in Christ (no. 9). Vatican II also affirmed, "the Church is the new people of God" without being "Israel according to the flesh", the Jewish people.


title: Supersessionism

text: In "Notes on the Correct Way to Present the Jews and Judaism" (1985), the Church stated that the "Church and Judaism cannot then be seen as two parallel ways of salvation and the Church must witness to Christ as the Redeemer of all."


title: Supersessionism

text: Modern Protestants hold to a range of positions on supersessionism and the relationship between the Church and the Jewish people. These differences arise from dissimilar literal versus figurative approaches to understanding the relationships between the covenants of the Bible, particularly the relationship between the covenants of the Old Testament and the New Covenant.


title: Supersessionism

text: After the establishment of the political state of Israel in the wake of the Holocaust, mainstream Christian theologians and denominations began to re-examine supersessionism and some communities came to outright reject the doctrine. The prominent Protestant alternatives to supersessionism are covenant theology, New Covenant theology, classical dispensationalism, progressive dispensationalism and covenant premillennialism. Another alternative, dual-covenant theology, contrasts with supersessionism by holding that the Mosaic covenant remains valid for Talmudic Jews.


title: Supersessionism

text: Extensive discussion is found in Christian views on the Old Covenant and in the respective articles for each of these viewpoints: for example, there is a section within dispensationalism detailing that perspective's concept of Israel. Differing approaches influence how the land promise in Genesis 12, 15 and 17 is understood, whether it is interpreted literally or figuratively, both with regard to the land and the identity of people who inherit it.


title: Supersessionism

text: Adherents to these various views are not restricted to a single denomination though some traditions teach a certain view. Classical covenant theology is taught within the Presbyterian and Continental Reformed traditions. Methodist hermeneutics traditionally use a variation of this, known as Wesleyan covenant theology, which is consistent with Arminian soteriology. In the United States, a difference of approach has been perceived between the Presbyterian Church and the Episcopal Church, the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, and the United Methodist Church which have worked to develop a non-supersessionist theology.


title: Supersessionism

text: Paul van Buren developed a thoroughly nonsupersessionist position, in contrast to Karl Barth, his mentor. He wrote, "The reality of the Jewish people, fixed in history by the reality of their election, in their faithfulness in spite of their unfaithfulness, is as solid and sure as that of the gentile church."


title: Supersessionism

text: Rabbinic Judaism rejects supersessionism, only discussing the topic as an idea upheld by Christian and Muslim theologians. Some Modern Jews are offended by the traditional Christian belief in supersessionism, as they believe it undermines the history of their religion.


title: Supersessionism

text: In its canonical form, the Islamic doctrine of "tahrif" teaches that Jewish and Christian scriptures or their interpretations have been corrupted, which has obscured the divine message that they originally contained. According to this doctrine, the Quran both points out and corrects these supposed errors introduced by previous corruption of monotheistic scriptures, which makes it the final and most pure divine revelation.


title: Supersessionism

text: Sandra Toenis Keiting argues that Islam was supersessionist from its inception, advocating the view that the Quranic revelations would "replace the corrupted scriptures possessed by other communities", and that early Islamic scriptures display a "clear theology of revelation that is concerned with establishing the credibility of the nascent community" viz-a-viz other religions. In contrast, Abdulaziz Sachedina has argued that Islamic supersessionism stems not from the Quran or hadith, but rather from the work of Muslim jurists who reinterpreted the Quranic message about "islam" (in its literal meaning of "submission") being "the only true religion with God" into an argument about the religion of Islam being superior to other faiths, thereby providing theoretical justification for Muslim political dominance and a wider interpretation of the notion of jihad.


title: Supersessionism

text: In Islamic legal exegesis ("tafsir"), abrogation ("naskh") is the theory developed to resolve contradictory Quranic revelation by amending the earlier revelation. Only uses a form of the word "naskh" (specifically ""nanskh"" meaning "we abrogate"). indicates of two varieties of abrogation: "supersession" – the "suspension" and replacement of the old verse without its elimination – or "suppression" – the nullification of the old verse from the written Quran ("mus'haf").


title: Supersessionism

text: Both Christian and Jewish theologians have identified different types of supersessionism in the Christian reading of the Bible.


title: Supersessionism

text: R. Kendall Soulen notes three categories of supersessionism identified by Christian theologians: punitive, economic, and structural:


title: Supersessionism

text: These three views are neither mutually exclusive, nor logically dependent, and it is possible to hold all of them or any one with or without the others. The work of Matthew Tapie attempts a further clarification of the language of supersessionism in modern theology that Peter Ochs has called "the clearest teaching on supersessionism in modern scholarship." Tapie argued that Soulen's view of economic supersessionism shares important similarities with those of Jules Isaac's thought (the French-Jewish historian well known for his identification of "the teaching of contempt" in the Christian tradition) and can ultimately be traced to the medieval concept of the "cessation of the law" – the idea that Jewish observance of the ceremonial law (Sabbath, circumcision, and dietary laws) ceases to have a positive significance for Jews after the passion of Christ. According to Soulen, Christians today often repudiate supersessionism but they do not always carefully examine just what that is supposed to mean. Soulen thinks Tapie's work is a remedy to this situation.


title: The Final Frontier

text: The Final Frontier is the fifteenth studio album by English heavy metal band Iron Maiden. It was released on 13 August 2010 in Germany, Austria and Finland, 17 August in North America, 18 August in Japan, and 16 August worldwide. At 76 minutes and 34 seconds, it is the band's third-longest studio album to date, a duration surpassed only by 2015's "The Book of Souls" and 2021's "Senjutsu".


title: The Final Frontier

text: Melvyn Grant, a long-time contributor to the band's artwork, created the cover art. It is the band's final album to be released through EMI Records, marking the end of their 30-year relationship. It is also the last album to use the band's alternate logo. While not a concept album, themes of exploration, expectation, and discovery are frequent throughout. "The Final Frontier" is the band's first studio album in nearly four years, making it one of the longest gaps between one album and the following.


title: The Final Frontier

text: The album received favourable reviews from critics and peaked at No. 1 in 28 countries. This included the United Kingdom, where it became the band's fourth release to top the UK Albums Chart following 1982's "The Number of the Beast", 1988's "Seventh Son of a Seventh Son" and 1992's "Fear of the Dark". On top of this, "The Final Frontier" also charted at No. 4 in the United States, marking their highest placement on the "Billboard" 200 until it was surpassed by 2021's "Senjutsu" at No. 3, in addition to gaining the band their first Grammy Award in the Best Metal Performance category for the song "El Dorado", released as a free download on 8 June 2010.


title: The Final Frontier

text: EMI released the album in most of the world, while in the United States it was released jointly by Universal Music Enterprises and Sony Music Entertainment – the successor to the Sanctuary Records/Columbia Records joint venture that had previously controlled the Iron Maiden catalogue in North America.


title: The Final Frontier

text: On 22 April 2009, during a "Rock Radio" interview promoting "", drummer Nicko McBrain mentioned that Iron Maiden had booked studio time for early 2010. On 8 June, the album artwork, release date, and track listing were revealed, along with a free download of the track "El Dorado." The album was released as a regular CD, an iTunes LP, a digital download, a vinyl picture disc, and a limited collector's "Mission Edition", containing interviews and a game entitled "Mission II: Rescue & Revenge".


title: The Final Frontier

text: The North American leg of their tour in support of the album started in Dallas, Texas on 9 June 2010, with a European tour beginning in Dublin on 30 July. As these dates preceded the record's release, "El Dorado" was the only new song played in 2010. The full album tour commenced in Moscow on 11 February 2011, and would see the band visit South East Asia, Australia, South America and Florida, as well as returning to Europe. The tour led to the release of a live album and video, entitled "En Vivo!", which was released in March 2012.


title: The Final Frontier

text: Prior to its release, bassist and band founder Steve Harris was quoted as saying that he imagined the band would release a total of fifteen studio albums. The title, which also shares its name with its supporting tour and opening track, fuelled further rumours that "The Final Frontier" would be Iron Maiden's last, however the band members admitted they hoped to make further releases and continue touring in the future. Harris in particular has stated that "if there's time and we all wanna do it, then why not? It would be sad if we don't make another album, and sad for the fans too", while vocalist Bruce Dickinson admits that the title was largely mischief. In June 2010, Dickinson stated that he thought up the album's title 15 months previously: "I just thought 'We should call the next album "The Final Frontier"!' because it sort of is ... It could be, but it might not be! It means we can go back to space for an Eddie and things like that, and we haven't done that for a while. It has a certain romance to it."


title: The Final Frontier

text: On 2 November 2009, Janick Gers confirmed to BBC News that the band already had new material written and would head to Paris, France, to start composing and rehearsing the bulk of the new album. According to Dickinson, "we had probably the least amount of preparation we've ever had, which is bizarre because it's the longest and most complicated record of all of them." After taking time off for Christmas, recording commenced in January at Compass Point Studios, Nassau, Bahamas, with Kevin Shirley producing. This was the first time the band returned to the Bahamas since they last recorded at Compass Point in the 1980s, to which Dickinson remarked:


title: The Final Frontier

text: The studio had the same vibe and it was exactly as it had been in 1983, nothing had changed! Even down to the broken shutter in the corner ... same carpet ... everything ... It was really quite spooky. But we felt very relaxed in such a familiar and well-trodden environment and I think this shows in the playing and the atmosphere of the album.


title: The Final Frontier

text: After a month in Nassau, the production was moved to Malibu, California, where the songs were mixed and additional vocals were recorded. On 6 April, Shirley told Blabbermouth.net that he had completed mixing the album, and commented on the final stages of its production on 6 May; "Bruce Dickinson flew in for a few days and sang all his parts before flying off to the four corners of the globe and Steve Harris stayed behind to finish the record with me. He's pretty hands-on like that. Adrian Smith [guitars] dropped in from time to time to hear stuff, and like in any band, not everyone has the same end result in mind, but we get there."


title: The Final Frontier

text: The album is the fourth for which Steve Harris receives writing credits for every track, following "Killers" (1981), "Brave New World" (2000), and "A Matter of Life and Death" (2006), although the final track, "When the Wild Wind Blows", is the only song which he wrote on his own. Adrian Smith explains that, in recent years, Harris has become "more into writing lyrics and melodies and arranging" other members' tracks and only "brings in one or two songs" of his own.


title: The Final Frontier

text: "El Dorado" was released as a free digital download on the band's official website on 8 June and went on to win in the Best Metal Performance category at the 2011 Grammy Awards. According to Smith, the song's lyrics, penned by Dickinson, are based on the economic recession which began in 2007 and comment on "people's expectations of a better life" and how "the rug [was] pulled out from under them" as a result of lending.


title: The Final Frontier

text: The album's first and only music video, containing the latter half of "Satellite 15... The Final Frontier", was filmed in Rendlesham Forest, south-east England, and released on 13 July. Although the album has no official singles, both "El Dorado" and the second part of "Satellite 15... The Final Frontier" (along with its music video) were issued as radio promos before the album's release. "Coming Home" was also released as a radio single on 27 October, featuring an alternative "radio edit" version of the song.


title: The Final Frontier

text: In a 1 July 2010 interview with "Billboard", guitarist Dave Murray commented that the album mixes "straight-ahead, uptempo rock songs with good grooves with some other tracks that are kind of longer and more complex", referring particularly to "When the Wild Wind Blows", the band's seventh longest song after "Empire of the Clouds", "Rime of the Ancient Mariner", "The Red and the Black", "The Parchment", "Hell on Earth" and "Sign of the Cross": Interviewed for the "Pittsburgh Post-Gazette" on 14 July, guitarist Janick Gers discussed the album's overall sound: "We're taking it to extremes... the one song we released ["El Dorado"] isn't indicative of the rest of the album—there's so many different feels and ways of playing on the album. We go through some different attitudes and take you to different places. There's a lot of long thematic tunes on this album. And some very varied music." Speaking to "Classic Rock" in June 2010, Bruce Dickinson stated that "This one is probably the greatest departure from our sound. It's been happening incrementally since "Brave New World". That's great, after doing it all for this long, to still be figuring stuff out. We could just be bored by it all, but we're obviously not."


title: The Final Frontier

text: Although "El Dorado" would be the only new song featured in the 2010 leg of The Final Frontier World Tour, "Satellite 15... The Final Frontier," "The Talisman," "Coming Home" and "When The Wild Wind Blows" were added to the setlist in 2011. "El Dorado", "Coming Home" and "When the Wild Wind Blows" were later featured on the "Best Of" album "From Fear to Eternity".


title: The Final Frontier

text: At Metacritic, the album has a score of 71 out of 100 based on 15 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". "Classic Rock" praised it as "densely layered and substantial", as well as "beautifully paced and disarmingly complex" and "a fresh take on a sound that has admirably withstood three decades of fashions and fads". "Kerrang!" called it "a record that'll still bowl you over in a decade's time" and MusicRadar stated that "Iron Maiden have created a work full of hypnotic excitement, unconventional structure and dizzying vision...the group have succeeded beyond their wildest dreams." "Brave Words & Bloody Knuckles" called it "a thrilling and deeply satisfying glimpse into a brave new future for the people's metal band," while the BBC praised the album as "a remarkable achievement", complimenting the band for "no compromises, just complexities and challenges and more moments of brilliance than perhaps even they thought they still had left in them".


title: The Final Frontier

text: Many reviewers, such as "Metal Hammer", deemed it "a demanding album, but one that most Maiden fans are going to absolutely adore". The Quietus commented, ""The Final Frontier" takes time, it takes effort, but it's overwhelmingly brilliant. They haven't just served up the easy option – that would have been boring for us and, more importantly you feel, boring for them." PopMatters considered the record "in some ways ... the most ambitious album Iron Maiden has ever made, a 76-minute opus."


title: The Final Frontier

text: Many critics commented on where "The Final Frontier" rates in comparison to the band's past releases, with Consequence of Sound deeming the album "easily the best from the six-piece since 2000's "Brave New World"." AllMusic agreed with this, stating, ""The Final Frontier" still brings Iron Maiden closer to their aesthetic legacy and triumphant year 2000 rebirth than its two predecessors." Blabbermouth.net, on the other hand, praised it as "better than "Brave New World"", explaining that "this is the reason Bruce Dickinson and Adrian Smith rejoined the band, the fulfillment of a decade of promise, and arguably the first time that Steve Harris's post-"Fear of the Dark" cinematic vision has been backed up with consistently strong songwriting, spot-on production, and a fire-in-the-belly performance from the whole band".


title: The Final Frontier

text: "The Guardian" were more critical of the release, commenting that "with four songs alone clocking in at 40 minutes, "The Final Frontier" becomes less an exercise in experimentation than old-fashioned endurance, and the hushed-intro-bombastic-chorus dynamic begins to grate a little". Drowned in Sound agreed, commenting that "standards sink fast after ["The Alchemist"], and don't rise again for another half an hour", although going on to add that "the epic 11-minute closer, 'When the Wild Wind Blows' ... shows the subtlety and craftsmanship of the four songs that preceded it, but adds an emotional depth that they seemed to lack".


title: The Final Frontier

text: The album was ranked No. 1, No. 3, and No. 7 respectively in "Metal Hammer", "Kerrang!" and "Revolver"'s lists of the best albums of 2010.


title: The Final Frontier

text: Throughout The Final Frontier World Tour, Bruce Dickinson often requested that fans put the album to No. 1 in the respective country's music charts,


title: The Final Frontier

text: which it did in 28 countries worldwide. It is the first Iron Maiden release to debut at No. 1 in the United Kingdom charts since 1992's "Fear of the Dark", having sold 44,385 copies in its first week. In addition, "The Final Frontier" debuted at No. 4 in the "Billboard" 200 with 63,000 units sold, the highest position the band had ever reached in the United States.


title: Tyra Sanchez

text: James William Ross IV (born 1988) is an American drag queen and reality television personality who performed under the stage name Tyra Sanchez. A frequent drag impersonator of pop star Beyoncé, Ross is best known as the winner of the second season of "RuPaul's Drag Race", where he won $25,000. As of March 2020, Ross retired from his drag character Tyra Sanchez after making a public post on Instagram.


title: Tyra Sanchez

text: 2 years later, on September 14, 2022, Ross announced his return to drag, once again under the name "King Tyra", exclusively on his OnlyFans.


title: Tyra Sanchez

text: A native of Gainesville, Florida, Ross moved to Orlando, where he has resided for most of his life. His drag mother was Angelica Sanchez Jones, a popular performer in the Orlando area. During his time on "RuPaul's Drag Race", Ross spoke candidly about his periods of homelessness and personal challenges prior to auditioning for and being selected to appear on the show. Ross' old-school drag style and glamour made him a favorite of the judges. Currently residing in Orlando, Ross performed throughout the United States and Canada.


title: Tyra Sanchez

text: At the time he won the title, Ross was one of the youngest contestants to appear on "RuPaul's Drag Race". Throughout his time on the show, he was referred to by RuPaul as "the other Tyra" purportedly in order to not cause confusion with America's Next Top Model host Tyra Banks. He was also the first ever winner in the show's history to never be in the bottom two, a feat that has been repeated by winners Bianca Del Rio, Violet Chachki, Sasha Velour, and Aquaria.


title: Tyra Sanchez

text: After winning "Drag Race", Ross served as a drag professor and mentor of beauty- and fashion-challenged women on the second season of "RuPaul's Drag U". In April 2011, Ross released his first dance single, "Look at Me". He released a second single, "Vogue" on October 13, 2016. He then released a spoken word EP, "Dear Drag Race Fans Book I," on July 11, 2017, following the controversy surrounding him and Morgan McMichaels.


title: Tyra Sanchez

text: On August 10, 2016, after a fan of the show called him annoying in a tweet followed by gun emojis, Ross replied with the message "Girl kill yourself". This was met with backlash and outrage across Twitter and Facebook. He later stated that he would not apologize for his opinion, and went on to call victims of suicide "selfish cowards." A petition was made calling for RuPaul to revoke Ross' crown and title, or at least speak out against it. RuPaul broke silence in his podcast, defending Ross' attitude, and stated: "Twitter is not the place for that. People don't get nuance on Twitter, you can't do irony on Twitter, people won't get it." During the podcast she added: "On Twitter, you don't hear inflection, you don't hear snark, you don't hear sarcasm."


title: Tyra Sanchez

text: In 2017, Ross posted a mock obituary for Morgan McMichaels and used the post to direct people to Ross' personal SoundCloud page. McMichaels quickly denounced the post. McMichaels later said the post was meant as retribution for her blocking Ross' booking at Mickey's nightclub in West Hollywood. After Ross made comments about drag queen Raven, McMichaels said she would not perform with Ross, and Ross lost the booking. Ross later apologized for the post about McMichaels. McMichaels later lampooned the scenario upon her re-appearance on Rupaul's Drag Race All-Stars 3; as she made her entrance to the workroom she joked "I look pretty good for a dead bitch".


title: Tyra Sanchez

text: Ross was announced as being banned from attending the 2018 RuPaul's DragCon L.A. event after being accused of making terrorist threats against DragCon. His official website had a timer that was set for the date and time of DragCon 2018 with the acronym "B.O.O.M." at the top of the page.; however, no act of violence was made when the timer ended.


title: Tyra Sanchez

text: On October 8, 2019, after a period of inactivity, Ross released an apology statement on his social media accounts, taking responsibility for his past actions. "I humbly apologize for the online behavior I have displayed in recent years," he stated. "Though it represents emotions I may have felt, it does not represent my true character. I have failed you and I know that I am much better than that…. it's not who I am and it is not who I choose to be." In explaining the reason behind his behavior, he said that "The judgement, criticism, and opinions I received daily really affected my vibes and it began to control my environment... I was on an extreme roller coaster of emotions. So many ups and too many downs. Exhausted, I was just ready to get off the ride."


title: Tyra Sanchez

text: Just over five months later, Ross publicly announced his decision to quit drag, stating on his official Instagram page, "For those asking, Tyra Sanchez has fulfilled her purpose in my life. I, James Ross, no longer want to be referred to as Tyra, Tyra Sanchez, her, she, girl, or queen."


title: Tyra Sanchez

text: On September 14 2022, Ross announced his return to drag, once again under the name "King Tyra", exclusively on his OnlyFans.


title: Bitwarden

text: Bitwarden is a free/freemium open-source password management service that stores sensitive information such as website credentials in an encrypted vault.


title: Bitwarden

text: The platform offers a variety of client applications including a web interface, desktop applications, browser extensions, mobile apps, and a command-line interface.


title: Bitwarden

text: Browser extensions include those for Chrome, Firefox, Safari, Edge, Opera, Vivaldi, Brave and Tor. Mobile apps for Android, iPhone, and iPad are available.


title: Bitwarden

text: Client functionalities include 2FA login, passwordless login, biometric unlock, random password generator, password strength testing tool, login/form/app autofill, syncing across unlimited platforms and devices, storing unlimited number of items, sharing credentials, and storing variety of information including credit cards.


title: Bitwarden

text: In January 2021, in its first password-protection program comparison, "U.S. News & World Report" selected Bitwarden as "Best Password Manager". In February, with competitor LastPass about to drop a feature in its free version, CNET recommended Bitwarden as best free app for password synchronization across multiple devices, while Lifehacker recommended it as "the best password manager for most people."


title: Bitwarden

text: Critics have praised the features offered in the software's free version, and the low price of the premium tier compared to other managers. The product was named the best "budget pick" in a "Wirecutter" password manager comparison. Bitwarden's secure open source implementation was also praised by reviewers. However, the software was criticized for its lack of additional features, and some reviewers noted its basic and less intuitive interface compared to other password managers.


title: Bitwarden

text: Bitwarden debuted in August 2016 with an initial release of mobile applications for iOS and Android, browser extensions for Chrome and Opera, and a web vault. The browser extension for Firefox was later launched in February 2017. In February 2017, the Brave web browser began including the Bitwarden extension as an optional replacement password manager.


title: Bitwarden

text: In January 2018, the Bitwarden browser extension was adapted to and released for Apple's Safari browser through the Safari Extensions Gallery.


title: Bitwarden

text: In July 2020, Bitwarden completed another security audit from security firm Insight Risk Consulting to evaluate the security of the Bitwarden network perimeter as well as penetration testing and vulnerability assessments against Bitwarden web services and applications.


title: Bitwarden

text: In August 2021, Bitwarden announced that network assessment (security assessment and penetration testing) for 2021


title: Bitwarden

text: In September 2022, the company announced $100M series B financing; the lead investor was PSG, with the existing investor, Battery Ventures, participating.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)

text: The Kingdom of Hungary between 1526 and 1867 existed as a state outside the Holy Roman Empire, but part of the lands of the Habsburg monarchy that became the Austrian Empire in 1804. After the Battle of Mohács in 1526, the country was ruled by two crowned kings (John I and Ferdinand I). Initially, the exact territory under Habsburg rule was disputed because both rulers claimed the whole kingdom. This unsettled period lasted until 1570 when John Sigismund Zápolya (John II) abdicated as King of Hungary in Emperor Maximilian II's favor.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)

text: In the early stages, the lands that were ruled by the Habsburg Hungarian kings were regarded as both the "Kingdom of Hungary" and "Royal Hungary". Royal Hungary was the symbol of the continuity of formal law after the Ottoman occupation, because it could preserve its legal traditions, but in general, it was "de facto" a Habsburg province. The Hungarian nobility forced Vienna to admit that Hungary was a special unit of the Habsburg lands and had to be ruled in conformity with its own special laws. However, Hungarian historiography positioned Transylvania in a direct continuity with the medieval Kingdom of Hungary in pursuance of the advancement of Hungarian interests.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)

text: Under the terms of the Treaty of Karlowitz, which ended the Great Turkish War in 1699, the Ottomans ceded nearly all of Ottoman Hungary. The new territories were united with the territory of the Kingdom of Hungary, and although its powers were mostly formal, a Diet in Pressburg ruled the lands.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)

text: Two major Hungarian rebellions were the Rákóczi's War of Independence in the early 18th century and the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 and marked important shifts in the evolution of the polity. The kingdom became a dual monarchy in 1867, known as Austria-Hungary.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)

text: Royal Hungary (1526–1699), (, ), was the name of the portion of the medieval Kingdom of Hungary where the Habsburgs were recognized as Kings of Hungary in the wake of the Ottoman victory at the Battle of Mohács (1526) and the subsequent partition of the country.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)

text: Temporary territorial division between the rival rulers John I and Ferdinand I occurred only in 1538, under the Treaty of Nagyvárad, when the Habsburgs got the northern and western parts of the country (Royal Hungary), with the new capital Pressburg (Pozsony, now Bratislava). John I secured the eastern part of the kingdom (known as the Eastern Hungarian Kingdom). Habsburg monarchs needed the economic power of Hungary for the Ottoman wars. During the Ottoman wars the territory of the former Kingdom of Hungary was reduced by around 70 per cent. Despite these enormous territorial and demographic losses, the smaller and heavily wartorn Royal Hungary remained economically more important than Austria or the Kingdom of Bohemia even by the end of 16th century.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)

text: The territory of present-day Slovakia and northwestern Transdanubia were parts of this polity, while control of the region of northeastern Hungary often shifted between Royal Hungary and the Principality of Transylvania. The central territories of the medieval Hungarian kingdom were annexed by the Ottoman Empire for 150 years (see Ottoman Hungary).


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)

text: In 1570, John Sigismund Zápolya abdicated as King of Hungary in Emperor Maximilian II's favor under the terms of the Treaty of Speyer.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)

text: The term "Royal Hungary" fell into disuse after 1699, and the Habsburg Kings referred to the newly enlarged country by the more formal term "Kingdom of Hungary".


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)

text: Royal Hungary became a part of the Habsburg monarchy and enjoyed little influence in Vienna. The Habsburg King directly controlled Royal Hungary's financial, military, and foreign affairs, and imperial troops guarded its borders. The Habsburgs avoided filling the office of palatine to prevent the holders amassing too much power. In addition, the so-called Turkish question divided the Habsburgs and the Hungarians: Vienna wanted to maintain peace with the Ottomans; the Hungarians wanted the Ottomans ousted. As the Hungarians recognized the weakness of their position, many became anti-Habsburg. They complained about foreign rule, the behaviour of foreign garrisons, and the Habsburgs' recognition of Turkish sovereignty in Transylvania (Principality of Transylvania was usually under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire, however, it often had dual vassalage -Ottoman Turkish sultans and the Habsburg Hungarian kings- in the 16th and 17th centuries). Protestants, who were persecuted in Royal Hungary, considered the Counter-Reformation a greater menace than the Turks, however.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)

text: The Austrian branch of Habsburg monarchs needed the economic power of Hungary for the Ottoman wars. During the Ottoman wars the territory of the former Kingdom of Hungary shrunk by around 70%. Despite these enormous territorial and demographic losses, the smaller, heavily war-torn Royal Hungary had remained economically more important to the Habsburg rulers than Austria or Kingdom of Bohemia even at the end of the 16th century. Out of all his countries, the depleted Kingdom of Hungary was, at that time, Ferdinand's largest source of revenue.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)

text: The Reformation spread quickly, and by the early 17th century hardly any noble families remained Catholic. In Royal Hungary, the majority of the population became Lutheran by the end of the 16th century.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)

text: Archbishop Péter Pázmány reorganized Royal Hungary's Roman Catholic Church and led a Counter-Reformation that reversed the Protestants' gains in Royal Hungary, using persuasion rather than intimidation. The Reformation caused rifts between Catholics, who often sided with the Habsburgs, and Protestants, who developed a strong national identity and became rebels in Austrian eyes. Chasms also developed between the mostly Catholic magnates and the mainly Protestant lesser nobles.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)

text: As the Habsburgs' control of the Turkish possessions started to increase, the ministers of Leopold I argued that he should rule Hungary as conquered territory. At the Diet of "Royal Hungary" in Pressburg, in 1687, the Emperor promised to observe all laws and privileges. Nonetheless, the hereditary succession of the Habsburgs was recognized, and the nobles' right of resistance was abrogated. In 1690 Leopold began redistributing lands freed from the Turks. Protestant nobles and all other Hungarians thought disloyal by the Habsburgs lost their estates, which were given to foreigners. Vienna controlled the foreign affairs, defense, tariffs, and other functions.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)

text: The repression of Protestants and the land seizures frustrated the Hungarians, and in 1703 a peasant uprising sparked an eight-year rebellion against Habsburg rule. In Transylvania, which became the part of Hungary again at the end of the 17th century (as a province, called "Principality of Transylvania" with the Diet seated at Gyulafehérvár), the people united under Francis II Rákóczi, a Roman Catholic magnate. Most of Hungary soon supported Rákóczi, and the Hungarian Diet voted to annul the Habsburgs' right to the throne. Fortunes turned against the Hungarians, however, when the Habsburgs made peace in the West and turned their full force against them. The war ended in 1711, when Count Károlyi, General of the Hungarian Armies agreed to the Treaty of Szatmár. The treaty contained the emperor's agreement to reconvene the Diet in Pressburg and to grant an amnesty for the rebels.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)

text: Leopold's successor, King Charles III (1711–40), began building a workable relationship with Hungary after the Treaty of Szatmár. Charles asked the approval of Diet for the Pragmatic Sanction, under which the Habsburg monarch was to rule Hungary not as Emperor, but as a King subject to the restraints of Hungary's constitution and laws. He hoped that the Pragmatic Sanction would keep the Habsburg Empire intact if his daughter, Maria Theresa, succeeded him. The Diet approved the Pragmatic Sanction in 1723, and Hungary thus agreed to become a hereditary monarchy under the Habsburgs for as long as their dynasty existed. In practice, however, Charles and his successors governed almost autocratically, controlling Hungary's foreign affairs, defense, and finance but lacking the power to tax the nobles without their approval.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)

text: Charles organized the country under a centralized administration and in 1715 established a standing army under his command, which was entirely funded and manned by the non-noble population. This policy reduced the nobles' military obligation without abrogating their exemption from taxation. Charles also banned conversion to Protestantism, required civil servants to profess Catholicism, and forbade Protestant students to study abroad.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)

text: Maria Theresa (1741–80) faced an immediate challenge from Prussia's Frederick II when she became head of the House of Habsburg. In 1741 she appeared before the Diet of Pressburg holding her newborn son and entreated Hungary's nobles to support her. They stood behind her and helped secure her rule. Maria Theresa later took measures to reinforce links with Hungary's magnates. She established special schools to attract Hungarian nobles to Vienna.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)

text: Under Charles and Maria Theresa, Hungary experienced further economic decline. Centuries of Ottoman occupation and war had reduced Hungary's population drastically, and large parts of the country's southern half were almost deserted. A labor shortage developed as landowners restored their estates. In response, the Habsburgs began to colonize Hungary with large numbers of peasants from all over Europe, especially Slovaks, Serbs, Croatians, and Germans. Many Jews also immigrated from Vienna and the empire's Polish lands near the end of the 18th century. Hungary's population more than tripled to 8 million between 1720 and 1787. However, only 39 percent of its people were Magyars, who lived mainly in the center of the country.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)

text: In the first half of the 18th century, Hungary had an agricultural economy that employed 90 percent of the population. The nobles failed to use fertilizers, roads were poor and rivers blocked, and crude storage methods caused huge losses of grain. Barter had replaced money transactions, and little trade existed between towns and the serfs. After 1760 a labor surplus developed. The serf population grew, pressure on the land increased, and the serfs' standard of living declined. Landowners began making greater demands on new tenants and began violating existing agreements. In response, Maria Theresa issued her Urbarium of 1767 to protect the serfs by restoring their freedom of movement and limiting the corvée. Despite her efforts and several periods of strong demand for grain, the situation worsened. Between 1767 and 1848, many serfs left their holdings. Most became landless farmworkers because a lack of industrial development meant few opportunities for work in the towns.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)

text: Joseph II (1780–90), a dynamic leader strongly influenced by the Enlightenment, shook Hungary from its malaise when he inherited the throne from his mother, Maria Theresa. In the framework of Josephinism, Joseph sought to centralize control of the empire and to rule it by decree as an enlightened despot. He refused to take the Hungarian coronation oath to avoid being constrained by Hungary's constitution. In 1781–82 Joseph issued a Patent of Toleration, followed by an Edict of Tolerance which granted Protestants and Orthodox Christians full civil rights and Jews freedom of worship. He decreed that German replace Latin as the empire's official language and granted the peasants the freedom to leave their holdings, to marry, and to place their children in trades. Hungary, Slavonia, Croatia, the Military Frontier and Transylvania became a single imperial territory under one administration, called the Kingdom of Hungary or "Lands of the Crown of St. Stephen". When the Hungarian nobles again refused to waive their exemption from taxation, Joseph banned imports of Hungarian manufactured goods into Austria and began a survey to prepare for the imposition of a general land tax.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)

text: Joseph's reforms outraged nobles and clergy of Hungary, and the peasants of the country grew dissatisfied with taxes, conscription, and requisitions of supplies. Hungarians perceived Joseph's language reform as German cultural hegemony, and they reacted by insisting on the right to use their own tongue. As a result, Hungarian lesser nobles sparked a renaissance of the Hungarian language and culture, and a cult of national dance and costume flourished. The lesser nobles questioned the loyalty of the magnates, of whom less than half were ethnic Hungarians, and even those had become French- and German-speaking courtiers. The Hungarian national reawakening subsequently triggered national revivals among the Slovak, Romanian, Serbian, and Croatian minorities within Hungary and Transylvania, who felt threatened by both German and Hungarian cultural hegemony. These national revivals later blossomed into the nationalist movements of the 19th and 20th centuries that contributed to the empire's ultimate collapse.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)

text: Late in his reign, Joseph led a costly, ill-fated campaign against the Turks that weakened his empire. On January 28, 1790, three weeks before his death, the emperor issued a decree cancelling all of his reforms except the Patent of Toleration, peasant reforms, and the abolition of the religious orders.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)

text: Joseph's successor, Leopold II (1790–92), re-introduced the bureaucratic technicality which viewed Hungary as a separate country under a Habsburg king. In 1791 the Diet passed Law X, which stressed Hungary's status as an independent kingdom ruled only by a king legally crowned according to Hungarian laws. Law X later became the basis for demands by Hungarian reformers for statehood in the period from 1825 to 1849. New laws again required approval of both the Habsburg king and the Diet, and Latin was restored as the official language. The peasant reforms remained in effect, however, and Protestants remained equal before the law. Leopold died in March 1792 just as the French Revolution was about to degenerate into the Reign of Terror and send shock waves through the royal houses of Europe.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)

text: Enlightened absolutism ended in Hungary under Leopold's successor, Francis II (ruled 1792–1835), who developed an almost abnormal aversion to change, bringing Hungary decades of political stagnation. In 1795 the Hungarian police arrested Ignác Martinovics and several of the country's leading thinkers for plotting a Jacobin kind of revolution to install a radical democratic, egalitarian political system in Hungary. Thereafter, Francis resolved to extinguish any spark of reform that might ignite a revolution. The execution of the alleged plotters silenced any reform advocates among the nobles, and for about three decades reform ideas remained confined to poetry and philosophy. The magnates, who also feared that the influx of revolutionary ideas might precipitate a popular uprising, became a tool of the crown and seized the chance to further burden the peasants.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)

text: In 1804 Francis II, who was also the Holy Roman Emperor and ruler of the other dynastic lands of the Habsburg dynasty, founded the Empire of Austria in which Hungary and all his other dynastic lands were included. In doing so he created a formal overarching structure for the Habsburg Monarchy, that had functioned as a composite monarchy for about three hundred years before. He himself became Francis I ("Franz I."), the first Emperor of Austria ("Kaiser von Österreich"), ruling from 1804 to 1835, so later he was named the one and only "Doppelkaiser" (double emperor) in history. The workings of the overarching structure and the status of the new "Kaiserthum"’s component lands at first stayed much as they had been under the composite monarchy that existed before 1804. This was especially demonstrated by the status of the Kingdom of Hungary, whose affairs remained to be administered by its own institutions (King and Diet) as they had been under the composite monarchy, in which it had always been considered a separate Realm. Article X of 1790, which was added to Hungary's constitution during the phase of the composite monarchy uses the Latin phrase "Regnum Independens". In the new situation, therefore, no Imperial institutions were involved in its internal government.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)

text: By the start of the 19th century, the aim of Hungary's agricultural producers had shifted from subsistence farming and small-scale production for local trade to cash-generating, large-scale production for a wider market. Road and waterway improvements cut transportation costs, while urbanization in Austria, Bohemia, and Moravia and the need for supplies for the Napoleonic wars boosted demand for foodstuffs and clothing. Hungary became a major grain and wool exporter. New lands were cleared, and yields rose as farming methods improved. Hungary did not reap the full benefit of the boom, however, because most of the profits went to the magnates, who considered them not as capital for investment but as a means of adding luxury to their lives. As expectations rose, goods such as linen and silverware, once considered luxuries, became necessities. The wealthy magnates had little trouble balancing their earnings and expenditures, but many lesser nobles, fearful of losing their social standing, went into debt to finance their spending.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)

text: Napoleon's final defeat brought recession. Grain prices collapsed as demand dropped, and debt ensnared much of Hungary's lesser nobility. Poverty forced many lesser nobles to work to earn a livelihood, and their sons entered education institutions to train for civil service or professional careers. The decline of the lesser nobility continued despite the fact that by 1820 Hungary's exports had surpassed wartime levels. As the number of lesser nobles who earned diplomas increased, the bureaucracy and professions became saturated, leaving a host of disgruntled graduates without jobs. Members of this new intelligentsia quickly became enamored of radical political ideologies emanating from Western Europe and organized themselves to effect changes in Hungary's political system.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)

text: Francis rarely called the Diet into session (usually only to request men and supplies for war) without hearing complaints. Economic hardship brought the lesser nobles' discontent to a head by 1825, when Francis finally convoked the Diet after a fourteen-year hiatus. Grievances were voiced, and open calls for reform were made, including demands for less royal interference in the nobles' affairs and for wider use of the Hungarian language.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)

text: The first great figure of the reform era came to the fore during the 1825 convocation of the Diet. Count István Széchenyi, a magnate from one of Hungary's most powerful families, shocked the Diet when he delivered the first speech in Hungarian ever uttered in the upper chamber and backed a proposal for the creation of a Hungarian academy of arts and sciences by pledging a year's income to support it. In 1831 angry nobles burned Szechenyi's book Hitel (Credit), in which he argued that the nobles' privileges were both morally indefensible and economically detrimental to the nobles themselves. Szechenyi called for an economic revolution and argued that only the magnates were capable of implementing reforms. Szechenyi favored a strong link with the Habsburg Empire and called for the abolition of entail and serfdom, taxation of landowners, financing of development with foreign capital, the establishment of a national bank, and introduction of wage labor. He inspired such projects as the construction of the suspension bridge linking Buda and Pest. Szechenyi's reform initiatives ultimately failed because they were targeted at the magnates, who were not inclined to support change, and because the pace of his program was too slow to attract disgruntled lesser nobles.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)

text: The most popular of Hungary's great reform leaders, Lajos Kossuth, addressed passionate calls for change to the lesser nobles. Kossuth was the son of a landless, lesser nobleman of Protestant background. He practiced law with his father before moving to Pest. There he published commentaries on the Diet's activities, which made him popular with young, reform-minded people. Kossuth was imprisoned in 1836 for treason. After his release in 1840, he gained quick notoriety as the editor of a liberal party newspaper. Kossuth argued that only political and economic separation from Austria would improve Hungary's plight. He called for broader parliamentary democracy, rapid industrialization, general taxation, economic expansion through exports, and the abolition of privileges (equality before the law) and serfdom. But Kossuth was also a Hungarian patriotic whose rhetoric provoked the strong resentment of Hungary's minority ethnic groups. Kossuth gained support among liberal lesser nobles, who constituted an opposition minority in the Diet. They sought reforms with increasing success after Francis's death in 1835 and the succession of Ferdinand V (1835–48). In 1844 a law was enacted making Hungarian the country's exclusive official language.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)

text: After the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, the emperor revoked Hungary's constitution and assumed absolute control. Franz Joseph divided the country into four distinct territories: Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia-Slavonia, and Vojvodina. German and Bohemian administrators managed the government, and German became the language of administration and higher education. The non-Magyar minorities of Hungary received little for their support of Austria during the turmoil. A Croat reportedly told a Hungarian: "We received as a reward what the Magyars got as a punishment."


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)

text: Hungarian public opinion split over the country's relations with Austria. Some Hungarians held out hope for full separation from Austria; others wanted an accommodation with the Habsburgs, provided that they respected Hungary's constitution and laws. Ferenc Deák became the main advocate for accommodation. Deak upheld the legality of the April laws and argued that their amendment required the Hungarian Diet's consent. He also held that the dethronement of the Habsburgs was invalid. As long as Austria ruled absolutely, Deak argued, Hungarians should do no more than passively resist illegal demands.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)

text: The first crack in Franz Joseph's neo-absolutist rule developed in 1859, when the forces of Sardinia-Piedmont and France defeated Austria at the Battle of Solferino. The defeat convinced Franz Joseph that national and social opposition to his government was too strong to be managed by decree from Vienna. Gradually he recognized the necessity of concessions towards Hungary, and Austria and Hungary thus moved towards a compromise.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)

text: In 1866 the Prussians defeated the Austrians, further underscoring the weakness of the Habsburg Empire. Negotiations between the emperor and the Hungarian leaders were intensified and finally resulted in the Compromise of 1867, which created the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary, also known as the Austro-Hungarian Empire.


title: Mandodari

text: Mandodari (, , lit. "soft-bellied";) was the queen consort of Ravana, the king of Lanka, according to the Hindu epic "Ramayana". The "Ramayana" describes Mandodari as beautiful, pious, and righteous. She is extolled as one of the "Panchakanya", the recital of whose names is believed to dispel sin.


title: Mandodari

text: Mandodari was the daughter of Mayasura, the King of the Asuras (demons), and the "apsara" (celestial nymphs) Hema. Mandodari bears three sons: Meghanada (Indrajit), Atikaya, and Akshayakumara. Despite her husband's faults, Mandodari loves him and advises him to follow the path of righteousness. Mandodari repeatedly advises Ravana to return Sita to Rama, but her advice falls on deaf ears. Her love and loyalty to Ravana are praised in the "Ramayana".


title: Mandodari

text: In a version of Ramayana, Hanuman tricks her into disclosing the location of a magical arrow which Rama uses to kill Ravana. Many versions of Ramayana state that after Ravana's death, Vibhishana—Ravana's younger brother who joins forces with Rama, does so on Mandodari's advice.


title: Mandodari

text: The "Uttara Kanda" of the "Ramayana" mentions that Mayasura visited Svarga (heaven), where the apsara Hema was given to him by the gods. They had two sons, Mayavi and Dundubhi, and a daughter, Mandodari. Later, Hema returned to heaven; Mandodari and her siblings were left with their father.


title: Mandodari

text: There are varying accounts of Mandodari's birth. The Telugu text "Uttara Ramayana" mentions that Mayasura is married to the "apsara" Hema. They have two sons, Mayavi and Dundubhi, but long for a daughter, so they start performing penances to seek the favour of the god Shiva. Meanwhile, an apsara named Madhura arrives at Mount Kailash, the abode of Shiva, to pay her respects. In absence of his wife Parvati, Madhura makes love with the god. When Parvati returns, she finds traces of ashes from her husband’s body on the breasts of Madhura. Agitated, Parvati curses Madhura and sends her to live in a well as a frog for twelve years. Shiva told Madhura that she will become a beautiful woman and be married to a great valorous man. After twelve years, Madhura becomes a beautiful maiden again and cries out loudly from the well. Mayasura and Hema, who are performing penance nearby, answer her call and adopt her as their daughter. They bring her up as Mandodari. In this version, Meghanada, the son of the demon-king Ravana and Mandodari, is said to originate from the seed of Shiva embedded in Mandodari's body.


title: Mandodari

text: In the Telugu "Ranganatha Ramayana", Parvati creates a doll, which is turned into a damsel by Shiva. However later, Parvati becomes worried due to the maiden's beauty; Shiva turns her into a frog, who is later turned back to a human and granted to Mayasura as a daughter. In another Telugu tale and the Kuchipudi dance tradition, Ravana asks Shiva for Parvati as his wife. Shiva consents; however Parvati creates a look-alike maiden from a frog and entrusts her to Ravana. Since the woman was created from a frog, she was called Mandodari. In the "Ananda Ramayana", Vishnu creates Mandodari from sandalwood paste smeared on his body and rescues Parvati from Ravana by handing him Mandodari as the real Parvati.


title: Mandodari

text: The frog motif also reiterated in other stories. The Odia "Dharma Purana" narrates that the earth sends her son Maninaga to poison their cow's milk of the sages Mandar and Udar, who had denied her the share of the milk. A female frog jumps in the vessel to save the sages. Cursed by the sages for her supposed gluttony, she turns into a beautiful maiden called Vengavati. She has pre-martial coitus with Vali. Ravana demands her hand in marriage from the sages, who refuse. Ravana assumes Vali's form and kidnaps Vengavati. The real Vali and Ravana pull in opposite directions, thereby tearing her apart. As a consequence, Angada (generally described as Tara's son) is born. The death-god Yama and wind-god Vayu resurrect her and is named as Mandodari, after the two sages. Mahari dance tradition narrates a similar tale where a snake poisoned the milk of a hermit; the female frog jumps in the milk and dies to rescue the sage. She is cursed by the hermit in the misbelief of her greed and turns into the beautiful Mandodari.


title: Mandodari

text: Ravana comes to the house of Mayasura and falls in love with Mandodari. Mandodari and Ravana are soon married with Vedic rites. Mandodari bears Ravana's three sons: Meghanada (Indrajit), Atikaya and Akshayakumara. Mandore, a town located 9 km north of Jodhpur, is believed to be the native place of Mandodari. Ravana is treated as a son-in-law among some local Brahmins and has a temple dedicated to him here.


title: Mandodari

text: Despite Ravana's faults, Mandodari loves him and is proud of his strength. She is aware of Ravana's weakness towards women. A righteous woman, Mandodari tries to lead Ravana to righteousness, but Ravana always ignores her advice. She advises him to not to subdue the "Navagraha", the nine celestial beings that govern one's destiny, and not to seduce Vedavati, who would be reborn as Sita and cause the destruction of Ravana.