title: Faith Domergue

text: In 1966, she married director Paolo Cossa, with whom she remained until his death in 1992. Despite the divorces, Domergue remained a practicing Roman Catholic.


title: Faith Domergue

text: Domergue spent her later years in retirement in Palo Alto, California. She died on April 4, 1999 in Santa Barbara of cancer.


title: Old Persian

text: Old Persian is one of the two directly attested Old Iranian languages (the other being Avestan) and is the ancestor of Middle Persian (the language of Sasanian Empire). Like other Old Iranian languages, it was known to its native speakers as (Iranian).


title: Old Persian

text: Old Persian appears primarily in the inscriptions, clay tablets and seals of the Achaemenid era (c. 600 BCE to 300 BCE). Examples of Old Persian have been found in what is now Iran, Romania (Gherla), Armenia, Bahrain, Iraq, Turkey and Egypt, with the most important attestation by far being the contents of the Behistun Inscription (dated to 525 BCE).


title: Old Persian

text: Recent research (2007) into the vast Persepolis Fortification Archive at the Oriental Institute at the University of Chicago unearthed Old Persian tablets, which suggest Old Persian was a written language in use for practical recording and not only for royal display.


title: Old Persian

text: As a written language, Old Persian is attested in royal Achaemenid inscriptions. It is an Iranian language and as such a member of the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family. The oldest known text written in Old Persian is from the Behistun Inscriptions. Old Persian is one of the oldest Indo-European languages which are attested in original texts.


title: Old Persian

text: The oldest date of use of Old Persian as a spoken language is not precisely known. According to certain historical assumptions about the early history and origin of ancient Persians in Southwestern Iran (where Achaemenids hailed from), Old Persian was originally spoken by a tribe called , who arrived in the Iranian Plateau early in the 1st millennium BCE and finally migrated down into the area of present-day Fārs province. Their language, Old Persian, became the official language of the Achaemenid kings. Assyrian records, which in fact appear to provide the earliest evidence for ancient Iranian (Persian and Median) presence on the Iranian Plateau, give a good chronology but only an approximate geographical indication of what seem to be ancient Persians. In these records of the 9th century BCE, (along with , presumably Medians) are first mentioned in the area of Lake Urmia in the records of Shalmaneser III. The exact identity of the Parsuwash is not known for certain, but from a linguistic viewpoint the word matches Old Persian itself coming directly from the older word . Also, as Old Persian contains many words from another extinct Iranian language, Median, according to P. O. Skjærvø it is probable that Old Persian had already been spoken before the formation of the Achaemenid Empire and was spoken during most of the first half of the first millennium BCE.


title: Old Persian

text: Old Persian belongs to the Iranian language family, a branch of the Indo-Iranian language family, itself within the large family of Indo-European languages. The common ancestors of Indo-Iranians came from Central Asia sometime in the first half of the 2nd millennium BCE. The extinct and unattested Median language is another Old Iranian language related to Old Persian; both are classified as Western Iranian languages, and many Median names appear in Old Persian texts. The group of Old Iranian languages was presumably large; however, knowledge of it is restricted mainly to Old Persian, Avestan, and Median. The first two are the only languages in that group to have left written original texts, while Median is known mostly from loanwords in Old Persian.


title: Old Persian

text: By the 4th century BCE, the late Achaemenid period, the inscriptions of Artaxerxes II and Artaxerxes III differ enough from the language of Darius' inscriptions to be called a "pre-Middle Persian," or "post-Old Persian." Old Persian subsequently evolved into Middle Persian, which is in turn the ancestor of New Persian.


title: Old Persian

text: The language known as New Persian, which usually is called at this period (early Islamic times) by the name of Parsi-Dari, can be classified linguistically as a continuation of Middle Persian, the official religious and literary language of Sassanian Iran, itself a continuation of Old Persian, the language of the Achaemenids. Unlike the other languages and dialects, ancient and modern, of the Iranian group such as Avestan, Parthian, Soghdian, Kurdish, Pashto, etc., Old, Middle and New Persian represent one and the same language at three states of its history. It had its origin in Fars and is differentiated by dialectical features, still easily recognizable from the dialect prevailing in north-western and eastern Iran.


title: Old Persian

text: Middle Persian, also sometimes called Pahlavi, is a direct continuation of Old Persian and was used as the written official language of the country. Comparison of the evolution at each stage of the language shows great simplification in grammar and syntax. However, New Persian is a direct descendant of Middle and Old Persian.


title: Old Persian

text: Old Persian "presumably" has a Median language substrate. The Median element is readily identifiable because it did not share in the developments that were peculiar to Old Persian. Median forms "are found only in personal or geographical names [...] and some are typically from religious vocabulary and so could in principle also be influenced by Avestan." "Sometimes, both Median and Old Persian forms are found, which gave Old Persian a somewhat confusing and inconsistent look: 'horse,' for instance, is [attested in Old Persian as] both (OPers.) and (Med.)."


title: Old Persian

text: Old Persian texts were written from left to right in the syllabic Old Persian cuneiform script and had 36 phonetic characters and 8 logograms. The usage of logograms is not obligatory. The script was surprisingly not a result of evolution of the script used in the nearby civilisation of Mesopotamia. Despite the fact that Old Persian was written in cuneiform script, the script was not a direct continuation of Mesopotamian tradition and in fact, according to Schmitt, was a "deliberate creation of the sixth century BCE".


title: Old Persian

text: The origin of the Old Persian cuneiform script and the identification of the date and process of introduction are a matter of discussion among Iranian scholars with no general agreement having been reached. The factors making the consensus difficult are, among others, the difficult passage DB (IV lines 88–92) from Darius the Great who speaks of a new "form of writing" being made by himself which is said to be "in Aryan":


title: Old Persian

text: Also, the analysis of certain Old Persian inscriptions are "supposed or claimed" to predate Darius the Great. Although it is true that the oldest attested Old Persian inscriptions are from Behistun monument from Darius, the creation of this "new type of writing" seems, according to Schmitt, "to have begun already under Cyrus the Great".


title: Old Persian

text: The script shows a few changes in the shape of characters during the period it was used. This can be seen as a standardization of the heights of wedges, which in the beginning (i.e. in DB) took only half the height of a line.


title: Old Persian

text: Notes: Lycian ~ for (genuine) Old Persian (besides the Median form ) = Tissaphernes suggests as the pronunciation of (compare and Kloekhorst 2008, p. 125 in for this example, who, however, mistakenly writes , which contradicts the etymology [PIIr. ] and the Middle Persian form [ gives Middle Persian ]).


title: Old Persian

text: The phoneme does not occur in native Iranian vocabulary, only in borrowings from Akkadian (a new develops in Middle Persian from Old Persian and the change of to ). The phoneme can also form a syllable peak; both the way Persian names with syllabic (such as Brdiya) are rendered in Elamite and its further development in Middle Persian suggest that before the syllabic , an epenthetic vowel had developed already in the Old Persian period, which later became after labials. For example, Old Persian is rendered in Elamite as , rendering transcriptions such as , or even questionable and making or much more realistic (and equally for "wolf", and other Old Persian words and names with syllabic ).


title: Old Persian

text: While usually became in Middle Persian, it became word-initially in New Persian, except before (including the epenthetic vowel mentioned above), where it became . This suggests that it was really pronounced as .


title: Old Persian

text: Mostly the forms of first and third persons are attested. The only preserved Dual form is 'both lived'.


title: Midnight Special (film)

text: Midnight Special is a 2016 American science fiction film written and directed by Jeff Nichols, and produced by Sarah Green and Brian Kavanaugh-Jones. The film stars Michael Shannon, Joel Edgerton, Kirsten Dunst, Adam Driver, Jaeden Martell, and Sam Shepard. It is Nichols's fourth full-length film and his first studio production. It was selected to compete for the Golden Bear at the 66th Berlin International Film Festival.


title: Midnight Special (film)

text: Shannon plays a father who escapes with his son from both the government and a cult after they discover that his son has special powers. The film began a theatrical release on March 18 by Warner Bros. Pictures, expanding wider in subsequent weeks.


title: Midnight Special (film)

text: In a motel, Roy Tomlin and his friend Lucas watch an AMBER Alert for 8-year-old Alton Meyer and his reported abductor, Roy, while the boy reads on the floor.


title: Midnight Special (film)

text: At the Ranch, a religious cult in rural Texas, Pastor Calvin Meyer dispatches two of his parishioners to retrieve Alton. He then faces his congregation as the FBI storms their church. NSA communications analyst Paul Sevier asks Calvin how numbers sent via encoded satellite transmissions made their way into his sermons. Calvin explains that Alton speaks in tongues and gave the numbers to Calvin. As Alton's powers grew, his mother Sarah abandoned him, and members of the Ranch have been raising him, with Pastor Meyer as his adoptive father. It is also noted in this sequence that Roy is Alton's biological father. Roy is protective of Alton, doing everything in his power to avert danger.


title: Midnight Special (film)

text: After a violent confrontation with a state trooper, Roy and Lucas seek cover at the home of Elden, a former Ranch member. During the night, an earthquake seems to wake Roy and Lucas. When they break down the door to Alton's room, they find him linked to Elden by blinding beams of light directly from his eyes into Elden's. Roy knocks out Elden and covers up Alton, who is extremely photosensitive. They take Elden's van and continue on toward a location that Alton specified. Members of the Ranch seem to know this location, but the FBI is desperately trying to figure out where the trio are headed.


title: Midnight Special (film)

text: When they stop at a gas station, Alton seems to destroy a satellite, creating a rain of debris crashing down on them. They drive to Sarah Tomlin's house, and she is overjoyed to be reunited with her son. After they watch the news together, Alton explains that he caused the satellite to crash because the police were using it to track him.


title: Midnight Special (film)

text: As the fugitives (now including Sarah) continue on their trek, Alton appears to be growing sick and weak. He convinces Roy to let him see the daylight, while Lucas and Sarah go ahead to a motel. After witnessing his first ever sunrise, Alton's eyes begin to glow, and an enormous dome of light surrounds the duo. They reunite with Lucas and Sarah, and Alton is healthy. He explains that seeing the sun helped him realize his true identity. He explains that there is a world "built on top of" this one, and that he belongs to it. Roy confirms that he briefly saw this hidden world inside the dome of light.


title: Midnight Special (film)

text: When they exit the hotel room, they are ambushed by Calvin's trackers from the ranch, who abduct Alton but are soon captured by the police. The boy is taken to a government facility where, although he had no normal way of knowing who the man was, he still insists that he will talk only to Paul Sevier. After Sevier experiences Alton's powers, he helps reunite him with his parents. Having deduced their destination from Calvin's sermons, Sevier warns the fugitives that there is a 5-mile security perimeter around the location, on the Florida panhandle.


title: Midnight Special (film)

text: Roy barrels through a roadblock, driving inside the perimeter as the Army scrambles to give chase. As they speed away, Alton lets them know just where to stop. Alton and Sarah speedily exit the car and run into the woods. Roy and Lucas lead the Army on a wild goose chase while Alton and Sarah reach the edge of a swamp. There, a great dome of light appears, engulfing much of Florida and surrounding states. Everyone inside the dome of light can see the futuristic structures of a parallel world. Eventually, other beings of this world gather around Alton, and the entire dome disappears, taking Alton with it.


title: Midnight Special (film)

text: Roy and Lucas are arrested. Lucas is interviewed by the FBI. He tells them the story, but they are dissatisfied. Sevier then enters to interview him, with Lucas the only one aware of Sevier's previous involvement. Sarah, apparently walking away from her past life forever, cuts off her cult-traditionalist hair braid in a local gas station. Roy is incarcerated, but can watch the sunrise, his eyes briefly and faintly glowing in a similar manner to Alton's.


title: Midnight Special (film)

text: Principal photography commenced on January 20, 2014, and took place for 40 days in New Orleans, wrapping on March 1, 2014. The film was produced by Sarah Green and Brian Kavanaugh-Jones, with Glen Basner and Christos V. Konstantakopoulos as executive producers.


title: Midnight Special (film)

text: "Midnight Special" was backed and primarily distributed by Warner Bros. Pictures, and Entertainment One handled UK distribution. Warner Bros. initially set the film for a release on November 25, 2015, but in July 2015 moved the date back to March 18, 2016. The film was given a limited release on March 18, 2016, while the wide expansion began on April 8 in the United States. Warner Home Video released the film on DVD and Blu-ray in the U.S. on June 14, 2016.


title: Midnight Special (film)

text: Rotten Tomatoes gives the film an 83% approval rating based on 240 reviews; the average score is 7.30/10. The site's consensus reads, ""Midnight Special"s intriguing mysteries may not resolve themselves to every viewer's liking, but the journey is ambitious, entertaining, and terrifically acted." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 76 out of 100 based on 44 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Midnight Special (film)

text: Ignatiy Vishnevetsky of "The A.V. Club" described the "Spielberg-esque" science fiction chase film as "more of a genre piece than anything Nichols has done, carried by its steady momentum and its engrossing sense of mystery." He praised "Midnight Special" for Nichols' visual style and an "embarrassment of wonderful performances". Benjamin Lee, writing for "The Guardian", felt that Nichols was "making a concerted effort to stake his claim as a hit-maker" but that the film lacks "Spielbergian magic", leaving it "disappointingly lifeless".


title: Louis Sachar

text: Louis Sachar ( ; born March 20, 1954) is an American young-adult mystery-comedy author. He is best known for the "Wayside School" series and the novel "Holes".


title: Louis Sachar

text: and the 1999 Newbery Medal for the year's "most distinguished contribution to American literature for children".


title: Louis Sachar

text: In 2013, it was ranked sixth among all children's novels in a survey published by "School Library Journal".


title: Louis Sachar

text: Sachar was born to a religious Jewish family in East Meadow, New York. As a child, he attended Hebrew school and Sunday school. After graduating from Tustin High School, Sachar attended Antioch College for a semester before transferring to University of California, Berkeley, during which time he began helping at an elementary school in return for three college credits. Sachar later recalled,


title: Louis Sachar

text: Sachar graduated from UC Berkeley in 1976 with a degree in Economics, and began working on "Sideways Stories From Wayside School", a children's book set at an elementary school with supernatural elements. Although the book's students were named after children from Hillside and there is a presumably autobiographical character named "Louis the Yard Teacher," Sachar has said that he draws very little from personal experience, stating that ". ... my personal experiences are kind of boring. I have to make up what I put in my books."


title: Louis Sachar

text: Sachar wrote the book at night over the course of nine months, during which he worked during the day in a Connecticut sweater warehouse. After being fired from the warehouse, Sachar decided to go to law school, around which time "Sideways Stories From Wayside School" was accepted for publication. The book was released in 1978; though it was not widely distributed and subsequently did not sell very well, Sachar began to accumulate a fan base among young readers. Sachar graduated from University of California, Hastings College of the Law in 1980 and did part-time legal work while continuing to write children's books. By 1989, his books were selling well enough that Sachar was able to begin writing full-time.


title: Louis Sachar

text: Sachar married Carla Askew, an elementary school counselor, in 1985. They live in Austin, Texas, and have a daughter, Sherre, born January 19, 1987. Sachar has mentioned both his wife and daughter in his books; Carla was the inspiration for the counselor in "There's a Boy in the Girls' Bathroom" (1988), and Stanley's lawyer in "Holes".


title: Louis Sachar

text: When asked about whether he thought children have changed over the years, Sachar responded: "I've actually been writing since 1976, and my first book is still in print and doing very well."


title: Louis Sachar

text: On April 11, 2003, Disney's film adaptation of "Holes" was released, which earned $71.4 million worldwide. Sachar himself wrote the film's screenplay. On November 19, 2005, the "Wayside School" series was adapted into an animated direct-to-video special, Two years later, it became a television series with two seasons, airing on the Canadian Teletoon and Nickelodeon in the U.S.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Higher education in the United States is an optional stage of formal learning following secondary education. Higher education is also referred as post-secondary education, third-stage, third-level, or tertiary education. It covers stages 5 to 8 on the International ISCED 2011 scale. It is delivered at 4,360 Title IV degree-granting institutions, known as colleges or universities. These may be public or private universities, research universities, liberal arts colleges, community colleges, or for-profit colleges. US higher education is loosely regulated by the government and by several third-party organizations.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: In Spring 2022, about 16 million students 9.6 million women and 6.6 million men enrolled in degree-granting colleges and universities in the U.S. Of the enrolled students, 45.8% enrolled in a four-year public institution, 27.8% in a four-year private institution, and 26.4% in a two-year public institution. College enrollment has declined every year since a peak in 2010–2011 and is projected to continue declining or be stagnant for the next two decades.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Strong research funding helped elite American universities dominate global rankings in the early 21st century, making them attractive to international students, professors and researchers. Other countries, though, are offering incentives to compete for researchers as funding is threatened in the US and US dominance of international tables has lessened. The system has also been blighted by fly-by-night schools, diploma mills, visa mills, and predatory for-profit colleges. There have been some attempts to reform the system through federal policy such as gainful employment regulations, but they have been met by resistance. According to Pew Research Center and Gallup poll surveys, public opinion about colleges has been declining, especially among Republicans and the white working class. The higher education industry has been criticized for being unnecessarily expensive, providing a difficult-to-measure service which is seen as vital but in which providers are paid for inputs instead of outputs, which is beset with federal regulations that drive up costs, and payments coming from third parties, not users.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: In a 2018 Pew survey, 61 percent of those polled said that US higher education was headed in the wrong direction. A 2019 Gallup survey found that, among graduates who strongly felt a purpose in life was important, "only 40 percent said they had found a meaningful career after college." In 2020, when the COVID-19 pandemic upended regular campus life forcing students to take online classes at home, more than 100 colleges, both public and private have been sued for tuition refunds, making many of them to reopen their campuses. Attending college is seen as


title: Higher education in the United States

text: "a rite of passage" to which the American Dream is deeply embedded. In 2021, US student loan debt amounted to more than $1.7 trillion.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: The US higher education system is also unique in its investment in highly competitive NCAA sports, particularly in American football and basketball, with large sports stadiums and arenas adorning its campuses.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Religious denominations established early colleges in order to train ministers. Between 1636 and 1776, nine colleges were chartered in Colonial America; today, these institutions are known as the colonial colleges. According to historian John Thelin, most instructors at these institutions were lowly paid 'tutors'. As objects of the slavocracy, enslaved Africans and their descendants also served as free labor for more than a century and a half


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Protestants and Catholics opened over hundreds of small denominational colleges in the 19th century. In 1899 they enrolled 46 percent of all U.S. undergraduates. Many closed or merged but in 1905 there were over 500 in operation. Catholics opened several women's colleges in the early 20th century. Schools were small, with a limited undergraduate curriculum based on the liberal arts. Students were drilled in Greek, Latin, geometry, ancient history, logic, ethics and rhetoric, with few discussions and no lab sessions. Originality and creativity were not prized, but exact repetition was rewarded. College presidents typically enforced strict discipline, and upperclassman enjoyed hazing freshman. Many students were younger than 17, and most colleges also operated a preparatory school. There were no organized sports, or Greek-letter fraternities, but literary societies were active. Tuition was low and scholarships were few. Many of their students were sons of clergymen; most planned professional careers as ministers, lawyers or teachers.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: The nation's small colleges helped young men make the transition from rural farms to complex urban occupations. These schools promoted upward mobility by preparing ministers and providing towns with a core of community leaders. Elite colleges became increasingly exclusive and contributed little upward social mobility. By concentrating on ministers and the offspring of wealthy families, elite Eastern colleges such as Harvard, Columbia, and Princeton played a role in the formation of a Northeastern elite.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: In some areas, public institutions of higher education were slow to take hold. For instance, although there was general support for expanding access to higher education through public institutions, private colleges and universities successfully hindered the establishment of a public university in Boston, Massachusetts until the 1860s. The competition between private and public institutions shaped the development of the mixed public-private character of higher education in the United States.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: The Association of Catholic Colleges and Universities was founded in 1899 and continues to facilitate the exchange of information and methods. Vigorous debate in recent decades has focused on how to balance Catholic and academic roles, with conservatives arguing that bishops should exert more control to guarantee orthodoxy.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Most Historically Black Colleges and Universities were established in the South after the American Civil War, often with the assistance of religious missionary organizations based in the northern United States. HBCUs established prior to the American Civil War include Cheyney University of Pennsylvania in 1837, University of the District of Columbia then known as Miner School for Colored Girls in 1851 and Lincoln University in 1854.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: At the beginning of the 20th century, less than 1,000 colleges with 160,000 students existed in the US. The number of colleges skyrocketed in waves, during the early and mid-20th century. State universities grew from small institutions of fewer than 1,000 students to campuses with 40,000 more students, with networks of regional campuses around the state. In turn, regional campuses broke away and became separate universities.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: To handle the explosive growth of K–12 education, every state set up a network of teachers' colleges, beginning with Massachusetts in the 1830s. After 1950, they became state colleges and then state universities with a broad curriculum.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Major new trends included the development of the junior colleges. They were usually set up by city school systems starting in the 1920s. By the 1960s they were renamed as "community colleges."


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Junior colleges grew from 20 in number In 1909, to 170 in 1919. By 1922, 37 states had set up 70 junior colleges, enrolling about 150 students each. Meanwhile, another 137 were privately operated, with about 60 students each. Rapid expansion continued in the 1920s, with 440 junior colleges in 1930 enrolling about 70,000 students. The peak year for private institutions came in 1949, when there were 322 junior colleges in all; 180 were affiliated with churches, 108 were independent non-profit, and 34 were private schools run for-profit.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Many factors contributed to rapid growth of community colleges. Students parents and businessmen wanted nearby, low-cost schools to provide training for the growing white-collar labor force, as well as for more advanced technical jobs in the blue-collar sphere. Four-year colleges were also growing, albeit not as fast; however, many of them were located in rural or small-town areas away from the fast-growing metropolis. Community colleges continue as open-enrollment, low-cost institutions with a strong component of vocational education, as well as a low-cost preparation for transfer students into four-year schools. They appeal to a poorer, older, less prepared element.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: College students were involved in social movements long before the 20th century, but the most dramatic student movements rose in the 1960s. In the 1960s, students organized for civil rights and against the Vietnam War. In the 1970s, students led movements for women's rights and gay rights, as well as protests against South African apartheid.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Privatization of US higher education increased in the 1980s and during economic recessions and austerity in the 20th and 21st century.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: While for-profit colleges originated during Colonial times, growth in these schools was most apparent from the 1980s to about 2011. For-profit college enrollment, however, has declined significantly since 2011, after several federal investigations. For-profit colleges were criticized for predatory marketing and sales practices. The failures of Corinthian Colleges and ITT Technical Institute were the most remarkable closings. In 2018, the documentary "Fail State" chronicled the boom and bust of for-profit colleges, highlighting the abuses that led to their downfall.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Changing technology, mergers and closings, and politics have resulted in dramatic changes in US higher education during the 21st century.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Online education has grown in the early 21st century. More than 6.3 million students in the U.S. took at least one online course in fall 2016. While online attendance has increased, confidence among chief academic officers has decreased from 70.8 percent in 2015 to 63.3 percent in 2016. In 2017, about 15% of all students attended exclusively online, and competition for online students has been increasing


title: Higher education in the United States

text: By 2018, more than one hundred short-term coding bootcamps existed in the US. Programs were available at Harvard University's extension school and the extension schools at Georgia Tech, University of Pennsylvania, Cal Berkeley, Northwestern, UCLA, University of North Carolina, University of Texas, George Washington, Vanderbilt University, and Rutgers through Trilogy Education Services.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: In 2019, researchers at George Mason University concluded that online education has "contributed to increasing gaps in educational success across socioeconomic groups while failing to improve affordability".


title: Higher education in the United States

text: A MOOC is a "massive open online course" aimed at unlimited participation and open access via the web. It became popular in 2010–14. In addition to traditional course materials such as filmed lectures, readings, and problem sets, many MOOCs provide interactive user forums to support community interactions between students, professors, and teaching assistants. Robert Zemsky (2014), of the University of Pennsylvania Graduate School of Education notes that they at first seemed to be an extremely inexpensive method of bringing top teachers at low cost directly to students. However, very few students—usually under 5%—were able to finish a MOOC course. He argues that they have passed their peak: "They came; they conquered very little; and now they face substantially diminished prospects." In 2019, researchers at MIT found that MOOCs had completion rates of 3 percent and that the number of people taking these courses has been declining since 2012–13.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Online programs for many universities are often managed by privately owned companies called online program managers or OPMs. The OPMs include 2U, Academic Partnerships, Noodle, and iDesign.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Trace Urdan, managing director at Tyton Partners, "estimates that the market for OPMs and related services will be worth nearly $8 billion by 2020."


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Hundreds of colleges are expected to close or merge, according to research from Ernst & Young. The US Department of Education publishes a monthly list of campus and learning site closings. Typically there are 300 to 1000 closings per year. Notable college closings include for-profit Corinthian Colleges (2015), ITT Technical Institute (2016), Brightwood College and Virginia College (2018). Private college closings include Wheelock College (2018) and Green Mountain College (2019).


title: Higher education in the United States

text: In December 2017, Moody's credit rating agency downgraded the US higher education outlook from stable to negative, "citing financial strains at both public and private four-year institutions." In June 2018, Moody's released data on declining college enrollments and constraints, noting that tuition pricing would suppress tuition revenue growth.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Other businesses related to higher education have also had financial difficulties. In May 2019, two academic publishers, Cengage and McGraw Hill, merged.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: In 2020, higher education lost 650,000 jobs or about 13 percent of the workforce amid the COVID-19 pandemic, despite an infusion of federal funds. The number of US postsecondary institutions receiving Title IV funding has dropped from 7,253 in 2012-2013 to 5,916 in 2020-2021.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Social class has a profound influence on higher education. Undergraduates at elite universities have a substantial advantage if their parents also went to a particular college. Educator Gary Roth, a left wing writer, has argued that with fewer good jobs for graduates, the US has been producing an "educated underclass." While upward social mobility continues to be available for immigrants and first generation people, the route to upward social mobility is more complicated for people from families that have been in the US longer.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: The growth of power among right wing groups has been apparent since the mid-2010s. Turning Point USA (TPUS), now the most dominant conservative presence on US campuses, has clubs at more than 2500 college campuses. Charlie Kirk, its founder, also took over Students for Trump in 2019.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: The Chronicle of Higher Education has documented groups such as the Groypers who have infiltrated conservative organizations on campus.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Student protests and clashes between left and right appeared on several US campuses in 2017. On August 11, 2017, white nationalists and members of the alt-right rallied at the University of Virginia, protesting the removal of a statue of Robert E. Lee. The following day, one person died during protests in Charlottesville. Following this event, speaking engagements by Richard Spencer were canceled at Texas A&M University and the University of Florida.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: US higher education functions as an institution of knowledge but has several secondary functions. According to Marcus Ford, the primary function went through four phases in American history: preserving Christian civilization, advancing the national interest, research, and growing the global economy.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Higher education has also served as a source for professional credentials, as a vehicle for social mobility, and as a social sorter. The college functions as a 'status marker', "signaling membership in the educated class, and a place to meet spouses of similar status". Especially among students who move away from their families to attend residential-focused four-year colleges, the experience of going away to college is seen as a rite of passage that produces young adults, irrespective of what they might learn in a classroom. The loss of these non-classroom experiences was the basis for some lawsuits filed after most campuses closed due to the COVID-19 pandemic, and the desire for those experiences was one reason why schools were pressured to re-open campus life in the fall of 2020.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: In 2018, Universitas 21 (U21), the network of research-intensive universities, ranked the US first globally for overall higher education, but only 15th when GDP was factored into the equation. Accounting for GDP, the top 10 nations for higher education in 2018 were Finland, the United Kingdom, Serbia, Denmark, Sweden, Portugal, Switzerland, South Africa, Israel and New Zealand.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Strong research funding helped 'elite American universities' dominate global rankings in the early 21st century, making them attractive to international students, professors and researchers. Other countries, though, are offering incentives to compete for researchers as funding is threatened in the US and US dominance of international tables has lessened. The system has also been blighted by fly-by-night schools, diploma mills, visa mills, and predatory for-profit colleges. There have been some attempts to reform the system through federal policy such as gainful employment regulations, particularly through the Department of Education's College Scorecard, which enables students to see the socio-economic diversity, SAT/ACT scores, graduation rates, and average earnings and debt of graduates at all colleges.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: According to Pew Research Center and Gallup poll surveys, public opinion about colleges has been declining, especially among Republicans and the white working class. The higher education industry has been criticized for being unnecessarily expensive, providing a difficult-to-measure service which is seen as vital but in which providers are paid for inputs instead of outputs, which is beset with federal regulations that drive up costs, and payments coming from third parties, not users. In a 2018 Pew survey, 61 percent of those polled said that US higher education was headed in the wrong direction. A 2019 Gallup survey found that, among graduates who strongly felt a purpose in life was important, "only 40 percent said they had found a meaningful career after college."


title: Higher education in the United States

text: US colleges and universities offer diverse educational venues: some emphasize a vocational, business, engineering, or technical curriculum (like polytechnic universities and land-grant universities) and others emphasize a liberal arts curriculum. Many combine some or all of the above, as comprehensive universities.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: The term "college" refers to one of three types of education institutions: stand-alone higher-level education institutions that are not components of a university.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Almost all colleges and universities are coeducational. A dramatic transition occurred in the 1970s, when most men's colleges started to accept women. Over 80% of the women's colleges of the 1960s have closed or merged, leaving fewer than 50. Over 100 historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs) operate, both private and public.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Some U.S. states offer higher education at two year "colleges" formerly called "community colleges". The change requires cooperation between community colleges and local universities.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Four-year colleges often provide the bachelor's degree, most commonly the Bachelor of Arts (B.A.) or Bachelor of Science (B.S.). They are primarily either undergraduate only institutions (e.g. liberal arts colleges), or the undergraduate institution of a university (such as Harvard College, Yale College, and Columbia College).


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Higher education has led to the creation of accreditation organizations, independent of the government, to vouch for the quality of degrees. They rate institutions on academic quality, the quality of their libraries, the publishing records of their faculty, the degrees which their faculty hold, and their financial solvency. Accrediting agencies have been criticized for possible conflicts of interest that lead to favorable results. Non-accredited institutions exist, but their students are not eligible for federal loans.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Universities are educational institutions with undergraduate and graduate programs. For historical reasons, some universities have retained the term "college" instead of "university" for their name. Graduate programs grant a variety of master's degrees (like the Master of Arts (M.A.), Master of Science (M.S.), Master of Business Administration (M.B.A.) or Master of Fine Arts (M.F.A.)) in addition to doctorates such as the Ph.D. The Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education distinguishes among institutions on the basis of the prevalence of degrees they grant and considers the granting of master's degrees necessary, although not sufficient, for an institution to be classified as a university.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Some universities have professional schools. Examples include journalism school, business school, medical schools, pharmacy schools (Pharm.D.), and dental schools. A common practice is to refer to these disparate faculties within universities as "colleges" or "schools".


title: Higher education in the United States

text: The American university system is largely decentralized. Public universities are administered by the individual states and territories, usually as part of a state university system. Except for the United States service academies and staff colleges, the federal government does not directly regulate universities. However, it can offer federal grants and any institution that receives federal funds must certify that it has adopted and implemented a drug prevention program that meets federal regulations.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Each state supports at least one state university and many support several. At one extreme, California has three public higher education systems: the 10-campus University of California, the 23-campus California State University, and the 112-campus California Community Colleges System. In contrast, Wyoming supports a single state university. Public universities often have large student bodies, with introductory classes numbering in the hundreds, with some undergraduate classes taught by graduate students. Tribal colleges operated on Indian reservations by some federally recognized tribes are also public institutions.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Many private universities exist. Some are secular and others are involved in religious education. Some are non-denominational, and some are affiliated with a certain sect or church, such as Roman Catholicism (with different institutions often sponsored by particular religious institutes such as the Jesuits) or religions such as Lutheranism or Mormonism. Seminaries are private institutions for those preparing to become members of the clergy. Most private schools (like all public schools) are non-profit, although some are for-profit.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Community colleges are often two-year colleges. They have open admissions, usually with lower tuition fees than other state or private schools. Graduates earn associate degrees, such as an Associate of Arts (AA).


title: Higher education in the United States

text: According to National Student Clearinghouse data, community college enrollment has dropped by 2.2 million students since its peak year of 2010–11. In 2017, 88% of community colleges surveyed were facing declining enrollments. A "The New York Times" report in 2017 suggested that of the nation's 18 million undergraduates, 40% were attending community college; of these students, 62% were attending community college full-time, 40% of them worked at least 30 hours a week or more, and more than half lived at home to save money.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: The College Promise program, which exists in several forms in 47 states, is an effort to encourage community college enrollment.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Four-year institutions emphasizing the liberal arts are liberal arts colleges. They traditionally emphasize interactive instruction. They are known for being residential and for having smaller enrollment and lower student-to-faculty ratios than universities. Most are private, although there are public liberal arts colleges. Some offer experimental curricula.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: For-profit higher education (known as for-profit college or proprietary education) refers to higher education institutions operated by private, profit-seeking businesses. Students were "attracted to the programs for their ease of enrollment and help obtaining financial aid," but "disappointed with the poor quality of education..." University of Phoenix has been the largest for-profit college in the US. Since 2010, for-profit colleges have received greater scrutiny from the US government, state Attorneys General, the media, and scholars. Notable business failures include Corinthian Colleges (2015), ITT Educational Services (2016), Education Management Corporation also known as EDMC (2017), and Education Corporation of America (2018). Two large schools, Kaplan University and Ashford University were sold to public universities with for-profit online program managers and rebranded as Purdue University Global and University of Arizona Global Campus.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: US colleges and universities receive their funds from many sources, including tuition, federal Title IV funds, state funds, and endowments.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: The major source of funding for public institutions of higher education is direct support from the state. The levels of state support roughly correlate with the population of the state. For example, with a population nearly 40 million, the state of California allocates more than $15 billion on higher education. At the other extreme, Wyoming allocates $384 million for its 570,000 citizens.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Private giving supports both private and public institutions. Gifts come in two forms, current use and endowment. Both types of gifts are usually constrained according to a contract between the donor and the institution.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Private philanthropy can be controversial. At the University of Maryland, Northrop Grumman has funded a cybersecurity concentration, designs the curriculum in cybersecurity, provides computers and pays some cost of a new dorm. At Ohio State, IBM partnered to teach big data analytics. Murray State University's engineering program was supported by computer companies. The College of Nanoscale Science and Engineering at State University of New York in Albany, received billions of dollars in private sector investment.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: In 2016, average estimated annual student costs (excluding books) were $16,757 at public institutions, $43,065 at private nonprofit institutions, and $23,776 at private for-profit institutions. Between 2006 and 2016, prices at public colleges and universities rose 34 percent above inflation, and prices at private nonprofit institutions rose 26 percent above inflation.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Students receive scholarships, student loans, or grants to offset costs out-of-pocket. Several states offer scholarships that allow students to attend free of tuition or at lower cost, for example the HOPE Scholarship in Georgia and the Bright Futures Scholarship Program in Florida. Some private colleges and universities offer full need-based financial aid, so that admitted students only have to pay as much as their families can afford (based on the university's assessment of their income). In most cases, the barrier of entry for students who require financial aid is set higher, a practice called need-aware admissions. Universities with exceptionally large endowments may combine need-based financial aid with need-blind admission, in which students who require financial aid have equal chances to those who do not.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Financial assistance comes in two major forms: grant programs and loan programs. Grant programs consist of money the student receives to pay for higher education that does not need to be paid back; loan programs consist of money the student receives to pay for school that must be paid back. Public higher education institutions (which are partially funded through state government appropriation) and private higher education institutions (which are funded exclusively through tuition and private donations) offer grant and loan financial assistance programs. Grants to attend public schools are distributed through federal and state governments, and through the schools themselves; grants to attend private schools are distributed through the school itself (independent organizations, such as charities or corporations also offer grants that can be applied to both public and private higher education institutions). Loans can be obtained publicly through government sponsored loan programs or privately through independent lending institutions.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Financial aid at US institutions has shifted from needs based to merit based, leaving many low-income students with more debt and fewer opportunities.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Grant programs and work study programs are divided into two major categories: Need-based financial awards and merit-based financial awards. Most state governments provide need-based scholarship programs, while a few also offer merit-based aid. Several need-based grants are provided through the federal government based on information provided on a student's Free Application for Federal Student Aid or FAFSA. The federal Pell Grant is a need-based grant available from the federal government. The federal government had two other grants that were a combination of need-based and merit-based: the Academic Competitiveness Grant, and the National SMART Grant, but the SMART grant was abolished in 2011 with the last grant awarded in June 2011. In order to receive one of these grants a student must be eligible for the Pell Grant, meet specific academic requirements, and be a US citizen.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Eligibility for work study programs is also determined by information collected on the student's FAFSA.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Many companies offer tuition reimbursement plans for their employees, to make benefits package more attractive, to upgrade the skill levels and to increase retention.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: In 2012, total student loans exceeded consumer credit card debt for the first time in history. In late 2016, the total estimated US student loan debt exceeded $1.4 trillion.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: A student's eligibility for any of these loans, as well as the amount of the loan itself is determined by information on the student's FAFSA.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: US educational statistics are provided by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), part of the Department of Education. The number of Title IV-eligible, degree-granting institutions peaked at 4,726 in 2012, with 4-year institutions numbering at 3,026 and 2-year institutions at 1,700. Enrollment at postsecondary institutions, participating in Title IV, peaked at just over 21 million students in 2010. Demographic wise, on average, whites constitute the highest percentage of enrollments in US higher educational institutions. The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) and the National Student Clearinghouse show that college enrollment has declined since a peak in 2010–11, and is projected to continue declining or be stagnant for the next two decades.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: A US Department of Education longitudinal survey of 15,000 high school students in 2002 and 2012, found that 84% of the 27-year-old students had some college education, but only 34% achieved a bachelor's degree or higher; 79% owe some money for college and 55% owe more than $10,000; college dropouts were three times more likely to be unemployed than those who finished college; 40% spent some time unemployed and 23% were unemployed for six months or more; and 79% earned less than $40,000 per year.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Falling birth rates result in fewer people graduating from high school. The number of high school graduates grew 30% from 1995 to 2013, then peaked at 3.5 million. Liberal arts programs have been declining for decades. From 1967 to 2018, college students majoring in the liberal arts declined from 20 percent to 5 percent.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Since 2011, enrollment in postsecondary education in the United States has declined by more than 2 million people. Researchers hypothesize that the primary factors leading to this drop in enrollment are low birth rates over the last couple decades, a more successful economy, and the increasing cost of postsecondary education coupled with a decrease in financial aid and student debt. Some potential students are also questioning the value of a college education and if it is necessary to gain employment, opting instead for vocational education. In 2018, the National Center for Education Statistics projected stagnant enrollment patterns until at least 2027. Demographer Nathan Grawe projected that lower birth rates following the Great Recession of 2008 would result in a 15 percent enrollment loss, beginning in 2026.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: In 2019, the National Center for Education Statistics continued to project that higher education enrollment would remain stagnant, but white enrollment would drop 8 percent from 2016 to 2027. The report projected black enrollment to increase by 6 percent, Hispanic enrollment to increase 14 percent, Asian/Pacific Islander enrollment to increase 7 percent, and American Indian/Alaska Native enrollment to decrease 9 percent during the same period. In March 2019, Moody's warned that enrollment declines could lead to more financial problems for the higher education industry. In a 2019 survey by "Inside Higher Ed", nearly one in seven college presidents said their campus could close or merge within five years.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: In "The Higher Education Apocalypse", "U.S. News & World Report" education reporter Lauren Camera speculated that recent closings of schools in New England might be the beginning of a rash of college closures. An analysis of federal data from "The Chronicle of Higher Education" shows "about half a million students have been displaced by college closures, which together shuttered more than 1,200 campuses." In a 2021 Wall Street Journal article titled "Hobbled for Life," Melissa Korn and Andrea Fuller found that many master's degrees at elite schools did not pay off.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Students can apply to some colleges using the Common Application. With a few exceptions, most undergraduate colleges and universities maintain the policy that students are to be admitted to (or rejected from) the entire college, not to a particular department or major. (This is unlike college admissions in many European countries, as well as graduate admissions.) Some students, rather than being rejected, are "wait-listed" for a particular college and may be admitted if another student who was admitted decides not to attend the college or university. The five major parts of admission are ACT/SAT scores, grade point average, college application, essay, and letters of recommendation. The SAT's usefulness in the admissions process is controversial.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Each state has its own set of residency laws and requirements that dictate educational benefits as a reward for state residence. As a result, public colleges and universities in many states charge out-of-state applicants a higher rate of tuition than resident students must pay.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Admissions at elite schools include preferences to alumni and large investors. Legislators have asked for transparency with donors and college admissions, but there are several groups that oppose it. "Inside Higher Ed" 2018 survey of college admissions directors found that 42 percent of private colleges and universities used legacy status as a factor in admissions decisions.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: In 2016–17, 332,727 US students studied abroad for credit. Most took place in Europe, with 40 percent of students studying in five countries: the United Kingdom, Italy, Spain, France, and Germany. The US is the most popular country in the world for attracting students from other countries, according to UNESCO, with 16% of all international students going to the US (the next highest is the UK with 11%). 671,616 foreign students enrolled in American colleges in 2008–09. This figure rose to 723,277 in 2010–11. The largest number, 157,558, came from China. According to "Uni in the USA", despite "exorbitant" costs of US universities, higher education in America remains attractive to international students due to "generous subsidies and financial aid packages that enable students from even the most disadvantaged backgrounds to attend the college of their dreams".


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Most states have an entity designed to promote coordination and collaboration between higher education institutions. Examples include the Alabama Commission on Higher Education, California Postsecondary Education Commission, Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board, Washington State Higher Education Coordinating Board, and The Georgia Department of Technical and Adult Education.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Until the mid-1970s, when federal expenditures for higher education fell, there were routinely more tenure-track jobs than Ph.D. graduates. In the 1980s and 1990s there were significant changes in the economics of academic life.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Despite rising tuition rates and growing university revenues, professorial positions were replaced with poorly paid adjunct positions and graduate-student labor. Community colleges and for-profit colleges rely almost exclusively on adjuncts for instruction.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: With academic institutions producing Ph.D.s in greater numbers than the number of tenure-track positions they intended to create, administrators were cognizant of the economic effects of this arrangement. Sociologist Stanley Aronowitz wrote: "Basking in the plenitude of qualified and credentialed instructors, many university administrators see the time when they can once again make tenure a rare privilege, awarded only to the most faithful and to those whose services are in great demand". Aggravating the problem, those few academics who do achieve tenure are often determined to stay put as long as possible, refusing lucrative incentives to retire early.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: In 2017, 17% of faculty were tenured. 89% of adjunct professors worked at more than one job. An adjunct was paid an average of $2,700 for a single course. While student-faculty ratios remained the same since 1975, administrator-student ratio went from 1–84 to 1–68. In 2018, the American Association of University Professors (AAUP) reported that 73 percent of all faculty positions were filled by adjuncts.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: According to the American Federation of Teachers, "nearly 25 percent of adjunct faculty members rely on public assistance, and 40 percent struggle to cover basic household expenses" and just 15 percent of adjuncts said they are able to comfortably cover basic expenses from month to month."


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Adjunct organizations include the Coalition for Contingent (COCAL), the New Faculty Majority, and SEIU Faculty Forward.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: The American Federation of Teachers and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters have also organized contingent academic labor.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: College athletics in the US is a three-tiered system. The first tier consists of elite sports that make a profit. Only a small percentage of sports programs, even in money sports at large universities, make a profit.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: The second tier includes sports sanctioned by one of the collegiate sport governing bodies that break even or lose money. Some of these collegiate sports governing organizations like the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) are umbrella non-profit organizations that govern multiple sports. Additionally, the first and second tiers are characterized by selective participation, since only the elite programs in their sport are able to participate; some colleges offer athletic scholarships to intercollegiate sports competitors. The third tier includes intramural and recreational sports clubs, which are available to more of the student body. Competition between student clubs from different colleges, not organized by and therefore not representing the institutions or their faculties, may also be called "intercollegiate" athletics or simply college sports.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: The most competitive collegiate sport governing body in the first and second tiers is the NCAA, which regulates athletes of 1,268 institutions across the US and Canada. The NCAA uses a three-division system of Division I, Division II, and Division III. Division I and Division II schools can offer scholarships to athletes for playing a sport, while Division III schools cannot offer any athletic scholarships. Division I schools, which generally are larger than either Division II or III institutions, must further meet additional requirements: among them, they must field teams in at least seven sports for men and seven for women or six for men and eight for women, with at least two team sports for each gender. Each division is then further divided into several conferences for regional league play. The names of these conferences, such as the Ivy League, are also metonyms for their respective schools.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: College sports are popular on regional and national scales, at times competing with professional championships for prime broadcast, print coverage. In most states, the person with the highest taxpayer-provided base salary is a public college football or basketball coach. This does not include coaches at private colleges. The average university sponsors at least 20 different sports and offers a wide variety of intramural sports. There are approximately 400,000 men and women student-athletes that participate in sanctioned athletics each year.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Varsity esports have been growing since the 2010s. As of 2019, there were 125 esports teams at colleges and universities in North America.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: Entrance routes and procedures for choosing a college or university, their rankings and the financial value of degrees are being discussed. This leads to discussions on socioeconomic status and race ethnicity and gender.


title: Higher education in the United States

text: From the student perspective, issues include colleges failing to teach soft skills such as critical thinking, the wide ranges of remuneration and underemployment among the various degrees, rising tuition and increasing student loan debt, austerity in state and local spending, the adjunctification of academic labor, student poverty and hunger, along with credentialism and educational inflation.


title: Quenton Nelson

text: Quenton Emerson Nelson (born March 19, 1996) is an American football guard for the Indianapolis Colts of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at Notre Dame, where he was a unanimous All-American, and was selected by the Colts sixth overall in the 2018 NFL Draft. Considered among the NFL's best guards, Nelson received Pro Bowl and All-Pro selections in his first four seasons, including first-team All-Pros in his first three.


title: Quenton Nelson

text: Nelson is the youngest of four children of Craig and Maryellen Nelson, in which she noted Quenton to be a large baby at birth (10 lb 10 oz or 4.82 kg). He grew up in Holmdel Township, New Jersey and attended Holmdel High School as a freshman before transferring to Red Bank Catholic High School in Red Bank, New Jersey, where he was an All-Star in basketball as a power forward/center. He committed to the University of Notre Dame to play college football. Nelson also supplemented his football and strength trainings with Taekwondo.


title: Quenton Nelson

text: After redshirting his first year at Notre Dame in 2014, Nelson played in all 12 games and made one start in 2015. In 2016, he started all 12 games. He was named a unanimous first team All-American after the 2017 season. On January 8, 2018, Nelson announced that he would forgo his last year of eligibility and enter the draft.


title: Quenton Nelson

text: At the conclusion of the pre-draft process, Nelson was projected a top ten selection in the first round by NFL draft experts and scouts. He was ranked as the top offensive linemen prospect in the draft by Sports Illustrated and NFL analysts Daniel Jeremiah and Mike Mayock.


title: Quenton Nelson

text: The Indianapolis Colts selected Nelson in the first round (sixth overall) of the 2018 NFL Draft. On May 11, 2018, the Colts signed Nelson to a fully guaranteed four-year, $23.88 million contract, including a signing bonus of $15.45 million. On November 1, 2018, Nelson was named the NFL Offensive Rookie of the Month for October, after he was part of an offensive line that hadn't allowed a sack in 156 straight dropbacks and had 200 rushing yards in back-to-back games for first time in 33 years. Nelson becoming the first guard to ever win the award, and he and Shaquille Leonard (who won Defensive Player of the Month in September) became the first teammates to win awards in the same season. He was named to the Pro Bowl as a rookie and was named first-team All-Pro.


title: Quenton Nelson

text: In the 2019 season, Nelson appeared in and started all 16 games for the Colts. He played 1,042 snaps, allowing zero sacks and committing just three penalties; he earned a grade of 91.2 from Pro Football Focus. For the second consecutive season, he was named as a First Team All-Pro and earned a Pro Bowl nomination.


title: Quenton Nelson

text: In the 2020 season, Nelson again appeared in and started all 16 games for the Colts for the third year in a row. He played 1,082 snaps, only allowed one sack, and committed nine penalties. For the third straight year, Nelson was named as a first-team All-Pro and earned his third Pro Bowl nomination.


title: Quenton Nelson

text: On April 28, 2021, the Colts exercised the fifth-year option on Nelson's contract, which guarantees a salary of $13.754 million for the 2022 season. On August 3, it was revealed that Nelson needed surgery on his left foot, a similar injury that Carson Wentz had suffered a week prior. Recovery time was projected to be 5-12 weeks, but the doctors deemed that the injury was not as serious. In Week 3, he suffered a high ankle sprain and was placed on injured reserve on October 2, 2021. He was activated on October 23.


title: Quenton Nelson

text: Nelson was named Associated Press Second Team All-Pro. He has the most total All-Pro selections (four) and the most First Team All-Pro selections (three from 2018-20) by a guard in franchise history.


title: Quenton Nelson

text: Nelson became just the second player in team history to earn Pro Bowl honors in his first four seasons, joining Alan Ameche (1955-58). He also became the first offensive lineman in the NFL to do it in his first four seasons since Zack Martin (2014-17) and is the first Indianapolis player to be selected to four consecutive Pro Bowls since T.Y. Hilton (2014-17). The last Colts offensive linemen to be selected to four consecutive Pro Bowls were Chris Hinton (six consecutive, 1983-89) and Ray Donaldson (four consecutive, 1986-89).


title: Quenton Nelson

text: On September 10, 2022, Nelson signed a four-year, $80 million contract extension with $60 million guaranteed through 2026, making him the highest-paid guard in the league.


title: Juliet Simms

text: Juliet Nicole Simms (born February 26, 1986), also known as Lilith Czar, is an American musician, songwriter, and entrepreneur.


title: Juliet Simms

text: She established a fan base as the front woman of the band Automatic Loveletter. In 2007 - in the band's earliest years - she became friends with Kevin Lyman. This resulted in her being a returning act on the Warped Tour summer circuit. After the summer of 2011 and working the circuit solo for the first time, Juliet Simms has since produced her own content as a solo artist.


title: Juliet Simms

text: In 2011, Juliet Simms auditioned for Season 2 of NBC's The Voice. She sang 'Oh! Darling' by The Beatles for her blind audition, and chose CeeLo Green as her coach. She went on to cover songs such as 'Roxanne' by The Police and 'It's A Mans Mans Mans World' by James Brown. After placing second on The Voice, Simms signed with Universal Records, and then ultimately left the record label due to lack of creative control.


title: Juliet Simms

text: Juliet Simms went on to become an independent solo artist, releasing 3 EPs and plenty of singles and music videos, before signing with Sumerian Records in 2019.


title: Juliet Simms

text: In 2021, she rebranded, and now goes by the stage name of Lilith Czar. Lilith Czar released the album "Created From Filth and Dust", under Sumerian Records in 2021.


title: Juliet Simms

text: Juliet Simms was the front woman and songwriter/guitarist for the band Automatic Loveletter from 2006 – 2011, releasing four EPs and two full - length albums before their disbandment in late 2011. Automatic Loveletter released its debut album, "Truth or Dare", on June 22, 2010, followed by the album "The Kids Will Take Their Monsters On" through an independent record label, Paper & Plastick, on June 23, 2011.


title: Juliet Simms

text: Automatic Loveletter was formed with Juliet Simms on guitar and lead vocals, Daniel Currier on drums, and brother Tommy Simms playing bass and producing, with bassist Sean Noll sitting in on occasion in Tommy's home studio in the Tampa Bay area. The band was first called Stars and Scars and recorded its first song together in December 2005, naming the song after the band but written by Juliet Simms. They also recorded "Tin Lizzy", written by Tommy Simms.


title: Juliet Simms

text: Juliet Simms acoustically laid down all of the songs she had been writing over the last three years for consideration for her first major label album. Signed by Allison Hagendorf, the host of Fuse TV's "The Pop TV Show", then working at Epic Records, Juliet Simms went on to form Automatic Loveletter while Epic struggled with the Sony BMG 2005 Payola Scandal and internal problems finally dropping over 70 bands in 2007. Automatic Loveletter was not dropped but was also not supported for the next year and a half touring in the drummer's Ford Excursion and burning their own copies of their Epic - produced CD with hand painted slip covers to help fund their tours.


title: Juliet Simms

text: Automatic Loveletter recorded their never - released debut EP in 2007 with producer Matt Squire (Panic! at the Disco, Boys Like Girls, All Time Low, Cute is What We Aim For, The Cab, and The Maine). "He challenged me and I challenged him," Juliet Simms said. "I felt very comfortable and that's when the best of me comes out. The entire time was playful and fun and that's what music is about to me — having a good time." Juliet Simms took her songbook to Matt Squire and narrowed down the tunes and crafted them to fit together, sometimes taking songs in entirely new directions. "The Answer", for instance, was originally a ballad, but became one of the more upbeat numbers on the album. Daniel Currier and lead guitarist Joe Nelson played on the album, Sean Noll officially joining just before some of their first tours together and Tommy Simms occasionally touring with the band to play lead or rhythm guitar in larger venues and outdoor concerts. The band played both the main Bamboozle and Bamboozle Left in 2008.


title: Juliet Simms

text: The tracks "The Answer", "Parker", "August 28Th 3:30 A.M.", "Hush" and "Make-up Smeared Eyes (Acoustic)" were released on their first official EP release in "Recover 2007".


title: Juliet Simms

text: But after the tour, when Epic was scheduled to release the album Automatic Loveletter, they were told to continue touring and asked by then President Charlie Walk to write more upbeat music. Instead, Juliet Simms submitted a fan favorite "Black Ink Revenge" which was rejected several times for re - write until it became "My Goodbye" one of the tracks off the upcoming Sony release. "I had been signed to Epic for going on three years, I toured in cars with my completely broke band and was feeling like I disappointed my fans who had been promised music for over a year so I sat in my room for four days re - writing and re - submitting that song like 5 times. I like "My Goodbye" a LOT but it was the result of a lot of pressure and the desire to get an album released." "My Goodbye", "The Day that Saved Us", and "Hush (New Version)" were quickly released as another self - titled EP just before the final chapter with Epic Records when they fired all the members except Daniel Currier before the first headlining tour. Epic held auditions for new members, hired Jacob Fatoroochi, James Bowen, and Wayne Miller then halfway through the tour, called Juliet Simms and told her that all of the pay for the band she was on tour with was being withdrawn and the band was dropped. Despite this devastating setback, the new hired guys pulled together and stayed on to complete the tour, and Automatic Loveletter went on to sell out venues like the Knitting Factory in LA and San Francisco. "It was very liberating. After crying my eyes out for a couple hours, I had some of my best show's ever on that tour." Almost immediately, the band was picked up by Sony and Juliet Simms was asked to write for a new album produced by Josh Abraham.


title: Juliet Simms

text: In 2011, Juliet Simms released an entirely acoustic album through Paper + Plastick Records called "The Kids Will Take Their Monsters On". After the summer of 2011 and working the circuit entirely solo for the first time, Juliet Simms transitioned her branding after The Voice, and has since produced her own content as a solo artist releasing 2 EPs titled 'All Or Nothing' on January 27, 2015, and 'From The Grave' on July 15, 2016, as well as several singles.


title: Juliet Simms

text: In 2019, Juliet Simms announced her signing to Sumerian Records and released single "Bad Love" to kickoff the Rockstar Energy Disrupt 2019 Tour in August 2019. Following this, she released her second single with Sumerian, '100 Little Deaths' in September 2019.


title: Juliet Simms

text: In 2020, Juliet Simms released a 3-song EP titled 'Descent' along with a music video for the lead song off of the EP, 'All American'.


title: Juliet Simms

text: Announced on February 19, 2021, Juliet Simms has officially re - branded herself, now going as Lilith Czar, and her debut album with Sumerian Records 'Created From Filth And Dust' which released on April 23, 2021.


title: Juliet Simms

text: Juliet Simms was a contestant on the 2012 season of the American television show "The Voice". She sang the Beatles' "Oh! Darling" for her blind audition, and chose to be a member of Team Cee Lo. Juliet Simms advanced to the live rounds after defeating Sarah Golden in a duet. In her first live show, she performed "Roxanne" by The Police. During the quarter - finals, Juliet Simms covered "Cryin'" by Aerosmith. She was the only female contestant to advance onto the finals, edging out Jamar Rogers, after covering "It's A Man's Man's Man's World". Juliet Simms' cover of "It's A Man's Man's Man's World" reached #70 and also attained positions in three other charts on "Billboard".


title: Juliet Simms

text: For the finale, Juliet Simms sang Lynyrd Skynyrd's "Free Bird" and placed second behind Jermaine Paul.


title: Juliet Simms

text: Juliet Simms' "The Voice Performances" singles released by Universal Republic Records. Made available on iTunes and CD


title: Juliet Simms

text: Shortly after finishing "The Voice", Juliet Simms was signed by CeeLo Green, her coach on the show. Her debut single "Wild Child" was released on December 11, 2012, followed by a music video in April 2013, for which Cee Lo Green is an executive producer. An album was scheduled for release in 2013, but ultimately was not released after she left. Juliet Simms completed a US tour with Secondhand Serenade and Veronica Ballestrini during March and April 2013.


title: Juliet Simms

text: On January 27, 2015, Juliet Simms released her ""All or Nothing"" EP. The recording and development of the album was primarily funded by PledgeMusic, A music video for the EP's fourth track, ""End of the World"", was released May 2015. Juliet Simms heavily promoted the EP during Warped Tour of that year.


title: Juliet Simms

text: Most recently Juliet Simms was featured on the seventh installment in the Fearless Records compilation series Punk Goes Pop. She and her husband, Andy Biersack, performed a duet cover of Adele's 2015 hit song When We Were Young on July 14, 2017. A music video was also released for the cover upon the release of Punk Goes Pop Vol. 7. On April 27, 2018, she released her new single Take Me, which was written about the emotional hardships of two touring musicians in a committed relationship. The music video was released on May 9, 2018.


title: Juliet Simms

text: On June 21, 2019, Juliet Simms released her first single, ‘Bad Love’, through her new label Sumerian Records.


title: Juliet Simms

text: In February 2021, Juliet Simms announced her new name Lilith Czar, along with a new album called "Created from Filth and Dust", set for release on April 23, 2021.


title: Juliet Simms

text: After leaving fans in the dust on social media after her 2020 EP 'Descent', Juliet Simms has posted teasers and photos but hiding her face. On February 19, 2021, she re - emerged now as Lilith Czar, with black hair and a crown upon her head. Also on February 19, 2021, she released the first single 'King', off her debut album with Sumerian Records titled 'Created From Filth And Dust' that is set to release on April 23, 2021.


title: Juliet Simms

text: On October 31, 2016, Juliet Simms was detained by the FBI off of an airplane for allegedly hitting her husband, Andy Biersack while under the influence.


title: Juliet Simms

text: "I'm sure she's known as a Scientologist by many in the Church," said Jeffrey Simms, noting he and his wife, Natalie Simms, who are Scientologists, moved to Clearwater, Florida with their family when Juliet Simms was 8 years old (Clearwater, Florida contains one of the Church's many headquarters). "But [the support] isn't an organized thing. She probably has more fans from the Vans Warped Tour."


title: Pharmacodynamics

text: Pharmacodynamics (PD) is the study of the biochemical and physiologic effects of drugs (especially pharmaceutical drugs). The effects can include those manifested within animals (including humans), microorganisms, or combinations of organisms (for example, infection).


title: Pharmacodynamics

text: Pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics are the main branches of pharmacology, being itself a topic of biology interested in the study of the interactions between both endogenous and exogenous chemical substances with living organisms.


title: Pharmacodynamics

text: In particular, pharmacodynamics is the study of how a drug affects an organism, whereas pharmacokinetics is the study of how the organism affects the drug. Both together influence dosing, benefit, and adverse effects. Pharmacodynamics is sometimes abbreviated as PD and pharmacokinetics as PK, especially in combined reference (for example, when speaking of PK/PD models).


title: Pharmacodynamics

text: Pharmacodynamics places particular emphasis on dose–response relationships, that is, the relationships between drug concentration and effect. One dominant example is drug-receptor interactions as modeled by


title: Pharmacodynamics

text: where "L", "R", and "LR" represent ligand (drug), receptor, and ligand-receptor complex concentrations, respectively. This equation represents a simplified model of reaction dynamics that can be studied mathematically through tools such as free energy maps.


title: Pharmacodynamics

text: General anesthetics were once thought to work by disordering the neural membranes, thereby altering the Na influx. Antacids and chelating agents combine chemically in the body. Enzyme-substrate binding is a way to alter the production or metabolism of key endogenous chemicals, for example aspirin irreversibly inhibits the enzyme prostaglandin synthetase (cyclooxygenase) thereby preventing inflammatory response. Colchicine, a drug for gout, interferes with the function of the structural protein tubulin, while Digitalis, a drug still used in heart failure, inhibits the activity of the carrier molecule, Na-K-ATPase pump. The widest class of drugs act as ligands that bind to receptors that determine cellular effects. Upon drug binding, receptors can elicit their normal action (agonist), blocked action (antagonist), or even action opposite to normal (inverse agonist).


title: Pharmacodynamics

text: In principle, a pharmacologist would aim for a target plasma concentration of the drug for a desired level of response. In reality, there are many factors affecting this goal. Pharmacokinetic factors determine peak concentrations, and concentrations cannot be maintained with absolute consistency because of metabolic breakdown and excretory clearance. Genetic factors may exist which would alter metabolism or drug action itself, and a patient's immediate status may also affect indicated dosage.


title: Pharmacodynamics

text: The therapeutic window is the amount of a medication between the amount that gives an effect (effective dose) and the amount that gives more adverse effects than desired effects. For instance, medication with a small pharmaceutical window must be administered with care and control, e.g. by frequently measuring blood concentration of the drug, since it easily loses effects or gives adverse effects.


title: Pharmacodynamics

text: The "duration of action" of a drug is the length of time that particular drug is effective. Duration of action is a function of several parameters including plasma half-life, the time to equilibrate between plasma and target compartments, and the off rate of the drug from its biological target.


title: Pharmacodynamics

text: In recreational psychoactive drug spaces, duration refers to the length of time over which the subjective effects of a psychoactive substance manifest themselves.


title: Pharmacodynamics

text: Duration can be broken down into 6 parts: (1) total duration (2) onset (3) come up (4) peak (5) offset and (6) after effects. Depending upon the substance consumed, each of these occurs in a separate and continuous fashion.


title: Pharmacodynamics

text: The total duration of a substance can be defined as the amount of time it takes for the effects of a substance to completely wear off into sobriety, starting from the moment the substance is first administered.


title: Pharmacodynamics

text: The onset phase can be defined as the period until the very first changes in perception (i.e. "first alerts") are able to be detected.


title: Pharmacodynamics

text: The "come up" phase can be defined as the period between the first noticeable changes in perception and the point of highest subjective intensity. This is colloquially known as "coming up."


title: Pharmacodynamics

text: The peak phase can be defined as period of time in which the intensity of the substance's effects are at its height.


title: Pharmacodynamics

text: The offset phase can be defined as the amount of time in between the conclusion of the peak and shifting into a sober state. This is colloquially referred to as "coming down."


title: Pharmacodynamics

text: The after effects can be defined as any residual effects which may remain after the experience has reached its conclusion. After effects depend on the substance and usage. This is colloquially known as a "hangover" for negative after effects of substances, such as alcohol, cocaine, and MDMA or an "afterglow" for describing a typically positive, pleasant effect, typically found in substances such as cannabis, LSD in low to high doses, and ketamine.


title: Pharmacodynamics

text: The binding of ligands (drug) to receptors is governed by the "law of mass action" which relates the large-scale status to the rate of numerous molecular processes. The rates of formation and un-formation can be used to determine the equilibrium concentration of bound receptors. The "equilibrium dissociation constant" is defined by:


title: Pharmacodynamics

text: where "L"=ligand, "R"=receptor, square brackets [] denote concentration. The fraction of bound receptors is


title: Pharmacodynamics

text: This expression is one way to consider the effect of a drug, in which the response is related to the fraction of bound receptors (see: Hill equation). The fraction of bound receptors is known as occupancy. The relationship between occupancy and pharmacological response is usually non-linear. This explains the so-called "receptor reserve" phenomenon i.e. the concentration producing 50% occupancy is typically higher than the concentration producing 50% of maximum response. More precisely, receptor reserve refers to a phenomenon whereby stimulation of only a fraction of the whole receptor population apparently elicits the maximal effect achievable in a particular tissue.


title: Pharmacodynamics

text: The simplest interpretation of receptor reserve is that it is a model that states there are excess receptors on the cell surface than what is necessary for full effect. Taking a more sophisticated approach, receptor reserve is an integrative measure of the response-inducing capacity of an agonist (in some receptor models it is termed intrinsic efficacy or intrinsic activity) and of the signal amplification capacity of the corresponding receptor (and its downstream signaling pathways). Thus, the existence (and magnitude) of receptor reserve depends on the agonist (efficacy), tissue (signal amplification ability) and measured effect (pathways activated to cause signal amplification). As receptor reserve is very sensitive to agonist's intrinsic efficacy, it is usually defined only for full (high-efficacy) agonists.


title: Pharmacodynamics

text: Often the response is determined as a function of log["L"] to consider many orders of magnitude of concentration. However, there is no biological or physical theory that relates effects to the log of concentration. It is just convenient for graphing purposes. It is useful to note that 50% of the receptors are bound when ["L"]="K" .


title: Pharmacodynamics

text: The graph shown represents the conc-response for two hypothetical receptor agonists, plotted in a semi-log fashion. The curve toward the left represents a higher potency (potency arrow does not indicate direction of increase) since lower concentrations are needed for a given response. The effect increases as a function of concentration.


title: Pharmacodynamics

text: The concept of pharmacodynamics has been expanded to include Multicellular Pharmacodynamics (MCPD). MCPD is the study of the static and dynamic properties and relationships between a set of drugs and a dynamic and diverse multicellular four-dimensional organization. It is the study of the workings of a drug on a minimal multicellular system (mMCS), both "in vivo" and "in silico". Networked Multicellular Pharmacodynamics (Net-MCPD) further extends the concept of MCPD to model regulatory genomic networks together with signal transduction pathways, as part of a complex of interacting components in the cell.


title: Pharmacodynamics

text: Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics are termed toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics in the field of ecotoxicology. Here, the focus is on toxic effects on a wide range of organisms. The corresponding models are called toxicokinetic-toxicodynamic models.


title: Sesame Workshop

text: Sesame Workshop (SW), originally known as the Children's Television Workshop (CTW), is an American nonprofit organization that has been responsible for the production of several educational children's programs—including its first and best-known, "Sesame Street"—that have been televised internationally. Television producer Joan Ganz Cooney and foundation executive Lloyd Morrisett developed the idea to form an organization to produce "Sesame Street", a television series which would help children, especially those from low-income families, prepare for school. They spent two years, from 1966 to 1968, researching, developing, and raising money for the new series. Cooney was named as the Workshop's first executive director, which was termed "one of the most important television developments of the decade."


title: Sesame Workshop

text: "Sesame Street" premiered on National Educational Television (NET) as a series run in the United States on November 10, 1969, and moved to NET's successor, the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS), in late 1970. The Workshop was formally incorporated in 1970. Gerald S. Lesser and Edward L. Palmer were hired to perform research for the series; they were responsible for developing a system of planning, production, and evaluation, and the interaction between television producers and educators, later termed the "CTW model". They also hired a staff of producers and writers. After the initial success of "Sesame Street", they began to plan for its continued survival, which included procuring additional sources of funding and creating other television series. The early 1980s were a challenging period for the Workshop; difficulty finding audiences for their other productions and a series of bad investments harmed the organization until licensing agreements stabilized its revenues by 1985.


title: Sesame Workshop

text: After "Sesame Street"s initial success, the CTW began to think about its survival beyond the development and first season of the show, since their funding sources were composed of organizations and institutions that tended to start projects, not sustain them. Government funding ended by 1981, so the CTW developed other activities, including unsuccessful ventures into adult programs, the publications of books and music, international co-productions, interactive media and new technologies, licensing arrangements, and programs for preschools. By 2005, income from the organization's international co-productions of the series was $96 million. By 2008, the "Sesame Street" Muppets accounted for $15–17 million per year in licensing and merchandising fees. Cooney resigned as CEO in 1990; David Britt was named as her replacement.


title: Sesame Workshop

text: On June 5, 2000, the CTW changed its name to Sesame Workshop to better represent its activities beyond television, and Gary Knell became CEO. H. Melvin Ming replaced Knell in 2011. In 2014, Ming was succeeded by Jeffrey D. Dunn, and Dunn was succeeded by Sherrie Westin in 2021.


title: Sesame Workshop

text: During the late 1960s, 97% of all American households owned a television set, and preschool children watched an average of 27 hours of television per week. Early childhood educational research at the time had shown that when children were prepared to succeed in school, they earned better grades and learned more effectively. Children from low-income families, however, had fewer resources than children from higher-income families to prepare them for school. Research had shown that children from low-income, minority backgrounds tested "substantially lower" than middle-class children in school-related skills, and that they continued to have educational deficits throughout school. The topic of developmental psychology had grown during this period, and scientists were beginning to understand that changes of early childhood education could increase children's cognitive growth.


title: Sesame Workshop

text: In the winter of 1966, Joan Ganz Cooney hosted what she called "a little dinner party" at her apartment near Gramercy Park. Attending were her husband Tim Cooney, her boss Lewis Freedman, and Lloyd and Mary Morrisett, whom the Cooneys knew socially. Cooney was a producer of documentary films at New York public television station WNDT (now WNET), and won an Emmy for a documentary about poverty in America. Lloyd Morrisett was a vice-president at Carnegie Corporation, and was responsible for funding educational research, but had been frustrated in his efforts because they were unable to reach the large numbers of children in need of early education and intervention. Cooney was committed to using television to change society, and Morrisett was interested in using television to "reach greater numbers of needy kids". The conversation during the party, which according to writer Michael Davis was the start of a five-decade long professional relationship between Cooney and Morrisett, turned to the possibilities of using television to educate young children. A week later, Cooney and Freedman met with Morrisett at the office of Carnegie Corporation to discuss doing a feasibility study for creating an educational television program for preschoolers. Cooney was chosen to perform the study.


title: Sesame Workshop

text: In the summer of 1967, Cooney took a leave of absence from WNDT, and funded by Carnegie Corporation, traveled the U.S. and Canada interviewing experts in child development, education, and television. She reported her findings in a fifty-five-page document entitled "The Potential Uses of Television in Preschool Education". The report described what the new series, which became "Sesame Street", would be like and proposed the creation of a company that managed its production, which eventually became known as the Children's Television Workshop (CTW).


title: Sesame Workshop

text: For the next two years, Cooney and Morrisett researched and developed the new show, acquiring $8 million funding for "Sesame Street", and establishing the CTW. Due to her professional experience, Cooney always assumed the show's natural network would be PBS. Morrisett was amenable to broadcast it by commercial stations, but all three major networks rejected the idea. Davis, considering "Sesame Street"s licensing income years later, termed their decision "a billion-dollar blunder". Morrisett was responsible for fund acquisition, and was so successful at it that writer Lee D. Mitgang later said that it "defied conventional media wisdom". Cooney was responsible for the show's creative development, and for hiring the production and research staff for the CTW. The Carnegie Corporation provided their initial $1 million grant, and Morrisett, using his contacts, procured additional multimillion-dollar grants from the U.S. federal government, the Arthur Vining Davis Foundations, the Corporation for Public Broadcasting, and the Ford Foundation. Morrisett's friend Harold Howe, who was the commissioner for the U.S. Department of Education, promised $4 million, half of the new organization's budget. The Carnegie Corporation donated an additional $1 million. Mitgang stated, "Had Morrisett been any less effective in lining up financial support, Cooney's report likely would have become just another long-forgotten foundation idea". Funds gained from a combination of government agencies and private foundations protected them from the economic problems experienced by commercial networks, but caused difficulty for procuring future funding.


title: Sesame Workshop

text: Cooney's proposal included using in-house formative research that would inform and improve production, and independent summative evaluations to test the show's effect on its young viewers' learning. In 1967, Morrisett recruited Harvard University professor Gerald S. Lesser, whom he had met while they were both psychology students at Yale, to help develop and lead the Workshop's research department. In 1972, the Markle Foundation donated $72,000 to Harvard to form the Center for Research in Children's Television, which served as a research agency for the CTW. Harvard produced about 20 major research studies about "Sesame Street" and its effect on young children. Lesser also served as the first chairman of the Workshop's advisory board, a position he held until his retirement in 1997. According to Lesser, the CTW's advisory board was unusual because instead of rubber-stamping the Workshop's decisions like most boards for other children's television shows, it contributed significantly to the series' design and implementation. Lesser reported in "", his 1974 book about the beginnings of "Sesame Street" and the Children's Television Workshop, that about 8–10% of the Workshop's initial budget was spent on research.