title: 1981 Formula One World Championship

text: Raceday was on a Saturday, and at the start Prost walked away from the field. At the start of lap 5, near the Woodcote chicane, Villeneuve lost control, taking out Alan Jones (Williams) and Andrea de Cesaris (McLaren) who were both unable to avoid the Canadian, while Briton John Watson, in the other McLaren, narrowly missed the wreckage. Villeneuve managed to get the Ferrari going again but only got as far as Stowe Corner before parking. On lap 12, Nelson Piquet, who was 3rd at that point, crashed his Brabham at Becketts and had to be carried by an ambulance due to leg injuries. Later in the race, Prost was forced to pit due to problems with an engine plug that could not be replaced without dismantling much of the car, forcing the Frenchman to retire and leaving his teammate, Arnoux, in the lead. Watson was now fighting back, and after being delayed by the Villeneuve-Jones incident he overtook Reutemann and Andretti, and closed on Pironi. As he overtook the Ferrari it blew up and went out and so Watson was a safe third with only the two Renault drivers ahead. On the 17th lap Prost's engine blew but Arnoux remained firmly ahead with Watson second, Reutemann third, Andretti fourth, Patrese fifth and Hector Rebaque (Brabham) sixth. Patrese soon moved ahead of Andretti while Rebaque dropped down the order when he stopped for new tires, Laffite moving into sixth place. The order was then settled until the 50th lap when the Renault engine began to sound odd and Watson began to close up quickly. On the 60th lap he went ahead. At the same moment Andretti disappeared with a throttle cable failure and as Arnoux faded through the field Patrese went out with an engine failure. This meant that the final order was Watson taking victory, with Reutemann, Laffite, Eddie Cheever (Tyrrell), Rebaque and Slim Borgudd (ATS) rounding out the points.


title: 1981 Formula One World Championship

text: The German Grand Prix at the very fast, straight dominated Hockenheimring saw the field being unchanged apart from the fact that Team Lotus was back in action with a pair of Lotus 87s both sporting new JPS sponsorship. There were some changes of tires with Tyrrell running on Avons, Lotus on Goodyear and Arrows on Pirellis. It was no surprise to see the two Renault turbo cars on the front row with Prost nearly half a second quicker than Arnoux. World Championship leader Reutemann was third with his Williams teammate Jones fourth. Pironi was fifth in his Ferrari, and Piquet was sixth in his Brabham (apparently without any problems from his Silverstone accident), while the top 10 was completed by Laffite, Villeneuve, and the two McLarens of Watson and de Cesaris.


title: 1981 Formula One World Championship

text: The race turned out to be a classic, and at the start Prost took the lead but Reutemann managed to get ahead of Arnoux. On the run down to the first chicane Pironi also went past Arnoux and Piquet tried the same at the Ostkurve. The Renault and the Brabham touched. This meant that Arnoux had to pit at the end of the lap with a deflated right rear. While this was going on Jones went past Piquet. Halfway around the second lap Pironi disappeared with a blown engine and so Prost led Reutemann, Jones, Piquet, Laffite, Villeneuve and Patrick Tambay (Talbot Ligier). Villeneuve soon dropped away but Jones was in combative form and was challenging Prost for the lead in a superb battle. Behind them Piquet had overtaken Reutemann and was closing up and the fight for the lead was soon between the three cars. But Piquet's tires, improperly worn from his Brabham suffering bodywork damage could not take the pace and he dropped back behind Reutemann.On lap 21 Jones finally managed to get ahead of Prost in the stadium when they were lapping Arnoux. Behind the top five Rebaque had moved into sixth but this became fifth when Reutemann stopped on lap 28 with an engine failure. At two-thirds distance rain began to fall and as the Renault became more difficult to control Piquet was able to take second from Prost and then Jones's car began to misfire and soon Piquet and Prost were both ahead. Jones headed for the pits. Piquet thus inherited victory with Prost second, Laffite third and Rebaque fourth. Eddie Cheever was fifth with Watson sixth.


title: 1981 Formula One World Championship

text: When F1 descended upon the fast and sweeping Österreichring, the entry was as normal except that the Fittipaldi team, which was struggling for money, was not present because it did not have enough engines. Tyrrell had switched from Avon tyres to Goodyear. The result of this was that Eddie Cheever failed to make the grid in the new Tyrrell 011. With Austria's extra altitude the turbocharged cars were at an advantage, so Arnoux and Prost put their Renaults on the front row with Villeneuve's Ferrari third. Laffite was next up in the Talbot Ligier (powered by a Matra V12 engine) while Williams teammates Carlos Reutemann and Alan Jones were fifth and sixth. The top 10 was completed by Nelson Piquet, Didier Pironi, Elio de Angelis, and Riccardo Patrese.


title: 1981 Formula One World Championship

text: At the start Villeneuve blasted his Ferrari into the lead ahead of Prost, Arnoux and Pironi (who had made a fast start in his Ferrari). Villeneuve pushed too hard on the second lap and went off at the chicane, rejoining in sixth place. This left Prost and Arnoux to pull away while Pironi's Ferrari provided a road block for those chasing. The cork stayed in the bottle until the ninth lap, by which time 7 cars were stuck behind this car, the Renaults had a lead of nearly 20 seconds. Pironi's Ferrari was quicker in the straights but the car's severe lack of downforce compared to the others meant it was noticeably slower through the Österreichring's high-speed sweepers. Villeneuve crashed heavily at the Bosch Kurve and Laffite made it through with a very brave pass at the first Panorama curve and he was followed by Piquet. Laffite began to close up but then the gap stabilized. Pironi dropped back behind the two Williams cars, Jones still leading Reutemann. By mid-distance Laffite was within striking distance of the Renaults and then Prost suffered a suspension failure and went out, allowing Arnoux to take the lead. On lap 39 Laffite finally managed to get ahead as the pair diced through traffic. Arnoux had to settle for second while third went to Piquet. Jones and Reutemann were fourth and fifth and the final point went to John Watson (McLaren).


title: 1981 Formula One World Championship

text: The Fittipaldi team was back in action for the Dutch GP at the Zandvoort circuit near Amsterdam after missing the Austrian GP but had switched to Pirelli tires. Otherwise the field was the same as usual and it was an all-Renault front row with Alain Prost outqualifying Rene Arnoux. Third place went to World Championship challenger Piquet with his rival Reutemann fifth, behind his Williams teammate Jones. Laffite was sixth in his Talbot Ligier just ahead of Andretti, Watson, de Angelis, and Patrese. Andrea de Cesaris qualified 13th but was withdrawn because the team was worried that he would damage another car, his season with the team having seen a string of accidents. The Italian De Cesaris, although quick was horrendously erratic- he ended up crashing no less than 19 times this season, including 8 times during a race- and even more remarkably without injuring himself once.


title: 1981 Formula One World Championship

text: At the start Prost and Arnoux went into Tarzan ahead but behind them Gilles Villeneuve tried to make up for his poor qualifying and charge through a gap between Patrese and Bruno Giacomelli's Alfa Romeo. Giacomelli was unaware that Villeneuve was there and the result was that Villeneuve ran into the Alfa, vaulted over it and landed, spinning. At the next corner Andretti and Reutemann collided and the American ended up with a bent front wing. Also in trouble were Pironi and Tambay, the pair having collided in the course of the first lap. This left Prost leading Arnoux and Jones with Piquet fourth, Laffite fifth and Reutemann sixth. In the opening laps Jones went ahead of Arnoux and the Frenchman soon dropped behind Piquet and Laffite as well By the 10th lap Reutemann too was clear of Arnoux and a couple of laps later Watson drove around the outside of Arnoux at Tarzan to take sixth place. The order at the front remained unchanged but Jones was beginning to challenge Prost. behind these two there was another lively battle for fourth between Laffite and Reutemann. This ended on lap 18 with the pair colliding. Jones tried to pass Prost on several occasions but then his tires became marginal and he dropped away. In the closing laps he fell into the clutches of Piquet and lost second place. Hector Rebaque gave Brabham fourth place after a steady run with the other points going to de Angelis and Eliseo Salazar in the Ensign, one of the few men still running, albeit two laps down. Piquet's second place meant that he was equal on points with Reutemann.


title: 1981 Formula One World Championship

text: The second Italian and last European race of the year, the Italian Grand Prix, returned to the historic Monza circuit just outside Milan after a year's stay at Imola. Nelson Piquet and Carlos Reutemann arrived on equal points in the World Championship, and the summer had been seen the emergence as a major force of Alain Prost in the Renault and he too was becoming the threat to the World Championship leaders. The switching around of tires continued with Tyrrell deciding to go back to Goodyear at least for Eddie Cheever's car. The field was the same as usual with Arnoux on pole in the Renault ahead of Reutemann's Williams and Prost. Laffite was fourth in his Ligier and he was clear of Jones, who had arrived in Italy after being physically beaten up by 5 men in London; and Piquet while the top 10 was completed by Watson, Pironi and Villeneuve in the powerful but evil-handling Ferraris and Giacomelli's Alfa Romeo. The event was significant in that it marked the first start for the Toleman team, Brian Henton having finally qualified one of the Toleman-Hart cars in 23rd position on the grid after a season of disappointment. At the start Pironi made an exceptional start and he was fourth at the first chicane behind Prost, Reutemann and Arnoux. By the time the field arrived on the back straight Pironi was second. It did not last long Arnoux moved to second on the fifth lap and on lap six Laffite went to third (having overtaken Jones, Piquet and Reutemann). Villeneuve followed him but disappeared with turbo failure soon afterwards. Then Laffite began to drop back with a slow puncture and it began to rain. Jacques went off. This left the two Renaults and the two Williams cars ahead but with a gap between them. Arnoux then went off at the Parabolica, swerving to avoid Eddie Cheever's abandoned Tyrrell and so Prost was left on his own.


title: 1981 Formula One World Championship

text: There was then a huge accident at the Lesmo when Watson lost control of his MP4/1. It spun into the barriers and the engine was ripped from the tub. Watson emerged unhurt but the engine went across the road, causing Michele Alboreto to crash his Tyrrell. The next to arrive was Reutemann and he had to take to the grass and so he dropped behind Giacomelli. The Alfa driver was not in luck however and on lap 26 his Alfa went into the pits with his gearbox jammed. this put Piquet into third place behind Prost and Jones and it looked like staying that way until the last lap when his engine blew, which allowed Reutemann, de Angelis and Pironi to pass him. He picked up just one point and Reutemann moved three points ahead in the World Championship.


title: 1981 Formula One World Championship

text: The season concluded with two races in North America, the first of these being in Montreal, Canada. Alan Jones announced that he was retiring for Formula 1 and there were rumors that Mario Andretti would do the same. At the same time Niki Lauda was spotted testing one of the new McLaren MP4/1s at Donington Park and it looked like he would be making a comeback. At the same time Siegfried Stohr, after his trauma in Belgium and the uncompetitiveness of the Arrows decided that he no longer wanted to be an F1 driver and a deal was struck for Riccardo Patrese to be partnered in Canada by Gilles Villeneuve's brother Jacques Villeneuve. Qualifying resulted in pole position for Piquet with his title rival Reutemann alongside. Jones was third while Prost was fourth in his Renault.


title: 1981 Formula One World Championship

text: The weather had turned cold and wet by race day and at the start Jones took the lead after banging wheels with Reutemann. The Argentine driver had to lift off and he was overtaken by rival Piquet, Prost and de Angelis. Further back Villeneuve tipped Arnoux into a spin, the Renault bashing into Pironi's Ferrari as it went off. In the laps that followed Villeneuve moved up to take third on lap 7 when Jones spun and Piquet dropped back as he tried to avoid the Williams. This let Prost take the lead with Laffite second. Watson moved to fourth and things began to settle down until lap 13 when Laffite moved into the lead. He was followed through into second place a few laps later by Villeneuve and as Prost faded further he fell behind Watson as well. Watson was then able to catch and pass Villeneuve as well and that was how the race ended with fourth place going to Bruno Giacomelli (Alfa Romeo), fifth to Piquet and sixth to de Angelis. Piquet's two point mean that he and Reutemann headed to Las Vegas separated by a point while Laffite had an outside chance of winning the title.


title: 1981 Formula One World Championship

text: The Watkins Glen circuit in the state of New York was removed from the calendar in May due to bankruptcy of the company operating the circuit, resulting in a three-week long gap between the Canadian Grand Prix and the new Caesars Palace Grand Prix at a circuit located in a car park outside of the Caesars Palace hotel and casino complex in Las Vegas, Nevada. During this time frame Niki Lauda announced his decision to return to F1 with McLaren in 1982. Many in the F1 paddock were confused and unhappy to be racing around the car park of a Las Vegas casino.


title: 1981 Formula One World Championship

text: World Championship leader Carlos Reutemann qualified on pole from his teammate Alan Jones. The Australian had no intent to do anything to help the Argentine to the title because of their clash over team orders at the start of the year. He was retiring from F1 after the race and had nothing to lose. He was going for a victory. Third on the grid was Gilles Villeneuve in the Ferrari with Reutemann's title rival Nelson Piquet fourth, Alain Prost fifth in his Renault and John Watson sixth in the McLaren.


title: 1981 Formula One World Championship

text: In dry, conditions, Jones took the lead at the start with Reutemann dropping behind Villeneuve, Prost and Giacomelli before the first corner, while Piquet was eighth. With Villeneuve holding up those behind, Jones drove to an unchallenged victory. Prost overtook Villeneuve on lap three but his Renault was not as fast as Jones' Williams. On the next lap Laffite overtook Watson and the order then stabilized with Piquet running behind Reutemann, both men out of the points. On lap 17 Piquet passed the subdued Reutemann and he was followed by Andretti. Piquet chased after Watson and took sixth place on lap 22. This was briefly fifth when Villeneuve stopped with a fuel injection problem. But Nelson was then overtaken by Andretti. A few moments later Giacomelli's promising run in fourth place ended when he went off and rejoined back in ninth position so Piquet was back in fifth but when Reutemann overtook Watson for sixth the pair were back on equal points (although Piquet would win the title on victories). Then Andretti retired with a broken rear suspension and Piquet moved to fourth and Reutemann to fifth. Soon afterwards Prost pitted for tires and dropped to sixth but at the same time Mansell went ahead of Reutemann and as Prost recovered so the Argentine lost another place. Prost's recovery would take him to second place, while Reutemann's unimpressive afternoon continued as he drifted behind the recovering Giacomelli. Piquet got up to third when Laffite went in for tires but he was then overtaken by Mansell and Giacomelli, the Italian moving up to third in the closing laps. So Jones won, ahead of Prost, Giacomelli, Mansell, Piquet and Laffite.


title: 1981 Formula One World Championship

text: With Reutemann out of the points, Piquet's fifth place was enough to win his first of 3 World Championship titles.


title: 1981 Formula One World Championship

text: A single non-championship Formula One race was also held in 1981. It was technically a Formula Libre race, since the cars did not conform to the current Formula One regulations. Although not a part of the World Championship, the 1981 South African Grand Prix attracted high-calibre drivers and cars and was won by Carlos Reutemann in a Williams.


title: Dhiraj Deshmukh

text: Dhiraj Vilasrao Deshmukh (born 6 April 1980) is an Indian politician and an MLA of Indian National Congress, and son of Vilasrao Deshmukh. He was elected from the Latur Rural (Vidhan Sabha constituency) to the Maharashtra Legislative Assembly in 2019 as a member of the Indian National Congress. He won by a margin of 121482 which is third largest in terms of votes in 2019 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election.


title: Dhiraj Deshmukh

text: He was born as third & youngest son of Vilasrao Deshmukh. He's also the younger brother of Minister Amit Deshmukh & actor Riteish Deshmukh.


title: The Great Hack

text: The Great Hack is a 2019 documentary film about the Facebook–Cambridge Analytica data scandal, produced and directed by Jehane Noujaim and Karim Amer, both previous documentary Academy Award nominees ("The Square", "Control Room", "Startup.com"). The film's music was composed by Emmy-nominated film composer Gil Talmi. "The Great Hack" premiered at the 2019 Sundance Film Festival in the Documentary Premieres section and was released by Netflix on July 24, 2019.


title: The Great Hack

text: The documentary focuses on Professor David Carroll of Parsons and The New School, Brittany Kaiser (former business development director for Cambridge Analytica), and British investigative journalist Carole Cadwalladr. Their stories interweave to expose the work of Cambridge Analytica in the politics of various countries, including the United Kingdom's Brexit campaign and the 2016 United States elections.


title: The Great Hack

text: SCL Group was a private research and strategic communications company interested in studying and influencing mass behavior. With alleged expertise in psychological operations (psyops), the company worked in military and political operations around the world in the late 1990s, including electioneering in the developing world throughout the early 2000s. To do business involving US elections, the subsidiary Cambridge Analytica was formed in 2012.


title: The Great Hack

text: In 2015, Cambridge Analytica, a UK-based political consulting firm, began working on behalf of Ted Cruz's campaign to attempt to win the 2016 US Republican nomination. It used Facebook as a means for "political-voter surveillance" through the collection of user data points. Independent investigations into data mining, along with whistle-blower accounts of the firm's impact on Brexit, led to a scandal over the influence of social media in political elections.


title: The Great Hack

text: In the film, the Cambridge Analytica scandal is examined through the eyes of several involved persons. Emma Briant was Senior Researcher for the film.


title: The Great Hack

text: Cambridge Analytica, the firm responsible for the scandal, was dedicated to big data. The data which was collected was meant to be used as part of a sales strategy that involved creating massive campaigns that approached users in a personal manner. The results of this campaign ended up disrupting US and UK politics and led to claims of complicity of social media enterprises such as Facebook.


title: The Great Hack

text: The illicit harvesting of personal data by Cambridge Analytica was first reported in December 2015 by Harry Davies, a journalist for "The Guardian". He reported that Cambridge Analytica was working for United States Senator Ted Cruz and used data harvested from millions of people's Facebook accounts without their consent.


title: The Great Hack

text: Facebook refused to comment on the story other than to say it was investigating. Further reports followed in the Swiss publication "Das Magazin" by Hannes Grasseger and Mikael Krogerus (December 2016), (later translated and published by "Vice"), Carole Cadwalladr in "The Guardian" (starting in February 2017) and Mattathias Schwartz in "The Intercept" (March 2017). Brittany Kaiser, former director of Business Development at Cambridge Analytica, revealed that everything published involving Cambridge Analytica in the Brexit campaign and Ted Cruz's campaign was true.


title: The Great Hack

text: The scandal reached a point where even Mark Zuckerberg, Facebook's founder, had to testify officially in front of several committees of the United States Congress.


title: The Great Hack

text: When Cambridge Analytica's former CEO Alexander Nix was exposed on Channel 4 as claiming to have 5,000 data points on every American voter, Professor David Carroll took notice. He undertook a legal journey to try to reclaim his data with the help of lawyer Ravi Naik of ITN Solicitors, an expert on data privacy in the United Kingdom. Because Cambridge Analytica processed user data via SCL in Britain, Carroll's complaints fell under British jurisdiction. On July 4, 2017, Carroll filed a complaint with the Information Commissioner's Office (ICO) of the UK. As a result, SCL was fined £15,000 for a lack of compliance with the ICO. Also, as a result, Facebook paid £500,000 for a "lack of transparency and security issues relating to the harvesting of data constituting" in the related scandal.


title: The Great Hack

text: During Carroll's legal battle, SCL filed for bankruptcy. Cambridge Analytica's work was found to violate UK privacy laws. The ICO released a statement saying, "Had SCLE still existed in its original form, our intention would have been to issue the company with a substantial fine for severe breaches of principle one of the DPA1998 for unfairly processing people's data for political purposes including purposes connected with the 2016 U.S. Presidential campaigns."


title: The Great Hack

text: While David Carroll's journey unfolds, the investigative journalist Carole Cadwalladr continues her work into the influence of Cambridge Analytica. This work leads her to a whistle-blower, Christopher Wylie, who explains how microtargeting, combined with mass-harvesting of data, was used to influence elections. Cadwalladr's exclusive interviews with Wylie in "The Observer" reveal how psychographic profiling tactics were carried out with user data scraped from Facebook with the help of Cambridge University professor Aleksandr Kogan. These allegations take the Cambridge Analytica scandal public and lead Wylie to testifying in the UK Parliament and mentioning the name of a former director at Cambridge Analytica, Brittany Kaiser. A polarizing yet essential part of the Cambridge Analytica scandal, Wylie penned a tell-all called "Mindf*ck" in 2019.


title: The Great Hack

text: The filmmakers track down Brittany Kaiser in Thailand, where she considers becoming a whistle-blower and making information about Cambridge Analytica public, or dodging press inquiries and questions. With the help of British-born social entrepreneur, writer, and organizer Paul Hilder, she decides to go back to Washington DC, to come clean. With the help of specific documents from her personal Cambridge Analytica archives, Kaiser explains the effective micro-targeting of unsuspecting individuals, particularly those she calls "persuadables," by Cambridge Analytica in the 2016 US elections.


title: The Great Hack

text: "The Great Hack" holds rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on reviews with an average rating of . The review aggregator's consensus reads: ""The Great Hack" offers an alarming glimpse of the way data is being weaponized for political gain—and what it might mean for future elections." Peter Bradshaw writing in "The Guardian" said the film concerned "the biggest scandal of our time: the gigantic question mark over the legality of the Brexit vote", and awarded it five stars. Calling the film "a terrifying warning" and "the most important doc this year", "Refinery 29" wrote: ""The Great Hack" makes clear just how deep that shady surveillance can – and does – go."


title: The Great Hack

text: It was nominated for an Emmy for Outstanding Documentary Or Nonfiction Special by the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences, nominated for Best Documentary by the British Academy of Film and Television Arts, and nominated for Best Writing by the International Documentary Association. The film received an Outstanding Achievement in Graphic Design or Animation Award from Cinema Eye Honors.


title: United States Mint

text: The United States Mint is a bureau of the Department of the Treasury responsible for producing coinage for the United States to conduct its trade and commerce, as well as controlling the movement of bullion. It does not produce paper money; that responsibility belongs to the Bureau of Engraving and Printing. The first United States Mint was created in Philadelphia in 1792, and soon joined by other centers, whose coins were identified by their own mint marks. There are currently four active coin-producing mints: Philadelphia, Denver, San Francisco, and West Point.


title: United States Mint

text: The Massachusetts Bay Colony established a mint in Boston in 1652. John Hull was Treasurer and mintmaster; Hull's partner at the "Hull Mint" was Robert Sanderson. The historical marker reads:


title: United States Mint

text: The first authorization for the establishment of a mint in the United States was in a resolution of the Congress of the Confederation of February 21, 1782, and the first general-circulation coin of the United States, the Fugio cent, was produced in 1787 based on the Continental dollar.


title: United States Mint

text: The current United States Mint was created by Congress with the Coinage Act of 1792, and originally placed within the Department of State. Per the terms of the Coinage Act, the first Mint building was in Philadelphia, the then capital of the United States; it was the first building of the Republic raised under the Constitution. Today, the Mint's headquarters (a non-coin-producing facility) are in Washington D.C. It operates mint facilities in Philadelphia, Denver, San Francisco, and West Point, New York and a bullion depository at Fort Knox, Kentucky. Official Mints (Branches) were once also located in Carson City, Nevada; Charlotte, North Carolina; Dahlonega, Georgia; New Orleans, Louisiana; and in Manila, in the Philippines.


title: United States Mint

text: Originally part of the State Department, the Mint was made an independent agency in 1799. It converted precious metals into standard coin for anyone's account with no seigniorage charge beyond the refining costs. Under the Coinage Act of 1873, the Mint became part of the Department of the Treasury. It was placed under the auspices of the Treasurer of the United States in 1981. Legal tender coins of today are minted solely for the Treasury's account.


title: United States Mint

text: The first Director of the United States Mint was renowned scientist David Rittenhouse from 1792 to 1795. The position is currently filled by Ventris Gibson. Henry Voigt was the first Superintendent and Chief Coiner, and is credited with some of the first U.S. coin designs. Another important position at the Mint is that of Chief Engraver, which has been held by such men as Frank Gasparro, William Barber, Charles E. Barber, James B. Longacre, and Christian Gobrecht.


title: United States Mint

text: The Mint has operated several branch facilities throughout the United States since the Philadelphia Mint opened in 1792, in a building known as "Ye Olde Mint". With the opening of branch mints came the need for mint marks, an identifying feature on the coin to show its facility of origin. The first of these branch mints were the Charlotte, North Carolina (1838–1861), Dahlonega, Georgia (1838–1861), and New Orleans, Louisiana (1838–1909) branches. Both the Charlotte (C mint mark) and Dahlonega (D mint mark) Mints were opened to facilitate the conversion of local gold deposits into coinage, and minted only gold coins. The Civil War closed both these facilities permanently. The New Orleans Mint (O mint mark) closed at the beginning of the Civil War (1861) and did not re-open until the end of Reconstruction in 1879. During its two stints as a minting facility, it produced both gold and silver coinage in eleven different denominations, though only ten denominations were ever minted there at one time (in 1851 silver three-cent pieces, half dimes, dimes, quarters, half dollars, and gold dollars, Quarter Eagles, half eagles, eagles, and double eagles).


title: United States Mint

text: A new branch facility was opened in Carson City, Nevada, in 1870; it operated until 1893, with a three-year hiatus from 1886 to 1888. Like the Charlotte and Dahlonega branches, the Carson City Mint (CC mint mark) was opened to take advantage of local precious metal deposits, in this case, a large vein of silver. Though gold coins were also produced there, no base metal coins were.


title: United States Mint

text: In 1911 the Mint had a female acting director, Margaret Kelly, at that point the highest paid woman on the government's payroll. She stated that women were paid equally within the bureau.


title: United States Mint

text: A branch of the U.S. mint (Manila Mint) was established in 1920 in Manila in the Philippines, which was then a U.S. territory. To date, the Manila Mint is the only U.S. mint established outside the continental U.S. and was responsible for producing coins (one, five, ten, twenty and fifty centavo denominations). This branch was in production from 1920 to 1922, and then again from 1925 through 1941. Coins struck by this mint bear either the M mintmark (for Manila) or none at all, similar to the Philadelphia mint at the time.


title: United States Mint

text: A branch mint in The Dalles, Oregon, was commissioned in 1864. Construction was halted in 1870, and the facility never produced any coins, although the building still stands.


title: United States Mint

text: The Mint's largest facility is the Philadelphia Mint. The current facility, which opened in 1969, is the fourth Philadelphia Mint. The first was built in 1792, when Philadelphia was still the U.S. capital, and began operation in 1793. Until 1980, coins minted at Philadelphia bore no mint mark, with the exceptions of the Susan B. Anthony dollar and the wartime Jefferson nickel. In 1980, the P mint mark was added to all U.S. coinage except the cent. Until 1968, the Philadelphia Mint was responsible for nearly all official proof coinage. Philadelphia is also the site of master die production for U.S. coinage, and the engraving and design departments of the Mint are also located there.


title: United States Mint

text: The Denver Mint began in 1863 as the local assay office, just five years after gold was discovered in the area. By the turn of the century, the office was bringing in over $5 million in annual gold and silver deposits, and in 1906, the Mint opened its new Denver branch. Denver uses a D mint mark and strikes mostly circulation coinage, although it has struck commemorative coins in the past, such as the $10 gold 1984 Los Angeles Olympic Commemorative. It also produces its own working dies, as well as working dies for the other mints. Although the Denver and Dahlonega mints used the same mint mark D, they were never in operation at the same time, so this is not a source of ambiguity.


title: United States Mint

text: The San Francisco branch, opened in 1854 to serve the goldfields of the California Gold Rush, uses an S mint mark. It quickly outgrew its first building and moved into a new facility in 1874. This building, one of the few that survived the great earthquake and fire of 1906, served until 1937, when the present facility was opened. It was closed in 1955, then reopened a decade later during the coin shortage of the mid-60s. In 1968, it took over most proof-coinage production from Philadelphia, and since 1975, it has been used almost exclusively for proof coinage, with the exceptions of the Anthony dollar (1979–1981), a portion of the mintage of cents in the early 1980s, (these cents are indistinguishable from those minted at Philadelphia), and a small portion of America the Beautiful quarters minted in circulation-quality (but not issued for circulation) since 2012.


title: United States Mint

text: The West Point branch is the newest mint facility, gaining official status as a branch mint in 1988. Its predecessor, the West Point Bullion Depository, was opened in 1938, and cents were produced there from 1973 to 1986. Along with these, which were identical to those produced at Philadelphia, West Point has struck a great deal of commemorative and proof coinage bearing the W mint mark. In 1996, West Point produced clad dimes, but for collectors, not for circulation. The West Point facility is still used for storage of part of the United States' gold bullion reserves, and West Point is now the United States' production facility for gold, silver, platinum, and palladium American Eagle coins. In 2019, West Point produced limited quantities of circulating quarters bearing the "W" mint mark for the first time.


title: United States Mint

text: While not a coin production facility, the U.S. Bullion Depository at Fort Knox, Kentucky, is another facility of the Mint. Its primary purpose is for storage of the United States and other countries' gold and silver bullion reserves.


title: United States Mint

text: The Mint manages extensive commercial marketing programs. The product line includes special coin sets for collectors, national medals, American Eagle gold, silver and platinum bullion coins, and commemorative coins marking national events such as the Bicentennial of the Constitution. The Mint's functions include:


title: United States Mint

text: Note that the Mint is not responsible for the production of American paper money; that is the responsibility of the Bureau of Engraving and Printing.


title: United States Mint

text: In 2000, the Mint was responsible for the production of 28 billion coins. See United States Mint coin production for annual production values of each coin.


title: United States Mint

text: The United States Mint Police, a federal law enforcement agency, is responsible for the protection of Mint facilities, employees and reserves.


title: United States Mint

text: The production and sale of circulating coinage and the other functions of the Mint are funded through the United States Mint Public Enterprise Fund, established in 1995. Any profits made by the Fund in excess of operating requirements are returned to the Treasury. Government procurement regulations do not apply to the Mint's procurement and contracting activity.


title: United States Mint

text: With the exception of a brief period in 1838 and 1839, all coins minted at U.S. branch mints prior to 1908 displayed that branch's mintmark on their reverse. Larger denominations of gold and silver coins were labeled with the Dahlonega, Charlotte, and New Orleans mintmarks (D, C, and O, respectively) on the obverse (front) side, just above the dates, in those two years. Carson City, which served as a U.S. branch mint from 1870 to 1893, produced coins with a CC mintmark. The Manila Mint (the only overseas U.S. mint, which produced U.S. Territorial and U.S. Commonwealth coinage) used the M mintmark from 1920–1941.


title: United States Mint

text: Between 1965 and 1967, as the Mint labored to replace the silver coinage with base metal coins, mintmarks were temporarily dispensed with (including on the penny and nickel) in order to discourage the hoarding of coins by numismatists. Mintmarks were moved to the obverse of the nickel, dime, quarter, and half dollar in 1968, and have appeared on the obverse of the dollar coin since its re-introduction in 1971.


title: United States Mint

text: Due to a shortage of nickel during World War II, the composition of the five-cent coin was changed to include silver. To mark this change, nickels minted in Philadelphia (which had featured no mintmarks until then) displayed a P in the field above the dome of Monticello. Nickels from San Francisco were minted in the same fashion, and Denver nickels reflected the change in 1943. This new mintmark location continued until 1946 when the nickel returned to its pre-war composition.


title: United States Mint

text: The P mintmark, discontinued after the war, reappeared in 1979 on the Anthony dollar. By 1982, it had appeared on every other regular-issue coin except the cent, which, with the exception of 2017 Lincoln Cents, still bears no P mintmark. The circulating cents struck in the 1980s at San Francisco (except proofs) and West Point also bears no mintmark, as their facilities were used to supplement Philadelphia's production. Given the limited numbers produced at each facility, they might have been hoarded as collectibles.


title: United States Mint

text: For 2017, in commemoration of the U.S Mint's 225th Anniversary, the P mintmark was placed on the obverse of Philadelphia-minted Lincoln cents for the first time in the coin's 100+ year history. The P mintmark did not re-appear for 2018 and subsequent circulation strikes minted in Philadelphia.


title: Tujhe Meri Kasam

text: Tujhe Meri Kasam (English: "swear on me") is a 2003 Hindi romantic drama film starring the debutants Riteish Deshmukh & Genelia D'Souza (who later fell in love and got married a decade later). It was directed by K. Vijaya Bhaskar and produced by Ramoji Rao, and Viju Shah as music director. This film otherwise, specifically marked the Hindi debut of Shriya Saran. It is a remake of the Malayalam film "Niram". This film was nominated for several awards, including the Filmfare Award for Best Male Debut category. The film was a commercial success at the box office and was declared a "Hit" by "Box Office India".


title: Tujhe Meri Kasam

text: Rishi and Anju are childhood buddies. They were born on the same day, in the same hospital. Even their parents are best friends from their college years and are now neighbours. Rishi and Anju are inseparable, so much so that they study in the same college in the same class.


title: Tujhe Meri Kasam

text: Akash (Raja Bherwani), a very talented singer, develops feelings for Anju when she spontaneously sings with him at a college function. He, Anju and others leave for Bangalore for a week to participate in a few inter-college competitions. As they are apart for the first time in their lives, Rishi starts missing Anju very badly, but does not understand his feelings. His maid Sarro, who often teases him and Anju, starts teasing him that he is missing her because he loves her. Slowly, with the maid's words, Rishi begins to realise that he loves her. He buys a gift and greeting card to express himself when she returns. Meanwhile, he sees a girl from his college slapping her friend because he said he loves her. She in a distressed mood and says that such guys are a shame to friendship as they pretend to be friends but really have other intentions. She wishes that every guy could be like Rishi so that a girl and guy could be best friends without any worries. Rishi then feels that he should not tell Anju about his feelings lest she, too, react the same way. He feels that he can bear not to tell her about his love but cannot imagine losing her friendship.


title: Tujhe Meri Kasam

text: Anju returns from Bangalore and tells Rishi that Akash proposed to her during their stay. She comes to his room to ask him what to reply and by mistake half opens the drawer in which he kept his greeting card and gift. He hurriedly closes it and asks her not to open it then tells her to agree to the proposal if she likes Akash. She agrees to his proposal. Later things start to get a rough as Akash doesn't like the closeness Rishi and Anju share. When Akash and Anju are having a conversation and Rishi joins them, Akash asks him to leave as they need some privacy. Such actions greatly distress Anju and she warns him not to do it again, but Rishi explains that what Akash is doing is justifiable.


title: Tujhe Meri Kasam

text: Akash's grandmother comes to Anju's house to arrange their marriage. Her parents agree and marriage preparations are well underway. It is decided that after marriage, Anju will leave with Akash to the USA where his family is settled. It is then that she realises this marriage means breaking her relationship with Rishi and leaving forever. She suddenly dislikes getting married and tries to talk to Rishi about it, but he casually says that it is all part of life and inevitable. She asks how can he talk so cold heartedly. She says she wishes she did not have to leave and wonders why she had to love Akash. She scolds him why he did not get the idea to love her in the first place. At this point Rishi, overcome by emotion, hugs Anju, cries and runs away from her.


title: Tujhe Meri Kasam

text: Anju grows suspicious of his actions and remembers the drawer that he did not let her open. She goes to his room and is shocked to find the card and gift. She says that she does not want to marry Akash and will tell everyone about them. Rishi firmly refuses saying that their parents have given them unlimited freedom: It would be very hurtful, selfish and irresponsible of them to break their trust.


title: Tujhe Meri Kasam

text: At his insistence she goes through the engagement ceremony. After the engagement, Rishi says that he has to go to a basketball match out of the state and will not be there for the marriage. The parents try to convince him, but he doesn't listen. Anju gives him a ride to the station and on the way they remember their childhood. At the station as Rishi is climbing aboard Anju weeps and holds him. He is unable to leave. At the house, the maid tells their parents everything and they come to the station. They find Anju and Rishi on the platform stairs and say that what they feel is not wrong, and it is the way of the world. They say that they shall cancel the marriage and ask them to come home.


title: Cinderella III: A Twist in Time

text: Cinderella III: A Twist in Time is a 2007 American animated musical fantasy film produced by DisneyToon Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment. Directed by Frank Nissen from a screenplay written by Dan Berendsen, Margaret Heidenry, Colleen Ventimilia, and Eddie Guerlain, it is the third installment in Disney's "Cinderella" trilogy, and a sequel to "Cinderella" (1950) and "" (2002). Set one year after the first film, "Cinderella III: A Twist in Time" follows Lady Tremaine who steals the Fairy Godmother's magic wand, using it to reverse time and prevent Cinderella from marrying the Prince. The film's voice cast consists of Jennifer Hale, C. D. Barnes, Susanne Blakeslee, Tress MacNeille, Russi Taylor, and Andre Stojka, most of whom continue to replace the 1950 film's cast by reprising their roles from "Cinderella II: Dreams Come True".


title: Cinderella III: A Twist in Time

text: "Cinderella III: A Twist in Time" was completed over the course of two years, from 2004 to 2006. Inspired by Anastasia's romantic subplot introduced in "Cinderella II: Dreams Come True", "A Twist in Time" expands upon her reformation into a more sympathetic character, while the writers updated Cinderella and the Prince's personalities to be more appealing to modern audiences. Although none of "Cinderella"'s original animators were involved in the sequel, the filmmakers referenced the 1950 film and Disney's Animation Research Library for research and inspiration. The film was one of Disney's last direct-to-video sequels before the studio shifted focus towards producing original content. "A Twist in Time" was also the final project produced by DisneyToon Studios Australia, with Disney dissolving various departments while the film was still in production.


title: Cinderella III: A Twist in Time

text: "Cinderella III: A Twist in Time" was released direct-to-video on February 6, 2007. Unlike most of Disney's direct-to-video sequels, it received generally positive reviews from critics, who deemed it a vast improvement over its immediate predecessor, and praised the character developments of Cinderella, the Prince, and Anastasia. "Cinderella III: A Twist in Time" has grossed nearly $93 million in home video sales since its release.


title: Cinderella III: A Twist in Time

text: Cinderella's Fairy Godmother, Jaq, and Gus host a picnic to celebrate Cinderella and the Prince's first wedding anniversary. Since marrying the Prince, Cinderella's stepmother, Lady Tremaine, has been forcing her stepsisters, Drizella and Anastasia, to perform Cinderella's old housework. Anastasia grows distracted while daydreaming about finding love and stumbles upon the picnic, discovering that the Fairy Godmother's magic helped Cinderella meet the Prince at the ball. When the Fairy Godmother drops her magic wand, Anastasia retrieves and shows it to Lady Tremaine, who is only convinced once Anastasia accidentally turns the Fairy Godmother into a statue.


title: Cinderella III: A Twist in Time

text: Reveling at the opportunity to restore her own fortunes at Cinderella's expense, Lady Tremaine uses the wand to travel back in time to the day the Grand Duke fitted the glass slipper on Cinderella. With Cinderella still locked in her bedroom, she enlarges the slipper to fit Anastasia's foot, forcing the Grand Duke to declare her the Prince's bride. When Cinderella finally escapes, Lady Tremaine destroys her other slipper, hence eliminating any remaining proof that she had danced with the Prince. Jaq and Gus remind Cinderella that the Prince would remember her from the previous evening, and the trio pursues Cinderella's stepfamily to the palace.


title: Cinderella III: A Twist in Time

text: When the Prince and Anastasia are finally introduced, he initially insists a mistake has been made. Lady Tremaine magically tricks the Prince into forgetting about Cinderella and he proposes to Anastasia, leaving Cinderella hurt and confused when the Prince fails to recognize her a few moments later. Having seen Lady Tremaine use the wand, Jaq and Gus tell Cinderella the truth. Delighted to meet Anastasia despite her unrefinement, the King gifts her a seashell that belonged to his late wife, and Anastasia begins to feel guilty about deceiving them. Meanwhile, the Prince starts to doubt his feelings for Anastasia, and can't help but feel drawn to Cinderella.


title: Cinderella III: A Twist in Time

text: Disguised as a palace maid, Cinderella steals the wand from Lady Tremaine's bedroom, but she is seized by guards before she can reverse the spell, briefly grazing the Prince's hand while she is apprehended. The Prince begins to recognize Cinderella, who Lady Tremaine has ordered be exiled from the kingdom via ship. Jaq and Gus explain the entire ordeal to the Prince, eventually showing him Cinderella's repaired glass slipper, which finally restores his memory. Despite his father's protesting, the Prince pursues the ship and professes his love for Cinderella, who agrees to marry him.


title: Cinderella III: A Twist in Time

text: Upon returning to the palace, the Prince and Cinderella explain Lady Tremaine's deceit to the King who orders the Tremaine family's immediate arrest, but they escape with the wand. As Cinderella prepares for her wedding, Lady Tremaine returns with Anastasia, who – despite being visibly reluctant – has been magically transformed into a Cinderella doppelgänger. Lady Tremaine traps Cinderella and the mice in an enchanted pumpkin carriage driven by their cat, Lucifer. Cinderella, Jaq, and Gus defeat Lucifer, freeing themselves before the carriage rides over a cliff.


title: Cinderella III: A Twist in Time

text: Cinderella returns to the palace on horseback just in time to see Anastasia refuse to proceed with the wedding at the altar, deciding she would rather earn her own true love without robbing it from someone else. Enraged, Lady Tremaine transforms several guards into animals as they pursue her, before turning her attention to Cinderella and Anastasia. The Prince uses his sword to deflect a spell cast at them, turning Lady Tremaine and Drizella into toads. After returning herself to her true form, Anastasia offers to return the seashell to the King but he refuses, reminding her that everyone deserves a chance at love. Cinderella and Anastasia reconcile and together restore the Fairy Godmother. She offers to undo Lady Tremaine's change of events, but sees that Cinderella and the Prince's love has grown stronger thanks to the adventure and decides to leave them be.


title: Cinderella III: A Twist in Time

text: During the credits, Cinderella allows Anastasia to move into the palace, where she falls in love with the Baker once again. In a mid-credits scene, Drizella and Lady Tremaine are placed in the cellar and restored to their human forms, but are both now dressed in Cinderella's old rags, much to their horror.


title: Cinderella III: A Twist in Time

text: Adhering to Disney's then-popular strategy of releasing direct-to-video follow-ups to some of their classic animated films, "Cinderella III: A Twist in Time" is "Cinderella"'s second sequel, after 2002's "". Despite being unfavorably reviewed by critics upon release, "Dreams Come True" proved to be a top-seller on home video, encouraging Disney to commission a third installment. Whereas "Dreams Come True" resembled an anthology film containing three self-contained episodes from a canceled "Cinderella" television series, "A Twist in Time" focuses on one contiguous storyline. "A Twist in Time" was directed by Frank Nissen, who had previously directed the "Winnie the Pooh" film "Pooh's Heffalump Movie" (2005). Disney approached him to direct "a "Cinderella" movie" just as production on "Pooh's Heffalump Movie" was wrapping in 2004. Nissen claims he was not intimidated by the responsibility of directing a Disney property as revered as "Cinderella", instead finding the opportunity a daunting but exciting challenge he hoped to learn from. He re-watched Walt Disney's 1950 film several times to obtain story and artistic inspiration.


title: Cinderella III: A Twist in Time

text: Some critics and Disney fans protested the announcement of another "Cinderella" sequel. Addressing the debate surrounding the perceived inferior quality of direct-to-video Disney sequels at the time, Nissen believes the challenge is always attempting to expand upon the original in a meaningful manner: "in the case of Cinderella, she gets the prince, so what else is there to talk about? ... how do you make an equally interesting and equally strong story, an equally satisfying story, when everybody kind of knows who the characters are and what's supposed to happen". Nissen opted to ignore the studio's negative reputation, and focus on simply making the best film he could possibly make. Nissen maintains that Disney executives allowed him much creative freedom to fulfill his vision. Despite essentially being an alternate re-telling of the Cinderella fairy tale, the director was not influenced by other revisionist fairy tales of the time. Although "A Twist in Time" was produced around the same time as "Twice Charmed", a Cinderella-inspired stage musical hosted on the Disney Cruise Lines, Disney insists that the film is not a spin-off of the production, despite sharing songwriting team Michael Weiner and Alan Zachary. As such, "A Twist in Time" does not intentionally borrow elements or characters from the stage production, with Nissen explaining that any similarities between the two are merely coincidental. "A Twist in Time" was Disney's first direct-to-video sequel to officially contain ""III"" in its title, despite not being Disney's first direct-to-video sequel to be a franchise's third instalment.


title: Cinderella III: A Twist in Time

text: The voice cast consists of a roster of established voice actors Disney typically re-hires to voice their older animated characters, re-using most of the cast from "Dreams Come True" for continuity. Despite understanding that these character's voices would need to be mimicked based on previous performances, Nissen concerned himself little with the voice acting, trusting "that the actors had the skill and the craft to recreate the voices". Instead, he focused on providing the actors with material that felt authentic to the original iterations of their characters.


title: Cinderella III: A Twist in Time

text: "Cinderella III: A Twist in Time" was written by Dan Berendsen, Margaret Heidenry, Colleen Ventimilia, and Eddie Guzelian. Dating back to as early as 1950's "Cinderella", Anastasia had always been depicted as Cinderella's marginally less unpleasant stepsister. Inspired by Anastasia's burgeoning reformation in "Cinderella II: Dreams Come True", the writers expanded upon the 2002 film's subplot about Anastasia becoming a more sympathetic, complex character, opting to continue her character development over Drizella's. Anastasia's character arc was the only recurring motif borrowed from "Cinderella II", although the Baker (Anastasia's love interest in "Dreams Come True") makes a cameo during the end credits.The writers believed focusing on a supporting character would in turn offer a more interesting story, as opposed to solely highlighting Cinderella. Due to Cinderella's popularity as a character, Disney wanted to tell a different story that captured the original film's spirit nonetheless. Nissen commended the writers for crafting a compelling story, which granted them freedom to "fine-tune the emotional stuff within that structure, so we didn’t have to worry about solving why something happened or the logic behind how someone was feeling" in order to focus on the more cinematic aspects of the film. He also credited producer Margot Pipkin with keeping the crew focused, resulting in few regretted cut scenes, although Nissen wishes the film could have been longer in order to accommodate new characters and concepts. A subplot revolving around Gus discovering a parallel universe inhabited by mice was storyboarded but discarded because they found it distracting from Cinderella and the Prince's relationship.


title: Cinderella III: A Twist in Time

text: There was some discourse between Nissen and the studio over wanting to update "Cinderella"'s themes and characters for modern audiences, without disrespecting the original film. He found adapting lead characters Cinderella and the Prince, the latter of whom plays a much larger role in "A Twist in Time", particularly challenging. He felt very strongly about retaining Cinderella's original qualities despite making her a more modern heroine, believing she remains one of Disney's most beloved princesses "because of who she is" and "Her attitude toward life". To reflect changes in how society viewed heroines over the 50 years since "Cinderella" was released, the character deliberately becomes a more active heroine during the film's second act, deciding to take control of her situation. Meanwhile, the filmmakers essentially created their version of the Prince from scratch, about whom little was previously known due to his limited screen time in the 1950 film. Nissen explained, "We didn't want him too modern so he would appear like a nice guy from the suburbs. I still wanted that romantic kind of quality to the Prince, so it was a very delicate thing". Several writers were recruited to revise the Prince's dialogue to discover the appropriate balance of self-awareness, self-deprecating humor and sincerity. The filmmakers also based his personality on those of romantic comedy leading men, citing actor Hugh Grant as a particularly influential example of embodying many of the Prince's desired qualities. Nissen credits C. D. Barnes, who voices the Prince, with imbuing the character with "the right mix of classical hero plus modern guy". The character's late mother, who is pictured in "A Twist in Time" for the first time, was nicknamed "Queen Gertie" during production.


title: Cinderella III: A Twist in Time

text: Despite some early discussions about modernizing the stepmother in the vein of the musical "Wicked" by providing her with her own song, Nissen insisted that Lady Tremaine, who he considers to be one of Disney's greatest villains, essentially remain the same. The film's dialogue also pokes fun at some of the 1950 film's ideas, such as the idea that no other woman in the kingdom can share Cinderella's shoe size.


title: Cinderella III: A Twist in Time

text: Despite having some animation experience, Nissen himself did very little animating on the film, instead focusing on storyboarding and occasionally re-tooling challenging scenes. During the time travel sequences, several scenes that appear nearly identical to the original film were re-drawn for the new film. Nissen explained that the original scenes could not simply be reused in "A Twist in Time" due to advancements in animation technology, such as aspect ratio, frame format and digitally cel-shading, otherwise colors "would be two or three generations removed by the time we processed it". Nissen decided that animating new material instead would help the revisited scenes appear more seamless in "A Twist in Time". Since much of the original film's creative team had passed away or retired by the time production began on "A Twist in Time", the director referred to Disney's Animation Research Library for character inspiration and design continuity. Describing Lady Tremaine as the film's most anatomically realistic character, Nissen worked to preserve the character's non-cartoonish appearance in order to truly convey her evil, menacing nature.


title: Cinderella III: A Twist in Time

text: The film was completed over the course of two-and-a-half years, beginning in early 2004 and ending fall 2006, which the director described as much faster than a typical animated film. By June 2007, Disney announced that, under the creative direction of Pixar's John Lasseter, DisneyToon will abandon sequels in favor of producing exclusively original DVD content. It was initially unclear as to whether the "Cinderella" sequel would be completed. Ultimately, "A Twist in Time" was one of Disney's last direct-to-video sequels, shortly followed by "" (2008). DisneyToon Studios shifted their focus to franchises and computer animation shortly thereafter, with Nissen becoming involved in the "Tinker Bell" film series.


title: Cinderella III: A Twist in Time

text: "A Twist in Time" was DisneyToon Studios Australia's final film. The film studio was gradually closed while "A Twist in Time" was still in production, but Nissen and Disney Toon Studios head Sharon Morrill commended the Australian animators for remaining determined to complete the film to the best of their ability, despite it being many of their last. Various departments were shuttered and their employees subsequently laid off once they completed their tasks. Once "A Twist in Time" wrapped in July 2006, the studio was closed and remaining equipment was auctioned off. The film's end credits include a dedication thanking the Australian studio "for their many years of producing beautiful hand-drawn animation". The film was produced on a budget of $8 million.


title: Cinderella III: A Twist in Time

text: Michael Weiner and Alan Zachary wrote original songs for "A Twist in Time". They had also written the book and music for "Twice Charmed", and previously served as musical consultants on "Dreams Come True". Composer Joel McNeely composed the film's orchestral score. He had previously scored several Disney sequels, including "Return to Neverland" (2002), "The Jungle Book 2" (2003), "Mulan II" (2004), "Pooh’s Heffalump Movie", (2005) and "The Fox and the Hound 2" (2006). Cast as Cinderella's singing voice, Broadway performer Tami Tappan recorded several songs for the film. Actress Hayden Panettiere recorded the film's theme song, "I Still Believe", one of her earliest attempts to establish a music career. Panettiere's music video was heavily rotated on Disney Channel at the time and was included as a bonus feature on the film's DVD. A soundtrack released March 2, 2007 is available for digital download on Apple Music, which also features a cover by singer Laura Dickinson.


title: Cinderella III: A Twist in Time

text: Some critics speculated that "Cinderella III: A Twist in Time" would receive a limited theatrical release in Europe. The film was released direct-to-DVD on February 6, 2007. Available for a limited time, the film returned to the Disney Vault on January 31, 2008, alongside "Cinderella" and "Dreams Come True". On November 20, 2012, "A Twist in Time" was released on Blu-ray on November 20, 2012, as a double feature with "Dreams Come True".


title: Cinderella III: A Twist in Time

text: "Variety" predicted that the film would earn "healthy if not quite humongous sales and rentals". "Cinderella III: A Twist in Time" topped the national DVD sales chart during its first week of release, selling 80% more copies than its closest competition, "Flags of Our Fathers" (2006). The film retained its top position and continued to outsell "Flags of Our Fathers" the following week by twice as much. The film had fallen to second place by the end of the month, but still sold more than twice as many copies as the third-place entry, "Open Season" (2006). By 2008, "Cinderella III: A Twist in Time" had earned more than $80 million in home video sales. The film has ultimately earned over $92 million, with The Numbers reporting that "A Twist in Time" has grossed $92,915,486 in-home video sales to-date.


title: Cinderella III: A Twist in Time

text: The film was among the first several titles to premiere on Disney+ when the streaming service launched on November 12, 2019.


title: Cinderella III: A Twist in Time

text: Although direct-to-video Disney sequels typically have a poor reputation among critics and fans of their original works, "Cinderella III: A Twist in Time" performed better than its contemporaries upon release. It received mostly positive reviews from critics, who praised its cleverness and acknowledged its improvement over its immediate predecessor. The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported a 75% approval rating based on eight reviews, with an average rating of 6.03/10, significantly higher than "Cinderella II: Dreams Come True"'s 11% rating.


title: Cinderella III: A Twist in Time

text: Writing for AllMovie, Jason Buchanan said "A Twist in Time" is "a compelling twist on the familiar fairy tale" and "an enchanting animated sequel filled with show-stopping musical numbers, nail-biting suspense, and magical wonders for the entire family". BBC Online reviewed the film as "a classic story re-told in a refreshing funny way". Joe Strike of Animation World Network called "A Twist in Time" "an excellent film, in some ways better than the original -- richer emotionally and with characters who transcend their caricatured origins to display depth and personality". Writing for "Variety", film critic and historian Joe Leydon described the film as a "Lightly amusing animated vidpic" that "should satisfy its obvious target audience of easily distracted moppets, doting and/or indulgent parents and grandparents, and tweeners who still dream of becoming princesses". Common Sense Media contributor Nancy Davis Kho called "A Twist in Time a" "funny, likable twist on the original Cinderella", while Female.com.au predicted fans of the heroine will "thoroughly enjoy this new chapter in her life". John Lasser of Blogcritics reviewed the film as "a more than acceptable addition to the ["Cinderella"] franchise" but criticized its songs. Channel Awesome's Doug Walker described "A Twist in Time" as one of Disney's "strangest" and "most entertaining" direct-to-video releases, while Ed Perkis of CinemaBlend found the film more imaginative than most of Disney's direct-to-video offerings. Cinderella, the Prince, and Anastasia's personalities and arcs were widely praised by various critics. While praising Nissen's direction, DVD Talk's Brian Orndorf lauded MacNeille's performance as Anastasia, writing that the actress "gives a rich, sweet reading of Anastasia that the film eventually comes to rely on in an unexpected way".


title: Cinderella III: A Twist in Time

text: Rory L. Aronsky of "Film Threat" admitted that "At the very least, ["A Twist in Time"] was treated with a level of dignity and poise" they believe had not been offered to the "Little Mermaid" (1989), "Aladdin" (1992), and "Pocahontas" (1995) sequels. Despite criticizing its character designs, action sequences, and script, David Cornelius of DVD Talk praised the animation quality and found the film a vast improvement over "Dreams Come True". Andrew Scharf of CHUD.com described the film as a decent but unnecessary sequel, criticizing Disney for continuing to "taint the goodwill of the mostly classic original films". Scharf also found the film's self-aware humor "out of place", comparing it negatively to "Shrek 2" (2004). In a negative review, C. S. Strowbridge of The Numbers dismissed "A Twist in Time" as predictable and cliched, while criticizing its animation as "terribly flat". Faulting the film for adhering to the Disney sequel formula too closely, Amazon contributor Jon Foster said "A Twist in Time" "can't hold a torch to the original", despite being superior to "Dreams Come True".


title: Cinderella III: A Twist in Time

text: Over time, "Cinderella III: A Twist in Time" has developed a reputation as one of Disney's best direct-to-video sequels. Following Disney's decision to stop producing direct-to-video sequels in 2007, "Slate"'s Dan Kois used "A Twist in Time" to defend the practice, describing the film as a worthy successor to the original. Polygon ranked "A Twist in Time" Disney's second-best direct-to-video sequel, while "Insider" ranked it fourth. Declaring the film "one of the best direct-to-video sequels Disney made", Ross Bonaime of Collider believes "A Twist in Time" pushed boundaries like no Disney sequel had done prior. In 2022, Bonaime wrote that "A Twist in Time" represents "a bygone era of Disney, an era where these worlds were open sandboxes that could be explored and tinkered around with. No, it rarely worked to the longterm benefit of the brand, but it was unique and wild in a way Disney rarely is anymore". Bonaime also said "A Twist in Time" pre-dated Disney's era of releasing live-action remakes that re-examine and deconstruct their classic films, identifying it as a precursor to "Maleficent" (2014), "Cinderella" (2015), and "Cruella" (2021).


title: Cinderella III: A Twist in Time

text: Anthony Gramuglia of Comic Book Resources cited the film as a standout example of Disney's direct-to-video sequels taking a satirical approach to revisiting their original films: "These irreverent movies have fun with the potential offered by a direct-to-video sequel and tell entertaining, fun stories -- assuming, of course, you're up for ridiculous takes on classic Disney films". Kevin Wong of "GameSpot" named "A Twist in Time" one of Disney's seven weirdest sequels. In recent years, some media publications have compared "A Twist in Time"'s time travel storyline to the superhero film "" (2019).


title: Photoreceptor cell

text: A photoreceptor cell is a specialized type of neuroepithelial cell found in the retina that is capable of visual phototransduction. The great biological importance of photoreceptors is that they convert light (visible electromagnetic radiation) into signals that can stimulate biological processes. To be more specific, photoreceptor proteins in the cell absorb photons, triggering a change in the cell's membrane potential.


title: Photoreceptor cell

text: There are currently three known types of photoreceptor cells in mammalian eyes: rods, cones, and intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells. The two classic photoreceptor cells are rods and cones, each contributing information used by the visual system to form an image of the environment, sight. Rods primarily mediate scotopic vision (dim conditions) whereas cones primarily mediate to photopic vision (bright conditions), but the processes in each that supports phototransduction is similar. A third class of mammalian photoreceptor cell was discovered during the 1990s: the intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells. These cells are thought not to contribute to sight directly, but have a role in the entrainment of the circadian rhythm and pupillary reflex.


title: Photoreceptor cell

text: Each photoreceptor absorbs light according to its spectral sensitivity (absorptance), which is determined by the photoreceptor proteins expressed in that cell. Humans have three classes of cones (L, M, S) that each differ in spectral sensitivity and 'prefer' photons of different wavelengths (see graph). For example, the peak wavelength of the S-cone's spectral sensitivity is approximately 420 nm (nanometers, a measure of wavelength), so it is more likely to absorb a photon at 420 nm than at any other wavelength. Light of a longer wavelength can also produce the same response from an S-cone, but it would have to be brighter to do so.


title: Photoreceptor cell

text: In accordance with the principle of univariance, a photoreceptor's output signal is proportional only to the number of photons absorbed. The photoreceptors can not measure the wavelength of light that it absorbs and therefore does not detect color on its own. Rather, it is the ratios of responses of the three types of cone cells that can estimate wavelength, and therefore enable color vision.


title: Photoreceptor cell

text: Rod and cone photoreceptors are found on the outermost layer of the retina; they both have the same basic structure. Closest to the visual field (and farthest from the brain) is the axon terminal, which releases a neurotransmitter called glutamate to bipolar cells. Farther back is the cell body, which contains the cell's organelles. Farther back still is the inner segment, a specialized part of the cell full of mitochondria. The chief function of the inner segment is to provide ATP (energy) for the sodium-potassium pump. Finally, closest to the brain (and farthest from the field of view) is the outer segment, the part of the photoreceptor that absorbs light. Outer segments are actually modified cilia that contain disks filled with opsin, the molecule that absorbs photons, as well as voltage-gated sodium channels.


title: Photoreceptor cell

text: The membranous photoreceptor protein "opsin" contains a pigment molecule called "retinal". In rod cells, these together are called rhodopsin. In cone cells, there are different types of opsins that combine with retinal to form pigments called photopsins. Three different classes of photopsins in the cones react to different ranges of light frequency, a differentiation that allows the visual system to calculate color. The function of the photoreceptor cell is to convert the light information of the photon into a form of information communicable to the nervous system and readily usable to the organism: This conversion is called signal transduction.


title: Photoreceptor cell

text: The opsin found in the intrinsically photosensitive ganglion cells of the retina is called melanopsin. These cells are involved in various reflexive responses of the brain and body to the presence of (day)light, such as the regulation of circadian rhythms, pupillary reflex and other non-visual responses to light. Melanopsin functionally resembles invertebrate opsins.


title: Photoreceptor cell

text: Most vertebrate photoreceptors are located in the retina. The distribution of rods and cones (and classes thereof) in the retina is called the retinal mosaic. Each human retina has approximately 6 million cones and 120 million rods. At the "center" of the retina (the point directly behind the lens) lies the fovea (or fovea centralis), which contains only cone cells; and is the region capable of producing the highest visual acuity or highest resolution. Across the rest of the retina, rods and cones are intermingled. No photoreceptors are found at the blind spot, the area where ganglion cell fibers are collected into the optic nerve and leave the eye. The distribution of cone classes (L, M, S) are also nonhomogenous, with no S-cones in the fovea, and the ratio of L-cones to M-cones differing between individuals.


title: Photoreceptor cell

text: The number and ratio of rods to cones varies among species, dependent on whether an animal is primarily diurnal or nocturnal. Certain owls, such as the nocturnal tawny owl, have a tremendous number of rods in their retinae. Other vertebrates will also have a different number of cone classes, ranging from monochromats to pentachromats.


title: Photoreceptor cell

text: The path of a visual signal is described by the phototransduction cascade, the mechanism by which the energy of a photon signals a mechanism in the cell that leads to its electrical polarization. This polarization ultimately leads to either the transmittance or inhibition of a neural signal that will be fed to the brain via the optic nerve. The steps that apply to the phototransductuion pathway from vertebrate rod/cone photoreceptors are:


title: Photoreceptor cell

text: Unlike most sensory receptor cells, photoreceptors actually become hyperpolarized when stimulated; and conversely are depolarized when not stimulated. This means that glutamate is released continuously when the cell is unstimulated, and stimulus causes release to stop. In the dark, cells have a relatively high concentration of cyclic guanosine 3'-5' monophosphate (cGMP), which opens cGMP-gated ion channels. These channels are nonspecific, allowing movement of both sodium and calcium ions when open. The movement of these positively charged ions into the cell (driven by their respective electrochemical gradient) depolarizes the membrane, and leads to the release of the neurotransmitter glutamate.


title: Photoreceptor cell

text: Unstimulated (in the dark), cyclic-nucleotide gated channels in the outer segment are open because cyclic GMP (cGMP) is bound to them. Hence, positively charged ions (namely sodium ions) enter the photoreceptor, depolarizing it to about −40 mV (resting potential in other nerve cells is usually −65 mV). This depolarization current is often known as dark current.


title: Photoreceptor cell

text: The photoreceptors ("rods" and "cones") transmit to the bipolar cells, which transmit then to the retinal ganglion cells. Retinal ganglion cell axons collectively form the optic nerve, via which they project to the brain.


title: Photoreceptor cell

text: The rod and cone photoreceptors signal their absorption of photons via a decrease in the release of the neurotransmitter glutamate to bipolar cells at its axon terminal. Since the photoreceptor is depolarized in the dark, a high amount of glutamate is being released to bipolar cells in the dark. Absorption of a photon will hyperpolarize the photoreceptor and therefore result in the release of "less" glutamate at the presynaptic terminal to the bipolar cell.


title: Photoreceptor cell

text: Every rod or cone photoreceptor releases the same neurotransmitter, glutamate. However, the effect of glutamate differs in the bipolar cells, depending upon the type of receptor imbedded in that cell's membrane. When glutamate binds to an ionotropic receptor, the bipolar cell will depolarize (and therefore will hyperpolarize with light as less glutamate is released). On the other hand, binding of glutamate to a metabotropic receptor results in a hyperpolarization, so this bipolar cell will depolarize to light as less glutamate is released.


title: Photoreceptor cell

text: In essence, this property allows for one population of bipolar cells that gets excited by light and another population that gets inhibited by it, even though all photoreceptors show the same response to light. This complexity becomes both important and necessary for detecting color, contrast, edges, etc.


title: Photoreceptor cell

text: Phototransduction in rods and cones is somewhat unusual in that the stimulus (in this case, light) reduces the cell's response or firing rate, different from most other sensory systems in which a stimulus increases the cell's response or firing rate. This difference has important functional consequences:


title: Photoreceptor cell

text: The key events mediating rod versus S cone versus M cone differentiation are induced by several transcription factors, including RORbeta, OTX2, NRL, CRX, NR2E3 and TRbeta2. The S cone fate represents the default photoreceptor program; however, differential transcriptional activity can bring about rod or M cone generation. L cones are present in primates, however there is not much known for their developmental program due to use of rodents in research. There are five steps to developing photoreceptors: proliferation of multi-potent retinal progenitor cells (RPCs); restriction of competence of RPCs; cell fate specification; photoreceptor gene expression; and lastly axonal growth, synapse formation and outer segment growth.


title: Photoreceptor cell

text: Early Notch signaling maintains progenitor cycling. Photoreceptor precursors come about through inhibition of Notch signaling and increased activity of various factors including achaete-scute homologue 1. OTX2 activity commits cells to the photoreceptor fate. CRX further defines the photoreceptor specific panel of genes being expressed. NRL expression leads to the rod fate. NR2E3 further restricts cells to the rod fate by repressing cone genes. RORbeta is needed for both rod and cone development. TRbeta2 mediates the M cone fate. If any of the previously mentioned factors' functions are ablated, the default photoreceptor is a S cone. These events take place at different time periods for different species and include a complex pattern of activities that bring about a spectrum of phenotypes. If these regulatory networks are disrupted, retinitis pigmentosa, macular degeneration or other visual deficits may result.


title: Photoreceptor cell

text: Intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs) are a subset (≈1–3%) of retinal ganglion cells, unlike other retinal ganglion cells, are intrinsically photosensitive due to the presence of melanopsin, a light-sensitive protein. Therefore they constitute a third class of photoreceptors, in addition to rod and cone cells.


title: Photoreceptor cell

text: In humans the ipRGCs contribute to non-image-forming functions like circadian rhythms, behavior and pupillary light reflex. Peak spectral sensitivity of the receptor is between 460 and 482 nm. However, they may also contribute to a rudimentary visual pathway enabling conscious sight and brightness detection. Classic photoreceptors (rods and cones) also feed into the novel visual system, which may constribute to color constancy. ipRGCs could be instrumental in understanding many diseases including major causes of blindness worldwide like glaucoma, a disease that affects ganglion cells, and the study of the receptor offered potential as a new avenue to explore in trying to find treatments for blindness.


title: Photoreceptor cell

text: ipRGCs were only definitively detected ipRGCs in humans during landmark experiments in 2007 on rodless, coneless humans. As had been found in other mammals, the identity of the non-rod non-cone photoreceptor in humans was found to be a ganglion cell in the inner retina. The researchers had tracked down patients with rare diseases wiping out classic rod and cone photoreceptor function but preserving ganglion cell function. Despite having no rods or cones the patients continued to exhibit circadian photoentrainment, circadian behavioural patterns, melanopsin suppression, and pupil reactions, with peak spectral sensitivities to environmental and experimental light matching that for the melanopsin photopigment. Their brains could also associate vision with light of this frequency.


title: Photoreceptor cell

text: Rod and cone photoreceptors are common to almost all vertebrates. The pineal and parapineal glands are photoreceptive in non-mammalian vertebrates, but not in mammals. Birds have photoactive cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)-contacting neurons within the paraventricular organ that respond to light in the absence of input from the eyes or neurotransmitters. Invertebrate photoreceptors in organisms such as insects and molluscs are different in both their morphological organization and their underlying biochemical pathways. This article describes human photoreceptors.


title: Jantar Mantar, Jaipur

text: The Jantar Mantar, Jaipur is a collection of 19 astronomical instruments built by the Rajput king Sawai Jai Singh II, the founder of Jaipur, Rajasthan. The monument was completed in 1734. It features the world's largest stone sundial, and is a UNESCO World Heritage site. It is near City Palace and Hawa Mahal. The instruments allow the observation of astronomical positions with the naked eye. The observatory is an example of the Ptolemaic positional astronomy which was shared by many civilizations.


title: Jantar Mantar, Jaipur

text: The monument features instruments operating in each of the three main classical celestial coordinate systems: the horizon-zenith local system, the equatorial system, and the ecliptic system. The "Kanmala Yantraprakara" is one that works in two systems and allows transformation of the coordinates directly from one system to the other. It has the biggest sundial in the world.


title: Jantar Mantar, Jaipur

text: The monument was damaged in the 19th century. Early restoration work was undertaken under the supervision of Major Arthur Garrett, a keen amateur astronomer, during his appointment as Assistant State Engineer for the Jaipur District.


title: Jantar Mantar, Jaipur

text: The name jantar is derived from yantra a Sanskrit word, meaning "instrument, machine", and "mantar" from "mantrana also a" Sanskrit word "consult, calculate"). Therefore, "Jantar Mantar" literally means 'calculating instrument'.


title: Jantar Mantar, Jaipur

text: Jai Singh noticed that the Zij, which was used for determining the position of celestial objects, did not match the positions calculated on the table. He constructed five new observatories in different cities in order to create a more accurate Zij. The astronomical tables Jai Singh created, known as the Zij-i Muhammad Shahi, were continuously used in India for a century. (However, the table had little significance outside of India.) Also, it was used to measure time.


title: Jantar Mantar, Jaipur

text: Exactly when Raja Jai Singh began construction in Jaipur is unknown, but several instruments had been built by 1728, and the construction of the instruments in Jaipur continued until 1738. During 1735, when construction was at its peak, at least 23 astronomers were employed in Jaipur, and due to the changing political climate, Jaipur replaced Delhi as Raja Jai Singh's main observatory and remained Jai Singh's central observatory until his death in 1743. The observatory lost support under Isvari Singh (r.1743-1750) because of a succession war between him and his brother. However, Mado Singh (r. 1750–1768), Isvari Singh's successor, supported the observatory, although it did not see the same level of activity as under Jai Singh. Although some restorations were made to the Jantar Mantar under Pratap Singh (r.1778-1803), activity at the observatory died down again. During this time, a temple was constructed and Pratap Singh turned the site of the observatory into a gun factory.


title: Jantar Mantar, Jaipur

text: Ram Singh (r. 1835–1880) completed restoring the Jantar Mantar in 1876, and even made some of the instruments more durable by inserting lead into the instruments' lines and using stone to restore some of the plaster instruments. However, the observatory soon became neglected again, and was not restored until 1901 under Madho Singh II (r. 1880–1922)


title: Jantar Mantar, Jaipur

text: The observatory consists of nineteen instruments for measuring time, predicting eclipses, tracking location of major stars as the earth orbits around the sun, ascertaining the declinations of planets, and determining the celestial altitudes and related ephemerides. The instruments are (alphabetical):


title: Jantar Mantar, Jaipur

text: The Vrihat Samrat Yantra, which means the "great king of instruments", is high; its shadow tells the time of day. Its face is angled at 27 degrees, the latitude of Jaipur. The Hindu chhatri (small cupola) on top is used as a platform for announcing eclipses and the arrival of monsoons.


title: Jantar Mantar, Jaipur

text: The instruments are in most cases huge structures. The scale to which they have been built has been alleged to increase their accuracy. However, the penumbra of the sun can be as wide as 30 mm, making the 1mm increments of the Samrat Yantra sundial devoid of any practical significance. Additionally, the masons constructing the instruments had insufficient experience with construction of this scale, and subsidence of the foundations has subsequently misaligned them. The "samrat yantra", for instance, which is a sundial, is claimed to tell the time to an accuracy of about two seconds in Jaipur local time. The Giant Sundial, known as the Samrat Yantra (The Supreme Instrument) is one of the world's largest sundials, standing 27 metres tall. Its shadow moves visibly at 1 mm per second, or roughly a hand's breadth (6 cm) every minute, which can be a profound experience to watch.


title: Jantar Mantar, Jaipur

text: Built from local stone and marble, each instrument carries an astronomical scale, generally marked on the marble inner lining. Bronze tablets, bricks and mortar were also employed in building the instruments in the monument spread over about 18,700 square metres. It was in continuous use until about 1800, then fell in disuse and disrepair. Restored again several times during the British colonial rule, particularly in 1902, the Jantar Mantar was declared a national monument in 1948. It was restored in 2006. The restoration process in early 20th century replaced some of the original materials of construction with different materials.


title: Jantar Mantar, Jaipur

text: Jantar Mantar is managed under the Archeological Sites and Monuments Act of Rajasthan since 1961, and protected as a National Monument of Rajasthan since 1968.


title: Jantar Mantar, Jaipur

text: The Vedas mention astronomical terms, measurement of time and calendar, but do not mention any astronomical instruments. The earliest discussion of astronomical instruments, gnomon and clepsydra, is found in the Vedangas, ancient Sanskrit texts. The gnomon (called Shanku, शङ्कु) found at Jantar Mantar monument is discussed in these first millennium BCE Vedangas and in many later texts such as the Katyayana Sulbasutras. Other discussions of astronomical instruments are found in Hinduism texts such as the fourth century BCE Arthashastra, Buddhist texts such as Sardulakarna-avadana, and Jainism texts such as Surya-prajnapti. The theories behind the instruments are found in texts by the fifth century CE Aryabhatta, sixth century CE Brahmagupta and Varahamihira, ninth century Lalla, eleventh century Sripati and Bhaskara. The texts of Bhaskara have dedicated chapters on instruments and he calls them "Yantra-adhyaya".


title: Jantar Mantar, Jaipur

text: The theory of chakra-yantra, yasti-yantra, dhanur-yantra, kapala-yantra, nadivalaya-yantra, kartari-yantra, and others are found in the ancient texts.


title: Jantar Mantar, Jaipur

text: Although Jai Singh's observatories did not use telescopes, Jai Singh himself had several which he occasionally used for his observations, and telescopes were being built in India. However, telescopes built at the time were not very accurate for measuring celestial objects. In Europe, the telescope sights were first being used and increased the accuracy of measuring celestial objects. However, the telescope sight was still a new invention in India and had not yet reached Europe. European innovations in Astronomy were not more accurate than the medieval Hindu instruments that Jai Singh had created.


title: Jantar Mantar, Jaipur

text: Storm Thorgerson photographed the sundial for the cover of Shpongle's DVD, "Live at the Roundhouse 2008".


title: Jantar Mantar, Jaipur

text: It was photographed by Julio Cortázar with the collaboration of Antonio Gálvez for the book "Prosa del Observatorio" (Editorial Lumen: Barcelona, 1972).


title: 2020 Polish presidential election

text: Presidential elections were held in Poland on 28 June 2020. As no candidate received a majority of the vote, a second round was held on 12 July, in which incumbent president Andrzej Duda, running with the support of Law and Justice, faced off against Civic Platform vice-chairman and Mayor of Warsaw Rafał Trzaskowski. Results from the second round of voting, announced by the National Electoral Commission (PKW) on 13 July, indicated that Andrzej Duda had won with 51.03% compared to Rafał Trzaskowski's 48.97%.


title: 2020 Polish presidential election

text: The first round of voting was due to be held on 10 May 2020, but was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Poland. On 6 May 2020, the Agreement party, which was in a governing alliance with the leading Law and Justice party and was opposed to pursuing the original election date, reached an arrangement to set new dates for the election. The following day, the PKW declared that the election would not be able to take place on 10 May 2020. On 3 June 2020, the Marshal of the Sejm, Elżbieta Witek, ordered the first round of the election to be held on 28 June 2020 and scheduled the second round on 12 July 2020.


title: 2020 Polish presidential election

text: According to the OSCE's Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights, the public broadcaster TVP "failed in its legal duty to provide balanced and impartial coverage" and "acted as a campaign vehicle for the incumbent".


title: 2020 Polish presidential election

text: The President of Poland is directly elected using a two-round system for a five-year term, with a two-term limit. Andrzej Duda's first term expired on 6 August 2020 when he reaffirmed his oath of office before the National Assembly, a joint session of the Sejm and Senate and began his second term.


title: 2020 Polish presidential election

text: Pursuant to the provisions of the Constitution, the president must be elected by an absolute majority of valid votes. If no candidate succeeds in passing this threshold in the first round, a second round of voting is held with the two candidates who received the largest shares of the vote.


title: 2020 Polish presidential election

text: In order to be registered to contest the election, a candidate must be a Polish citizen, be at least 35 years old on the day of the first round of the election, and have collected at least 100,000 voters' signatures by 10 June 2020 at midnight.


title: 2020 Polish presidential election

text: The election was originally scheduled for 10 May 2020, which caused extreme political controversy related to the COVID-19 pandemic. Many candidates, constitutionalists, and even politicians from the ruling coalition criticized the government's plan of holding the election as originally scheduled during the pandemic. As a compromise, the Agreement political party proposed lengthening the president's term by two years, which was supported by the Minister of Health, Łukasz Szumowski. This was rejected by the opposition. The main opposition party, Civic Platform, wanted the election to be held in May 2021. The ruling conservative party Law and Justice also wished to change the electoral rules and to organize the election by postal voting only. Changing election rules less than six months prior to voting was ruled to be unconstitutional by the Constitutional Tribunal in 2011. Voting only by post is considered unconstitutional by some including Polish Supreme Court in a non-binding opinion.


title: 2020 Polish presidential election

text: At 02:26 early in the morning on 23 April, every Polish mayor and city council president received an anonymous, unsigned e-mail from Poczta Polska (Polish Post) saying that they were required to deliver the private data of 30 million Polish citizens including their PESEL (national identification number), date of birth, address, and other private data in a .txt file format lacking any passwords or security. Many Polish mayors and city council presidents, lawyers, and other citizens criticized the order to provide such private data, stating that the order violated the GDPR and Polish Law, since the legal act referred to in the email had no legal validity; it concerned a bill that was still undergoing legislative procedures. Citizens and other officials stated their intention to file a lawsuit to the prosecutor's office about the possibility of crimes being committed by the government-run Poczta Polska and by the politicians responsible for the regulation.


title: 2020 Polish presidential election

text: On 29 April 2020, 11 days before the planned election date, election candidate Stanisław Żółtek presented a copy of an electoral ballot at a press conference. The copies contained the names of all the candidates and other forms to be filled by voters. Żółtek said that he received the ballots from workers of one of the companies that was printing and preparing electoral documents. Poczta Polska notified the Internal Security Agency about the leak. As of 2 May 2020, Polish law did not authorise Poczta Polska to organise postal voting except in a small number of special cases.


title: 2020 Polish presidential election

text: On 30 April 2020, three former Polish presidents and six prime ministers called for a boycott of 2020 presidential election, on the grounds that the election would be unconstitutional and could not guarantee the confidentiality of voters.


title: 2020 Polish presidential election

text: On 6 May, Jarosław Gowin, the leader of Agreement, and Jarosław Kaczyński, the leader of Law and Justice struck an agreement to move the election. The two parties had earlier been engaged in a political struggle over whether the election should proceed in May.


title: 2020 Polish presidential election

text: On 7 May, the Sejm approved legislation for the election to be held via postal ballot. The same day, PKW announced that "The current legal regulation deprived the National Electoral Commission of the instruments necessary to perform its duties. In connection with the above, the National Electoral Commission informs voters, election committees, candidates, election administration and local government units that voting on 10 May 2020 cannot take place."


title: 2020 Polish presidential election

text: The movement of the election day was met with support and opposition from both the "anti" and "pro" Law and Justice spheres of Polish politics. An opinion poll for Rzeczpospolita gauged public support for the Gowin-Kaczyński agreement at 43.5%, with 36.3% being against, and the rest undecided.


title: 2020 Polish presidential election

text: On 15 September 2020, the in Warsaw judged that the decision of Prime Minister Mateusz Morawiecki to hold the May elections exclusively through mail-in voting was "[a] gross violation of the law and was issued without [legal] grounds" and violated article 7 of the Polish Constitution, article 157, paragraph 1 and article 187, paragraph 1 and 2 of the Electoral Code. The opposition demanded Morawiecki's resignation.


title: 2020 Polish presidential election

text: Incumbent President Andrzej Duda was eligible to run for a second term. On 24 October 2019, in an open letter to the elected members of the Sejm and Senate, PiS chairman Jarosław Kaczyński announced that the party will strongly support Andrzej Duda in next year's presidential election. In the first round he won a plurality of 43.5% and went on to face challenger Rafał Trzaskowski in the second round in which he won re-election with 51.03% of the vote.


title: 2020 Polish presidential election

text: Donald Tusk was widely expected to make a comeback in Polish politics and to run for President, all the more so given that his European office expired at the end of 2019. However, in November 2019, he announced he would not run for the Polish Presidency, citing that he has "a bag of difficult, unpopular decisions since prime minister" that would burden his candidacy. He is said to have been advised against a run by private opinion polls. He decided to run instead for the leadership of the European People's Party. As a result, party leader Grzegorz Schetyna decided to hold a convention in order to nominate a candidate for president. The primary was won by Małgorzata Kidawa-Błońska.


title: 2020 Polish presidential election

text: Małgorzata Kidawa-Błońska resigned her candidacy on 15 May 2020 under pressure of falling poll numbers and her own party. After this, Rafał Trzaskowski became the new candidate of the Civic Coalition. He managed to receive over 1.6 million signatures, securing his eligibility to run in the election. After receiving 30.46% of the vote in the first round he was defeated by the incumbent Andrzej Duda in the second round, winning 48.97% of the vote.


title: 2020 Polish presidential election

text: In December 2019, PSL chairman Władysław Kosiniak-Kamysz announced that he would be launching a campaign for president.


title: 2020 Polish presidential election

text: At the beginning of January 2020, Włodzimierz Czarzasty said that The Left would nominate Robert Biedroń.


title: 2020 Polish presidential election

text: The party held an open primary, a first in Polish politics. The 2019–20 Confederation presidential primary was modeled after the primary voting model common in the United States. Krzysztof Bosak was nominated during the final round of voting held at the convention in Warsaw on 18 January.


title: 2020 Polish presidential election

text: These are candidates who collected the necessary 100,000 signatures supporting their candidacy to run, but were not supported by parties in the Sejm:


title: 2020 Polish presidential election

text: These following candidates made electoral comitties but failed to submit 100,000 signatures supporting their run by the 26 March deadline: