title: Terahertz radiation

text: Terahertz radiation is strongly absorbed by the gases of the atmosphere, and in air is attenuated to zero within a few meters, so it is not practical for terrestrial radio communication. It can penetrate thin layers of materials but is blocked by thicker objects. THz beams transmitted through materials can be used for material characterization, layer inspection, relief measurement, and as a lower-energy alternative to X-rays for producing high resolution images of the interior of solid objects.


title: Terahertz radiation

text: Terahertz radiation occupies a middle ground where the ranges of microwaves and infrared light waves overlap, known as the “terahertz gap”; it is called a “gap” because the technology for its generation and manipulation is still in its infancy. The generation and modulation of electromagnetic waves in this frequency range ceases to be possible by the conventional electronic devices used to generate radio waves and microwaves, requiring the development of new devices and techniques.


title: Terahertz radiation

text: Terahertz radiation falls in between infrared radiation and microwave radiation in the electromagnetic spectrum, and it shares some properties with each of these. Terahertz radiation travels in a line of sight and is non-ionizing. Like microwaves, terahertz radiation can penetrate a wide variety of non-conducting materials; clothing, paper, cardboard, wood, masonry, plastic and ceramics. The penetration depth is typically less than that of microwave radiation. Like infrared, terahertz radiation has limited penetration through fog and clouds and cannot penetrate liquid water or metal. Terahertz radiation can penetrate some distance through body tissue like x-rays, but unlike them is non-ionizing, so it is of interest as a replacement for medical X-rays. Due to its longer wavelength, images made using terahertz waves have lower resolution than X-rays and need to be enhanced (see figure at right).


title: Terahertz radiation

text: The earth's atmosphere is a strong absorber of terahertz radiation, so the range of terahertz radiation in air is limited to tens of meters, making it unsuitable for long-distance communications. However, at distances of ~10 meters the band may still allow many useful applications in imaging and construction of high bandwidth wireless networking systems, especially indoor systems. In addition, producing and detecting coherent terahertz radiation remains technically challenging, though inexpensive commercial sources now exist in the 0.3–1.0 THz range (the lower part of the spectrum), including gyrotrons, backward wave oscillators, and resonant-tunneling diodes.


title: Terahertz radiation

text: The terahertz band, covering the wavelength range between 0.1–1 mm, is identical to the submillimeter wavelength band. However, typically, the term "terahertz" is used more often in marketing in relation to generation and detection with pulsed lasers, as in terahertz time domain spectroscopy, while the term "submillimeter" is used for generation and detection with microwave technology, such as harmonic multiplication.


title: Terahertz radiation

text: Terahertz radiation is emitted as part of the black-body radiation from anything with a temperature greater than about 2 kelvins. While this thermal emission is very weak, observations at these frequencies are important for characterizing cold 10–20 K cosmic dust in interstellar clouds in the Milky Way galaxy, and in distant starburst galaxies.


title: Terahertz radiation

text: Telescopes operating in this band include the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope, the Caltech Submillimeter Observatory and the Submillimeter Array at the Mauna Kea Observatory in Hawaii, the BLAST balloon borne telescope, the Herschel Space Observatory, the Heinrich Hertz Submillimeter Telescope at the Mount Graham International Observatory in Arizona, and at the recently built Atacama Large Millimeter Array. Due to Earth's atmospheric absorption spectrum, the opacity of the atmosphere to submillimeter radiation restricts these observatories to very high altitude sites, or to space.


title: Terahertz radiation

text: , viable sources of terahertz radiation are the gyrotron, the backward wave oscillator ("BWO"), the organic gas far infrared laser, Schottky diode multipliers, varactor (varicap) multipliers, quantum cascade laser, the free electron laser, synchrotron light sources, photomixing sources, single-cycle or pulsed sources used in terahertz time domain spectroscopy such as photoconductive, surface field, photo-Dember and optical rectification emitters, and electronic oscillators based on resonant tunneling diodes have been shown to operate up to 700 GHz.


title: Terahertz radiation

text: There have also been solid-state sources of millimeter and submillimeter waves for many years. AB Millimeter in Paris, for instance, produces a system that covers the entire range from 8 GHz to 1000 GHz with solid state sources and detectors. Nowadays, most time-domain work is done via ultrafast lasers.


title: Terahertz radiation

text: In mid-2007, scientists at the U.S. Department of Energy's Argonne National Laboratory, along with collaborators in Turkey and Japan, announced the creation of a compact device that could lead to portable, battery-operated terahertz radiation sources. The device uses high-temperature superconducting crystals, grown at the University of Tsukuba in Japan. These crystals comprise stacks of Josephson junctions, which exhibit a property known as the Josephson effect: when external voltage is applied, alternating current flows across the junctions at a frequency proportional to the voltage. This alternating current induces an electromagnetic field. A small voltage (around two millivolts per junction) can induce frequencies in the terahertz range.


title: Terahertz radiation

text: In 2008, engineers at Harvard University achieved room temperature emission of several hundred nanowatts of coherent terahertz radiation using a semiconductor source. THz radiation was generated by nonlinear mixing of two modes in a mid-infrared quantum cascade laser. Previous sources had required cryogenic cooling, which greatly limited their use in everyday applications.


title: Terahertz radiation

text: In 2009, it was discovered that the act of unpeeling adhesive tape generates non-polarized terahertz radiation, with a narrow peak at 2 THz and a broader peak at 18 THz. The mechanism of its creation is tribocharging of the adhesive tape and subsequent discharge; this was hypothesized to involve bremsstrahlung with absorption or energy density focusing during dielectric breakdown of a gas.


title: Terahertz radiation

text: In 2013, researchers at Georgia Institute of Technology's Broadband Wireless Networking Laboratory and the Polytechnic University of Catalonia developed a method to create a graphene antenna: an antenna that would be shaped into graphene strips from 10 to 100 nanometers wide and one micrometer long. Such an antenna could be used to emit radio waves in the terahertz frequency range.


title: Terahertz radiation

text: In engineering, the terahertz gap is a frequency band in the THz region for which practical technologies for generating and detecting the radiation do not exist. It is defined as 0.1 to 10 THz (wavelengths of 3 mm to 30 µm) although the upper boundary is somewhat arbitrary and is considered by some sources as 30 THz (a wavelength of 10 µm). Currently, at frequencies within this range, useful power generation and receiver technologies are inefficient and unfeasible.


title: Terahertz radiation

text: Mass production of devices in this range and operation at room temperature (at which energy "kT" is equal to the energy of a photon with a frequency of 6.2 THz) are mostly impractical. This leaves a gap between mature microwave technologies in the highest frequencies of the radio spectrum and the well-developed optical engineering of infrared detectors in their lowest frequencies. This radiation is mostly used in small-scale, specialized applications such as submillimetre astronomy. Research that attempts to resolve this issue has been conducted since the late 20th century.


title: Terahertz radiation

text: Most vacuum electronic devices that are used for microwave generation can be modified to operate at terahertz frequencies, including the magnetron, gyrotron, synchrotron, and free electron laser. Similarly, microwave detectors such as the tunnel diode have been re-engineered to detect at terahertz and infrared frequencies as well. However, many of these devices are in prototype form, are not compact, or exist at university or government research labs, without the benefit of cost savings due to mass production.


title: Terahertz radiation

text: Unlike X-rays, terahertz radiation is not ionizing radiation and its low photon energies in general do not damage living tissues and DNA. Some frequencies of terahertz radiation can penetrate several millimeters of tissue with low water content (e.g., fatty tissue) and reflect back. Terahertz radiation can also detect differences in water content and density of a tissue. Such methods could allow effective detection of epithelial cancer with an imaging system that is safe, non-invasive, and painless. In response to the demand for COVID-19 screening terahertz spectroscopy and imaging has been proposed as a rapid screening tool.


title: Terahertz radiation

text: The first images generated using terahertz radiation date from the 1960s; however, in 1995 images generated using terahertz time-domain spectroscopy generated a great deal of interest.


title: Terahertz radiation

text: Some frequencies of terahertz radiation can be used for 3D imaging of teeth and may be more accurate than conventional X-ray imaging in dentistry.


title: Terahertz radiation

text: Terahertz radiation can penetrate fabrics and plastics, so it can be used in surveillance, such as security screening, to uncover concealed weapons on a person, remotely. This is of particular interest because many materials of interest have unique spectral "fingerprints" in the terahertz range. This offers the possibility to combine spectral identification with imaging. In 2002, the European Space Agency (ESA) Star Tiger team, based at the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory (Oxfordshire, UK), produced the first passive terahertz image of a hand. By 2004, ThruVision Ltd, a spin-out from the Council for the Central Laboratory of the Research Councils (CCLRC) Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, had demonstrated the world's first compact THz camera for security screening applications. The prototype system successfully imaged guns and explosives concealed under clothing. Passive detection of terahertz signatures avoid the bodily privacy concerns of other detection by being targeted to a very specific range of materials and objects.


title: Terahertz radiation

text: In January 2013, the NYPD announced plans to experiment with the new technology to detect concealed weapons, prompting Miami blogger and privacy activist Jonathan Corbett to file a lawsuit against the department in Manhattan federal court that same month, challenging such use: "For thousands of years, humans have used clothing to protect their modesty and have quite reasonably held the expectation of privacy for anything inside of their clothing, since no human is able to see through them." He sought a court order to prohibit using the technology without reasonable suspicion or probable cause. By early 2017, the department said it had no intention of ever using the sensors given to them by the federal government.


title: Terahertz radiation

text: In addition to its current use in submillimetre astronomy, terahertz radiation spectroscopy could provide new sources of information for chemistry and biochemistry.


title: Terahertz radiation

text: Recently developed methods of THz time-domain spectroscopy (THz TDS) and THz tomography have been shown to be able to image samples that are opaque in the visible and near-infrared regions of the spectrum. The utility of THz-TDS is limited when the sample is very thin, or has a low absorbance, since it is very difficult to distinguish changes in the THz pulse caused by the sample from those caused by long-term fluctuations in the driving laser source or experiment. However, THz-TDS produces radiation that is both coherent and spectrally broad, so such images can contain far more information than a conventional image formed with a single-frequency source.


title: Terahertz radiation

text: Submillimeter waves are used in physics to study materials in high magnetic fields, since at high fields (over about 11 tesla), the electron spin Larmor frequencies are in the submillimeter band. Many high-magnetic field laboratories perform these high-frequency EPR experiments, such as the National High Magnetic Field Laboratory (NHMFL) in Florida.


title: Terahertz radiation

text: Terahertz radiation could let art historians see murals hidden beneath coats of plaster or paint in centuries-old buildings, without harming the artwork.


title: Terahertz radiation

text: New types of particle accelerators that could achieve multi Giga-electron volts per metre (GeV/m) accelerating gradients are of utmost importance to reduce the size and cost of future generations of high energy colliders as well as provide a widespread availability of compact accelerator technology to smaller laboratories around the world. Gradients in the order of 100 MeV/m have been achieved by conventional techniques and are limited by RF-induced plasma breakdown. Beam driven dielectric wakefield accelerators (DWAs) typically operate in the Terahertz frequency range, which pushes the plasma breakdown threshold for surface electric fields into the multi-GV/m range. DWA technique allows to accommodate a significant amount of charge per bunch, and gives an access to conventional fabrication techniques for the accelerating structures. To date 0.3 GeV/m accelerating and 1.3 GeV/m decelerating gradients have been achieved using a dielectric lined waveguide with sub-millimetre transverse aperture.


title: Terahertz radiation

text: An accelerating gradient larger than 1 GeV/m, can potentially be produced by the Cherenkov Smith-Purcell radiative mechanism in a dielectric capillary with a variable inner radius. When an electron bunch propagates through the capillary, its self-field interacts with the dielectric material and produces wakefields that propagate inside the material at the Cherenkov angle. The wakefields are slowed down below the speed of light, as the relative dielectric permittivity of the material is larger than 1. The radiation is then reflected from the capillary's metallic boundary and diffracted back into the vacuum region, producing high accelerating fields on the capillary axis with a distinct frequency signature. In presence of a periodic boundary the Smith-Purcell radiation imposes frequency dispersion.


title: Terahertz radiation

text: A preliminary study with corrugated capillaries has shown some modification to the spectral content and amplitude of the generated wakefields, but the possibility of using Smith-Purcell effect in DWA is still under consideration.


title: Terahertz radiation

text: In May 2012, a team of researchers from the Tokyo Institute of Technology published in "Electronics Letters" that it had set a new record for wireless data transmission by using T-rays and proposed they be used as bandwidth for data transmission in the future. The team's proof of concept device used a resonant tunneling diode (RTD) negative resistance oscillator to produce waves in the terahertz band. With this RTD, the researchers sent a signal at 542 GHz, resulting in a data transfer rate of 3 Gigabits per second. It doubled the record for data transmission rate set the previous November. The study suggested that Wi-Fi using the system would be limited to approximately , but could allow data transmission at up to 100 Gbit/s. In 2011, Japanese electronic parts maker Rohm and a research team at Osaka University produced a chip capable of transmitting 1.5 Gbit/s using terahertz radiation.


title: Terahertz radiation

text: Potential uses exist in high-altitude telecommunications, above altitudes where water vapor causes signal absorption: aircraft to satellite, or satellite to satellite.


title: Terahertz radiation

text: A number of administrations permit amateur radio experimentation within the 275–3000 GHz range or at even higher frequencies on a national basis, under license conditions that are usually based on RR5.565 of the ITU Radio Regulations. Amateur radio operators utilizing submillimeter frequencies often attempt to set two-way communication distance records. In the United States, WA1ZMS and W4WWQ set a record of on 403 GHz using CW (Morse code) on 21 December 2004. In Australia, at 30 THz a distance of was achieved by stations VK3CV and VK3LN on 8 November 2020.


title: Terahertz radiation

text: Many possible uses of terahertz sensing and imaging are proposed in manufacturing, quality control, and process monitoring. These in general exploit the traits of plastics and cardboard being transparent to terahertz radiation, making it possible to inspect packaged goods. The first imaging system based on optoelectronic terahertz time-domain spectroscopy were developed in 1995 by researchers from AT&T Bell Laboratories and was used for producing a transmission image of a packaged electronic chip. This system used pulsed laser beams with duration in range of picoseconds. Since then commonly used commercial/ research terahertz imaging systems have used pulsed lasers to generate terahertz images. The image can be developed based on either the attenuation or phase delay of the transmitted terahertz pulse.


title: Terahertz radiation

text: Since the beam is scattered more at the edges and also different materials have different absorption coefficients, the images based on attenuation indicates edges and different materials inside of an objects. This approach is similar to X-ray transmission imaging, where images are developed based on attenuation of the transmitted beam.


title: Terahertz radiation

text: In the second approach, terahertz images are developed based on the time delay of the received pulse. In this approach, thicker parts of the objects are well recognized as the thicker parts cause more time delay of the pulse. Energy of the laser spots are distributed by a Gaussian function. The geometry and behavior of Gaussian beam in the Fraunhofer region imply that the electromagnetic beams diverge more as the frequencies of the beams decrease and thus the resolution decreases. This implies that terahertz imaging systems have higher resolution than scanning acoustic microscope (SAM) but lower resolution than X-ray imaging systems. Although terahertz can be used for inspection of packaged objects, it suffers from low resolution for fine inspections. X-ray image and terahertz images of an electronic chip are brought in the figure on the right. Obviously the resolution of X-ray is higher than terahertz image, but X-ray is ionizing and can be impose harmful effects on certain objects such as semiconductors and live tissues.


title: Terahertz radiation

text: To overcome low resolution of the terahertz systems near-field terahertz imaging systems are under development. In nearfield imaging the detector needs to be located very close to the surface of the plane and thus imaging of the thick packaged objects may not be feasible. In another attempt to increase the resolution, laser beams with frequencies higher than terahertz are used to excite the p-n junctions in semiconductor objects, the excited junctions generate terahertz radiation as a result as long as their contacts are unbroken and in this way damaged devices can be detected. In this approach, since the absorption increases exponentially with the frequency, again inspection of the thick packaged semiconductors may not be doable. Consequently, a tradeoff between the achievable resolution and the thickness of the penetration of the beam in the packaging material should be considered.


title: Terahertz radiation

text: Ongoing investigation has resulted in improved emitters (sources) and detectors, and research in this area has intensified. However, drawbacks remain that include the substantial size of emitters, incompatible frequency ranges, and undesirable operating temperatures, as well as component, device, and detector requirements that are somewhere between solid state electronics and photonic technologies.


title: Terahertz radiation

text: Free-electron lasers can generate a wide range of stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation from microwaves, through terahertz radiation to X-ray. However, they are bulky, expensive and not suitable for applications that require critical timing (such as wireless communications). Other sources of terahertz radiation which are actively being researched include solid state oscillators (through frequency multiplication), backward wave oscillators (BWOs), quantum cascade lasers, and gyrotrons.


title: Terahertz radiation

text: The terahertz region is between the radio frequency region and the laser optical region. Both the IEEE C95.1–2005 RF safety standard and the ANSI Z136.1–2007 Laser safety standard have limits into the terahertz region, but both safety limits are based on extrapolation. It is expected that effects on biological tissues are thermal in nature and, therefore, predictable by conventional thermal models . Research is underway to collect data to populate this region of the spectrum and validate safety limits.


title: Terahertz radiation

text: A theoretical study published in 2010 and conducted by Alexandrov et al at the Center for Nonlinear Studies at Los Alamos National Laboratory in New Mexico created mathematical models predicting how terahertz radiation would interact with double-stranded DNA, showing that, even though involved forces seem to be tiny, nonlinear resonances (although much less likely to form than less-powerful common resonances) could allow terahertz waves to "unzip double-stranded DNA, creating bubbles in the double strand that could significantly interfere with processes such as gene expression and DNA replication". Experimental verification of this simulation was not done. Swanson's 2010 theoretical treatment of the Alexandrov study concludes that the DNA bubbles do not occur under reasonable physical assumptions or if the effects of temperature are taken into account. A bibliographical study published in 2003 reported that T-ray intensity drops to less than 1% in the first 500 μm of skin but stressed that "there is currently very little information about the optical properties of human tissue at terahertz frequencies".


title: Mikel Oyarzabal

text: Mikel Oyarzabal Ugarte (born 21 April 1997) is a Spanish professional footballer who plays as a left winger or forward for La Liga club Real Sociedad and the Spain national team.


title: Mikel Oyarzabal

text: He has spent his entire professional career with Real Sociedad, making over 250 appearances and scoring over 70 goals. He won the 2020 Copa del Rey with the club, scoring in the final.


title: Mikel Oyarzabal

text: Oyarzabal made his full debut for the Spain national team in 2016, representing the side at UEFA Euro 2020.


title: Mikel Oyarzabal

text: Born in Eibar, Gipuzkoa, Oyarzabal joined Real Sociedad's youth setup in 2011, aged 14. While still a junior, he made his senior debut with the reserves on 15 November 2014, coming on as a second-half substitute in a 3–2 away win against SD Amorebieta in the Segunda División B.


title: Mikel Oyarzabal

text: On 20 September 2015, Oyarzabal scored his first senior goals, scoring twice in a 5–0 away rout of CD Mensajero. He made his first-team and La Liga debut on 25 October, replacing Carlos Vela in the dying minutes of a 4–0 victory at Levante UD.


title: Mikel Oyarzabal

text: Oyarzabal scored his first goal for Real Sociedad on 8 February 2016 in a 5–0 away win over RCD Espanyol. Six days later, shortly after having extended his contract until 2021, he scored two goals to help defeat Granada CF 3–0 at the Anoeta Stadium.


title: Mikel Oyarzabal

text: On 19 August 2016, Oyarzabal again renewed his contract until 2022. He featured in all 38 league matches over the season, as the San Sebastián-based team came sixth and returned to the UEFA Europa League after a two-year absence.


title: Mikel Oyarzabal

text: Oyarzabal made his European debut on 19 October 2017, scoring in a 6–0 thrashing of Macedonia's FK Vardar in the Europa League group stage; his team made it to the last 32, with him scoring an own goal in a 4–3 aggregate loss to FC Red Bull Salzburg. On the domestic front he scored 12 goals, including two in a 5–0 win against Girona FC on 8 April 2018.


title: Mikel Oyarzabal

text: On 5 October 2018, Oyarzabal scored his first goals since May of that year, two penalties in a 3–1 away victory over Athletic Bilbao in the Basque derby. Athletic Bilbao had tried to sign him in the summer transfer window, but he had rejected their approach in favour of signing a new contract with Real Sociedad to run until 2024.


title: Mikel Oyarzabal

text: In the 2019–20 Copa del Rey, Oyarzabal scored a penalty in each leg of a 3–1 aggregate defeat of CD Mirandés as his team reached the final for the first time since 1988. On 10 July that year, he achieved his 50th goal for the club in a 3–2 home defeat against Granada, and on 3 October while still 23 he scored a penalty in his 200th match in a 3–0 win over Getafe CF.


title: Mikel Oyarzabal

text: On 3 April 2021, Oyarzabal scored the only goal of the delayed 2020 Copa del Rey Final, also through a penalty, to help Real Sociedad clinch their first in 34 years after beating Athletic Bilbao. In March 2022 he ruptured the anterior cruciate ligament of his left knee during a training session, potentially ruling him out for the rest of that year.


title: Mikel Oyarzabal

text: Oyarzabal represented Spain at under-18, under-19 and under-21 levels. On 17 May 2016, aged 19, he was called up to the full squad for a friendly against Bosnia and Herzegovina. Twelve days later, he replaced Nolito (who had scored) at the hour mark of the 3–1 win.


title: Mikel Oyarzabal

text: On 10 June 2019, Oyarzabal scored his first goal, in a 3–0 victory over Sweden in the UEFA Euro 2020 qualifiers. In May 2021, he was included in Luis Enrique's 24-man squad for the finals. As a late substitute, he scored the last goal of a 5–3 extra time win against Croatia in the last 16. In the following round, he scored the last attempt of a penalty shootout defeat of Switzerland (1–1 after 120 minutes).


title: Mikel Oyarzabal

text: Oyarzabal was also selected for the Olympic team due to compete in Tokyo in 2021. He scored three times for the runners-up, including once in the 2–1 final loss to Brazil.


title: Mikel Oyarzabal

text: In the 2021 UEFA Nations League Final against France on 10 October, Oyarzabal scored the opening goal of the match, although Spain ultimately suffered a 2–1 defeat.


title: Mikel Oyarzabal

text: Oyarzabal has also featured for the unofficial Basque national team, scoring on his debut to cap a 3–1 win over Tunisia at the San Mamés Stadium on 30 December 2016.


title: Mikel Oyarzabal

text: Oyarzabal combined his early professional career with studying for a Business degree at the University of Deusto.


title: Phosphorus pentoxide

text: Phosphorus pentoxide is a chemical compound with molecular formula PO (with its common name derived from its empirical formula, PO). This white crystalline solid is the anhydride of phosphoric acid. It is a powerful desiccant and dehydrating agent.


title: Phosphorus pentoxide

text: Phosphorus pentoxide crystallizes in at least four forms or polymorphs. The most familiar one, a metastable form (shown in the figure), comprises molecules of PO. Weak van der Waals forces hold these molecules together in a hexagonal lattice (However, in spite of the high symmetry of the molecules, the crystal packing is not a close packing). The structure of the PO cage is reminiscent of adamantane with "T" symmetry point group. It is closely related to the corresponding anhydride of phosphorous acid, PO. The latter lacks terminal oxo groups. Its density is 2.30 g/cm. It boils at 423 °C under atmospheric pressure; if heated more rapidly it can sublimate. This form can be made by condensing the vapor of phosphorus pentoxide rapidly, and the result is an extremely hygroscopic solid.


title: Phosphorus pentoxide

text: The other polymorphs are polymeric, but in each case the phosphorus atoms are bound by a tetrahedron of oxygen atoms, one of which forms a terminal P=O bond involving the donation of the terminal oxygen p-orbital electrons to the antibonding phosphorus-oxygen single bonds. The macromolecular form can be made by heating the compound in a sealed tube for several hours, and maintaining the melt at a high temperature before cooling the melt to the solid. The metastable orthorhombic "O"-form (density 2.72 g/cm, melting point 562 °C) adopts a layered structure consisting of interconnected PO rings, not unlike the structure adopted by certain polysilicates. The stable form is a higher density phase, also orthorhombic, the so-called O' form. It consists of a 3-dimensional framework, density 3.5 g/cm. The remaining polymorph is a glass or amorphous form; it can be made by fusing any of the others.


title: Phosphorus pentoxide

text: For most of the 20th century, phosphorus pentoxide was used to provide a supply of concentrated pure phosphoric acid. In the thermal process, the phosphorus pentoxide obtained by burning white phosphorus was dissolved in dilute phosphoric acid to produce concentrated acid. Improvements in filter technology is leading to the "wet phosphoric acid process" taking over from the thermal process, obviating the need to produce white phosphorus as a starting material. The dehydration of phosphoric acid to give phosphorus pentoxide is not possible as on heating metaphosphoric acid will boil without losing all its water.


title: Phosphorus pentoxide

text: Phosphorus pentoxide is a potent dehydrating agent as indicated by the exothermic nature of its hydrolysis producing phosphoric acid:


title: Phosphorus pentoxide

text: However, its utility for drying is limited somewhat by its tendency to form a protective viscous coating that inhibits further dehydration by unspent material. A granular form of PO is used in desiccators.


title: Phosphorus pentoxide

text: Consistent with its strong desiccating power, PO is used in organic synthesis for dehydration. The most important application is for the conversion of primary amides into nitriles:


title: Phosphorus pentoxide

text: The indicated coproduct PO(OH) is an idealized formula for undefined products resulting from the hydration of PO.


title: Phosphorus pentoxide

text: The "Onodera reagent", a solution of PO in DMSO, is employed for the oxidation of alcohols. This reaction is reminiscent of the Swern oxidation.


title: Phosphorus pentoxide

text: The desiccating power of PO is strong enough to convert many mineral acids to their anhydrides. Examples: HNO is converted to NO;  HSO is converted to SO;  HClO is converted to ClO;  CFSOH is converted to (CF)SO.


title: Phosphorus pentoxide

text: Between the commercially important PO and PO, phosphorus oxides are known with intermediate structures.


title: Phosphorus pentoxide

text: On observation it will be seen that double bonded oxygen in <chem>P4O8</chem> at 1,2 position or 1,3 position are identical and both positions have same steric hindrance. Cycle 12341 and ABCDA are identical.


title: Phosphorus pentoxide

text: Phosphorus pentoxide itself is not flammable. Just like sulfur trioxide, it reacts vigorously with water and water-containing substances like wood or cotton, liberates much heat and may even cause fire due to the highly exothermic nature of such reactions. It is corrosive to metal and is very irritating – it may cause severe burns to the eye, skin, mucous membrane, and respiratory tract even at concentrations as low as 1 mg/m.


title: Camelot (film)

text: Camelot is a 1967 American musical fantasy drama film directed by Joshua Logan and written by Alan Jay Lerner, based on the 1960 stage musical of the same name by Lerner and Frederick Loewe. It stars Richard Harris as King Arthur, Vanessa Redgrave as Guenevere, and Franco Nero as Lancelot. The cast also features David Hemmings, Lionel Jeffries, and Laurence Naismith.


title: Camelot (film)

text: In April 1961, the rights to produce a film adaptation of "Camelot" were obtained by Warner Bros. with Lerner attached to write the screenplay. However, the film was temporarily shelved as the studio decided to adapt "My Fair Lady" into a feature film first. In 1966, development resumed with Joshua Logan hired as director. Original cast members Richard Burton and Julie Andrews were approached to reprise their roles from the stage musical, but both declined and were replaced with Harris and Redgrave. Filming took place on location in Spain and on the Warner Bros. studio lot in Burbank, California.


title: Camelot (film)

text: "Camelot" was released on October 25, 1967, to mixed reviews from critics, but was a commercial success, grossing $31.5 million against a $13 million budget, becoming the tenth highest-grossing film of 1967. The film received five nominations at the 40th Academy Awards and won three; Best Score, Best Production Design, and Best Costume Design. It also won three Golden Globe Awards; Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy (Richard Harris), Best Original Song (for "If Ever I Would Leave You"), and Best Original Score.


title: Camelot (film)

text: As King Arthur prepares for battle against his former friend, Sir Lancelot, he reflects on the sad circumstances which have led him to this situation.


title: Camelot (film)

text: Arthur thinks back to the night of his marriage to Guenevere. It is an arranged marriage, and he is afraid of what lies ahead ("I Wonder What the King is Doing Tonight"). Guenevere herself is worried about marrying a man she has never met and longs for the romantic life of a fought-over maiden ("The Simple Joys of Maidenhood"). They converse, and as she does not know his true identity, she fantasizes about escaping with him. Arthur tells her what a wonderful place his kingdom is ("Camelot"). She finds herself drawn to him, but they are interrupted by his men and her entourage. Arthur's identity is revealed, and Guenevere gladly goes with him to be married.


title: Camelot (film)

text: Four years later, Arthur explores with Guenevere his idea for a "Round Table" that would seat all the noble knights of the realm, reflecting not only a crude type of democratic ideal, but also the political unification of England. Inspired by Arthur's ideas, the French Knight Lancelot makes his way to England with his squire Dap, boasting of his superior virtues ("C'est Moi"). Lancelot's prowess impresses Arthur, and they become friends; however, many of the knights instantly despise Lancelot for his self-righteousness and boasting manner. Back in Camelot, Guinevere and the women frolic and gather flowers to celebrate the coming of spring ("The Lusty Month of May").


title: Camelot (film)

text: Guenevere, who initially dislikes Lancelot, incites three of the best knights to challenge him to a joust ("Then You May Take Me To The Fair"). Arthur ponders how distant Guenevere has become recently ("How to Handle a Woman"). Guenevere's plan goes awry as Lancelot easily defeats all three, critically wounding Sir Dinadan. A horrified Lancelot pleads for Sir Dinadan to live, and as he lays hands on him, Dinadan miraculously recovers. Guenevere is so overwhelmed and humbled that her feelings for Lancelot begin to change. Despite his vows of celibacy, Lancelot falls in love with Guenevere.


title: Camelot (film)

text: Guinevere and Lancelot meet in secret to discuss their future. Lancelot vows that he should leave and never come back, but finds it impossible to consider leaving Guenevere ("If Ever I Would Leave You"). Arthur decides to rise above the scandal. Mordred, Arthur's illegitimate son, arrives at Camelot determined to bring down the fellowship of the Round Table by stirring up trouble. All this takes its toll on Arthur's disposition, and Guenevere tries to cheer him up ("What Do the Simple Folk Do?") despite her conflicted emotions.


title: Camelot (film)

text: Mordred persuades Arthur to stay out hunting all night as a test, knowing that Lancelot will visit Guenevere in her bedchamber. Lancelot and Guenevere sing of their forbidden love and how wrong it has all gone ("I Loved You Once In Silence"). Mordred and several knights catch the lovers together. Lancelot escapes, but Guenevere is arrested. Thanks to Arthur's new civil court and trial by jury, she is sentenced to die by burning at the stake. Bound by his own law, Arthur cannot spare her. Preparations are made for Guenevere's burning ("Guenevere"), but Lancelot rescues her at the last minute, much to Arthur's relief.


title: Camelot (film)

text: On the battlefield, Arthur receives a surprise visit from Lancelot and Guenevere, at the edge of the woods, where she has taken residence at a convent. The three share an emotional farewell.


title: Camelot (film)

text: Prior to the battle, Arthur stumbles across a young boy named Tom, who espouses his commitment to Arthur's original ideal of "Not might 'makes' right, but might 'for' right." Arthur realizes that, although most of his plans have fallen through, the ideals of Camelot still live on in this simple boy. Arthur knights Tom and gives him his orders—run behind the lines and survive the battle, so that he can tell future generations about the legend of Camelot. Watching Tom leave, Arthur regains his hope for the future ("Camelot (reprise)").


title: Camelot (film)

text: In April 1961, it was reported that Warner Bros. had purchased the rights to produce a film adaptation of the stage musical with Alan Jay Lerner hired to pen the screenplay. That same month, it was reported that Rock Hudson had signed on to portray King Arthur. In May 1961, Shirley Jones was reportedly in talks to portray Guenevere. However, development was placed on hold when Warner Bros. fast-tracked a film adaptation of the musical "My Fair Lady", for which they acquired the screen rights from CBS for $5.5 million. It was also stipulated that "Camelot" would not be released before April 1964. Nevertheless, in April 1963, Jack L. Warner hired television executive William T. Orr to serve as producer. It was also reported that Orr had sought for original cast members Richard Burton and Robert Goulet to star in their respective roles, along with Elizabeth Taylor to star as Guenevere. In December 1963, Orr left the project after being appointed to serve as Jack L. Warner's executive assistant.


title: Camelot (film)

text: Robert Wise was offered the opportunity to direct, but production chief Walter MacEwen noted that "He does not want to type himself as a director of musical subjects—and he still has "The Gertrude Lawrence Story", which falls in that category, on his slate for next year." In March 1966, it was reported that Joshua Logan had been hired as director, with principal photography slated to commence in August.


title: Camelot (film)

text: Warner approached Burton to reprise his stage role as Arthur, but he demanded a higher salary than the studio was willing to pay, in which the negotiations ceased. In his place, Peter O'Toole, Gregory Peck and Marlon Brando were considered. While filming "Hawaii" (1966), Richard Harris learned of "Camelot" and actively sought for the role. For four months, Harris sent complimentary letters, cables and offers for a screen test to Lerner, Logan and Jack Warner indicating his interest in the role. Logan refused his offer due to his lack of singing abilities. When Logan returned to the Dorchester after having his morning jog, Harris ambushed him about the role, in which Logan finally relented as he offered to pay for his own screen test. Harris later hired cinematographer Nicolas Roeg to direct his screen test, which impressed Logan and Warner, who both agreed to hire him.


title: Camelot (film)

text: For the role of Guenevere, Julie Andrews, Audrey Hepburn and Julie Christie were on the studio's shortlist while Jack Warner separately considered Polly Bergen, Ann-Margret and Mitzi Gaynor. Andrews had learned of the movie adaptation while filming "Hawaii", but she declined. However, Logan desperately wanted to cast Vanessa Redgrave after watching her performance in "Morgan – A Suitable Case for Treatment" (1966). At the time, Redgrave was performing in the stage play "The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie" so Logan had to wait several months for her availability. Despite Redgrave not being a traditional singer, Logan was impressed by her renditions of folk songs that he listened to. The studio was initially reluctant due to her left-wing activism, but Logan negotiated for her casting until after she fulfilled her stage commitments. Redgrave was signed in November 1966 for $200,000 and permitted to do her own singing.


title: Camelot (film)

text: Although the studio initially sought a Frenchman, Italian actor Franco Nero was cast as Lancelot based on the recommendation from Harris and John Huston who worked with Nero on "" (1966). Although Logan was aware of Nero's thick Italian accent, he initially permitted him to do his own singing. The first scene shot was his performance of the musical number "C'est Moi", by which Logan found Nero's singing voice incompatible with the song's musical arrangement. His singing voice was dubbed by Gene Merlino while Nero was given a speech coach to help improve his English.


title: Camelot (film)

text: Richard H. Kline came to the attention of Logan after he had watched footage from "Chamber of Horrors" (1966), which contained medieval castle doors with a carriage drawn by a team of gray horses rolling through a bricked courtyard that had been shot with muted colors of the woods and mist. Impressed, Logan hired Kline as cinematographer. For "Camelot", Kline wanted to shoot the film in a more authentically textured style rather than the polished look of Hollywood musicals.


title: Camelot (film)

text: As his first film credit, 29-year-old Australian set designer John Truscott, who created the sets for the London and Melbourne stage productions of "Camelot", was hired as production designer. According to Logan, Truscott envisioned the visual design that resembled "neither Gothic or Romanesque but an in between period, suggesting a legendary time". The Castillo de Coca was the inspiration for the film's production design, which was re-created on the studio backlot in Burbank, California. The finished castle became the largest set ever constructed at the time, measuring 400 by 300 feet, and being nearly 100 feet tall, with the reported cost totaling half a million dollars. Logan explained to the "Los Angeles Times" that "it was absolutely necessary since we expect to do everything right in this picture—even to matching Spanish and Hollywood cobblestones."


title: Camelot (film)

text: In September 1966, shooting commenced on location in Spain intended for a 30-day shooting schedule. For the exterior sets, Logan selected seven castles on the country's mainland and another one on the island of Majorca, of which included the Alcázar of Segovia that was used as Lancelot du Lac's castle and the Medina del Campo. However, the location shoot experienced setbacks due to the country's rainfall and high temperature, in which filming finished twelve days behind schedule. In total, the shoot yielded half an hour of usable footage. With production underway, Jack Warner decided that "Camelot" would be his last film he would produce for the studio. On November 14, 1966, he sold a substantial share of studio stock to Seven Arts Productions. The sale was finalized on November 27, which totaled to approximately $32 million in cash.


title: Camelot (film)

text: Following the location shoot in Spain, the filming unit took a hiatus until Redgrave finished her stage duties. By then, fifteen of the studio's twenty-three stage sets were occupied for "Camelot". Filming was further complicated when Harris required 12 facial stitches after he fell down in his shower. The stitches reopened when Harris went out to party (against the doctor's orders), and this further delayed his recovery. Plastic surgery was later applied to disguise the wound.


title: Camelot (film)

text: On the LP soundtrack album, "Take Me to the Fair" appears after "How to Handle a Woman", and "Follow Me" (with new lyrics written for the film) is listed after "The Lusty Month of May".


title: Camelot (film)

text: William Johnson, writing in the journal "Film Quarterly", noted that "some of Arthur's speeches could be applied directly to Vietnam," such as Arthur's "Might for Right" ideal and repeated musings over borderlines. Retrospectively, Alice Grellner suggested the movie served as "an escape from the disillusionment of Vietnam, the bitterness and disenchantment of the antiwar demonstrations, and the grim reality of the war on the evening television news" and reminder of John F. Kennedy's presidency.


title: Camelot (film)

text: On October 25, 1967, "Camelot" premiered at the Warner Theatre on Broadway and 47th Street. A benefit premiere was held on November 1 at the Cinerama Dome in Los Angeles. While the official running time was 180 minutes plus overture, entr'acte and exit music, only the 70mm blow up prints and 35mm magnetic stereo prints contained that running time. For the general wide release, the film was truncated to 150 minutes.


title: Camelot (film)

text: In April 2012, the film was released on Blu-ray in conjunction with the film's 45th anniversary. The release was accompanied with an audio commentary, four behind-the-scenes featurettes and five theatrical trailers. "Camelot" will be released in Ultra HD Blu-ray on November 9, 2022, by Warner Bros. Home Entertainment.


title: Camelot (film)

text: "Camelot" was ranked as the tenth highest-grossing film of 1967 earning $12.3 million in United States and Canadian rentals. During its 1973 re-release, the film grossed $2 million in box office rentals.


title: Camelot (film)

text: "Film Quarterly"s William Johnson called "Camelot" "Hollywood at its best and worst," praising the film's ideals and Harris and Redgrave's performances but bemoaning its lavish sets and three-hour-running time. Bosley Crowther of "The New York Times" called Redgrave "dazzling" but criticized the film's conflicting moods and uncomfortable close-ups. Crowther felt the main characters were not sufficiently fleshed out to evoke any sympathy from the audience, concluding that the filmed lacked "magic". "Variety" magazine ran a positive review, declaring that the film "qualifies as one of Hollywood's alltime great screen musicals," praising the "clever screenplay" and "often exquisite sets and costumes." Clifford Terry of the "Chicago Tribune" was also positive, calling it "a beautiful, enjoyable splash of optical opiate" with "colorful sets, bright costumes and three fine performances."


title: Camelot (film)

text: Richard L. Coe of "The Washington Post" wrote, "Long, leaden and lugubrious, the Warner's 'Camelot' is 15 million dollars worth of wooden nickels. Besides being hopelessly, needlessly lavish, this misses the point squarely on the nail: what was so hot about King Arthur? We never really are told." He added that Richard Harris as Arthur gave "the worst major performance in years." Charles Champlin of the "Los Angeles Times" called the film "a very considerable disappointment," writing that its moments of charm "simply cannot cancel out the slow static pace, the lack of style, the pinched and artificial quality of the proceedings, the jumpy and inconsistent cuts, the incessant overuse of close-ups, the failure to sustain emotional momentum, the fatal wavering between reality and fantasy, the inability to exploit the resources of the film medium."


title: Camelot (film)

text: Brendan Gill of "The New Yorker" declared, "On Broadway, 'Camelot' was a vast, costly, and hollow musical comedy, and the movie version is, as might have been predicted, vaster, more costly, and even more hollow." "The Monthly Film Bulletin" of the UK wrote, "A dull play has become an even duller film, with practically no attempt at translation into the other medium, and an almost total neglect of the imaginative possibilities of the splendid material embodied in the Arthurian legend. Why, for instance, is Arthur not shown extracting Excalibur from the rock instead of merely talking about it? Such is the stuff of film scenes." On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, "Camelot" holds an approval rating of 41%, based on 17 reviews with an average rating of 6.23/10.


title: Camelot (film)

text: Despite its high cost, "Camelot" was widely criticized for its cheap appearance because it had obviously been filmed on an architecturally ambiguous set amidst the chaparral-covered hills of Burbank, and not an authentic medieval castle amidst the green hills of England. As a result, "Camelot" was the last American film that attempted to physically construct a large-scale full-size set on a studio backlot to represent an exotic foreign location. To ensure authenticity, American filmmakers resorted to location shooting ever since for exterior shots.


title: Camelot (film)

text: A life-size statue of Richard Harris, as King Arthur from this film, has been erected in Bedford Row, in the centre of his home town of Limerick. The sculptor of this statue was the Irish sculptor Jim Connolly, a graduate of the Limerick School of Art and Design.


title: World of Warcraft: Dragonflight

text: World of Warcraft: Dragonflight is the ninth expansion pack for the massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG) "World of Warcraft", following "". It was announced in April 2022, and released on November 28, 2022.


title: World of Warcraft: Dragonflight

text: The Dragon Isles are the main setting of "Dragonflight", and are separated into five zones. The four main zones are the Waking Shores, Ohn'ahran Plains, Azure Span, and Thaldraszus, with the neutral city of Valdrakken in Thaldraszus serving as a hub (similarly to Oribos in "Shadowlands"). The fifth zone, the Forbidden Reach, also serves as the starting area for the Dracthyr race.


title: World of Warcraft: Dragonflight

text: "Dragonflight" raised the level cap to 70, the first increase since the level squish in "Shadowlands". "Dragonflight" also features a revamp of the user interface and talent tree systems, with two tree branches.


title: World of Warcraft: Dragonflight

text: "Dragonflight" includes a new playable race, the Dracthyr, and a new class, the Evoker. The two are combined: Evokers are exclusive to the Dracthyr, and are also the only class that Dracthyr can play. Wearing mail armor, Evokers have two specializations available to them: the ranged damage-focused Devastation and the healing-orientated Preservation. The Dracthyr can choose to align with either the Alliance or the Horde, similar to the Pandaren introduced in "". Dracthyr Evokers are also considered a hero class: they start at level 58 and have a unique starting zone.


title: World of Warcraft: Dragonflight

text: "Dragonflight" features a revamp to the game's profession system, allowing players to place work orders where they can commission the creation of items.


title: World of Warcraft: Dragonflight

text: The game introduced a new feature called Dragonriding, allowing players to raise and customize a dragon that they will be able to use in a new momentum-based flight system using aerial skills. Flying is available from the start of the expansion, without the need to reach the maximum level.


title: World of Warcraft: Dragonflight

text: After being hidden for 10,000 years due to the War of the Ancients, the Dragon Isles, home to the Dragon Aspects and all dragon-kind, reveals itself on Azeroth. On the Isle, in an area known as the Forbidden Reach, a race of dragon-like warriors known as the dracthyr awaken from a 20,000 year slumber. Confused about their situation, they discover their storage was caused by their master, Neltharion (Deathwing), who feared the potential power they could possess if they weren't under his control. As they find their bearings, the dracthyr encounter enemy proto-dragons who wish to end the reign of the Aspects. In the ensuing battles, members of this Primalist regime release their leader, Raszageth the Storm-Eater, one of the four elemental Primal Incarnate Proto-dragons, who was sealed away by Neltharion as he gave in to the corruption of N'zoth millennia ago. Without their Black Dragonflight master, the dracthyr side with the Horde and Alliance to fight back against their ancient enemy and find their place in their new home.


title: World of Warcraft: Dragonflight

text: Upon the Horde and Alliance reaching the shores of the Dragon Isles, the situation is already dire. Enemies of old awaken just as the continent does itself, threatening the sanctums of the 5 dragonflights. The former Aspects of the flights also attempt to reawaken their inert power by relighting their own Oathstones, which went dormant upon the destruction of the Dragon Soul that led to Deathwing's downfall.


title: World of Warcraft: Dragonflight

text: The first sanctum in need of assistance is the Ruby Lifeshrine in the Waking Shores region, where the Aspect of Life Alexstrasza and her Red Flight attempt to keep unhatched eggs from becoming tainted with dark energies of the Primalists. Raszageth herself launches an assault on the shrine, but Azeroth's champions work with the dragons of the Ruby Lifeshrine to put an end to their offensive, with an unexpected assist coming from Wrathion. For his good deeds, he expects Alexstrasza to spare some manpower to assist him in reclaiming the nearby Obsidian Citadel, though she does not accept, choosing to protect the eggs instead.


title: World of Warcraft: Dragonflight

text: Enlisting the aid of any who will beckon to his call, Wrathion charges into the Obsidian Citadel, where proto-dragons and other Primalist loyalists have invaded his seat of power. Though heavily outmatched, the Black Prince is aided by a Black Dragon known as Sabellian, who returned to the Isle after heading the remaining black dragons in Outland that weren't corrupted by the Old Gods. The 2 ebony leaders work together to evict the remaining Primalists and rebuild their Oathstone, which had been destroyed when Neltharion fell into the clutches of the Old Gods. Returning to the Ruby Lifeshrine with new obsidian eggs, the Red Flight's Oathstone glows with power as well, though tension ensues as to who will lead the Black Dragonflight as Wrathion and Sabellian are both heirs of Neltharion.


title: World of Warcraft: Dragonflight

text: Hearing word of unrest in the neighboring Ohn'ahran Plains, varying tribes of centaurs meet to remake a pact with the Green Dragonflight against the Primalists. However, the centaurs are betrayed by one of their own tribes, the Nokhud, who have accepted powers and allegiance to the Primalist army. The Green Dragonflight is caught unaware of the betrayal, costing Merithra, daughter of Ysera, one of her kin. Merithra and her emerald dragons work with the loyal centaur tribes to safeguard her Emerald Gardens from the encroaching dissenters, renewing the vows of companionship between all and empowering the Green Flight's Oathstone.


title: World of Warcraft: Dragonflight

text: In the southern region known as the Azure Span, Kalecgos aims to revive the leylines of arcane magic to allow him to reclaim the dormant power as Aspect of the Blue Dragonflight and Magic, but due to the rot and decay of the land over the millennia, the magic appears unattainable. With the aid of a local Tuskarr tribe, and under the guidance of the memory of Sindragosa, former consort of Malygos Blue Dragonflight Queen and Lich King Arthas's lead Frost Wyrm Queen, Kalecgos learns that the only way to re-establish his flight's power is through family, not magic. When Raszageth attempts to destroy Vakthros, the Blue Dragonflight's seat of power, Kalecgos defends it, and is joined by other blue dragons to protect their home and strengthen the bonds of their flight, returning power to their Oathstone.


title: World of Warcraft: Dragonflight

text: In order to discover Raszageth's next move following her setbacks, Alexstrasza meets with Kalecgos and Nozdormu, Bronze Dragonflight Aspect of Time, in the Isle's capital city of Valdrakken within the nearby Thaldraszus region, home of the bronze flight. They discover multiple infiltrators have made their way into the city, showing the depth of the Primalist's schemes and how far they'd go to accomplish their seemingly unknown plans. At the Temporal Conflux, seat of power of the bronze flight, Chromie has an Infinite Dragon named Eternus captive. While clearing the citadel of enemy time-woven elementals, Eternus breaks free of their chains. As Chromie goes to intercept, they are both taken through a portal of history and time. Nozdormu sends champions through different points in the infinite timeways to locate them. After multiple periods in time, they are found in the ancient past when the Old Gods ruled Azeroth. Returning to the present, Nozdormu lets Eternus go and the Bronze Oathstone glows with power, though the Infinite Dragon warns the Aspect of his approaching fated transformation into Murozond, the leader of the Infinite Dragonflight.


title: World of Warcraft: Dragonflight

text: With the 5 Oathstones back at full strength, Alextrasza begins a ritual in Valdrekken that will officially return the powers of the Aspects once more. However, the Mother Oathstone remains quiet and unresponsive, darkening any hope of their Aspectral awakening. Raszageth laughs and mocks Alexstrasza for her failure before turning away to the Vault of the Incarnates, where she plans to release other elemental Primal dragons from their captivity. Champions enter the Vault and battle the Storm Eater's minions, including Kurog Grimtotem, student of Magatha Grimtotem and the shaman that released Raszageth from her captivity on the Forbidden Reach. Finally, Raszageth herself falls in battle, but not before she is able to release the three other elemental Primal Incarnates of fire, ice, and earth: Fyrakk the Blazing, Vyranoth the Frozenheart, and Iridikron the Stoneheart.


title: World of Warcraft: Dragonflight

text: "Dragonflight" received "generally favorable" reviews with a score of 84 on Metacritic. "PC Gamer" scored the expansion 80/100, claiming that while the expansion wasn't "thrilling", it did feel like a "fresh start for a 20-year old videogame". "Screen Rant" described "Dragonflight" as "compelling" and "fantastic", scoring the game 9/10, though they noted that "for all the new...innovations, it's ultimately the same game underneath, for better or worse." "Destructoid" scored it 85/100, claiming that "As Legion took players out of the dour Warlords of Draenor, WoW has risen from the ashes once more", which has been sentiment shared by many outlets and fans alike compared to "Shadowlands".


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: The Louisiana Purchase Exposition, informally known as the St. Louis World's Fair, was an international exposition held in St. Louis, Missouri, United States, from April 30 to December 1, 1904. Local, state, and federal funds totaling $15 million were used to finance the event. More than 60 countries and 43 of the then-45 American states maintained exhibition spaces at the fair, which was attended by nearly 19.7 million people.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: Historians generally emphasize the prominence of the themes of race and imperialism, and the fair's long-lasting impact on intellectuals in the fields of history, art history, architecture and anthropology. From the point of view of the memory of the average person who attended the fair, it primarily promoted entertainment, consumer goods and popular culture. The monumental Greco-Roman architecture of this and other fairs of the era did much to influence permanent new buildings and master plans of major cities.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: In 1904, St. Louis hosted a World's Fair to celebrate the centennial of the 1803 Louisiana Purchase. The idea for such a commemorative event seems to have emerged early in 1898, with Kansas City and St. Louis initially presented as potential hosts for a fair based on their central location within the territory encompassed by the 1803 land annexation.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: The exhibition was grand in scale and lengthy in preparation, with an initial $5 million committed by the city of St. Louis through the sale of city bonds was authorized by the Missouri state legislature in April 1899. An additional $5 million was generated through private donations by interested citizens and businesses from around Missouri, a fundraising target reached in January 1901. The final installment of $5 million of the exposition's $15 million capitalization came in the form of earmarked funds that were part of a congressional appropriations bill passed at the end of May 1900. The fundraising mission was aided by the active support of President of the United States William McKinley, which was won by organizers in a February 1899 White House visit.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: While initially conceived as a centennial celebration to be held in 1903, the actual opening of the St. Louis exposition was delayed until April 30, 1904, to allow for full-scale participation by more states and foreign countries. The exposition operated until December 1, 1904. During the year of the fair, the Louisiana Purchase Exposition supplanted the annual St. Louis Exposition of agricultural, trade, and scientific exhibitions which had been held in the city since the 1880s.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: The fair's (1.9 mi) site, designed by George Kessler, was located at the present-day grounds of Forest Park and on the campus of Washington University, and was the largest fair (in area) to date. There were over 1,500 buildings, connected by some of roads and walkways. It was said to be impossible to give even a hurried glance at everything in less than a week. The Palace of Agriculture alone covered some .


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: Exhibits were staged by approximately 50 foreign nations, the United States government, and 43 of the then-45 U.S. states. These featured industries, cities, private organizations and corporations, theater troupes, and music schools. There were also over 50 concession-type amusements found on "The Pike"; they provided educational and scientific displays, exhibits and imaginary 'travel' to distant lands, history and local boosterism (including Louis Wollbrinck's "Old St. Louis") and pure entertainment.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: Aspects that attracted visitors included the buildings and architecture, new foods, popular music, and exotic people on display. American culture was showcased at the fair especially regarding innovations in communication, medicine, and transportation.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: George Kessler, who designed many urban parks in Texas and the Midwest, created the master design for the Fair.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: A popular myth says that Frederick Law Olmsted, who had died the year before the Fair, designed the park and fair grounds. There are several reasons for this confusion. First, Kessler in his twenties had worked briefly for Olmsted as a Central Park gardener. Second, Olmsted was involved with Forest Park in Queens, New York. Third, Olmsted had planned the renovations in 1897 to the Missouri Botanical Garden several blocks to the southeast of the park. Finally, Olmsted's sons advised Washington University on integrating the campus with the park across the street.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: In 1901 the Louisiana Purchase Exposition Corporation selected prominent St. Louis architect Isaac S. Taylor as the Chairman of the Architectural Commission and Director of Works for the fair, supervising the overall design and construction. Taylor quickly appointed Emmanuel Louis Masqueray to be his Chief of Design. In the position for three years, Masqueray designed the following Fair buildings: Palace of Agriculture, the Cascades and Colonnades, Palace of Forestry, Fish, and Game, Palace of Horticulture and Palace of Transportation, all of which were widely emulated in civic projects across the United States as part of the City Beautiful movement. Masqueray resigned shortly after the Fair opened in 1904, having been invited by Archbishop John Ireland of St. Paul, Minnesota to design a new cathedral for the city.[4]


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: Florence Hayward, a successful freelance writer in St. Louis in the 1900s, was determined to play a role in the World's Fair. She negotiated a position on the otherwise all-male Board of Commissioners. Hayward learned that one of the potential contractors for the fair was not reputable and warned the Louisiana Purchase Exposition Company (LPEC). In exchange for this information, she requested an appointment as roving commissioner to Europe.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: Former Mayor of St. Louis and Governor of Missouri David R. Francis, LPEC president, made the appointment and allowed Hayward to travel overseas to promote the fair, especially to women. The fair also had a Board of Lady Managers (BLM) who felt they had jurisdiction over women's activities at the fair and objected to Hayward's appointment without their knowledge. Despite this, Hayward set out for England in 1902. Hayward's most notable contribution to the fair was acquiring gifts Queen Victoria received for her Golden Jubilee and other historical items, including manuscripts from the Vatican. These items were all to be shown in exhibits at the fair.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: Pleased with her success in Europe, Francis put her in charge of historical exhibits in the anthropology division, which had originally been assigned to Pierre Chouteau III. Despite being the only woman on the Board of Commissioners, creating successful anthropological exhibits, publicizing the fair, and acquiring significant exhibit items, Hayward's role in the fair was not acknowledged. When Francis published a history of the fair in 1913, he did not mention Hayward's contributions and she never forgave the slight.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: Many of the inventions displayed were precursors to items which have become an integral part of today's culture. Novel applications of electricity and light waves for communication and medical use were displayed in the Palace of Electricity. According to an article he wrote for Harper's Weekly, W.E. Goldsborough, the Chief of the Department of Electricity for the Fair, wished to educate the public and dispel the misconceptions about electricity which many common people believed. New and updated methods of transportation also showcased at the World's Fair in the Palace of Transportation would come to revolutionize transportation for the modern day.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: Wireless telephone – The "wireless telephony" unit or "radiophone" installed at the St. Louis World Fair was a thing of wonder to the crowds. Music or spoken messages were transmitted from an apparatus within the Palace of Electricity to a telephone receiver out in the courtyard. The receiver, which was attached to nothing, when placed to the ear allowed a visitor to hear the transmission. This radiophone, invented by Alexander Graham Bell, consisted of a transmitter which transformed sound waves into light waves and a receiver which converted the light waves back into sound waves. This technology has since developed into the radio and telephone.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: Early fax machine – The telautograph, the precursor to the modern day fax machine, was invented in 1888 by the American scientist, Elisha Gray who at one point in time contested Alexander Graham Bell's invention of the telephone. The telautograph was a device which could send electrical impulses to the receiving pen of the device, in order to be able to recreate drawings to a piece of paper while a person simultaneously wrote them longhand on the other end of the device. In 1900, Gray's assistant, Foster Ritchie, improved upon the original design, and it was this device that was displayed at the 1904 World's Fair and marketed for the next thirty years.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: Finsen light – The Finsen light, a phototherapy unit invented by Niels Ryberg Finsen, utilized ultraviolet light to treat a form of lupus caused by the bacteria "Mycobacterium tuberculosis". Finsen was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine and Physiology in 1903 for his contributions and his invention pioneered the way which led to many other forms of radiation therapy in the treatment of disease.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: X-ray machine – The X-ray machine was an invention that had its public debut at the 1904 World's Fair. X-rays were first discovered in November 1895 by a German scientist, Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, who at the time was studying the phenomena accompanying the passage of an electric current through a gas of extremely low pressure. After Rontgen's discovery, he took an x-ray of his wife's hand, showing the bones and her fingers along with her wedding ring, and sent it to several of his scientist colleagues. One of the scientists that learned of the discovery was Thomas Edison and he soon began to experiment with his own x-ray machine with his assistant Clarence Dally. In 1901, Dally brought a test version of the X-ray machine to the 1901 World's Fair but failed to test the machine when President McKinley was assassinated. For the 1904 World's Fair, the X-ray machine was perfected and successfully shown to the public. X-rays are now commonplace in hospitals and airports.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: Infant incubator – Although infant incubators were invented in the year 1888 by Drs. Alan M. Thomas and William Champion, these devices were not immediately widely used. To increase awareness of the benefits these units provided, infant incubators containing premature babies were displayed at the 1897, 1898, 1901, and 1904 World Fairs. This piece of medical equipment helped neonates with compromised immune systems by providing a sanitary environment to reduce the likelihood of acquiring an infection. Each incubator was an air-tight glass box with a metal frame. Hot air was pumped into the container to keep a constant temperature. Newspapers advertised the incubators with "lives are being preserved by this wonderful method." During the World Fair in 1904, E. M. Bayliss brought these devices for exhibition on The Pike where approximately ten nurses cared for twenty-four neo-natal babies while in the infant incubators. The exhibit required an entrance fee of twenty-five cents and visitors could also purchase souvenirs and refreshments from the adjoining shop and café. These proceeds, totaling $181,632, helped to fund Bayliss's project. There were some setbacks with the infant incubator display as the sanitary conditions were not always consistent and some babies died of illness. The incubator area was then modified by installing glass walls to separate the babies from visitors, thus decreasing the exposure of the infants. The science and technology behind the incubators has since been expanded upon. Now known as "isolettes," these units are a vital component to caring for neonates in modern neonatal intensive care units.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: Electric streetcar – Although street railways had been in use in North America since the early 19th century, electric street railcars were still relatively novel at the time of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition. Outside of the Palace of Electricity, an exhibit including a working electric street car and 1400 feet of track demonstrated the speed, acceleration, and braking capacities of this new-powered model. Electric railways for inner-city transport are still used in many cities today.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: Personal automobile – One of the most popular attractions of the Exposition was contained in the Palace of Transportation: automobiles and motor cars. The automobile display contained 140 models including ones powered by gasoline, steam, and electricity. The private automobile first made its public debut at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition. Four years after the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, the Ford Motor Company began producing the Ford Model T making the personal automobile more affordable. Since that time, the automobile has increased in popularity, advanced in technology, and expanded the mobility of humanity. A prototype car radio was also demonstrated by inventor Lee de Forest.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: Airplane – The 1904 World's Fair hosted the first-ever "Airship Contest" since aerial navigation was still in its infancy at this time. The Exposition offered a grand prize of $100,000 to the airship or other flying machine with the best time through a course marked out by stationary air balloons while travelling at least 15 miles per hour. Although none were able to earn the grand prize, the contest did witness the first public dirigible flight in America as well as numerous other flights made by various airships. This was the first major event in a history of aviation in St. Louis leading to the city's nickname, Flight City. The science of aerial navigation continued to develop and has been mastered since the 1904 Exposition. Air travel has become a vital component in today's global society.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: Since many people were curious about this up-and-coming city, many reporters and photographers attended the World's Fair to document and understand the city. What they found was nothing like anyone else could have imagined. The streets were buzzing with activity, with many of its citizens constantly on the "go" and the streets "crowded with activity". One observer remarked that, at this time, St. Louis had more energy in its streets than any other northern city did.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: With more and more people interested in the city, St. Louis government and architects were primarily concerned with their ports and access to the city. Though transportation by water had always been important to the city (St. Louis had originated as a trading post), it was becoming even more important that the port be open, but efficient for all visitors. It also needed to show off some of the city's flair and excitement, which is why in many photographs one sees photos of St. Louis' skyscrapers in the background. In addition to a functioning port, the Eads Bridge was constructed, which was considered one of St. Louis' "sights". At long, it connected Missouri and Illinois, and was the first large-scale application of steel as a structural material.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: As with the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893, all but one of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition's grand, neo-Classical exhibition palaces were temporary structures, designed to last but a year or two. They were built with a material called "staff," a mixture of plaster of Paris and hemp fibers, on a wood frame. As at the Chicago World's Fair, buildings and statues deteriorated during the months of the Fair and had to be patched.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: The Palace of Fine Art, designed by architect Cass Gilbert, featured a grand interior sculpture court based on the Roman Baths of Caracalla. Standing at the top of Art Hill, it now serves as the home of the St. Louis Art Museum.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: The Administration Building, designed by Cope & Stewardson, is now Brookings Hall, the defining landmark on the campus of Washington University. A similar building was erected at Northwest Missouri State University founded in 1905 in Maryville, Missouri. The grounds' layout was also recreated in Maryville and now is designated as the official Missouri State Arboretum.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: Some mansions from the Exposition's era survive along Lindell Boulevard at the north border of Forest Park.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: The huge bird cage at the Saint Louis Zoological Park, dates to the fair. A Jain temple carved out of teak stood within the Indian Pavilion near the Ferris Wheel. It was dismantled after the exhibition and was reconstructed in Las Vegas at the Castaways hotel. It has recently been reassembled and is now on display at the Jain Center of Southern California at Los Angeles. Birmingham, Alabama's iconic cast iron Vulcan statue was first exhibited at the Fair in the Palace of Mines and Metallurgy. Additionally, a plaster reproduction of "Alma Mater" at Columbia University by Daniel Chester French was displayed at the Grand Sculpture Court of the exhibition.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: The Missouri State building was the largest of the state buildings, as Missouri was the host state. Though it had sections with marble floors and heating and air conditioning, it was planned to be a temporary structure. However, it burned the night of November 18–19, just eleven days before the Fair was to end. Most of the interior was destroyed, but some contents were rescued without damage, including some furniture and much of the contents of the fair's Model Library. Since the fair was almost over, the building was not rebuilt. After the fair, the current World's Fair Pavilion in Forest Park was built on the site of the Missouri building with profits from the fair in 1909–10.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: Festival Hall, designed by Cass Gilbert and used for large-scale musical pageants, contained the largest organ in the world at the time, built by the Los Angeles Art Organ Company (which went bankrupt as a result). The great organ was debuted by the fair's official organist, Charles Henry Galloway. Though the opening concert was scheduled for the first day of the fair, complications related to its construction resulted in the opening concert being postponed until June 9. After the fair, the organ was placed into storage, and eventually purchased by John Wanamaker for his new Wanamaker's store in Philadelphia where it was tripled in size and became known as the Wanamaker Organ. The famous Bronze Eagle in the Wanamaker Store also came from the Fair. It features hundreds of hand-forged bronze feathers and was the centerpiece of one of the many German exhibits. Wanamaker's became a Lord & Taylor store and more recently, a Macy's store.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: Completed in 1913, the Jefferson Memorial building was built near the main entrance to the Exposition, at Lindell and DeBalivere. It was built with proceeds from the fair, to commemorate Thomas Jefferson, who initiated the Louisiana Purchase, as was the first memorial to the third President. It became the headquarters of the Missouri History Museum, and stored the Exposition's records and archives when the Louisiana Purchase Exposition company completed its mission. The building is now home to the Missouri History Museum, and the museum was significantly expanded in 2002–3.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: The State of Maine Building, which was a rustic cabin, was transported to Point Lookout, Missouri where it overlooked the White River by sportsmen who formed the Maine Hunting and Fishing Club. In 1915, when the main building at the College of the Ozarks in Forsyth, Missouri burned, the school relocated to Point Lookout, where the Maine building was renamed the Dobyns Building in honor of a school president. The Dobyns Building burned in 1930 and the college's signature church was built in its place. In 2004, a replica of the Maine building was built on the campus. The Keeter Center is named for another school president.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: The observation tower erected by the American DeForest Wireless Telegraph Company was brought to the Fair when it became a hazard near Niagara Falls and needed to be removed because in the wintertime, ice from the fall's mist would form on the steel structure, and eventually fall onto the buildings below. It served as a communications platform for Lee DeForest's work in wireless telegraphy and a platform to view the fair. As Niagara Falls was near Buffalo New York, it was also called the Buffalo Tower After the World's Fair, it was moved to Creve Coeur Lake to be part of that park.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: Westinghouse Electric sponsored the Westinghouse Auditorium, where they showed films of Westinghouse factories and products.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: A number of foods are claimed to have been invented at the fair. The most popular claim is that the waffle-style ice cream cone was invented and first sold during the fair. However, it is widely believed that it was not invented at the Fair, but instead, it was popularized at the Fair. Other claims are more dubious, including the hamburger and hot dog (both traditional American foods), peanut butter, iced tea, and cotton candy. It is more likely, however, that these food items were first introduced to mass audiences and popularized by the fair. Dr Pepper and Puffed Wheat cereal were first introduced to a national audience at the fair. Daughter of slaves, Annie Fisher, brought her beaten biscuits, which were already famous in her hometown of Columbia, Missouri. The exposition awarded Fisher's biscuits a gold medal. They would later be enjoyed by President William Howard Taft on his 1911 visit to Missouri.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: Though not the debut of as many foods as claimed, the fair offered what was essentially America's first food court. Visitors could sample a variety of fast foods, dine in dozens of restaurants, or just stroll through the mile-long pike where food was celebrated. As one historian said of the fair, "one could breakfast in France, take a mid-morning snack in the Philippines, lunch in Italy, and dine in Japan."


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: The fair inspired the song "Meet Me in St. Louis, Louis", which was recorded by many artists, including Billy Murray. Both the fair and the song are focal points of the 1944 feature film "Meet Me in St. Louis" starring Judy Garland, which also inspired a Broadway musical version. Scott Joplin wrote the rag "Cascades" in honor of the elaborate waterfalls in front of Festival Hall.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: Following the Spanish–American War, the peace treaty granted the United States control over Guam, the Philippines, and Puerto Rico. Puerto Rico had had a quasi-autonomous government as an "overseas province" of Spain, and the Philippines, having declared independence after the 1896-1899 Philippine Revolution, fought US annexation in the 1899-1902 Philippine–American War. These areas controversially became unincorporated territories of the United States in 1899, and people were brought from these territories to be on "display" at the 1904 fair.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: 1,102 Filipinos were displayed at the fair, 700 of them Philippine Scouts and Philippine Constabulary, used for controlling conflict among Filipinos and between Filipinos and fair organizers. Displays included the Apache of the American Southwest and the Igorot of the Philippines, both of which peoples were noted as "primitive". Within the Philippine reservation, was a school which was actively teaching Igorot students. The Philippine reservation at the exposition cost $1.1 million to create and operate. The people had been trafficked under harsh conditions and many did not survive. Burial plots in two St. Louis cemeteries were prepared in advance, however traditional burial practices were not allowed. Some of the people to be exhibited died en route or at the fair; bodies were immediately removed, and funeral rites had to be conducted without the bodies, in front of an oblivious public audience of fair attendees. Organizers choreographed ethnographic displays, having customs which marked special occasions restaged day after day.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: Similarly, members of the Southeast Alaskan Tlingit tribe accompanied fourteen totem poles, two Native houses, and a canoe displayed at the Alaska Exhibit. Mary Benson, a noted Pomo basket weaver whose work is curated at the Smithsonian Institution and National Museum of the American Indian, attended to demonstrate her basket making skills which are described as astounding. Athletic events such as a basketball tournament were held to demonstrate the success of the Indian Boarding Schools and other assimilation programs. These efforts were confirmed with the Fort Shaw Indian School girls basketball team who were declared "World Champions" after beating every team who faced them in these denominational games.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: It has been argued that the "overriding purpose of the fair really centered on an effort to promote America's new role as an overseas imperial power", and that "While the juxtaposition of "modern" and "primitive" buttressed assumptions of racial superiority, representations of Native American and Filipino life created an impression of continuity between westward expansion across the continent and the new overseas empire." Racializing concepts and epithets used domestically were extended to the people of the overseas territories.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: Ota Benga, a Congolese Pygmy, was featured at the fair. Later he was given the run of the grounds at the Bronx Zoo in New York, then featured in an exhibit on evolution alongside an orangutan in 1906, but public protest ended that.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: In contrast, the Japan pavilion advanced the idea of a modern yet exotic culture unfamiliar to the turn-of-the-century Western world, much as it had during the earlier Chicago World's Fair. The Japanese government spent lavishly: $400,000, plus $50,000 from the Japanese colonial government of Formosa, with an additional $250,000 coming from Japanese commercial interests and regional governments. A 150,000 square foot garden, set on the hillside south of the Machinery Hall and Engine House, featured a replica of Kyoto's famous Kinkakuji, showing Japan's ancient sophistication, and a Formosa Mansion and Tea House, showing her modern colonial efforts. A second exhibition, "Fair Japan on the 'Pike'," organized by Kushibiki and Arai, welcomed the public through a large Niōmon-style gate into a realm of geisha-staffed exotic Japanese consumerism.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: After the fair was completed, many of the international exhibits were not returned to their country of origin, but were dispersed to museums in the United States. For example, the Philippine exhibits were acquired by the Museum of Natural History at the University of Iowa. The Vulcan statue is today a prominent feature of the Vulcan Park and Museum in Birmingham, Alabama, where it was originally cast.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: The Smithsonian Institution coordinated the U.S. government exhibits. It featured a blue whale, the first full-cast of a blue whale ever created.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: The Fair also featured the original "Floatopia". Visitors floated on rafts of all sorts in the tiny Forest Park Lake. Many Floatopias have occurred since, including the infamous San Diego Floatopia of '83 and the Santa Barbara Floatopia that has been happening for years.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: One exhibit of note was Beautiful Jim Key, the "educated" Arabian-Hambletonian cross horse in his Silver Horseshoe Pavilion. He was owned by Dr. William Key, an African-American/Native American former slave, who became a respected self-taught veterinarian, and promoted by Albert R. Rogers, who had Jim and Dr. Key on tour for years around the US, helping to establish a humane movement that encouraged people to think of animals as having feelings and thoughts, and not just "brutes." Jim and Dr. Key became national celebrities along the way. Rogers invented highly successful marketing strategies still in use today. Jim Key could add, subtract, use a cash register, spell with blocks, tell time and give opinions on the politics of the day by shaking his head yes or no. Jim thoroughly enjoyed his "act"—he performed more than just tricks and appeared to clearly understand what was going on. Dr. Key's motto was that Jim "was taught by kindness" instead of the whip, which he was indeed.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: Daisy E. Nirdlinger's book, "Althea, or, the children of Rosemont plantation" (illustrated by Egbert Cadmus (1868-1939)) was adopted by the Commissioners of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition as the official souvenir for young people.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: The Fair hosted the 1904 Summer Olympic Games, the first Olympics held in the United States. The games had originally been awarded to Chicago, but when St. Louis threatened to hold a rival international competition, the games were relocated. Nonetheless, the sporting events, spread out over several months, were overshadowed by the Fair. With travel expenses high, many European athletes did not attend, nor did the founder of the modern Olympics, Baron Pierre de Coubertin.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: On June 5, 1904, a bullfight scheduled for an arena just north of the fairgrounds, in conjunction with the fair, turned violent when Missouri governor Alexander Monroe Dockery ordered police to halt the fight in light of Missouri's anti-bullfighting laws. Disgruntled spectators demanded refunds, and when they were turned away, they began throwing stones through the windows of the arena office. While police protected the office, they did not have sufficient numbers to protect the arena, which was burned to the ground by the mob. The exposition fire department responded to the fire, but disruption to the fair was minimal, as the riot took place on a Sunday, when the fair was closed.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: Frank E. Fillis produced what was supposedly "the greatest and most realistic military spectacle known in the history of the world". Different portions of the concession featured a British Army encampment, several South African native villages (including Zulu, San, Swazi, and Ndebele) and a arena in which soldiers paraded, sporting events and horse races were held and major battles from the Second Boer War were re-enacted twice a day. Battle recreations took 2–3 hours and included several Generals and 600 veteran soldiers from both sides of the war. At the conclusion of the show, the Boer General Christiaan de Wet would escape on horseback by leaping from a height of into a pool of water.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: Admission ranged from 25 cents for bleacher seats to one dollar for box seats, and admission to the villages was another 25 cents. The concession cost $48,000 to construct, grossed over $630,000, and netted about $113,000 to the fair—the highest-grossing military concession of the fair.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: The Louisiana World's Fair was opened by President, Theodore Roosevelt, by telegraph, but he did not attend personally until after his reelection in November 1904, as he stated he did not wish to use the fair for political purposes. Attendees included John Philip Sousa, a musician, composer and conductor whose band performed on opening day and several times during the fair. Thomas Edison is claimed to have attended.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: Ragtime music was popularly featured at the Fair. Scott Joplin wrote "The Cascades" specifically for the fair, inspired by the waterfalls at the Grand Basin, and presumably attended the fair.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: Helen Keller, who was 24 and graduated from Radcliffe College, gave a lecture in the main auditorium.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: J. T. Stinson, a well-regarded fruit specialist, introduced the phrase, "An apple a day keeps the doctor away" (at a lecture during the exhibition).


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: The French organist Alexandre Guilmant played a series of 40 recitals from memory on the great organ in Festival Hall, then the largest pipe organ in the world, including "Toccata in D minor" (Op. 108, No. 1) by Albert Renaud, which Renaud had dedicated to Guilmant.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: Grover Cleveland, the 22nd and 24th president, attended the opening ceremony on April 30 and "overshadowed President Roosevelt in popular applause, when both stood on the same platform.”


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: Henri Poincaré gave a keynote address on mathematical physics, including an outline for what would eventually become known as special relativity.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: Jelly Roll Morton did not visit, stating in his later Library of Congress interview and recordings that he expected jazz pianist Tony Jackson would attend and win a jazz piano competition at the Exposition. Morton said he was "quite disgusted" to later learn that Jackson had not attended either, and that the competition had been won instead by Alfred Wilson; Morton considered himself a better pianist than Wilson.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: The poet T. S. Eliot, who was born and raised in St. Louis, Missouri, visited the Igorot Village held in the Philippine Exposition section of the St. Louis World's Fair. Several months after the closing of the World's Fair, he published a short story entitled "The Man Who Was King" in the school magazine of Smith Academy, St. Louis, Missouri, where he was a student. Inspired by the ganza dance which the Igorot people presented regularly in the Village and their reaction to "civilization," the poet explored the interaction of a white man with the island culture. All this predates the poet's delving into the anthropological studies during his Harvard graduate years.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: Max Weber visited upon first coming to the United States in hopes of using some of his findings for a case study on capitalism.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: Jack Daniel, the American distiller and the founder of Jack Daniel's Tennessee whiskey distillery, entered his Tennessee whiskey into the World's Fair whiskey competition. After four hours of deliberation, the eight judges awarded Jack Daniel's Tennessee Whiskey the Gold Medal for the finest whiskey in the world. The award was a boon for the Jack Daniel's distillery.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: Novelist Kate Chopin lived nearby and purchased a season ticket to the fair. After her visit on the hot day of August 20, she suffered a brain hemorrhage and died two days later, on August 22, 1904.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: Philadelphia mercantilist, John Wanamaker, visited the exposition in November 1904 and purchased an entire collection of German furniture which included the giant "jugendstil" brass sculpture of an eagle that he would display in the rotunda of his Wanamaker's department store in Philadelphia. In 1909 Wanamaker also purchased the organ from the fair, which at the time was the biggest concert organ in the world. It is still featured today, much enlarged, as the Wanamaker Organ in the Grand Court of his Philadelphia retail palace.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: Benedictine monk, artist and museum founder, Fr. Gregory Gerrer, OSB, exhibited his recent portrait of Pope Pius X at the fair. Following the fair, Gerrer brought the painting to Shawnee, Oklahoma, where it is now on display at the Mabee-Gerrer Museum of Art.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: John McCormack, Irish tenor, was brought to the fair by James A. Reardon, who was in charge of the Irish exhibit.


title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: In conjunction with the Exposition the U.S. Post Office issued a series of five commemorative stamps celebrating the 100th anniversary of the Louisiana Purchase. The 1-cent value portrays Robert Livingston, the ambassador who negotiated the purchase with France; the 2-cent value depicts Thomas Jefferson, who executed the purchase; the 3-cent honors James Monroe, who participated in negotiations with the French; the 5-cent memorializes William McKinley, who was involved with early plans for the Exposition; and the 10-cent presents a map of the Louisiana Purchase. <br>


title: Goat cheese

text: Goat cheese, or chèvre ( or ; from French "fromage de chèvre" 'goat cheese'), is cheese made from goat's milk. Goats were among the first animals to be domesticated for producing food. Goat cheese is made around the world with a variety of recipes, giving many different styles of cheese, from fresh and soft to aged and hard.


title: Goat cheese

text: Goats produce high quality, nutrition-rich milk under even the most difficult environments making them valuable to arid or mountainous areas where cows and sheep can not survive. Goats were one of the earliest animals domesticated to suit human needs- more specifically milk production- going back to 8,000 B.C., 10,000 years ago. Goat cheese has been made for at least as far back as 5,000 B.C. Meanwhile, the first documented proof of humans making cheese is 7,500 years ago in Poland.


title: Goat cheese

text: Goat milk has a higher proportion of medium-chain fatty acids such as caproic and caprylic which contributes to the characteristic tart flavor of the cheese. It also makes goat milk and cheeses more easily digestible.


title: Goat cheese

text: Goat milk and, therefore, cheeses contain anti-inflammatory enzymes, probiotics, antioxidants, proteins, and lipids and help maintain a healthy metabolism. These fatty acids take their name from the Latin for "goat": capra. It is also high in calcium, vitamins A and K, phosphororus, thiamin and niacin.