title: Serbia in the Yugoslav Wars

text: The high number of casualties incurred in the Battle of Vukovar caused serious popular discontent in Serbia and Montenegro, where tens of thousands of those receiving draft papers went into hiding or left the country. A near-mutiny broke out in some reservist units, and mass demonstrations against the war were held in the Serbian towns of Valjevo, Čačak and Kragujevac. In one famous incident, a tank driver named Vladimir Živković drove his tank all the way from the front line at Vukovar to the federal parliament in Belgrade. Many Serbs did not identify with the Croatian Serb cause and were unwilling to see their lives, or those of their children, sacrificed at Vukovar.


title: Serbia in the Yugoslav Wars

text: Following the end of Yugoslav Wars, Serbian war crimes court sparked controversy on at least four occasions after issuing indictments and arrest warrants against non-Serbs that were later found to be lacking substance. These indictments against foreign citizens of Serbia are perceived by some as key to redressing the "aggressor-victim" balance in the wars.


title: Serbia in the Yugoslav Wars

text: In Serbia, many people deny war crimes imputed to Serbia or the Serb people. Some public figures who are known for speaking openly about crimes committed by Serbs are labeled as a "traitors".


title: Serbia in the Yugoslav Wars

text: A study conducted in the Greater Toronto Area, involving the University of Toronto, regarding Posttraumatic stress disorder, found symptoms of PTSD in 26.3% of Serbian children due to war-related stress or during the Kosovo conflict.


title: Serbia in the Yugoslav Wars

text: At the conclusion of the wars in Bosnia and Croatia, numerous Serbs relocated to Serbia and Montenegro. By 1996, Serbia and Montenegro hosted about 300,000 registered refugees from Croatia and 250,000 from Bosnia and Herzegovina, while an additional 15,000 persons from Macedonia and Slovenia were also registered as refugees. The UNHCR registered 566,000 refugees from Croatia and Bosnia in Serbia and Montenegro. During the first half of 1996, more than 40,000 Bosnian Serbs arrived in the FRY. About three quarters had left suburbs of Sarajevo that were to fall under the control of the Bosnian Federation. Following the Kosovo war, 200,000 to 245,000 Serb, Roma, Ashkali and Egyptian people fled into Serbia proper or within Kosovo, fearing revenge, and due to severe violence and terrorist attacks against mostly Serbian civilians after the war amounting to about 700,000 displaced or refugees in that country. One out of every eleven people was either a refugees or displacee in Serbia by 1999. This made that country became home to highest number of refugees and internally displaced persons in Europe.


title: Serbia in the Yugoslav Wars

text: Following the rise of nationalism and political tensions after Slobodan Milošević came to power, as well as the outbreaks of the Yugoslav Wars, numerous anti-war movements developed in Serbia. The anti-war protests in Belgrade were held mostly because of opposition the Siege of Vukovar, Siege of Dubrovnik and Siege of Sarajevo, while protesters demanded the referendum on a declaration of war and disruption of military conscription.


title: Serbia in the Yugoslav Wars

text: More than 50,000 people participated in many protests, and more than 150,000 people took part in the most massive protest called “The Black Ribbon March” in solidarity with people in Sarajevo. It is estimated that between 50,000 and 200,000 people deserted from the Yugoslav People's Army, while between 100,000 and 150,000 people emigrated from Serbia refusing to participate in the war.


title: Serbia in the Yugoslav Wars

text: According to professor Renaud De la Brosse, senior lecturer at the University of Reims and a witness called by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), it is surprising how great the resistance to Milošević's propaganda was among Serbs, given that and the lack of access to alternative news. Political scientists Orli Fridman described that not enough attention was given to anti-war activism among scholars studying the breakup of Yugoslavia and the wars, as well as that independent media and anti-war groups from Serbia did not attract the international attention.


title: Serbia in the Yugoslav Wars

text: After the defeat Milošević's party at the 1996 Serbian local elections and attempting electoral fraud, several months of anti-government protests took place and the opposition boycotted the following 1997 Serbian general election. The wide opposition alliance won the 2000 Yugoslavian general election, which led to the overthrow of Slobodan Milošević. That resulted in the withdrawn of international sanctions and admission of the FR Yugoslavia United Nations membership. In June 2001, the reformist government of Zoran Đinđić arrested Milošević and extradited him over to the ICTY, where the war crimes trial begins.


title: The Voice (French TV series)

text: The Voice : La plus belle voix () is a reality singing competition on TF1. It is France's version of "The Voice" format created by John de Mol. The first episode was aired on 25 February 2012. It is the second time that the format has been produced in French after the Belgian version "The Voice Belgique".


title: The Voice (French TV series)

text: One of the important premises of the show is the quality of the singing talent. Four coaches, themselves popular performing artists, train the talents on their team and occasionally perform with them. Talents are selected in blind auditions, where the coaches cannot see, but only hear the auditioning contestant.


title: The Voice (French TV series)

text: The series consists of three phases: a blind audition, a battle phase, and live performance shows. Four judges/coaches, all noteworthy recording artists, choose teams of contestants through a blind audition process. Each judge has the length of the auditioner's performance (about one minute) to decide if he or she wants that singer on his or her team; if two or more judges want the same singer (as happens frequently), the singer has the final choice of coach.


title: The Voice (French TV series)

text: Another twist is brought to the show, the block. Beside the big red button, each coaches have 3 other buttons which have the name of other coach. If the coach want an artist but doesn't want a rival coaches to get that artist, they can hit the button with the name of the coach that they want to block, it will automatically blocks that other coaches and spin the chair. If the blocked coach choose to turn around, their entire chair lighting will stay red, the "JE VOUS VEUX" text below the chair will not appear and the LED screen toward them will say "BLOQUE" instead, not the coaches name.


title: The Voice (French TV series)

text: Each team of singers is mentored and developed by its respective coach. In the second stage, called the battle phase, coaches have two of their team members battle against each other directly by singing the same song together, with the coach choosing which team member to advance from each of four individual "battles" into the first live round. Within that first live round, the surviving acts from each team again compete head-to-head, with a combination of public and jury vote deciding who advances onto the next round.


title: The Voice (French TV series)

text: In the final phase, the remaining contestants (top 8) compete against each other in live broadcasts. The television audience and the coaches have equal say 50/50 in deciding who moves on to the final 4 phase. With one team member remaining for each coach, the final 4 contestants compete against each other in the finale with the outcome decided solely by public vote.


title: The Voice (French TV series)

text: In late 2011 French production company Shine France bought the format and the large national television chains, including TF1 and M6, expressed interest. TF1 eventually won the contract and the format was aired in 2012 as a replacement to the long running "Star Academy" series.


title: The Voice (French TV series)

text: For the first-decade anniversary special of "The Voice France", and for the first time in the history of "The Voice", there will be 5 coaches for 5 individual seats under the first All-Stars version, where contestants from previous seasons will participate.


title: Mikhail Bakhtin

text: Mikhail Mikhailovich Bakhtin ( ; ; – 7 March 1975) was a Russian philosopher, literary critic and scholar who worked on literary theory, ethics, and the philosophy of language. His writings, on a variety of subjects, inspired scholars working in a number of different traditions (Marxism, semiotics, structuralism, religious criticism) and in disciplines as diverse as literary criticism, history, philosophy, sociology, anthropology and psychology. Although Bakhtin was active in the debates on aesthetics and literature that took place in the Soviet Union in the 1920s, his distinctive position did not become well known until he was rediscovered by Russian scholars in the 1960s.


title: Mikhail Bakhtin

text: Bakhtin was born in Oryol, Russia, to an old family of the nobility. His father was the manager of a bank and worked in several cities. For this reason Bakhtin spent his early childhood years in Oryol, in Vilnius, and then in Odessa, where in 1913 he joined the historical and philological faculty at the local university (the Odessa University). Katerina Clark and Michael Holquist write: "Odessa..., like Vilnius, was an appropriate setting for a chapter in the life of a man who was to become the philosopher of heteroglossia and carnival. The same sense of fun and irreverence that gave birth to Babel's Rabelaisian gangster or to the tricks and deceptions of Ostap Bender, the picaro created by Ilf and Petrov, left its mark on Bakhtin." He later transferred to Petrograd Imperial University to join his brother Nikolai. It is here that Bakhtin was greatly influenced by the classicist F. F. Zelinsky, whose works contain the beginnings of concepts elaborated by Bakhtin.


title: Mikhail Bakhtin

text: Bakhtin completed his studies in 1918. He then moved to a small city in western Russia, Nevel (Pskov Oblast), where he worked as a schoolteacher for two years. It was at that time that the first "Bakhtin Circle" formed. The group consisted of intellectuals with varying interests, but all shared a love for the discussion of literary, religious, and political topics. Included in this group were Valentin Voloshinov and, eventually, P. N. Medvedev, who joined the group later in Vitebsk. Vitebsk was "a cultural centre of the region" the perfect place for Bakhtin "and other intellectuals [to organize] lectures, debates and concerts." German philosophy was the topic talked about most frequently and, from this point forward, Bakhtin considered himself more a philosopher than a literary scholar. It was in Nevel, also, that Bakhtin worked tirelessly on a large work concerning moral philosophy that was never published in its entirety. However, in 1919, a short section of this work was published and given the title "Art and Responsibility". This piece constitutes Bakhtin's first published work. Bakhtin relocated to Vitebsk in 1920. It was here, in 1921, that Bakhtin married Elena Aleksandrovna Okolovich. Later, in 1923, Bakhtin was diagnosed with osteomyelitis, a bone disease that ultimately led to amputation of a leg in 1938. This illness hampered his productivity and rendered him an invalid.


title: Mikhail Bakhtin

text: In 1924, Bakhtin moved to Leningrad, where he assumed a position at the Historical Institute and provided consulting services for the State Publishing House. It is at this time that Bakhtin decided to share his work with the public, but, just before "On the Question of the Methodology of Aesthetics in Written Works" was to be published, the journal in which it was to appear stopped publication. This work was eventually published 51 years later. Repression and misplacement of his manuscripts would plague Bakhtin throughout his career. In 1929, "Problems of Dostoevsky’s Art", Bakhtin's first major work, was published. It is here that Bakhtin introduces the concept of dialogism. However, just as this book was introduced, on 8 December 1928, right before Voskresenie's 10th anniversary, Meyer, Bakhtin and a number of others associated with Voskresenie were apprehended by the Soviet secret police, the OGPU (Hirschkop 1999: p. 168). The leaders received sentences of up to ten years in labor camps of Solovki, though after an appeal to consider the state of his health, Bakhtin's sentence was commuted to exile to Kazakhstan, where he and his wife spent six years in Kustanai (now Kostanay). In 1936, they moved to Saransk (then in Mordovian ASSR, now the Republic of Mordovia), where Bakhtin taught at the Mordovian Pedagogical Institute.


title: Mikhail Bakhtin

text: During the six years he spent working as a book-keeper in the town of Kustanai, he wrote several important essays, including "Discourse in the Novel". In 1936, living in Saransk, he became an obscure figure in a provincial college, dropping out of view and teaching only occasionally. In 1937, Bakhtin moved to Kimry, a town located one hundred kilometers from Moscow. Here, he completed work on a book concerning the 18th-century German novel, which was subsequently accepted by the Sovetskii Pisatel' Publishing House. However, the only copy of the manuscript disappeared during the upheaval caused by the German invasion of 1941.


title: Mikhail Bakhtin

text: After the amputation of a leg in 1938, Bakhtin's health improved and he became more prolific. In 1940, and until the end of World War II, Bakhtin lived in Moscow, where he submitted a dissertation on François Rabelais to the Gorky Institute of World Literature to obtain a postgraduate title, although the dissertation could not be defended until the war ended. In 1946 and 1949, the defense of this dissertation divided the scholars of Moscow into two groups: those official opponents guiding the defense, who accepted the original and unorthodox manuscript, and those other professors who were against the manuscript's acceptance. The book's earthy, anarchic topic was the cause of many arguments that ceased only when the government intervened. Ultimately, Bakhtin was denied a higher doctoral degree (Doctor of Sciences) and granted a lesser degree (Candidate of Sciences, a research doctorate), by the State Accrediting Bureau. Later, Bakhtin was invited back to Saransk, where he took on the position of chair of the General Literature Department at the Mordovian Pedagogical Institute. When, in 1957, the Institute changed from a teachers' college to a university, Bakhtin became head of the Department of Russian and World Literature. In 1961, Bakhtin's deteriorating health forced him to retire, and in 1969, in search of medical attention, he moved back to Moscow, where he lived until his death in 1975.


title: Mikhail Bakhtin

text: Bakhtin's works and ideas gained popularity only after his death, and he endured difficult conditions for much of his professional life, a time in which information was often seen as dangerous and therefore was often hidden. As a result, the details provided now are often of uncertain accuracy. Also contributing to the imprecision of these details is the limited access to Russian archival information during Bakhtin's life. It was only after the archives became public that scholars realized that much of what they thought they knew about Bakhtin's life was false or skewed, largely by Bakhtin himself.


title: Mikhail Bakhtin

text: "Toward a Philosophy of the Act" was first published in the USSR in 1986 with the title "K filosofii postupka". The manuscript, written between 1919–1921, was found in bad condition with pages missing and sections of text that were illegible. Consequently, this philosophical essay appears today as a fragment of an unfinished work."Toward a Philosophy of the Act" comprises only an introduction, of which the first few pages are missing, and part one of the full text. However, Bakhtin's intentions for the work were not altogether lost: he provided an outline in the introduction, in which he stated that the essay was to contain four parts. The first part of the essay provides an analysis of performed acts or deeds that comprise "the world actually experienced", as opposed to "the merely thinkable world." For the three subsequent and unfinished parts of "Toward a Philosophy of the Act", Bakhtin states the topics he intended to discuss: the second part would have dealt with aesthetic activity and the ethics of artistic creation; the third with the ethics of politics; and the fourth with religion.


title: Mikhail Bakhtin

text: "Toward a Philosophy of the Act" reveals a Bakhtin in the process of developing his moral system by decentralizing the work of Kant, with a focus on ethics and aesthetics. It is here that Bakhtin lays out three claims regarding the acknowledgment of the uniqueness of one's participation in Being:


title: Mikhail Bakhtin

text: Bakhtin further states: "It is in relation to the whole actual unity that my unique thought arises from my unique place in Being." Bakhtin deals with the concept of morality whereby he attributes the predominating legalistic notion of morality to human moral action. According to Bakhtin, the I cannot maintain neutrality toward moral and ethical demands which manifest themselves as one's voice of consciousness.


title: Mikhail Bakhtin

text: It is here also that Bakhtin introduces an "architectonic" or schematic model of the human psyche, consisting of three components: "I-for-myself", "I-for-the-other", and "other-for-me". The I-for-myself is an unreliable source of identity; Bakhtin argues that it is the I-for-the-other through which human beings develop a sense of identity. The I-for-the-other serves as an amalgamation of the way in which others view the subject. Conversely, other-for-me describes the way in which others incorporate the subject's perceptions of them into their own identities. Identity, as Bakhtin describes it here, does not belong merely to the individual. Instead, it is shared by all.


title: Mikhail Bakhtin

text: During his time in Leningrad, Bakhtin shifted his view away from the philosophy characteristic of his early works and towards the notion of dialogue. It was at this time that he began his engagement with the work of Fyodor Dostoevsky. "Problems of Dostoevsky’s Poetics" is considered to be Bakhtin's seminal work, a work in which he introduces a number of important concepts. The work was originally published in Russia as "Problems of Dostoevsky's Creative Art" (Russian: Проблемы Творчества Достоевского) in 1929, but was revised and extended in 1963 under the new title. It is the later work that is best known in the West.


title: Mikhail Bakhtin

text: The concept of "unfinalizability" is particularly important to Bakhtin's analysis of Dostoevsky's approach to character, although he frequently discussed it in other contexts. He summarises the general principle behind unfinalizability in Dostoevsky thus:Nothing conclusive has yet taken place in the world, the ultimate word of the world and about the world has not yet been spoken, the world is open and free, everything is still in the future and will always be in the future.


title: Mikhail Bakhtin

text: 'Carnivalization' is a term used by Bakhtin to describe the techniques Dostoevsky uses to disarm this increasingly ubiquitous enemy and make true intersubjective dialogue possible. The "carnival sense of the world", a way of thinking and experiencing that Bakhtin identifies in ancient and medieval carnival traditions, has been transposed into a literary tradition that reaches its peak in Dostoevsky's novels. The concept suggests an ethos where normal hierarchies, social roles, proper behaviors and assumed truths are subverted in favor of the "joyful relativity" of free participation in the festival. According to Morson and Emerson, Bakhtin's "carnival" is "the apotheosis of unfinalizability". Carnival, through its temporary dissolution or reversal of conventions, generates the 'threshold' situations where disparate individuals come together and express themselves on an equal footing, without the oppressive constraints of social objectification: the usual preordained hierarchy of persons and values becomes an occasion for laughter, its absence an opportunity for creative interaction. In carnival, "opposites come together, look at one another, are reflected in one another, know and understand one another." Bakhtin sees carnivalization in this sense as a basic principle of Dostoevsky's art: love and hate, faith and atheism, loftiness and degradation, love of life and self-destruction, purity and vice, etc. "everything in his world lives on the very border of its opposite."


title: Mikhail Bakhtin

text: "Carnivalization" and its generic counterpart—Menippean satire—were not a part of the earlier book, but Bakhtin discusses them at great length in the chapter "Characteristics of Genre and Plot Composition in Dostoesky's Works" in the revised version. He traces the origins of Menippean satire back to ancient Greece, briefly describes a number of historical examples of the genre, and examines its essential characteristics. These characteristics include intensified comicality, freedom from established constraints, bold use of fantastic situations for the testing of truth, abrupt changes, inserted genres and multi-tonality, parodies, oxymorons, scandal scenes, inappropriate behaviour, and a sharp satirical focus on contemporary ideas and issues. Bakhtin credits Dostoevsky with revitalizing the genre and enhancing it with his own innovation in form and structure: the "polyphonic" novel.


title: Mikhail Bakhtin

text: According to Bakhtin, Dostoevsky was the creator of the polyphonic novel, and it was a fundamentally new genre that could not be analysed according to preconceived frameworks and schema that might be useful for other manifestations of the European novel. Dostoevsky does not describe characters and contrive plot within the context of a single authorial reality: rather his function as author is to illuminate the "self-consciousness" of the characters so that each participates on their own terms, in their own voice, according to their own ideas about themselves and the world. Bakhtin calls this multi-voiced reality "polyphony": ""a plurality of independent and unmerged voices and consciousnesses, a genuine polyphony of fully valid voices"..." Later he defines it as "the event of interaction between autonomous and internally unfinalized consciousnesses."


title: Mikhail Bakhtin

text: During World War II Bakhtin submitted a dissertation on the French Renaissance writer François Rabelais which was not defended until some years later. The controversial ideas discussed within the work caused much disagreement, and it was consequently decided that Bakhtin be denied his higher doctorate. Thus, due to its content, "Rabelais and Folk Culture of the Middle Ages and Renaissance" was not published until 1965, at which time it was given the title "Rabelais and His World" (Russian: Творчество Франсуа Рабле и народная культура средневековья и Ренессанса, "Tvorčestvo Fransua Rable i narodnaja kul'tura srednevekov'ja i Renessansa").


title: Mikhail Bakhtin

text: In "Rabelais and His World", a classic of Renaissance studies, Bakhtin concerns himself with the openness of "Gargantua and Pantagruel"; however, the book itself also serves as an example of such openness. Throughout the text, Bakhtin attempts two things: he seeks to recover sections of "Gargantua and Pantagruel" that, in the past, were either ignored or suppressed, and conducts an analysis of the Renaissance social system in order to discover the balance between language that was permitted and language that was not. It is by means of this analysis that Bakhtin pinpoints two important subtexts: the first is "carnival" (carnivalesque) which Bakhtin describes as a social institution, and the second is "grotesque realism" which is defined as a literary mode. Thus, in "Rabelais and His World" Bakhtin studies the interaction between the social and the literary, as well as the meaning of the body and the material bodily lower stratum.


title: Mikhail Bakhtin

text: In "Rabelais and His World", Bakhtin intentionally refers to the distinction between "official festivities" and "folk festivities". While official festivities aim to supply a legacy for authority, folk festivities have a critical centrifugal social function. Carnival, in this sense is categorized as a folk festivity by Bakhtin.


title: Mikhail Bakhtin

text: In his chapter on the history of laughter, Bakhtin advances the notion of its therapeutic and liberating force, arguing that "laughing truth ... degraded power".


title: Mikhail Bakhtin

text: "The Dialogic Imagination" (first published as a whole in 1975) is a compilation of four essays concerning language and the novel: "Epic and Novel" (1941), "From the Prehistory of Novelistic Discourse" (1940), "Forms of Time and of the Chronotope in the Novel" (1937–1938), and "Discourse in the Novel" (1934–1935). It is through the essays contained within "The Dialogic Imagination" that Bakhtin introduces the concepts of "heteroglossia", "dialogism" and "chronotope", making a significant contribution to the realm of literary scholarship. Bakhtin explains the generation of meaning through the "primacy of context over text" (heteroglossia), the hybrid nature of language (polyglossia) and the relation between utterances (intertextuality). Heteroglossia is "the base condition governing the operation of meaning in any utterance." To make an utterance means to "appropriate the words of others and populate them with one's own intention." Bakhtin's deep insights on dialogicality represent a substantive shift from views on the nature of language and knowledge by major thinkers such as Ferdinand de Saussure and Immanuel Kant.


title: Mikhail Bakhtin

text: In "Epic and Novel", Bakhtin demonstrates the novel's distinct nature by contrasting it with the epic. By doing so, Bakhtin shows that the novel is well-suited to the post-industrial civilization in which we live because it flourishes on diversity. It is this same diversity that the epic attempts to eliminate from the world. According to Bakhtin, the novel as a genre is unique in that it is able to embrace, ingest, and devour other genres while still maintaining its status as a novel. Other genres, however, cannot emulate the novel without damaging their own distinct identity.


title: Mikhail Bakhtin

text: "From the Prehistory of Novelistic Discourse" is a less traditional essay in which Bakhtin reveals how various different texts from the past have ultimately come together to form the modern novel.


title: Mikhail Bakhtin

text: "Forms of Time and of the Chronotope in the Novel" introduces Bakhtin's concept of chronotope. This essay applies the concept in order to further demonstrate the distinctive quality of the novel. The word "chronotope" literally means "time space" (a concept he refers to that of Einstein) and is defined by Bakhtin as "the intrinsic connectedness of temporal and spatial relationships that are artistically expressed in literature." In writing, an author must create entire worlds and, in doing so, is forced to make use of the organizing categories of the real world in which the author lives. For this reason "chronotope" is a concept that engages reality.


title: Mikhail Bakhtin

text: The final essay, "Discourse in the Novel", is one of Bakhtin's most complete statements concerning his philosophy of language. It is here that Bakhtin provides a model for a history of discourse and introduces the concept of heteroglossia. The term "heteroglossia" refers to the qualities of a language that are extralinguistic, but common to all languages. These include qualities such as perspective, evaluation, and ideological positioning. In this way most languages are incapable of neutrality, for every word is inextricably bound to the context in which it exists.


title: Mikhail Bakhtin

text: In "Speech Genres and Other Late Essays" Bakhtin moves away from the novel and concerns himself with the problems of method and the nature of culture. There are six essays that comprise this compilation: "Response to a Question from the "Novy Mir" Editorial Staff", "The "Bildungsroman" and Its Significance in the History of Realism", "The Problem of Speech Genres", "The Problem of the Text in Linguistics, Philology, and the Human Sciences: An Experiment in Philosophical Analysis", "From Notes Made in 1970-71," and "Toward a Methodology for the Human Sciences."


title: Mikhail Bakhtin

text: "Response to a Question from the "Novy Mir" Editorial Staff" is a transcript of comments made by Bakhtin to a reporter from a monthly journal called "Novy Mir" that was widely read by Soviet intellectuals. The transcript expresses Bakhtin's opinion of literary scholarship whereby he highlights some of its shortcomings and makes suggestions for improvement.


title: Mikhail Bakhtin

text: "The "Bildungsroman" and Its Significance in the History of Realism" is a fragment from one of Bakhtin's lost books. The publishing house to which Bakhtin had submitted the full manuscript was blown up during the German invasion and Bakhtin was in possession of only the prospectus. However, due to a shortage of paper, Bakhtin began using this remaining section to roll cigarettes. So only a portion of the opening section remains. This remaining section deals primarily with Goethe.


title: Mikhail Bakhtin

text: "The Problem of Speech Genres" deals with the difference between Saussurean linguistics and language as a living dialogue (translinguistics). In a relatively short space, this essay takes up a topic about which Bakhtin had planned to write a book, making the essay a rather dense and complex read. It is here that Bakhtin distinguishes between literary and everyday language. According to Bakhtin, genres exist not merely in language, but rather in communication. In dealing with genres, Bakhtin indicates that they have been studied only within the realm of rhetoric and literature, but each discipline draws largely on genres that exist outside both rhetoric and literature. These extraliterary genres have remained largely unexplored. Bakhtin makes the distinction between primary genres and secondary genres, whereby primary genres legislate those words, phrases, and expressions that are acceptable in everyday life, and secondary genres are characterized by various types of text such as legal, scientific, etc.


title: Mikhail Bakhtin

text: "The Problem of the Text in Linguistics, Philology, and the Human Sciences: An Experiment in Philosophical Analysis" is a compilation of the thoughts Bakhtin recorded in his notebooks. These notes focus mostly on the problems of the text, but various other sections of the paper discuss topics he has taken up elsewhere, such as speech genres, the status of the author, and the distinct nature of the human sciences. However, "The Problem of the Text" deals primarily with dialogue and the way in which a text relates to its context. Speakers, Bakhtin claims, shape an utterance according to three variables: the object of discourse, the immediate addressee, and a "superaddressee". This is what Bakhtin describes as the tertiary nature of dialogue.


title: Mikhail Bakhtin

text: "From Notes Made in 1970-71" appears also as a collection of fragments extracted from notebooks Bakhtin kept during the years of 1970 and 1971. It is here that Bakhtin discusses interpretation and its endless possibilities. According to Bakhtin, humans have a habit of making narrow interpretations, but such limited interpretations only serve to weaken the richness of the past.


title: Mikhail Bakhtin

text: The final essay, "Toward a Methodology for the Human Sciences", originates from notes Bakhtin wrote during the mid-seventies and is the last piece of writing Bakhtin produced before he died. In this essay he makes a distinction between dialectic and dialogics and comments on the difference between the text and the aesthetic object. It is here also, that Bakhtin differentiates himself from the Formalists, who, he felt, underestimated the importance of content while oversimplifying change, and the Structuralists, who too rigidly adhered to the concept of "code."


title: Mikhail Bakhtin

text: Some of the works which bear the names of Bakhtin's close friends V. N. Vološinov and P. N. Medvedev have been attributed to Bakhtin – particularly "Marxism and Philosophy of Language" and "The Formal Method in Literary Scholarship". These claims originated in the early 1970s and received their earliest full articulation in English in Clark and Holquist's 1984 biography of Bakhtin. In the years since then, however, most scholars have come to agree that Vološinov and Medvedev ought to be considered the true authors of these works. Although Bakhtin undoubtedly influenced these scholars and may even have had a hand in composing the works attributed to them, it now seems clear that if it was necessary to attribute authorship of these works to one person, Vološinov and Medvedev respectively should receive credit.


title: Mikhail Bakhtin

text: Bakhtin had a difficult life and career, and few of his works were published in an authoritative form during his lifetime. As a result, there is substantial disagreement over matters that are normally taken for granted: in which discipline he worked (was he a philosopher or literary critic?), how to periodize his work, and even which texts he wrote (see below). He is known for a series of concepts that have been used and adapted in a number of disciplines: dialogism, the carnivalesque, the chronotope, heteroglossia and "outsidedness" (the English translation of a Russian term "vnenakhodimost," sometimes rendered into English—from French rather than from Russian—as "exotopy"). Together these concepts outline a distinctive philosophy of language and culture that has at its center the claims that all discourse is in essence a dialogical exchange and that this endows all language with a particular ethical or ethico-political force.


title: Mikhail Bakhtin

text: As a literary theorist, Bakhtin is associated with the Russian Formalists, and his work is compared with that of Juri Lotman; in 1963 Roman Jakobson mentioned him as one of the few intelligent critics of Formalism. During the 1920s, Bakhtin's work tended to focus on ethics and aesthetics in general. Early pieces such as "Towards a Philosophy of the Act" and "Author and Hero in Aesthetic Activity" are indebted to the philosophical trends of the time—particularly the Marburg school neo-Kantianism of Hermann Cohen, including Ernst Cassirer, Max Scheler and, to a lesser extent, Nicolai Hartmann. Bakhtin began to be discovered by scholars in 1963, but it was only after his death in 1975 that authors such as Julia Kristeva and Tzvetan Todorov brought Bakhtin to the attention of the Francophone world, and from there his popularity in the United States, the United Kingdom, and many other countries continued to grow. In the late 1980s, Bakhtin's work experienced a surge of popularity in the West.


title: Mikhail Bakhtin

text: Bakhtin's primary works include "Toward a Philosophy of the Act," an unfinished portion of a philosophical essay; "Problems of Dostoyevsky’s Art," to which Bakhtin later added a chapter on the concept of carnival and published with the title "Problems of Dostoyevsky’s Poetics"; "Rabelais and His World," which explores the openness of the Rabelaisian novel; "The Dialogic Imagination," whereby the four essays that comprise the work introduce the concepts of dialogism, heteroglossia, and chronotope; and "Speech Genres and Other Late Essays," a collection of essays in which Bakhtin concerns himself with method and culture.


title: Mikhail Bakhtin

text: In the 1920s there was a "Bakhtin school" in Russia, in line with the discourse analysis of Ferdinand de Saussure and Roman Jakobson.


title: Mikhail Bakhtin

text: He is known today for his interest in a wide variety of subjects, ideas, vocabularies, and periods, as well as his use of authorial disguises, and for his influence (alongside György Lukács) on the growth of Western scholarship on the novel as a premiere literary genre. As a result of the breadth of topics with which he dealt, Bakhtin has influenced such Western schools of theory as Neo-Marxism, Structuralism, Social constructionism, and Semiotics. Bakhtin's works have also been useful in anthropology, especially theories of ritual. However, his influence on such groups has, somewhat paradoxically, resulted in narrowing the scope of Bakhtin's work. According to Clark and Holquist, rarely do those who incorporate Bakhtin's ideas into theories of their own appreciate his work in its entirety.


title: Mikhail Bakhtin

text: While Bakhtin is traditionally seen as a literary critic, there can be no denying his impact on the realm of rhetorical theory. Among his many theories and ideas Bakhtin indicates that style is a developmental process, occurring within both the user of language and language itself. His work instills in the reader an awareness of tone and expression that arises from the careful formation of verbal phrasing. By means of his writing, Bakhtin has enriched the experience of verbal and written expression which ultimately aids the formal teaching of writing. Some even suggest that Bakhtin introduces a new meaning to rhetoric because of his tendency to reject the separation of language and ideology. According to Leslie Baxter, for Bakhtin, "all language use is riddled with multiple voices (to be understood more generally as discourses, ideologies, perspectives, or themes)” and thus “meaning-making in general can be understood as the interplay of those voices."


title: Mikhail Bakhtin

text: Bakhtin has been called "the philosopher of human communication." Kim argues that Bakhtin’s theories of dialogue and literary representation are potentially applicable to virtually all academic disciplines in the human sciences. According to White, Bakhtin's dialogism represents a methodological turn towards “the messy reality of communication, in all its many language forms.” While Bakhtin's works focused primarily on text, interpersonal communication is also key, especially when the two are related in terms of culture. Kim states that "culture as Geertz and Bakhtin allude to can be generally transmitted through communication or reciprocal interaction such as a dialogue."


title: Mikhail Bakhtin

text: According to Leslie Baxter, "Bakhtin’s life work can be understood as a critique of the monologization of the human experience that he perceived in the dominant linguistic, literary, philosophical, and political theories of his time." He was "critical of efforts to reduce the unfinalizable, open, and multivocal process of meaning-making in determinate, closed, totalizing ways." For Baxter, Bakhtin’s dialogism enables communication scholars to conceive of difference in new ways. The background of a subject must be taken into consideration when conducting research into their understanding of any text, since "a dialogic perspective argues that difference (of all kinds) is basic to the human experience." Culture and communication become inextricably linked, as one's understanding of a given utterance, text, or message, is contingent upon one's cultural background and experience.


title: Mikhail Bakhtin

text: Kim argues that "his ideas of art as a vehicle oriented towards interaction with its audience in order to express or communicate any sort of intention is reminiscent of Clifford Geertz’s theories on culture."


title: Mikhail Bakhtin

text: Sheckels contends that "what [... Bakhtin] terms the ‘carnivalesque’ is tied to the body and the public exhibition of its more private functions [...] it served also as a communication event [...] anti-authority communication events [...] can also be deemed ‘carnivalesque’." Essentially, the act of turning society around through communication, whether it be in the form of text, protest, or otherwise serves as a communicative form of carnival, according to Bakhtin. Steele furthers the idea of carnivalesque in communication as she argues that it is found in corporate communication. Steele states "that ritualized sales meetings, annual employee picnics, retirement roasts and similar corporate events fit the category of carnival." Carnival cannot help but be linked to communication and culture as Steele points out that "in addition to qualities of inversion, ambivalence, and excess, carnival’s themes typically include a fascination with the body, particularly its little-glorified or 'lower strata' parts, and dichotomies between 'high' or 'low'." The high and low binary is particularly relevant in communication as certain verbiage is considered high, while slang is considered low. Moreover, much of popular communication including television shows, books, and movies fall into high and low brow categories. This is particularly prevalent in Bakhtin's native Russia, where postmodernist writers such as Boris Akunin have worked to change low brow communication forms (such as the mystery novel) into higher literary works of art by making constant references to one of Bakhtin's favorite subjects, Dostoyevsky.


title: For Your Consideration (film)

text: For Your Consideration is a 2006 American comedy film directed by Christopher Guest. It was co-written by Guest and Eugene Levy, and both also star in the film. The film's title is a phrase used in trade advertisements to promote films for honors such as the Academy Awards. The plot revolves around a group of three actors who learn that their performances in the fictional film they have not even completed yet, "Home for Purim", a drama set in the mid-1940s American South, are supposedly generating a great deal of award-season buzz.


title: For Your Consideration (film)

text: Many in the cast appeared in Guest's previous films "This Is Spinal Tap", "Waiting for Guffman", "Best in Show", and "A Mighty Wind", including Levy, Catherine O'Hara, Parker Posey, Harry Shearer, Michael McKean, Fred Willard, Larry Miller, Bob Balaban, Jennifer Coolidge, Jane Lynch, Ed Begley Jr., Michael Hitchcock, John Michael Higgins and Jim Piddock. Ricky Gervais, the co-creator of the original British television series "The Office," also appears, while Paul Dooley, John Krasinski, Richard Kind, Scott Adsit, and Sandra Oh make brief cameos. Though the dialogue is largely improvised by the actors as in Guest's earlier films, the format is a departure from the mockumentary style.


title: For Your Consideration (film)

text: The film received its World Premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 10, 2006. It was produced by Warner Independent Pictures in association with Castle Rock Entertainment and Shangri-La Entertainment.


title: For Your Consideration (film)

text: The film follows the production of "Home for Purim", a low-budget drama film about a Jewish family in the southern United States in the 1940s. The cast consists of character actress Marilyn Hack as the family's dying matriarch; veteran actor turned kosher hot dog mascot Victor Allen Miller as her husband; "ingénue" Callie Webb as their lesbian daughter, whose return home with her girlfriend serves as the driving plot of "Home for Purim"; and Brian Chubb, who is dating Webb, as their son.


title: For Your Consideration (film)

text: The film's director constantly incorporates bizarre camera shots and acting notes, while the producer, heiress to a diaper service, knows nothing about producing films. The two screenwriters are at odds with the director, as they struggle to align the film's period Southern setting with incongruous Jewish references and words.


title: For Your Consideration (film)

text: When an unattributed rumor begins to circulate that Hack, Miller, and Webb are likely to receive Oscar nominations for the film, each begins obsessing about the award. Hack pretends not to care while secretly pining for the award, Miller demands a higher salary and pushes his agent for more dignified work, and Webb breaks up with Chubb. Later, the hosts of entertainment news program "Hollywood Now" visit the set and interview the cast.


title: For Your Consideration (film)

text: The studio intervenes in the production of "Home for Purim" and, deeming the film to be "too Jewish," re-title it "Home for Thanksgiving". Despite this, the Oscar buzz around the film intensifies, and the three prospective nominees begin to make press appearances to promote the film. Miller appears on a hip-hop teen show called "Chillaxin"' in youthful attire with capped teeth, a tan, and dyed blonde hair. Hack gets breast implants and extensive plastic surgery to the point where her face is comically ecstatic. Webb goes on a shock jock radio show, only to field questions exclusively about her nude scenes.


title: For Your Consideration (film)

text: The Academy Award nominations are announced, and only Chubb (who sleeps through the morning of the announcement) is nominated. Miller returns to auditioning for commercials. Webb attempts to revive her failed one-woman show, "No Penis Intended". Hack makes a drunken rant on "Hollywood Now" and becomes an acting teacher, having uncomfortably made peace with her mediocre career.


title: For Your Consideration (film)

text: Based on 162 reviews collected by the film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, 52% of critics gave "For Your Consideration" a positive review, with an average rating of 5.90/10. The critical consensus reads: "As the object of satire gets bigger the jokes become thinner, and Christopher Guest isn't as droll or insightful here than when he was lampooning smaller subjects." Leonard Maltin gave the film three stars, describing it as "uncanny in its dead-on parodies of TV and radio talk shows and other follies of show business”.


title: For Your Consideration (film)

text: Catherine O'Hara won the National Board of Review's Best Supporting Actress award and was nominated for an Independent Spirit Award in the category of Best Female Lead. O'Hara's performance earned many good reviews, spurring for a short time rumors that, in an ironic twist, she could be nominated for an Academy Award. In the end, the film did not receive any Academy Award nominations.


title: Taarzan: The Wonder Car

text: Taarzan: The Wonder Car, or simply called Taarzan, is a 2004 Indian Hindi-language supernatural action thriller film directed by Abbas–Mustan. The film stars Ajay Devgn, Vatsal Sheth and Ayesha Takia, while Farida Jalal, Pankaj Dheer, Sadashiv Amrapurkar, Amrish Puri, Shakti Kapoor, Gulshan Grover and Mukesh Tiwari play supporting roles. Upon release, the film was a box office disaster. It is loosely based on the American film "Christine" (1983).


title: Taarzan: The Wonder Car

text: Automobile engineer Deven Chaudhary, who lives with his mother Suhasini and ten-year-old son Raj, builds a futuristic car with advanced features. He names this design as DC.


title: Taarzan: The Wonder Car

text: He also owns and maintains an older Morris Minor car that was handed down to him by his late father that he calls "Taarzan", based on the car's mirror ornament that resembles Edgar Rice Burroughs character Tarzan. Deven meets FourFox, a private company to discuss his design. FourFox executive Rakesh Kapoor and his partners Kailash, Anthony and Mahesh praise the design but disagree over royalties. However, they steal the design and registered it under their own name. This infuriates Deven and he files a complaint with the police. However, the police inspector who takes his case is secretly on Rakesh's payroll. He, along with Rakesh and his cronies, attack Deven, gag him and lock him in his car. The car is pushed into a river, causing a gagged Deven to die.


title: Taarzan: The Wonder Car

text: Twelve years later, his son Raj, now a 22-year-old boy goes to college where he falls in love with Priya, a rich girl. Raj also works as a part-time mechanic at a garage owned by Kartar Singh. One day, he discovers his father's futuristic car Taarzan. He pools money and buys it at 5000 rupees.


title: Taarzan: The Wonder Car

text: Raj works with Kartar Singh to repair and upgrade the car in memory of his father. They revamp the car into a more advanced version than Deven's original design, and Raj decides to rename it DC to honor his father's memory.


title: Taarzan: The Wonder Car

text: Deven's spirit possesses the car and controls it to seek revenge on his murderers. When Rakesh is abroad, Deven's spirit uses the car to kill his cronies Kailash, Anthony, Mahesh and the police inspector Sanjay. Since the car belongs to Raj, he becomes a suspect in the eyes of Inspector Khurana, the investigating officer. When Rakesh returns to India and learns all his partners have died.


title: Taarzan: The Wonder Car

text: Rakesh is revealed to be Priya's father and meets Raj on her insistence. After knowing Raj is Deven's son, Rakesh assumes that Raj has found the truth and is using Priya as a pawn. He decides to kill Raj and take Priya back with him to London and get Priya married to a man of his choice. Raj is shocked as Rakesh tells him the truth about Deven's death. Before Rakesh could kill Raj, Deven's spirit appears and saves Raj. Terrified, Rakesh confesses his crime before everyone.


title: Taarzan: The Wonder Car

text: Inspector Khurana arrests Rakesh. Deven says his last goodbye to Suhasini and Raj. With Raj, Suhasini and Priya united, Deven's spirit becomes free, and he ascends to heaven. Raj and Priya live a happy life afterwards.


title: Taarzan: The Wonder Car

text: Taran Adarsh of IndiaFM gave the film 2.5 stars out of 5, writing ″On the whole, TAARZAN THE WONDER CAR is a different experience that will find its share of supporters and adversaries. At the box-office, the film will have to rely on kid-power to make it big. Had the film released during vacations, the outcome would've been much better. Dhawan G of Rediff.com wrote ″The Abbas-Mustan film will actually delight kids more than adults. It's funny, Hollywood's king of horror Stephen King would never have seen his horror fest Christine becoming a family film, where the car—instead of scaring the audience—entertains them.″ Goher Iqbal Punn of BBC.com wrote ″On the whole, Tarzan - The Wonder Car is a stylishly and creatively executed enterprise, which will have you glued to your seat till the end. A great entertainer overall.″


title: Mitre Corporation

text: The Mitre Corporation (stylized as The MITRE Corporation and MITRE) is an American not-for-profit organization with dual headquarters in Bedford, Massachusetts, and McLean, Virginia. It manages federally funded research and development centers (FFRDCs) supporting various U.S. government agencies in the aviation, defense, healthcare, homeland security, and cybersecurity fields, among others.


title: Mitre Corporation

text: MITRE was founded in Bedford, Massachusetts in 1958, spun off from the MIT Lincoln Laboratory. MITRE's first employees had been evaluating the Semi-Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE) system and aerospace defense as part of Lincoln Labs Division 6. MITRE's early leadership has been described as "a mix of men" affiliated with the Ford Foundation, the Institute for Defense Analyses, RAND Corporation, System Development Corporation (SDC), and the United States Armed Forces, including Horace Rowan Gaither, James Rhyne Killian, James McCormack, and Julius Adams Stratton.


title: Mitre Corporation

text: In April 1959, a site was purchased in Bedford, Massachusetts, near Hanscom Air Force Base, to develop a new Mitre laboratory, which Mitre occupied in September 1959. MITRE established an office in McLean in 1963, and had approximately 850 technical employees by 1967. MITRE registered the first .org domain on July 10, 1985, which continues to be used by the company. During the 1980s, the German hacker Markus Hess used an unsecured Mitre Tymnet connection as an entry point for intrusions into U.S. Department of Defense, Department of Energy, and NASA computer networks. By 1989, the company had thousands of employees in Bedford and McLean; approximately 3,000 employees in the "command, control, communications and intelligence" ("C3I") division oversaw military projects, while non-military projects were handled by the civilian division, which had approximately 800 employees based in McLean.


title: Mitre Corporation

text: By the 1990s, MITRE had become a "multifaceted engineering company with a wide range of clients", according to Kathleen Day of "The Washington Post". MITRE worked on neural network software, the long-distance telecommunications service FTS2000 for the General Services Administration, and a new computer system for the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. On January 29, 1996, Mitre divided into two entities: The MITRE Corporation, to focus on its FFRDCs for DoD and FAA; and a new company established in McLean, called Mitretek Systems until 2007 and now called Noblis, to assume non-FFRDC research work for other U.S. Government agencies.


title: Mitre Corporation

text: MITRE restructured research and development operations in mid 2020, forming MITRE Labs. Approximately half of MITRE's employees work under the unit, which seeks to "further extend the parent organization's impact across federally-funded research-and-development centers and with partners in academia and industry".


title: Mitre Corporation

text: The nonprofit foundation MITRE Engenuity (or simply Engenuity) was launched in 2019 "to collaborate with the private sector on solving industrywide problems with cyber defense" in collaboration with corporate partners. The foundation created the Center for Threat-Informed Defense that has 23 member organizations with cybersecurity teams, as of 2020, including Fujitsu and Microsoft. In September 2020, Engenuity's Center for Threat-Informed Defense and partners launched the Adversary Emulation Library, a GitHub-hosted project providing downloadable emulation plans to network security groups at no cost. The library's first plan was focused on the prominent cybercrime group FIN6. MITRE had previously released emulation plans for the Chinese and Russian hacker groups Advanced Persistent Threat (APT) 3 and APT29 in 2017 and 2020, respectively. In March 2021, Engenuity created the MITRE ATT&CK Defender training program to educate and certify cybersecurity professionals.


title: Mitre Corporation

text: MITRE manages six FFRDCs. The National Security Engineering Center, previously known as the C3I Federally Funded Research and Development Center until 2011, addresses national security issues for the Department of Defense.


title: Mitre Corporation

text: MITRE's Center for Advanced Aviation System Development (CAASD) supports the FAA, an agency within the Department of Transportation.


title: Mitre Corporation

text: The organization's Center for Enterprise Modernization, which focuses on enterprise modernization, was established as the IRS Federally Funded Research and Development Center in 1998, before being renamed in August 2001. Originally sponsored by the Internal Revenue Service (a bureau of the Department of the Treasury), the Department of Veterans Affairs joined as a co-sponsor in 2008, and the Social Security Administration joined as a co-sponsor in 2018.


title: Mitre Corporation

text: MITRE's Homeland Security Systems Engineering and Development Institute (HSSEDI) completes work for the Department of Homeland Security, such as maintaining the federal executive department's list of the 25 most common software bugs. The HSSEDI was established in 2009, following passage of the Homeland Security Act of 2002, and along with the Homeland Security Studies and Analysis Institute replaced the Homeland Security Institute.


title: Mitre Corporation

text: MITRE's CMS Alliance to Modernize Healthcare was established in 2012 as the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services Federally Funded Research and Development Center, also known as the Health FFRDC. The FFRDC is sponsored by the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services, an agency within the Department of Health and Human Services.


title: Mitre Corporation

text: MITRE has managed the National Cybersecurity FFRDC since 2014, following receipt of a "single indefinite-delivery, indefinite-quantity" $5 million contract from the National Institute of Science and Technology (NIST) for a research center dedicated to cybersecurity. MITRE will support NIST's work "related to cybersecurity solutions composed of commercial components and the integration of technology to build trustworthy information systems for government agencies".


title: Mitre Corporation

text: Currently, MITRE holds the contract to administer and provide management to JASON, an advisory group for the federal government made up of scientists.


title: Mitre Corporation

text: MITRE's Center for Data-Driven Policy, established in 2020, seeks to "provide evidence-based, objective and nonpartisan insights for government policymaking".


title: Mitre Corporation

text: The Center for Technology & National Security, now part of the Center for Data-Driven Policy, was created to link MITRE "with senior government officials for research and development purposes". Members of the advisory board include John F. Campbell, Lisa Disbrow, William E. Gortney, Robert B. Murrett, and Robert O. Work, as of mid 2020.


title: Mitre Corporation

text: U.S. military forces, especially the Air Force, were primary initial sponsors; according to "Air Force Magazine", MITRE was created "as a special-purpose technical not-for-profit firm to perform the SAGE systems-engineering job". The aerial warfare service branch had struggled to identify a for-profit corporation to develop the defense system, so MITRE was hired to serve as the system engineer. MITRE subsequently designed air defense systems for the U.S. and allies, improving aircraft and missile tracking as well as communication interception abilities. The company also helped design the Cheyenne Mountain Complex facility in Colorado operating the North American Air Defense system. In the 1970s, MITRE continued supporting military projects such as AWACS and the Joint Tactical Information Distribution System and "[helping] civil agencies develop information systems for transportation, medicine, law enforcement, space exploration and environmental cleanup."


title: Mitre Corporation

text: MITRE has completed software engineering work for the Distributed Common Ground System and helped the North Atlantic Treaty Organization create intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR) data standards. The company also worked with the Multi-Sensor Aerospace-Ground Joint ISR Interoperability Coalition to ensure proper formatting for ISR sensor data. In 2018, MITRE developed the "Deliver Uncompromised" strategy for the Department of Defense, proposing recommendations for supply chain security. MITRE and the Air Force Association's Mitchell Institute published a report in 2019 recommending improved technologies for the U.S. nuclear command, control and communications (NC3) network and warning that some of the system's early satellites are "vulnerable to electronic attacks and interference". The firm also published a government-mandated report with recommendations for the Air Force's inventory in 2030. The Department of Veterans Affairs hired MITRE to provide recommendation for implementation and program integration of the Forever GI Bill.


title: Mitre Corporation

text: MITRE has also focused on the great power competition; in 2020, the company published a paper about 5G networks and competition between China and the U.S.


title: Mitre Corporation

text: In addition to military work, MITRE's early projects included air traffic control improvements for the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). During the 1980s, MITRE helped modernize the Air Force's airborne early warning and control system and improve the Milstar constellation of communications satellites. The company also worked on a major overhaul of the FAA's traffic control system as well as sensor technology for tracking stealth aircraft. In 1997, MITRE sponsored a research program related to Global Positioning System (GPS) adaptive nulling antennas. MITRE also provided global navigation satellite system signal generation equipment for testing at the United States Army's White Sands Missile Range. The Air Force Research Laboratory's geosynchronous satellite Navigation Technology Satellite-3 will use MITRE's Global Navigation Satellite System Test Architecture to "implement user equipment capability".


title: Mitre Corporation

text: MITRE has worked on the traffic collision avoidance system of the Next Generation Air Transportation System (NextGen), a modernization project of the National Airspace System (NAS). MITRE's Integrated Demonstration and Experimentation for Aeronautics (IDEA) Lab has assessed the impact of new technologies for the FAA since 1992. In addition to air traffic management and aviation regulations, the group has worked on merging unmanned aerial vehicle operations into the NAS as well as defining how the system will function in 2035, a decade after the scheduled implementation of NextGen.


title: Mitre Corporation

text: MITRE has explored the use of mobile devices for communicating instrument flight rules, specifically clearances at airports lacking Pre-Departure Clearance/Data Comm Clearance. The company's Pacer web application uses System Wide Information Management and Traffic Flow Management System data as well as airline and general aviation departure schedules to "improve the way that general aviation operators file for and obtain departure clearances".


title: Mitre Corporation

text: MITRE has also completed air traffic control and safety work for the Civil Aviation Authority of Singapore (CAAS). The company's Singapore-based unit was hired by CAAS to consider how artificial intelligence, machine learning, and speech recognition could be used to improve air traffic management systems. Among MITRE's innovations was a "speech recognition prototype that will automate and shorten the transcription process during an aviation incident investigation".


title: Mitre Corporation

text: MITRE and the Naval Research Laboratory developed the Frequency-scaled Ultra-wide Spectrum Element (FUSE) antenna to increase the data transfer speed between ground users and satellites. Meshbed, a CubeSat launched into orbit by the Indian Space Research Organisation's Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle in November 2019, will test the antenna's effectiveness. MITRE has received three patents for the antenna.


title: Mitre Corporation

text: The MITRE ATT&CK framework, launched in 2015, has been described by "Computer Weekly" as "the free, globally accessible service that offers comprehensive and current cyber security threat information" to organizations, and by TechTarget as a "global knowledge base of threat activity, techniques and models". The framework has been used by the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency and the FBI. Version 8.0 was released in 2020. According to a 2020 study published by the University of California, Berkeley and security software company McAfee, 80 percent of companies use the framework for cybersecurity.


title: Mitre Corporation

text: The Structured Threat Information eXchange (STIX), described as a "machine-to-machine cyber threat information-sharing language", was developed by MITRE and the Department of Homeland Security. The program facilitates information sharing between industry, critical infrastructure operators and government in order to blunt cyberattacks" and allows participants to share data via the Trusted Automated eXchange of Indicator Information (TAXII). Program governance was granted to the global nonprofit consortium OASIS in 2015, and STIX 2.0 was approved in 2017.


title: Mitre Corporation

text: In September 2020, the U.S. Air Force awarded a $463 million contract to continue work for the National Security Engineering Center, an FFRDC supporting the Department of Defense and Intelligence Community. The contract will provide cybersecurity, electronics, information technology, sensors, and systems engineering services in Bedford and McLean for one year. Microsoft and MITRE partnered on the open source Adversarial Machine Learning Threat Matrix in collaboration with IBM, Nvidia, and academic institutions. Launched in October 2020, the framework is "designed to organize and catalogue known techniques for attacks against machine-learning systems, to inform security analysts and provide them with strategies to detect, respond and remediate against threats".


title: Mitre Corporation

text: In February 2020, MITRE launched SQUINT, a free app allowing election officials to report misinformation on social media; the app was being used by eleven U.S. states, as of October 2020. The company also established the National Election Security Lab, offering free risk assessments for voting systems.


title: Mitre Corporation

text: Other projects include the Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures (CVE) database of vulnerabilities and exposures related to information security and the Common Weakness Enumeration (CWE) category system for software weaknesses and vulnerabilities.


title: Mitre Corporation

text: MITRE and the British startup company Simudyne partnered to convert an "agent-based" financial risk model of "asset fire-sales and investor flight from banks and funds into a commercial product". The new system is based on one MITRE had previously created for the Department of the Treasury. MITRE has also researched cloud computing policy, helped the U.S. federal government identify fraudulent comments intended to "spoof" public support for non-existent positions during the rulemaking process, and increased the Pennsylvania Department of Revenue's delinquent taxpayer compliance rate.


title: Mitre Corporation

text: In 1982, Mitre authored a proposal for the State Department called "Cannabis Eradication in Foreign Western Nations." In this proposal, a plan was outlined to eradicate cannabis in participating nations within 121 days, for $19 million. The report discussed the use and safety considerations of paraquat. The plan would have been to aerially dispense paraquat over marijuana crops. One safety concern was the food crops grown alongside the marijuana crops being contaminated. A study conducted on rats by Imperial Chemical Industries was cited in the report, and claimed low health risks for paraquat. The U.S. Public Health Service commented on this study saying that due to the present squamous metaplasia in the respiratory tracts of the rats that "This study should not be used to calculate the safe inhalation dose of paraquat in humans."


title: Mitre Corporation

text: During the 1980s, MITRE worked on a digital radiological imaging project for MedStar Georgetown University Hospital and an upgrade to MEDLINE for the National Institutes of Health. Synthea, MITRE's open source synthetic data system, "mirrors real population information in terms of demographics, disease burden, vaccinations, medical visits and social determinants", and seeks to "mimic how each patient progresses from birth to death through modular representations of various diseases and conditions". MITRE's patient data set SyntheticMass, based on "fictional" Massachusetts residents, was formatted by Fast Healthcare Interoperability Resources and made available to developers via Google Cloud in 2019.


title: Mitre Corporation

text: In March 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, MITRE published a white paper claiming the number of confirmed and reported COVID-19 cases "significantly underrepresent the actual number of active domestic COVID-19 infections" in the United States. MITRE said the gap was because of "limited testing capability and the multi-day period of asymptomatic infectivity associated with the COVID-19 pathogen". MITRE managed the Coronavirus Commission on Safety and Quality in Nursing Homes, announced by the Donald Trump administration in June 2020, to "independently and comprehensively assess" responses to the pandemic and "offer actionable recommendations to inform future responses to infectious disease outbreaks within nursing homes".


title: Mitre Corporation

text: The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) funded a $16.5 million MITRE-led project to create an enduring open source tool called Sara Alert, for monitoring symptoms of Americans exposed to COVID-19. MITRE developed the free tool in collaboration with multiple national public health organizations as well as local and state health agencies. In April 2020, Sara Alert launched in Arkansas and was being tested in Danbury, Connecticut as well as the Northern Mariana Islands, with data being maintained by the Association of Public Health Laboratories. Sara Alert was being used in Idaho, Maine, Pennsylvania, and Virginia by the end of May, and Guam by October. Since January 2021, MITRE has co-lead a coalition known as the Vaccination Credential Initiative (VCI), which is composed of over 300 technology and healthcare organizations developing a technical standard for verifying vaccination and other clinical information.


title: Mitre Corporation

text: Clair William Halligan, an electrical engineer, served as MITRE's first president until 1966, when he became chairman of the company's executive committee. He retired in 1968. John L. McLucas succeeded Halligan as president. Robert Everett served as president from 1969 to 1986. Subsequent holders of the president and chief executive officer (CEO) role included Charles S. Zraket (1986–1990), Barry Horowitz (1990–1996), Victor A. DeMarines (1996–2000), Martin C. Faga (2000–2006), and Alfred Grasso (2006–2017). Jason Providakes became the current president and CEO in 2017.


title: Mitre Corporation

text: Jay Schnitzer serves as chief technology officer and chief medical officer. He is leading a national effort to combat COVID-19 on behalf of MITRE and 50 partner companies, health care providers, and researchers, as of March 2020. MITRE named Charles Clancy its first chief futurist in 2020 and restructured to create MITRE Labs.


title: Mitre Corporation

text: Current trustees include Mike Rogers (chairman), George Campbell Jr., Lance Collins, Maury W. Bradsher, Sue Gordon, Yvette Meléndez, George Halvorson, Paul G. Kaminski, Adalio T. Sanchez, Cathy Minehan, John H. Noseworthy, Rodney E. Slater, and Jan E. Tighe.


title: Mitre Corporation

text: The Alliance for Clinical Trials in Oncology, American Society of Clinical Oncology, and MITRE partnered on the 'mCODE Initiative' to recommend data standards for cancer patients' electronic health records. MITRE supports the Homeland Security Experts Group, which has been described as "an independent, nonpartisan group of homeland security and counterterrorism experts that educates the public and government leaders, including the secretary of homeland security".


title: Mitre Corporation

text: MITRE became a founding member of the Space Information Sharing and Analysis Center, a cybersecurity project for the space industry, in 2019. MITRE and partners such as Harvard Innovation Labs and MassChallenge launched Bridging Innovation in 2020 to connect government agencies and startup companies. MITRE is a member of the COVID-19 Healthcare Coalition, which is co-chaired by Jay Schnitzer. In June 2020, the coalition launched the COVID-19 Decision Support Dashboard, which uses public data to assess transmission trends and display color-coded indicators based on performance by jurisdiction. MITRE is also part of the Fight Is In Us coalition, a collaborative effort between advocates, companies, and government officials to promote plasma donation for patient treatment during the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Mitre Corporation

text: MITRE's Countering Unmanned Aircraft Systems Challenge in 2016 invited applicants to "demonstrate systems that detect and stop drones weighing less than five pounds that present a safety or security risk". The company's Unique Identification of Internet of Things (IoT) Devices Challenge tasked applicants with improving security for connected devices. In 2020, MITRE participated in the National Institute of Standards and Technology's Too Close for Too Long Challenge to "help evaluate and potentially improve upon that baseline Bluetooth performance for helping detect when smartphone users are standing too close to one another".


title: Mitre Corporation

text: In addition to the headquarter campuses in Bedford and McLean, MITRE has more than 60 other locations throughout the United States and around the world. In New Jersey, two offices house approximately 60 employees, as of September 2020. Up to 70 percent of employees may continue working remotely, even after restrictions associated with the COVID-19 pandemic have been lifted.


title: Mitre Corporation

text: MITRE's data center in Bedford, originally built during the 1980s and known as the High Performance Computing Center since 2015, was retrofitted with a refrigerant-based cooling system, resulting in lower operating costs and a higher compute capacity. The company's McLean campus houses the Integrated Demonstration and Experimentation for Aeronautics (IDEA) Lab, as well as the Mobile Autonomous Systems Experimentation lab, which focuses on self-driving cars. MITRE's laboratory in Singapore, called Mitre Asia Pacific Singapore (MAPS) assesses and displays "various safety and air traffic concepts in preparation for the future".


title: Mitre Corporation

text: In June 2008, MITRE was presented with the Secretary of Defense Medal for Outstanding Public Service for "significant contributions in communications, command and control decision-making, intelligence, cyberspace, and warfighter field support, as well as research and development". In July 2008, MITRE was awarded the Air Force Association's Theodore Von Karman award for "the most outstanding contribution in the field of engineering and science". In July 2008, MITRE's Center for Advanced Aviation System Development (CAASD), as part of an ADS-B team of 26 public and private sector groups, was selected for the 2007 Collier Trophy for its efforts in conceptualizing, developing, and implementing a fundamental, so-called "cornerstone capability" for the future of the national airspace system.


title: Mitre Corporation

text: In 2011, for the second time, MITRE's knowledge management successes have earned the corporation a North American Most Admired Knowledge Enterprises (MAKE) award, which recognizes organizations for exceptional knowledge management and knowledge sharing practices. In 2011 and 2012, "InformationWeek" named MITRE to its InformationWeek 500, an annual ranking of the nation's most innovative users of business technology. In 2013, MITRE was named a CSO40 Award winner by the International Data Group's "CSO Magazine". The CSO40 Awards recognize 40 organizations for security projects and initiatives that demonstrate outstanding business value and thought leadership. In 2015, "Forbes" named MITRE one of America's Best Employers.


title: Mitre Corporation

text: MITRE has been included on annual lists of several magazines. "The Boston Globe" has named MITRE to its "Top Places to Work" list for four years. "Fortune" included MITRE in its "100 Best Companies to Work For" for ten consecutive years. "Computerworld" included MITRE in its "100 Best Places to Work in IT" list, for eight consecutive years; the company was recognized again in 2016 and 2018–2020. Glassdoor has named MITRE one of the "50 Best Places to Work" for five consecutive years. In 2021, MITRE was included in "CIO" magazine's "CIO 100" list, which recognizes IT organizations "for driving digital business growth through technology innovation".


title: Mitre Corporation

text: MITRE has also been included in "The Washington Post" lists of "Top Workplaces", ranking number 8 and number 10 in the large companies category in 2016 and 2017, respectively. Bloomberg Government ranked the company number 47 in 2018 and 2019 lists of top federal contractors. In 2019 and 2021, the magazine "U.S. Black Engineer and Information Technology" included MITRE in a list of "top supporters" of engineering programs at historically black colleges and universities. MITRE ranked number 38 in "The Denver Post" 2020 list of the "best midsize companies to work for" in Colorado.


title: Lip

text: The lips are the visible body part at the mouth of many animals, including humans. Lips are soft, movable, and serve as the opening for food intake and in the articulation of sound and speech. Human lips are a tactile sensory organ, and can be an erogenous zone when used in kissing and other acts of intimacy.


title: Lip

text: The upper and lower lips are referred to as the "Labium superius oris" and "Labium inferius oris", respectively. The juncture where the lips meet the surrounding skin of the mouth area is the vermilion border, and the typically reddish area within the borders is called the vermilion zone. The vermilion border of the upper lip is known as the cupid's bow. The fleshy protuberance located in the center of the upper lip is a tubercle known by various terms including the procheilon (also spelled "prochilon"), the "tuberculum labii superioris", and the "labial tubercle". The vertical groove extending from the procheilon to the nasal septum is called the philtrum.


title: Lip

text: The skin of the lip, with three to five cellular layers, is very thin compared to typical face skin, which has up to 16 layers. With light skin color, the lip skin contains fewer melanocytes (cells which produce melanin pigment, which give skin its color). Because of this, the blood vessels appear through the skin of the lips, which leads to their notable red coloring. With darker skin color this effect is less prominent, as in this case the skin of the lips contains more melanin and thus is visually darker. The skin of the lip forms the border between the exterior skin of the face, and the interior mucous membrane of the inside of the mouth.


title: Lip

text: The lip skin is not hairy and does not have sweat glands. Therefore, it does not have the usual protection layer of sweat and body oils which keep the skin smooth, inhibit pathogens, and regulate warmth. For these reasons, the lips dry out faster and become chapped more easily.


title: Lip

text: The lower lip is formed from the mandibular prominence, a branch of the first pharyngeal arch. The lower lip covers the anterior body of the mandible. It is lowered by the depressor labii inferioris muscle and the orbicularis oris borders it inferiorly.


title: Lip

text: The upper lip covers the anterior surface of the body of the maxilla. Its upper half is of usual skin color and has a depression at its center, directly under the nasal septum, called the philtrum, which is Latin for "lower nose", while its lower half is a markedly different, red-colored skin tone more similar to the color of the inside of the mouth, and the term "vermillion" refers to the colored portion of either the upper or lower lip.


title: Lip

text: It is raised by the levator labii superioris and is connected to the lower lip by the thin lining of the lip itself.


title: Lip

text: Thinning of the vermilion of the upper lip and flattening of the philtrum are two of the facial characteristics of fetal alcohol syndrome, a lifelong disability caused by the mother's consumption of alcohol during pregnancy.


title: Lip

text: The skin of the lips is stratified squamous epithelium. The mucous membrane is represented by a large area in the sensory cortex, and is therefore highly sensitive. The "Frenulum Labii Inferioris" is the frenulum of the lower lip. The "Frenulum Labii Superioris" is the frenulum of the upper lip.


title: Lip

text: This artery supplies both lips by its superior and inferior labial branches. Each of the two branches "bifurcate" and "anastomose" with their companion branch from the other terminal.


title: Lip

text: The muscles acting on the lips are considered part of the muscles of facial expression. All muscles of facial expression are derived from the mesoderm of the second pharyngeal arch and are therefore supplied (motor supply) by the nerve of the second pharyngeal arch, the facial nerve (7th cranial nerve). The muscles of facial expression are all specialized members of the panniculus carnosus, which attach to the dermis and so wrinkle or dimple the overlying skin. Functionally, the muscles of facial expression are arranged in groups around the orbits, nose, and mouth.


title: Lip

text: Because they have their own muscles and bordering muscles, the lips are easily movable. Lips are used for eating functions, like holding food or to get it in the mouth. In addition, lips serve to close the mouth airtight shut, to hold food and drink inside, and to keep out unwanted objects. Through making a narrow funnel with the lips, the suction of the mouth is increased. This suction is essential for babies to breast feed. Lips can also be used to suck in other contexts, such as sucking on a straw to drink liquids.


title: Lip

text: The lips serve for creating different sounds—mainly labial, bilabial, and labiodental consonant sounds as well as vowel rounding—and thus are an important part of the speech apparatus. The lips enable whistling and the performing of wind instruments such as the trumpet, clarinet, flute, and saxophone. People who have hearing loss may unconsciously or consciously lip read to understand speech without needing to perceive the actual sounds, and visual cues from the lips affect the perception of what sounds have been heard, for example the McGurk Effect.


title: Lip

text: The lip has many nerve endings and reacts as part of the tactile (touch) senses. Lips are very sensitive to touch, warmth, and cold. It is therefore an important aid for exploring unknown objects for babies and toddlers.


title: Lip

text: Because of their high number of nerve endings, the lips are an erogenous zone. The lips therefore play a crucial role in kissing and other acts of intimacy.


title: Lip

text: A woman's lips are also a visible expression of her fertility. In studies performed on the science of human attraction, psychologists have concluded that a woman's facial and sexual attractiveness is closely linked to the makeup of her hormones during puberty and development. Contrary to the effects of testosterone on a man's facial structure, the effects of a woman's oestrogen levels serve to maintain a relatively "childlike" and youthful facial structure during puberty and during final maturation. It has been shown that the more oestrogen a woman has, the larger her eyes and the fuller her lips, characteristics which are perceived as more feminine. Surveys performed by sexual psychologists have also found that universally, men find a woman's full lips to be more sexually attractive than lips that are less so. A woman's lips are therefore sexually attractive to males because they serve as a biological indicator of a woman's health and fertility. A woman's lipstick (or collagen lip enhancement) attempts to take advantage of this fact by creating the illusion that a woman has more oestrogen than she actually has and thus that she is more fertile and attractive.


title: Lip

text: Lip size is linked to sexual attraction in both men and women. Women are attracted to men with masculine lips that are more middle size and not too big or too small; they are to be rugged and sensual. In general, the researchers found that a small nose, big eyes and voluptuous lips are sexually attractive both in men and women. The lips may temporarily swell during sexual arousal due to engorgement with blood.


title: Lip

text: The lips contribute substantially to facial expressions. The lips visibly express emotions such as a smile or frown, iconically by the curve of the lips forming an up-open or down-open parabola, respectively. Lips can also be made pouty when whining or perky to be provocative.


title: Lip

text: Lips are often viewed as a symbol of sensuality and sexuality. This has many origins; above all, the lips are a very sensitive erogenous and tactile organ. Furthermore, in many cultures of the world, a woman's mouth and lips are veiled because of their representative association with the vulva, and because of their role as a woman's secondary sexual organ.


title: Lip

text: As part of the mouth, the lips are also associated with the symbolism associated with the mouth as orifice by which food is taken in. The lips are also linked symbolically to neonatal psychology (see for example oral stage of the psychology according to Sigmund Freud).


title: Lip

text: Lip piercing or lip augmentation is sometimes carried out for cosmetic reasons. Products designed for use on the lips include lipstick, lip gloss and lip balm.


title: Lip

text: In most vertebrates, the lips are relatively unimportant folds of tissue lying just outside the jaws. However, in mammals, they become much more prominent, being separated from the jaws by a deep cleft (a notable exception being the naked mole-rat, whose lips close behind the front teeth). They are also more mobile in mammals than in other groups since it is only in this group that they have any attached muscles. In some teleost fish, the lips may be modified to carry sensitive barbels. In birds and turtles, the lips are hard and keratinous, forming a solid beak. Clevosaurids like "Clevosaurus" are notable for the presence of bone "lips"; in these species the tooth-like jaw projections common to all sphenodontians form a beak-like edge around the jaws, protecting the teeth within.


title: Maribor

text: Maribor ( , , , ; also known by other historical names) is the second-largest city in Slovenia and the largest city of the traditional region of Lower Styria. It is also the seat of the City Municipality of Maribor, the seat of the Drava statistical region and the Eastern Slovenia region. Maribor is also the economic, administrative, educational, and cultural centre of eastern Slovenia.


title: Maribor

text: Maribor was first mentioned as a castle in 1164, as a settlement in 1209, and as a city in 1254. Like most Slovene ethnic territory, Maribor was under Habsburg rule until 1918, when Rudolf Maister and his men secured the city for the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs, which then joined the Kingdom of Serbia to form the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. In 1991 Maribor became part of independent Slovenia.


title: Maribor

text: Maribor, along with the Portuguese city of Guimarães, was selected the European Capital of Culture for 2012.


title: Maribor

text: Maribor was attested in historical sources as "Marpurch" circa 1145 (and later as "Marchburch", "Marburc", and "Marchpurch"), and is a compound of Middle High German "march" 'march (borderland)' + "burc" 'fortress'. In modern times, the town's German name was "Marburg an der Drau" (; literally, 'Marburg on the Drava').


title: Maribor

text: The Slovene name "Maribor" is an artificial Slovenized creation, coined by Stanko Vraz in 1836. Vraz created the name in the spirit of Illyrianism by analogy with the name "Brandenburg" (cf. Lower Sorbian "Bramborska"). Locally, the town was known in Slovene as "Marprk" or "Marprog". The name "Maribor" was accepted among Slovenes only 25 years later, when Lovro Toman published a song named "Mar i bor", giving the name a Slovene compound "Mar" 'to care' + "i" 'and' + "bor" 'to fight for'. In addition to its Slovene and German names, the city is also known as "Marburgum" in Latin and "Marburgo" in Italian.


title: Maribor

text: The oldest known remnants of settlement in the Maribor area date back to the 5th millennium BC, at the time of the Chalcolithic. With the construction of Maribor's western bypass, larger settlements were discovered dating from the 44th to 42nd century BC. Another settlement from around the same period was also discovered in Spodnje Hoče, a town right next to Maribor and another below Melje Hill near Malečnik. Another settlement below Melje Hill was also found dating to the 4th millennium BC.


title: Maribor

text: A more intense period of settlement of the Maribor area occurred in the 3rd millennium BC with the advent of the Bronze Age. In the 13th to 12th century BC, in the age of the Urnfield culture, new settlements were found in Pekel. Around 1000 BC, new settlers moved to the Maribor area. An urnfield cemetery was found from that period in today's "Mladinska ulica" and another necropolis was also found in Pobrežje.


title: Maribor

text: With the Iron Age and the Hallstatt Culture, new settlements began to appear on hills. One of them was Poštela in the Pohorje Mountains. Poštela was an old town that was abandoned in the 6th century BC and inhabited again in the 2nd century BC.


title: Maribor

text: During Roman times, the area where Maribor later developed was part of the province of Noricum, right on the border with Pannonia. During that period, Roman agricultural estates known as "villae rusticae" filled the area around Radvanje, Betnava, Bohova, and Hoče. The best-known of them was in today's Borova Vas neighborhood of Maribor. An important trade route was also established in the area, connecting Celeia and Flavia Solva in one direction with Poetovio and central Noricum on the other.


title: Maribor

text: A Slavic cemetery was found in Radvanje dating to the 10th century AD. The area of what later became Maribor was first part of Samo's Empire and later the area stood on the border between Carantania and Lower Pannonia. In 843 the area was absorbed into the Frankish Empire.


title: Maribor

text: In the Frankish Empire, the area again stood on the border, this time between the Frankish Empire and the Principality of Hungary. To protect the Frankish Empire from Hungarian raids, a castle was built on Pyramid Hill. The castle was mentioned for the first time on 20 October 1164 as "Castrum Marchburch". A settlement soon began to grow below the castle. Maribor was first mentioned as a market near the castle in 1204, and it received town privileges in 1254. It is likely that the castle stood before 1164 because Bernard of Trixien, the count of the region, already used the title "Bernhard von Marchpurg" 'Bernard of Maribor' in 1124.


title: Maribor

text: The town began to grow rapidly after the victory of Rudolf I of the Habsburg dynasty over King Otakar II of Bohemia in 1278. The town built fortifications, and trade, viticulture, and crafts started to grow. The town had a monopoly over the entire region and also controlled the viticulture trade with Carinthia. The first churches were built, and also around this time the first Jews arrived. The Jews built their own ghetto in the southeastern part of town, where they also built the Maribor Synagogue. Most Slovenians lived in the northwestern part of town on what is now Slovenian Street ("Slovenska ulica").


title: Maribor

text: During the Middle Ages the castle belonged to the important Lordship Marburg with the old castle Obermarburg. In 1478, a second castle was built on the northeastern side of the town, today known as Maribor Castle. In 1480 and in 1481, Matthias Corvinus besieged the town but failed to conquer it on both occasions. In 1496, Maximilian I issued a decree to expel all Jews from Maribor and Styria. In 1515, the Maribor Town Hall was built and a few years later, in 1532, Maribor again came under siege, this time by the Ottoman Empire. In the battle that became known as the Siege of Maribor, a 100,000-strong Ottoman army under the leadership of Suleiman the Magnificent attacked the town, which was defended only by the local garrison and its citizens. Despite all the odds, Maribor was defended and the legend of the Maribor shoemaker who raised the sluice gates and flooded the Ottoman army is still popular today.


title: Maribor

text: In the 17th century, numerous fires razed the town. The biggest ones occurred in 1601, 1645, 1648, and 1700. As a consequence the town was rebuilt numerous times. In addition to fires, the plague decimated the town's population. The largest plague epidemics occurred in 1646, 1664, and 1680. Due to the plague, the town lost 35 percent of its population. In gratitude for the end of the plague, a plague column was built in 1681, with the original being replaced in 1743. In 1846, the Southern Railway was built through the town, which resulted in great economic growth and territorial expansion. In 1859, Anton Martin Slomšek, a bishop of the Diocese of Lavant, transferred the seat of the diocese to Maribor, and he further encouraged the use of Slovene. With the transfer, Maribor also received its first higher school. Four years later, Maribor was connected with Carinthia with the construction of the railway from Maribor to Prevalje. The first daily Slovenian newspaper, called "Slovenski narod", was established in 1868 on today's Slomšek Square ("Slomškov trg"). On 4 April 1883, the first electric light in Slovene ethnic territory was installed on Castle Square ("Grajski trg"). The renowned electrical engineer Nikola Tesla lived in Maribor from 1878 to 1879, where he received his first job. Maribor National Hall was built in 1899, and it became a political, cultural, and economic centre for all Styrian Slovenes.


title: Maribor

text: In 1900, the city itself had a population that was 82.3% Austrian German (19,298 people) and 17.3% Slovene (4,062 people; based on the language spoken at home); most of the city's capital and public life was in Austrian German hands. However, the county excluding the city had only 10,199 Austrian Germans and 78,888 Slovene inhabitants, meaning the city was completely surrounded by majority-Slovene ethnic territory. Some former independent settlements that later became part of the city had more ethnic Slovenes than Austrian Germans (e.g., Krčevina, Radvanje, Tezno), whereas others had more Austrian Germans than ethnic Slovenes (e.g., Pobrežje and Studenci). In 1913, a new bridge was opened over the Drava River, today known as the Old Bridge. In World War I, the 47th Infantry Regiment of the Austro-Hungarian Army was based in the city and also fought on the Isonzo front. During the First World War many Slovenes in Carinthia and Styria were detained on suspicion of being enemies of the Austrian Empire. This led to distrust between Austrian Germans and Slovenes.


title: Maribor

text: After the collapse of the Austrian-Hungarian Empire in 1918, Maribor was claimed by both the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs and German Austria. On 1 November 1918, a meeting was held by Colonel Anton Holik in the Melje barracks, where it was decided that the city would be part of German Austria. Ethnic Slovene Major Rudolf Maister, who was present at the meeting, denounced the decision and organised Slovenian military units that were able to seize control of the city. All Austrian officers and soldiers were disarmed and demobilised to the new state of German Austria. The German city council then held a secret meeting, where it was decided to do whatever possible to regain Maribor for German Austria. They organised a military unit called the Green Guard ("Schutzwehr"), and approximately 400 well-armed soldiers of this unit opposed the pro-Slovenian and pro-Yugoslav Major Maister. Slovenian troops surprised and disarmed the Green Guard early on the morning of 23 November. Thereafter, the city remained in Slovenian hands.


title: Maribor

text: On 27 January 1919, Austrian Germans gathered to await the United States peace delegation at the city's marketplace were fired upon by Slovenian troops. Nine citizens were killed and some eighteen were seriously wounded; who had actually ordered the shooting has never been unequivocally established. German sources accused Maister's troops of shooting without cause. In turn Slovene witnesses such as Maks Pohar claimed that the Austrian Germans attacked the Slovenian soldiers guarding the town hall, one even discharging a revolver and hitting one Slovenian soldier in the bayonet. The German-language media called the incident "Marburg's Bloody Sunday". As Maribor was now firmly in the hands of the Slovenian forces and surrounded completely by Slovenian territory; the city had been recognised as part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes without a plebiscite in the Treaty of Saint-Germain of 10 September 1919 between the victors and German Austria. For his actions in Maribor and later in the Austro-Slovene conflict in Carinthia, Rudolf Maister is today considered a Slovenian national hero.


title: Maribor

text: After 1918, most of Maribor's Austrian Germans left the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes for Austria. A policy of cultural assimilation was pursued in Yugoslavia against the Austrian German minority similar to the Germanization policy followed by Austria against its Slovene minority in Carinthia. From 1922 to 1929, Maribor was the seat of the Maribor Oblast, a subdivision within Yugoslavia and was later part of the Drava Banovina. Up until World War II, Maribor was considered the fastest-developing city in the country.


title: Maribor

text: In 1941 Lower Styria, the predominantly Slovene part of Styria, was annexed by Nazi Germany. German troops marched into the town at 9 pm on 8 April 1941. On 26 April Adolf Hitler, who encouraged his followers to "make this land German again", visited Maribor and a grand reception was organised in the city castle by the local Germans. Immediately after the occupation, Nazi Germany began mass expulsions of Slovenes to the Independent State of Croatia, Serbia, and later to the concentration and work camps in Germany. The Nazi goal was to Germanize the population of Lower Styria after the war. Slovene patriots were taken hostage and many were later shot in the prisons of Maribor and Graz. This led to organised resistance by Slovene partisans. The first act of resistance in Maribor and occupied Slovenia occurred only three days after Hitler's visit, when Slovene communists and SKOJ members burned two German cars.