title: Hybrid vehicle drivetrain

text: ICE torque output is minimal at lower RPMs and conventional vehicles increase engine size to meet market requirements for acceptable initial acceleration. The larger engine has more power than needed for cruising. Electric motors produce full torque at standstill and are well-suited to complement ICE torque deficiency at low RPMs. In a power-split hybrid, a smaller, less flexible, and more efficient engine can be used. The conventional Otto cycle (higher power density, more low-RPM torque, lower fuel efficiency) is often modified to an Atkinson cycle or Miller cycle (lower power density, less low-rpm torque, higher fuel efficiency; sometimes called an Atkinson-Miller cycle). The smaller engine, using a more efficient cycle and often operating in the favorable region of the brake specific fuel consumption map, significantly contributes to the higher overall efficiency of the vehicle.


title: Hybrid vehicle drivetrain

text: Interesting variations of the simple design (pictured at right) found, for example, in the well-known Toyota Prius are the:


title: Hybrid vehicle drivetrain

text: The Toyota Hybrid System THS / Hybrid Synergy Drive has a single power-split device (incorporated as a single three-shaft planetary gearset) and can be classified as an Input-Split, since the power of the engine is split at the input to the transmission. This in turn makes this setup very simple in mechanical terms, but has drawbacks of its own. For example, in Generation 1 and Generation 2 HSDs maximum speed is mainly limited by the speed of the smaller electric motor (often functioning as a generator). The Generation 3 HSD separates the ICE-MG1 path from the MG2 path, each with its own, tailored gear ratio (1.1:1 and 2.5:1, respectively, for late Priuses, including the Prius c). The Generation 4 HSD eliminates the second planetary gear set, and places the electric motors on parallel axes, with a combining gear in between these axes, and transfers the combined result to the final drive differential. This is quite similar to Toyota-affiliated Aisin Seiki's hybrid system, and saves significant space.


title: Hybrid vehicle drivetrain

text: General Motors, BMW, and DaimlerChrysler collaborated on a system named "Two-Mode Hybrid" as part of the Global Hybrid Cooperation. The technology was released in the fall of 2007 on the Chevrolet Tahoe Hybrid. The system was also featured on the GMC Graphite SUV concept vehicle at the 2005 North American International Auto Show in Detroit. BYD Auto's F3DM sedan is a series-parallel plug-in hybrid automobile, which went on sale in China in 2008.


title: Hybrid vehicle drivetrain

text: The Two-Mode Hybrid name highlights the drive-train's ability to operate in all-electric (Mode 1, or "Input-Split") as well as hybrid (Mode 2, or "Compound-Split") modes. The design allows for operation in more than two modes. Two power-split modes are available, along with several fixed-gear (essentially parallel hybrid) regimes. Such a design can be referred to as a multi-regime design. The Two-Mode Hybrid powertrain design can be classified as a compound-split design, since the addition of four clutches within the transmission allows for multiple configurations of engine power-splitting. In addition to the clutches, this transmission has a second planetary gearset. The objective of the design is to vary the percentage of mechanically vs. electrically transmitted power to cope both with low-speed and high-speed operating conditions. This enables smaller motors to do the job of larger motors when compared to single-mode systems, because the derived electrical peak power is proportional to the width of the continuous variation range. The four fixed gears enable the Two-Mode Hybrid to function like a conventional parallel hybrid under high continuous power regions such as sustained high speed cruising or trailer towing. Full electric boost is available in fixed-gear modes.


title: Hybrid vehicle drivetrain

text: Micro hybrid is a general term given to vehicles that use some type of start-stop system to automatically shut off the engine when idling. Strictly speaking, micro hybrids are not real hybrid vehicles, because they do not rely on two different sources of power.


title: Hybrid vehicle drivetrain

text: Mild hybrids are essentially conventional vehicles with some hybrid hardware, but with limited hybrid features. Typically, they are a parallel hybrid with start-stop and modest levels of engine-assist or regenerative braking. Mild hybrids generally cannot provide all-electric propulsion.


title: Hybrid vehicle drivetrain

text: Mild hybrids like the General Motors 2004–2007 Parallel Hybrid Truck (PHT) and the Honda Eco-Assist hybrids are equipped with a three-phase electric motor mounted within the bell-housing between the engine and transmission, allowing the engine to be turned off whenever the truck is coasting, braking, or stopped, yet restart quickly to provide power. Accessories can continue to run on electrical power while the engine is off, and as in other hybrid designs, regenerative braking recaptures energy. The large electric motor spins up the engine to operating-speeds before injecting fuel.


title: Hybrid vehicle drivetrain

text: The 2004–2007 Chevrolet Silverado PHT was a full-size pickup truck. Chevrolet was able to get a 10% efficiency improvement by shutting down and restarting the engine on demand and using regenerative braking. The electrical energy was used only to drive accessories such as power steering. The GM PHT used a 42 volt system via three 12 volt vented lead acid batteries connected in series (36V total) to supply the power needed for the startup motor, as well as to power the electronic accessories.


title: Hybrid vehicle drivetrain

text: General Motors then introduced their BAS Hybrid system, another mild-hybrid implementation officially released on the 2007 Saturn Vue Green Line. Its "start-stop" functionality operates similarly to the Silverado, although via a belted connection to the motor/generator unit. However the GM BAS Hybrid System can also provide modest assist under acceleration and during steady driving, and captures energy during regenerative (blended) braking. BAS Hybrid offered as much as a 27% improvement in combined fuel efficiency in EPA testing of the 2009 Saturn VUE. The system can also be found on the 2008–2009 Saturn Aura Green Line and the 2008–2010 Chevrolet Malibu hybrids.


title: Hybrid vehicle drivetrain

text: Another way to offer start/stop is by employing a static start engine. Such an engine requires no starter motor, but employs sensors to determine the exact position of each piston, then precisely timing the injection and ignition of fuel to "turn over" the engine.


title: Hybrid vehicle drivetrain

text: Mild hybrids are sometimes called "power-assist hybrids" as they use the ICE for primary power, with a torque-boosting electric motor connected to a (largely) conventional power train. The electric motor is mounted between the engine and transmission. It is essentially a large starter motor that operates when the engine needs to be turned over and when the driver "steps on the gas" and requires extra power. The electric motor may also restart the combustion engine and shutting down the main engine at idle, while the enhanced battery system is used to power accessories. GM announced Buick LaCrosse and Buick Regal mild-hybrids dubbed Eassist.


title: Hybrid vehicle drivetrain

text: Before 2015, Honda's hybrids, including the Insight, used this design, leveraging their expertise in small, efficient gasoline engines; their system is dubbed Integrated Motor Assist (IMA). IMA hybrids cannot provide propulsion on electric power alone. However, since the amount of electrical power needed is much smaller, system size is reduced.


title: Hybrid vehicle drivetrain

text: Another variation is the Saturn Vue Green Line BAS Hybrid system that uses a smaller electric motor (mounted to the side of the engine) and battery pack than the Honda IMA, but functions similarly.


title: Hybrid vehicle drivetrain

text: Another variation on this type is Mazda's e-4WD system, offered on the Mazda Demio sold in Japan. This front-wheel drive vehicle has an electric motor that can drive the rear wheels when extra traction is needed. The system is disengaged in all other driving conditions, so it does not directly enhance performance or economy but allows the use of a smaller and more economical engine relative to total performance.


title: Hybrid vehicle drivetrain

text: Ford has dubbed Honda's hybrids "mild" in their advertising for the Escape Hybrid, arguing that the Escape's full hybrid design is more efficient.


title: Hybrid vehicle drivetrain

text: A full hybrid, sometimes also called a strong hybrid, is a vehicle that can run on just the engine, the batteries, or a combination. The Toyota Prius, Toyota Camry Hybrid, Ford Escape Hybrid/Mercury Mariner Hybrid, Ford Fusion Hybrid/Lincoln MKZ Hybrid/Mercury Milan Hybrid, Ford C-Max Hybrid, Ford Maverick Hybrid, Kia Optima Hybrid, as well as the General Motors 2-mode hybrid trucks and SUVs, are examples of this type of hybridization as they can operate on battery power alone. A large, high-capacity battery provides battery-only operation. These vehicles have a split power path that allows more flexibility in the drivetrain by inter-converting mechanical and electrical power. To balance the forces from each portion, the vehicles use a differential-style linkage between the engine and motor connected to the head end of the transmission.


title: Hybrid vehicle drivetrain

text: The Toyota brand name for this technology is Hybrid Synergy Drive, which is used in the Prius, the Highlander Hybrid SUV and the Camry Hybrid. A computer oversees system operation, determining how to mix the power sources. The Prius operations can be divided into six distinct regimes.


title: Hybrid vehicle drivetrain

text: They are full hybrids, able to run on battery power. They offer greater battery capacity and the ability to recharge from the grid. They can be either parallel or series designs. They are also called "gas-optional", or "griddable" hybrids. Their main benefit is that they can be gasoline-independent for significant distances, with the extended range of an ICE for longer trips. Electric Power Research Institute research found a lower total cost of ownership for PHEVs due to reduced service costs and gradually improving battery technology. The "well-to-wheel" efficiency and emissions of PHEVs compared to gasoline hybrids depends on the grid energy sources (the US grid is 30% coal; California's grid is primarily natural gas, hydroelectric power, and wind power).


title: Hybrid vehicle drivetrain

text: Prototypes of PHEVs, with larger battery packs that can be recharged from the power grid, were built in the U.S., notably at Andy Frank's Hybrid Center at University of California, Davis. One production PHEV, the Renault Kangoo, went on sale in France in 2003. DaimlerChrysler built PHEVs based on the Mercedes-Benz Sprinter van. Light Trucks are offered by Micro-Vett SPA the so-called Daily Bimodale.


title: Hybrid vehicle drivetrain

text: The California Cars Initiative converted the 2004 and newer Toyota Prius to become a prototype of what it calls PRIUS+. With the addition of of lead-acid batteries, the PRIUS+ achieved roughly double the gasoline mileage of a standard Prius and could make trips of up to using only electric power.


title: Hybrid vehicle drivetrain

text: Chinese battery manufacturer and automaker BYD Auto released the F3DM compact sedan to the Chinese fleet market on December 15, 2008, later replaced by the BYD Qin plug-in hybrid.


title: Hybrid vehicle drivetrain

text: General Motors began deliveries of the Chevrolet Volt in the United States in December 2010, and its sibling, the Opel Ampera, was released in Europe by early 2012. , other plug-in hybrids available in several markets were the Fisker Karma, Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid and Ford C-Max Energi.


title: Hybrid vehicle drivetrain

text: , the best selling PHEV is the Volt, with more than 33,000 units of the Volt/Ampera family sold worldwide since December 2010, led by US sales of 27,306, followed by the Netherlands with 2,175 Amperas sold through October 2012. The Prius Plug-in Hybrid had sold 21,600 units sold worldwide through October 2012, with US sales of 9,623 units, followed by Japan with 9,500 units.


title: Hybrid vehicle drivetrain

text: There are many ways to create an electric-Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) hybrid. The variety of electric-ICE designs can be differentiated by how the electric and combustion portions of the powertrain connect, at what times each portion is in operation, and what percent of the power is provided by each hybrid component. Two major categories are series hybrids and parallel hybrids, though parallel designs are most common today.


title: Hybrid vehicle drivetrain

text: Most hybrids, no matter the specific type, use regenerative braking to recover energy when slowing down the vehicle. This simply involves driving a motor so it acts as a generator.


title: Hybrid vehicle drivetrain

text: Many designs also shut off the internal combustion engine when it is not needed in order to save energy. That concept is not unique to hybrids; Subaru pioneered this feature in the early 1980s, and the Volkswagen Lupo 3L is one example of a conventional vehicle that shuts off its engine when at a stop. Some provision must be made, however, for accessories such as air conditioning which are normally driven by the engine. Furthermore, the lubrication systems of internal combustion engines are inherently least effective immediately after the engine starts; since it is upon startup that the majority of engine wear occurs, the frequent starting and stopping of such systems reduce the lifespan of the engine considerably. Also, start and stop cycles may reduce the engine's ability to operate at its optimum temperature, thus reducing the engine's efficiency.


title: Hybrid vehicle drivetrain

text: Fuel cell vehicles are often fitted with a battery or supercapacitor to deliver peak acceleration power and to reduce the size and power constraints on the fuel cell (and thus its cost); this is effectively also a series hybrid configuration.


title: Hybrid vehicle drivetrain

text: A hydraulic hybrid vehicle uses hydraulic and mechanical components instead of electrical. A variable displacement pump replaces the electric motor/generator. A hydraulic accumulator stores energy. The vessel typically carries a flexible bladder of pre-charged pressurized nitrogen gas. Pumped hydraulic fluid is compressed against the bladder storing the energy in the compressed nitrogen gas. Some versions have a piston in a cylinder rather than a pressurized bladder. The hydraulic accumulator is potentially cheaper and more durable than batteries. Hydraulic hybrid technology was originally implemented in Germany in the 1930s. Volvo Flygmotor used petro-hydraulic hybrids experimentally in buses from the early 1980s.


title: Hybrid vehicle drivetrain

text: The initial concept involved a giant flywheel (see Gyrobus) for storage connected to a hydrostatic transmission. The system is under development by Eaton and several other companies, primarily in heavy vehicles like buses, trucks and military vehicles. An example is the Ford F-350 Mighty Tonka concept truck shown in 2002. It features an Eaton system that can accelerate the truck to highway speeds.


title: Hybrid vehicle drivetrain

text: The system components were expensive, which precluded installation in smaller trucks and cars. A drawback was that the power motors were not efficient enough at part load. Focus switched to smaller vehicles. A British company made a breakthrough by introducing an electronically controlled hydraulic motor/pump that is efficient at all ranges and loads, making small applications of petro-hydraulic hybrids feasible. The company converted a BMW car to prove viability. The BMW 530i gave double the MPG in city driving compared to the standard car. The test used the standard 3,000 cc engine. Petro-hydraulic hybrids allows downsizing an engine to average power usage, not peak power usage. Peak power is provided by the energy stored in the accumulator.


title: Hybrid vehicle drivetrain

text: The kinetic braking energy recovery rate is higher and therefore the system is more efficient than 2013-era battery charged hybrids, demonstrating a 60% to 70% increase in economy in EPA testing. In EPA tests a hydraulic hybrid Ford Expedition returned in urban driving and on the highway.


title: Hybrid vehicle drivetrain

text: One research company's goal was to create a fresh design to improve the packaging of gasoline-hydraulic hybrid components. All bulky hydraulic components were integrated into the chassis. One design claimed to reach 130mpg in tests by using a large hydraulic accumulator that is also the structural chassis. The hydraulic driving motors are incorporated within the wheel hubs and reversing to recover braking energy. The aim is 170 mpg in average driving conditions. Energy created by shock absorbers and kinetic braking energy, that normally would be wasted, assists in charging the accumulator. An ICE sized for average power use charges the accumulator. The accumulator is sized to run the car for 15 minutes when fully charged.


title: Hybrid vehicle drivetrain

text: In January 2011, Chrysler announced a partnership with the EPA to design and develop an experimental gasoline-hydraulic hybrid powertrain suitable for use in passenger cars. Chrysler adapted an existing production minivan to the powertrain.


title: Hybrid vehicle drivetrain

text: NRG Dynamix of the U.S.A. claimed its approach reduced cost by one-third compared with electric hybrids and added only 300 lbs (136 kg) to vehicle weight vs. 1,000 lbs (454 kg) for electric hybrids. The company claimed a standard pickup vehicle powered by a 2.3-litre, 4-cylinder engine achieved 14 mpg (16.8 L/100 km) in city driving. Using the petro-hydraulic setup fuel economy reached "the mid 20s".


title: Hybrid vehicle drivetrain

text: Compressed air can power a hybrid car with a gasoline compressor to provide the power. Motor Development International in France was developing such air-powered cars. A team led by Tsu-Chin Tsao, a UCLA mechanical and aerospace engineering professor, collaborated with engineers from Ford to get pneumatic hybrid technology up and running. The system is similar to that of a hybrid-electric vehicle in that braking energy is harnessed and stored to assist the engine as needed during acceleration.


title: Hybrid vehicle drivetrain

text: Many land and water vehicles use human power combined with a further power source. Common are parallel hybrids, e.g. a sailboat with oars, motorized bicycles or a human-electric hybrid vehicle such as the Twike. Some series hybrids exist. Such vehicles can be tribrid vehicles, combining three power sources e.g. on-board solar cells, grid-charged batteries and pedals.


title: Hybrid vehicle drivetrain

text: Hybrid vehicles can be used in different modes. The figure shows some typical modes for a parallel hybrid configuration.


title: Hybrid vehicle drivetrain

text: The aftermarket solution is used when the user delivers glider (rolling chassis) and the hybrid (two engines) or all-electric (only an electric motor) powertrain kit to the automaker and receives the vehicle with the tech installed. An (electric or hybrid) powertrain can be added to a glider by an aftermarket installer.


title: Hybrid vehicle drivetrain

text: In 2013 a University of Central Florida design team, "On the Green", worked to develop a bolt-on hybrid conversion kit to transform an older model vehicle into a gas-electric hybrid.


title: Hybrid vehicle drivetrain

text: A conversion of a 1966 Mustang was demonstrated by an engineer in California. The system replaced the alternator with a 12 kW (30 kW peak) brushless electric motor. Gas mileage and power improved.


title: Thomas Szasz

text: Thomas Stephen Szasz ( ; ; 15 April 1920 – 8 September 2012) was a Hungarian-American academic and psychiatrist. He served for most of his career as professor of psychiatry at the State University of New York Upstate Medical University in Syracuse, New York. A distinguished lifetime fellow of the American Psychiatric Association and a life member of the American Psychoanalytic Association, he was best known as a social critic of the moral and scientific foundations of psychiatry, as what he saw as the social control aims of medicine in modern society, as well as scientism. His books "The Myth of Mental Illness" (1961) and "The Manufacture of Madness" (1970) set out some of the arguments most associated with him.


title: Thomas Szasz

text: Szasz argued throughout his career that mental illness is a metaphor for human problems in living, and that mental illnesses are not "illnesses" in the sense that physical illnesses are, and that except for a few identifiable brain diseases, there are "neither biological or chemical tests nor biopsy or necropsy findings for verifying DSM diagnoses."


title: Thomas Szasz

text: Szasz maintained throughout his career that he was not anti-psychiatry but rather that he opposed coercive psychiatry. He was a staunch opponent of civil commitment and involuntary psychiatric treatment, but he believed in and practiced psychiatry and psychotherapy between consenting adults.


title: Thomas Szasz

text: Szasz was born to Jewish parents Gyula and Lily Szász on April 15, 1920, in Budapest, Hungary. In 1938, Szasz moved to the United States, where he attended the University of Cincinnati for his Bachelor of Science in physics, and received his M.D. from the same university in 1944. Szasz completed his residency requirement at the Cincinnati General Hospital, then worked at the Chicago Institute for Psychoanalysis from 1951–56, and then for the next five years was a member of its staff – taking 24 months out for duty with the U.S. Naval Reserve.


title: Thomas Szasz

text: In 1962 Szasz received a tenured position in medicine at the State University of New York. Szasz had first joined SUNY in 1956.


title: Thomas Szasz

text: Szasz had two daughters. His wife, Rosine, died in 1971. Szasz's colleague Jeff Schaler described her death as a suicide.


title: Thomas Szasz

text: Thomas Szasz ended his own life on September 8, 2012. He had previously suffered a fall and would have had to live in chronic pain otherwise. Szasz argued for the right to suicide in his writings.


title: Thomas Szasz

text: Szasz first presented his attack on "mental illness" as a legal term in 1958 in the "Columbia Law Review". In his article he argued that mental illness was no more a fact bearing on a suspect's guilt than is possession by the devil.


title: Thomas Szasz

text: In 1961 Szasz testified before a United States Senate Committee, arguing that using mental hospitals to incarcerate people defined as insane violated the general assumptions of the patient-doctor relationship, and turned the doctor into a warden and keeper of a prison.


title: Thomas Szasz

text: Szasz was convinced there was a metaphorical character to mental disorders, and its uses in psychiatry were frequently injurious. He set himself a task to delegitimize legitimating agencies and authorities, and what he saw as their vast powers, enforced by psychiatrists and other mental health professionals, mental health laws, mental health courts, and mental health sentences.


title: Thomas Szasz

text: Szasz was a critic of the influence of modern medicine on society, which he considered to be the secularization of religion's hold on humankind. Criticizing scientism, he targeted psychiatry in particular, underscoring its campaigns against masturbation at the end of the 19th century, its use of medical imagery and language to describe misbehavior, its reliance on involuntary mental hospitalization to protect society, and the use of lobotomy and other interventions to treat psychosis. To sum up his description of the political influence of medicine in modern societies imbued by faith in science, he declared:


title: Thomas Szasz

text: Since theocracy is the rule of God or its priests, and democracy the rule of the people or of the majority, pharmacracy is therefore the rule of medicine or of doctors.


title: Thomas Szasz

text: Szasz consistently paid attention to the power of language in the establishment and maintenance of the social order, both in small interpersonal and in wider social, economic, and/or political spheres:


title: Thomas Szasz

text: The struggle for definition is veritably the struggle for life itself. In the typical Western two men fight desperately for the possession of a gun that has been thrown to the ground: whoever reaches the weapon first shoots and lives; his adversary is shot and dies. In ordinary life, the struggle is not for guns but for words; whoever first defines the situation is the victor; his adversary, the victim. For example, in the family, husband and wife, mother and child do not get along; who defines whom as troublesome or mentally sick?... [the one] who first seizes the word imposes reality on the other; [the one] who defines thus dominates and lives; and [the one] who is defined is subjugated and may be killed.


title: Thomas Szasz

text: "Mental illness" is an expression, a metaphor that describes an offending, disturbing, shocking, or vexing conduct, action, or pattern of behavior, such as packaged under the wide-ranging term schizophrenia, as an "illness" or "disease". Szasz wrote: "If you talk to God, you are praying; If God talks to you, you have schizophrenia. If the dead talk to you, you are a spiritualist; If you talk to the dead, you are a schizophrenic." He maintained that, while people behave and think in disturbing ways, and those ways may resemble a disease process (pain, deterioration, response to various interventions), this does not mean they actually have a disease. To Szasz, disease can only mean something people "have", while behavior is what people "do". Diseases are "malfunctions of the human body, of the heart, the liver, the kidney, the brain" while "no behavior or misbehavior is a disease or can be a disease. That's not what diseases are." Szasz cited drapetomania as an example of a behavior that many in society did not approve of, being labeled and widely cited as a disease. Likewise, women who did not bend to a man's will were said to have hysteria. He thought that psychiatry actively obscures the difference between behavior and disease in its quest to help or harm parties in conflicts. He maintained that, by calling people diseased, psychiatry attempts to deny them responsibility as moral agents in order to better control them.


title: Thomas Szasz

text: In Szasz's view, people who are said by themselves or others to have a mental illness can only have, at best, "problems in living". Diagnoses of "mental illness" or "mental disorder" (the latter expression called by Szasz a "weasel term" for mental illness) are passed off as "scientific categories" but they remain merely judgments (judgments of disdain) to support certain uses of power by psychiatric authorities. In that line of thinking, schizophrenia becomes not the name of a disease entity but a judgment of extreme psychiatric and social disapprobation. Szasz called schizophrenia "the sacred symbol of psychiatry" because those so labeled have long provided and continue to provide justification for psychiatric theories, treatments, abuses, and reforms.


title: Thomas Szasz

text: The figure of the psychotic or schizophrenic person to psychiatric experts and authorities, according to Szasz, is analogous with the figure of the heretic or blasphemer to theological experts and authorities. According to Szasz, to understand the metaphorical nature of the term "disease" in psychiatry, one must first understand its literal meaning in the rest of medicine. To be a true disease, the entity must first somehow be capable of being approached, measured, or tested in scientific fashion. Second, to be confirmed as a disease, a condition must demonstrate pathology at the cellular or molecular level.


title: Thomas Szasz

text: A genuine disease must also be found on the autopsy table (not merely in the living person) and meet pathological definition instead of being voted into existence by members of the American Psychiatric Association. "Mental illnesses" are really problems in living. They are often "like a" disease, argued Szasz, which makes the medical metaphor understandable, but in no way validates it as an accurate description or explanation. Psychiatry is a pseudoscience that parodies medicine by using medical-sounding words invented especially over the last one hundred years. To be clear, heart break and heart attack, or spring fever and typhoid fever belong to two completely different logical categories, and treating one as the other constitutes a category error. Psychiatrists are the successors of "soul doctors", priests who dealt and deal with the spiritual conundrums, dilemmas, and vexations – the "problems in living" – that have troubled people forever.


title: Thomas Szasz

text: Psychiatry's main methods are assessment, medication, conversation or rhetoric and incarceration. To the extent that psychiatry presents these problems as "medical diseases", its methods as "medical treatments", and its clients – especially involuntary – as medically ill patients, it embodies a lie and therefore constitutes a fundamental threat to freedom and dignity. Psychiatry, supported by the state through various Mental Health Acts, has become a modern secular state religion according to Szasz. It is a vastly elaborate social control system, using both brute force and subtle indoctrination, which disguises itself under the claims of being rational, systematic and therefore scientific.


title: Thomas Szasz

text: According to Szasz, many people fake their presentation of mental illness, i.e., they are malingering. They do so for gain, for example, in order to escape a burden like evading the draft, or to gain access to drugs or financial support, or for some other personally meaningful reason. By definition, the malingerer is knowingly deceitful (although malingering itself has also been called a mental illness or disorder). Szasz mentions malingering in many of his works, but it is not what he has in mind to explain many other manifestations of so-called "mental illness". In those cases, so-called "patients" have something personally significant to communicate – their "problems in living" – but unable to express this via conventional means they resort to illness-imitation behaviour, a somatic protolanguage or "body language", which psychiatrists and psychologists have misguidedly interpreted as the signs/symptoms of real illness. So, for example, "analyzing the origin of the hysterical protolanguage Szasz states that it has a double origin: – the first root is in the somatic structure of human being. The human body is subject to illnesses and disabilities expressed through somatic signs (like paralysis, convulsions, etc.) and somatic sensations (like pain, tiredness, etc.); – the second root can be found into cultural factors."


title: Thomas Szasz

text: Szasz believed that if we accept that "mental illness" is a euphemism for behaviors that are disapproved of, then the state has no right to force psychiatric "treatment" on these individuals. Similarly, the state should not be able to interfere in mental health practices between consenting adults (for example, by legally controlling the supply of psychotropic drugs or psychiatric medication). The medicalization of government produces a "therapeutic state", designating someone as, for example, "insane" or as a "drug addict".


title: Thomas Szasz

text: In "Ceremonial Chemistry" (1973), he argued that the same persecution that targeted witches, Jews, gypsies, and homosexuals now targets "drug addicts" and "insane" people. Szasz argued that all these categories of people were taken as scapegoats of the community in ritual ceremonies. To underscore this continuation of religion through medicine, he even takes as an example obesity: instead of concentrating on junk food (ill-nutrition), physicians denounced hypernutrition. According to Szasz, despite their scientific appearance, the diets imposed were a moral substitute to the former fasts, and the social injunction "not to be overweight" is to be considered as a moral order, not as a scientific advice as it claims to be. As with those thought bad (insane people), and those who took the wrong drugs (drug addicts), medicine created a category for those who had the wrong weight (obesity).


title: Thomas Szasz

text: Szasz argued that psychiatrics were created in the 17th century to study and control those who erred from the medical norms of social behavior; a new specialization, drogophobia, was created in the 20th century to study and control those who erred from the medical norms of drug consumption; and then, in the 1960s, another specialization, bariatrics (from the Greek βάρος "baros," for "weight"), was created to deal with those who erred from the medical norms concerning the weight the body should have. Thus, he underscores that in 1970, the American Society of Bariatric Physicians had 30 members, and already 450 two years later.


title: Thomas Szasz

text: Just as legal systems work on the presumption that a person is innocent until proven guilty, individuals accused of crimes should not be presumed incompetent simply because a doctor or psychiatrist labels them as such. Mental incompetence should be assessed like any other form of incompetence, i.e., by purely legal and judicial means with the right of representation and appeal by the accused.


title: Thomas Szasz

text: In an analogy to birth control, Szasz argued that individuals should be able to choose when to die without interference from medicine or the state, just as they are able to choose when to conceive without outside interference. He considered suicide to be among the most fundamental rights, but he opposed state-sanctioned euthanasia.


title: Thomas Szasz

text: In his 2006 book about Virginia Woolf he stated that she put an end to her life by a conscious and deliberate act, her suicide being an expression of her freedom of choice.


title: Thomas Szasz

text: Szasz believed that testimony about the mental competence of a defendant should not be admissible in trials. Psychiatrists testifying about the mental state of an accused person's mind have about as much business as a priest testifying about the religious state of a person's soul in our courts. Insanity was a legal tactic invented to circumvent the punishments of the Church, which at the time included confiscation of the property of those who committed suicide, often leaving widows and orphans destitute. Only an insane person would do such a thing to his widow and children, it was successfully argued. This is legal mercy masquerading as medicine, according to Szasz.


title: Thomas Szasz

text: No one should be deprived of liberty unless he is found guilty of a criminal offense. Depriving a person of liberty for what is said to be his own good is immoral. Just as a person suffering from terminal cancer may refuse treatment, so should a person be able to refuse psychiatric treatment.


title: Thomas Szasz

text: Drug addiction is not a "disease" to be cured through legal drugs but a social habit. Szasz also argues in favor of a free market for drugs. He criticized the war on drugs, arguing that using drugs is in fact a victimless crime. Prohibition itself constituted the crime. He argued that the war on drugs leads states to do things that would have never been considered half a century before, such as prohibiting a person from ingesting certain substances or interfering in other countries to impede the production of certain plants, e.g. coca eradication plans, or the campaigns against opium; both are traditional plants opposed by the Western world. Although Szasz was skeptical about the merits of psychotropic medications, he favored the repeal of drug prohibition.


title: Thomas Szasz

text: Szasz also drew analogies between the persecution of the drug-using minority and the persecution of Jewish and homosexual minorities.The Nazis spoke of having a "Jewish problem". We now speak of having a drug-abuse problem. Actually, "Jewish problem" was the name the Germans gave to their persecution of the Jews; "drug-abuse problem" is the name we give to the persecution of people who use certain drugs.Szasz cites former U.S. Representative James M. Hanley's reference to drug users as "vermin", using "the same metaphor for condemning persons who use or sell illegal drugs that the Nazis used to justify murdering Jews by poison gas – namely, that the persecuted persons are not human beings, but 'vermin.'"


title: Thomas Szasz

text: The "Therapeutic State" is a phrase coined by Szasz in 1963. The collaboration between psychiatry and government leads to what Szasz calls the "therapeutic state", a system in which disapproved actions, thoughts, and emotions are repressed ("cured") through pseudomedical interventions. Thus suicide, unconventional religious beliefs, racial bigotry, unhappiness, anxiety, shyness, sexual promiscuity, shoplifting, gambling, overeating, smoking, and illegal drug use are all considered symptoms or illnesses that need to be cured. When faced with demands for measures to curtail smoking in public, binge-drinking, gambling or obesity, ministers say that "we must guard against charges of nanny statism." The "nanny state" has turned into the "therapeutic state" where nanny has given way to counselor. Nanny just told people what to do; counselors also tell them what to think and what to feel. The "nanny state" was punitive, austere, and authoritarian, the therapeutic state is touchy-feely, supportive – and even more authoritarian.


title: Thomas Szasz

text: According to Szasz, "the therapeutic state swallows up everything human on the seemingly rational ground that nothing falls outside the province of health and medicine, just as the theological state had swallowed up everything human on the perfectly rational ground that nothing falls outside the province of God and religion." Faced with the problem of "madness", Western individualism proved to be ill-prepared to defend the rights of the individual: modern man has no more right to be a madman than medieval man had a right to be a heretic because if once people agree that they have identified the one true God, or Good, it brings about that they have to guard members and nonmembers of the group from the temptation to worship false gods or goods. A secularization of God and the medicalization of good resulted in the post-Enlightenment version of this view: once people agree that they have identified the one true reason, it brings about that they have to guard against the temptation to worship unreason – that is, madness.


title: Thomas Szasz

text: Civil libertarians warn that the marriage of the state with psychiatry could have catastrophic consequences for civilization. In the same vein as the separation of church and state, Szasz believes that a solid wall must exist between psychiatry and the state.


title: Thomas Szasz

text: Believing that psychiatric hospitals are like prisons not hospitals and that psychiatrists who subject others to coercion function as judges and jailers not physicians, Szasz made efforts to abolish involuntary psychiatric hospitalization for over two decades, and in 1970 took a part in founding the American Association for the Abolition of Involuntary Mental Hospitalization (AAAIMH). Its founding was announced by Szasz in 1971 in the "American Journal of Psychiatry" and "American Journal of Public Health". The association provided legal help to psychiatric patients and published a journal, "The Abolitionist".


title: Thomas Szasz

text: In 1969, Szasz and the Church of Scientology co-founded the Citizens Commission on Human Rights (CCHR) to oppose involuntary psychiatric treatments. Szasz served on CCHR's Board of Advisors as Founding Commissioner. In the keynote address at the 25th anniversary of CCHR, Szasz stated, "We should all honor CCHR because it is really the organization that for the first time in human history has organized a politically, socially, internationally significant voice to combat psychiatry. This has never been done in human history before."


title: Thomas Szasz

text: In a 2009 interview aired by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation, Szasz explained his reason for collaborating with CCHR and lack of involvement with Scientology:


title: Thomas Szasz

text: Well I got affiliated with an organisation long after I was established as a critic of psychiatry, called Citizens Commission for Human Rights, because they were then the only organisation and they still are the only organisation who had money and had some access to lawyers and were active in trying to free mental patients who were incarcerated in mental hospitals with whom there was nothing wrong, who had committed no crimes, who wanted to get out of the hospital. And that to me was a very worthwhile cause; it's still a very worthwhile cause. I no more believe in their religion or their beliefs than I believe in the beliefs of any other religion. I am an atheist, I don't believe in Christianity, in Judaism, in Islam, in Buddhism and I don't believe in Scientology. I have nothing to do with Scientology.


title: Thomas Szasz

text: In the summer of 2001, Szasz took part in a Russell Tribunal on Human rights in Psychiatry held in Berlin between June 30 and July 2, 2001. The tribunal brought in the two following verdicts: the majority verdict claimed that there was "serious abuse of human rights in psychiatry" and that psychiatry was "guilty of the combination of force and unaccountability"; the minority verdict, signed by the Israeli Law Professor Alon Harel and Brazilian novelist Paulo Coelho, called for "public critical examination of the role of psychiatry".


title: Thomas Szasz

text: Szasz was a strong critic of institutional psychiatry and his publications were very widely read. He argued that so-called mental illnesses had no underlying physiological basis, but were unwanted and unpleasant behaviors. Mental illness, he said, was only a metaphor that described problems that people faced in their daily lives, labeled as if they were medical diseases. Szasz's ideas had little influence on mainstream psychiatry, but were supported by some behavioral and social scientists. Sociologist Erving Goffman, who wrote "Asylums: Essays on the Condition of the Social Situation of Mental Patients and Other Inmates", was skeptical about psychiatric practices. He was concerned that the stigma and social rejection associated with psychiatric treatment might harm people. Thomas Scheff, also a sociologist, had similar reservations.


title: Thomas Szasz

text: Robert Evan Kendell presents (in Schaler, 2005) a critique of Szasz's conception of disease and the contention that mental illness is "mythical" as presented in "The Myth of Mental Illness". Kendell's arguments include the following:


title: Thomas Szasz

text: Shorter replied to Szasz's essay "The myth of mental illness: 50 years later", which was published in the journal "The Psychiatrist" (and delivered as a plenary address at the International Congress of the Royal College of Psychiatrists in Edinburgh on 24 June 2010) – in recognition of the 50th anniversary of "The Myth of Mental Illness" – with the following principal criticisms:


title: Thomas Szasz

text: The Center for Independent Thought established the Thomas S. Szasz Award for Outstanding Contributions to the Cause of Civil Liberties.


title: Choi Young-jae

text: Choi Young-jae (; born 17 September 1996), professionally known by the mononym Youngjae, is a South Korean singer-songwriter and actor. He is the main vocalist of the Korean boy group Got7.


title: Choi Young-jae

text: Choi started dreaming of becoming a singer in his childhood, when he sang with his older brother. When the latter enlisted in the military, he joined a practical music academy in his hometown, Mokpo, to learn more professionally, working part-time to earn the necessary money. In 2011, he won the Vocal Excellence Award at Mokpo Youth Music Festival. In 2013, JYP Entertainment held a closed audition in the academy and he became a trainee.


title: Choi Young-jae

text: After one month of training in Seoul, Choi was added to the project group to form JYPE new boy band. After a total of 7 months of training, he subsequently debuted as the main vocalist of the seven member boy group, Got7, with the single "Girls Girls Girls", released on 16 January 2014, from the group's first EP "Got It?". In early times after the debut, Choi mentioned his dream was to become a music therapist.


title: Choi Young-jae

text: He has been writing songs and lyrics under the name Ars since 2016, starting with "Rewind" in Got7's extended play "".


title: Choi Young-jae

text: Choi had a collaboration with Sanjoy and Elliott Yamin in 2017 on the song "Victim of Love", while he recorded "I'm All Ears" with Park Ji-min for the Life Insurance Social Philanthropy Foundation's youth suicide prevention campaign in 2018. The song was released on 15 October alongside its music video.


title: Choi Young-jae

text: In the spring of 2019, he joined Jus2 in their 'Focus' Premiere Showcase in Asia, acting as the MC for Tokyo (10–11 April) and Osaka (17–18 April) stops.


title: Choi Young-jae

text: In 2018 and 2020, he sang "At the Usual Time" (그 시간에) and "Fall In Love" (빠져드나봐) for the original soundtracks of TV dramas "Wok of Love" and "When My Love Blooms". Together with Day6's Young K, he became the new DJ of MBC Radio "Idol Radio" starting from 18 May 2020. The first season of the show ended on 25 September.


title: Choi Young-jae

text: On 25 May 2020, in collaboration with Howlpot, a pet product design brand, he launched Ars X Coco, a clothing store for people and dogs, which ran for two weeks until 8 June . The proceeds, amounting to 15 million won, were donated to Korea Animal Rights Advocates's The Bom Center, a non-profit care center for abandoned dog. Choi featured in the September issue of "Star1 Magazine" for his first solo interview and photoshoot the same year, and competed in the Idol Star Dog Championships, a dog agility competition, which aired as a Chuseok special on MBC on 2 October.


title: Choi Young-jae

text: On 25 September 2020, he was cast in Netflix's new sitcom "So Not Worth It", which tells the stories of a group of multicultural students living in a college dorm. The series became available on 18 June 2021, and he sang the homonymous OST for it. With his portrayal of Sam, the son of the CEO of a food chain based in Australia, he drew attention, and was praised for his acting, communication skills, vocalization and pronunciation, which, along with Choi's facial expressions, realistically expressed the character's emotions.


title: Choi Young-jae

text: Following the expiration of his contract with JYP Entertainment, he signed an exclusive contract with Sublime Artist Agency on 20 January 2021.


title: Choi Young-jae

text: On 9 March 2021, it was announced that Choi had joined the cast of "Midnight Sun", a musical adaptation of Japanese movie "A Song to the Sun", in the leading role of Ha-ram. "Midnight Sun" was performed from 1 May until 25 July at the Kwanglim Arts Center. He starred in 22 out of 95 shows. Two of the songs, "Meet Me When the Sun Goes Down" and "Good-bye Days", were also released as singles by each main actor: Choi's version of "Meet Me When the Sun Goes Down" was released on 9 April as part 1 of the musical's soundtrack, while his collaboration with Lovelyz' Kei on "Good-bye Days", on 7 June.


title: Choi Young-jae

text: On 1 April, it was confirmed that Choi was selected as campaign artist for Levi's Red alongside Lim Na-young. On 20 April, he took part in Levi's 501® Day Music Concert, where he performed self-written song "Lonely", Sole's "Ride" and Christopher's "Bad".


title: Choi Young-jae

text: On 5 October, he made his solo debut with his first extended play, "Colors from Ars", and its title track "Vibin". Six days later, he released a fall-winter clothes collection in collaboration with Korean casual brand Plac. He then performed at K-pop cheering concert, We All Are One 2021 to overcome COVID-19 on 31 October.


title: Choi Young-jae

text: In November, he was confirmed to play his first lead role in the upcoming Cine de Rama rom-com web series "Love & Wish", which is based on the webtoon of the same name; he will play Kim Seung-hyu, while Choi Ye-bin will star as the female lead. Between December 24 and 25, "Love & Wish" was released through domestic and overseas OTT platforms along with the original soundtrack, for which Choi sang "Day by Day".


title: Choi Young-jae

text: On 21 June 2022, he released his second extended play, "Sugar", which debuted at #5 on the Circle Chart. Between 23 July and 7 August, Choi held the "Sugar" mini concert tour in Manila, Singapore and Bangkok. On 6 August 2022, he was awarded the Best Asia Artist and Actor Award at Ganesha Awards, as well as being appointed Ambassador of Cultural Friendship and Tourism Promotion to ASEAN.


title: Choi Young-jae

text: In October 2022, as part of a collaborative project with "Esquire Korea" and casual fashion brand Covernat, Choi and Yerin released the digital single "Colors".


title: Choi Young-jae

text: Choi studied shipbuilding machinery at Mokpo Technical High School, then, in 2012, he moved to Seoul's Korean Arts High School, from which he graduated in February 2015. He got accepted into Seokyeong University's Department of Theater and Film, then he moved to and graduated from International Cyber University. He's currently enrolled at Hanyang Cyber Graduate School.


title: Choi Young-jae

text: In August 2020, he registered as an organ donor. In May 2021, he participated in the "I Rose You" campaign planned by the Love Organ Donation Movement Headquarters to promote organ donation, and to express gratitude, respect and condolences to organ donors and their families.


title: Choi Young-jae

text: All song credits are adapted from the Korea Music Copyright Association's database, unless otherwise noted.


title: Akhmed Zakayev

text: Akhmed Halidovich Zakayev (; ; born 26 April 1959) is a former Deputy Prime Minister and Prime Minister of the unrecognised Chechen Republic of Ichkeria (ChRI). He was also the Foreign Minister of the Ichkerian government, appointed by Aslan Maskhadov shortly after his 1997 election, and again in 2006 by Abdul Halim Sadulayev. During the First Chechen War, Zakayev took part in the battles for Grozny and other military operations, as well as in high-level negotiations with the Russian side.


title: Akhmed Zakayev

text: In 2002, Russia accused him, by then in exile, of having been involved in a series of crimes including involvement in acts of terrorism. In 2003, judge Timothy Workman of Bow Street Magistrates' Court in central London rejected the extradition request due to lack of evidence and declared the accusations to be politically motivated, also saying that there was substantial risk of Zakayev being tortured if he was returned to Moscow.


title: Akhmed Zakayev

text: Akhmed Zakayev was born in the settlement of Kirovskiy, Kirovskiy Raion (today called Balpyk Bi, Koksu District), in the Kazakh SSR, Soviet Union, which is now in Almaty Region, in Kazakhstan; his family was deported by Stalin's regime along with the rest of the Chechens in 1944. Akhmed is from the teip Chinkhoy. He graduated from acting and choreography schools in Voronezh and Moscow and worked as an actor at a theatre in the Chechen capital Grozny, specializing in Shakespearean roles. From 1991, he was the chairman of the Chechen Union of the Theatrical Actors. In 1994, Zakayev became a Minister of Culture in the Chechen separatist government of Dzhokhar Dudayev.


title: Akhmed Zakayev

text: After Russian forces entered Chechnya, starting the First Chechen War, Zakayev left his job and took up arms. Serving at first as a minor commander in the unit of Ruslan Gelayev, he took part in the 1995 battle of Grozny and then led the defence of the village of Goyskoye. After this the armed group under his command operated in the south-west part of Chechnya with its headquarters in the town of Urus-Martan. He was eventually promoted to the rank of brigadier general and appointed commander of the Urus-Martan Front. In February 1996, Zakayev became commander of the entire Western Group of Defense of Ichkeria. In August 1996, his forces took part in the decisive raid on Grozny, where he personally led the attack on the city's central railway station. Zakayev's war service paved his way to Chechen high politics. He became the acting president Zelimkhan Yandarbiyev's advisor for the security matters and the secretary of the Chechen Security Council and represented Chechnya at the peace talks in Khasav-Yurt, which brought a peaceful end to the first armed conflict between Moscow and Grozny.


title: Akhmed Zakayev

text: After the war, Zakayev became Chechen Deputy Prime Minister (in charge of education and culture) and a special envoy of elected President of Ichkeria Aslan Maskhadov for relations with Moscow, taking part in the delegation that signed the official Chechen-Russian peace treaty at the Kremlin in 1997. During the interwar period, he opposed the rise of radical Islam in Chechnya and co-authored a book entitled "Wahhabism – the Kremlin's remedy against national liberation movements", alleging an association between Islamist extremism and Soviet global "pro-terrorist" policy and support for dictatorships in the Muslim world. During the early phases of the Second Chechen War in 1999–2000, Zakayev commanded Maskhadov's presidential guard; he was also involved in negotiations with Russian representatives before and during the resumed hostilities. In 2000, having been wounded in a car accident during the new siege of Grozny, he left Chechnya for treatment. After this he stayed abroad and became President Maskhadov's most prominent representative in Western Europe, while Ilyas Akhmadov was the Chechen emissary to the United States.


title: Akhmed Zakayev

text: Since January 2002, Zakayev and his immediate family have been residing permanently in the United Kingdom. On 18 November 2001, Zakayev, officially internationally wanted by Russia, flew from Turkey to the Sheremetyevo International Airport near Moscow to meet the Kremlin's envoy, General Viktor Kazantsev for the high-level talks since the start of the war. These negotiations were fruitless because Kazantsev demanded a complete capitulation of the Chechen side, with the only acceptable topic for the Russian side being the disarmament of Chechen separatists and their re-integration into civilian life. On 18 July 2002, Zakayev also met with the former secretary of Security Council of Russia Ivan Rybkin in Zürich, Switzerland.


title: Akhmed Zakayev

text: In October 2002, Zakayev organized the World Chechen Congress in Copenhagen, Denmark (which was attended among others by the former first speaker of the State Duma, Ruslan Khasbulatov). During the congress, Zakayev was accused by Russia of involvement in planning of the Moscow theater hostage crisis. He was detained there on 30 October 2002, under an Interpol warrant filed by Russia, which named him a suspect in the theater siege. Zakayev denied involvement in the theater capture. He was held in Denmark for five weeks and then released due to lack of evidence, as Russia's formal extradition request did not include any evidence linking him to the siege.


title: Akhmed Zakayev

text: On 7 December 2002, Zakayev returned to the UK but the British authorities arrested him briefly at London Heathrow Airport; he was released on 50,000 GBP bail, which was paid by British actress Vanessa Redgrave, his friend who had travelled with him from Denmark. He was accused by Russian authorities of 13 criminal acts Zakayev welcomed the British deportation hearings as an opportunity to put his case before an international public. All accusations were proven to be false. One accusation, cutting fingers of a suspected FSB informer Ivan Solovyov, was based on a written testimony by Zakayev's former bodyguard, Duk-Vakha Dushuyev, provided by Russian authorities; however, it appeared that Solovyev had lost his fingers much earlier to frostbite. Dushuyev himself has escaped from Russia and then in his statement claimed that he was tortured at a Russian army base with electric shocks to extort the false testimony to be used against Zakayev. In another accusation, Father Sergei, one of two Russian Orthodox Church priests allegedly murdered by Zakayev, turned out to be in fact still alive. The witness Reverend Filipp, allegedly kidnapped by Zakayev in 1996, also refuted his supposed testimony and even denounced Russian authorities for "implicating the Church in politics". Leading Russian human rights activist Sergei Kovalev told the court Zakayev would be at risk of death in Russian captivity (Kovalev spoke about two high-profile Chechen prisoners, field commanders Salman Raduyev and Turpal-Ali Atgeriyev, who died soon after being jailed in Russia, and of another, parliamentary speaker Ruslan Alikhadzhiyev, who has "disappeared" without trace after his arrest in 2000). According to Alexander Goldfarb, one of the defence's most important arguments was the 2001 meeting between Zakayev and General Kazantsev, since this meeting took place when the Chechen envoy had already been put by Russia on the international wanted list. At the time of the meeting Kremlin's spokesman on Chechnya Sergei Yastrzhembsky said on television that Russian government had no grievances against Zakayev. Therefore, on 13 November 2003, Judge Timothy Workman rejected the Russian request, deciding that it was politically motivated and that Zakayev would be at risk of torture in the case of "unjust and oppressive" extradition. The judge also said the crimes which involved Zakayev allegedly using armed force against combatants were not extraditable because they took place in the situation of internal armed conflict. Russian authorities in turn responded by accusing the court of double standards. On 29 November 2003, it was announced that Zakayev had been granted political asylum in the UK.


title: Akhmed Zakayev

text: After receiving political asylum in Britain in 2003, Zakayev made London his permanent residence, and he visited several countries (including France, Germany and Poland) without being arrested. During the September 2004 Beslan school hostage crisis, Zakayev consented to the request of the civilian negotiators and authorities of North Ossetia–Alania to fly to Russia to negotiate with the hostage takers. However, the siege ended in bloody confusion just a few hours before this could happen. As an envoy of Maskhadov, he also met in London with the representatives of the Union of the Committees of Soldiers' Mothers of Russia in February 2005, where they agreed on a peace proposal centred around a gradual cessation of violence by rebels corresponding with the three-week ceasefire unilaterally declared by Maskhadov (who once again called for President of Russia Vladimir Putin to negotiate). These efforts were ignored by the Russian government and Maskhadov himself was soon killed in Chechnya.


title: Akhmed Zakayev

text: On 31 October 2007, Zakayev officially distanced himself from the newly resigned Chechen separatist leader Doku Umarov and the Chechen Islamist ideologist Movladi Udugov, who together had declared the creation of Caucasus Emirate in the place of abolished ChRI. In response, Zakayev called for the remnants of the separatist parliament to form the new government and salvage legitimacy. Soon after, on 20 November 2007, Zakayev submitted his resignation from the post of foreign minister, but said this should not be viewed as a departure from "the fight for our independence, our freedom, and for the recognition of our state". He subsequently assumed the position of prime minister of the exile government. In September 2008, Ramzan Kadyrov said he was now trying to persuade Chechens refugees and exiles to return, including Akhmed Zakayev, whom Kadyrov described as "a valuable artist who would be welcome to return to help revive Chechnya's cultural heritage." Zakayev and Alla Dudayeva, the widow of the first Chechen President Dzhokhar Dudayev, accused Udugov of being a paid agent provocateur for the Russia's FSB.


title: Akhmed Zakayev

text: In London, Zakayev became friends with the Russian dissident and former FSB officer Alexander Litvinenko, later murdered by radioactive poisoning in November 2006; Zakayev accused the Russian President Putin of ordering the death of Litvinenko. In 2007, British police warned Zakayev that there was an increased threat to his personal security shortly before the alleged attempt to kill Berezovsky by the FSB-connected Chechen gangster Movladi Atlangeriyev (or "Mr A"). According to the KGB defector Oleg Gordievsky in 2008, Zakayev was placed #2 on the FSB assassination list, between Berezovsky and Litvinenko. In January 2008, Zakayev's name showed up on the purported hit list of Ramzan Kadyrov's enemies abroad to be killed, which was published on the Internet following the murder of the Chechen dissident Umar Israilov (a former bodyguard of Kadyrov who was shot dead after receiving asylum in Austria). Zakayev was arrested by the Polish police during his visit to Poland on 17 September 2010. He was released the same day.


title: Akhmed Zakayev

text: In 2022, Russia launched a full invasion of Ukraine. At this point, several anti-Kadyrov Chechen militant groups like the Dzhokhar Dudayev Battalion and the Sheikh Mansur Battalion were already fighting for Ukraine. In May 2022, Zakayev travelled to Kyiv and met with Ukrainian officials for "confidential" talks. Later, the creation of the "Separate Special Purpose Battalion of the Chechen Republic's Armed Forces" was announced by Zakayev; this unit officially styled itself as continuation of Armed Forces of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria. A fourth separatist unit, called "Khamzat Gelayev Joint Task Detachment" was also founded. As the Russo-Ukrainian War continued to escalate, the pro-Ukrainian Chechen separatists increasingly framed the war as a chance to restore the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria. On 18 October 2022, Ukraine's parliament recognized the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria as "temporarily occupied" state. Zakayev had lobbied in support of this resolution.


title: Akhmed Zakayev

text: On 11 February 2009, Ramzan Kadyrov said he personally invited Zakayev to return to Chechnya if he does not want to be "used by special services and other forces against Russia". At the same time, Russia's ambassador in London, said Britain had turned into a "sanctuary" for Russia's fugitives, including Zakayev, still-wanted on terrorism charges. In an interview for Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, Zakayev claimed to rebuff the Chechen president's reported offer and said that Kadyrov was only following the Kremlin's orders; he also reinstates this stance two days later in the interview for the BBC Russian Service. Kadyrov has said that "He [Zakayev] is the only man on the part of Ichkeria who I would like to bring back home. I do not know what the competent bodies think, but I believe he did not commit serious crimes."


title: Akhmed Zakayev

text: Nevertheless, on 17 February, the Russian state agency RIA Novosti agency wrote that Zakayev allegedly announced his intentions to return to Chechnya and "work for a lasting peace" in the republic. According to the Caucasus Emirate's mouthpiece Kavkaz Center, Zakayev, who may be granted amnesty, stated his readiness to return and "contribute to a long-term peace in the region" in an interview for Ekho Moskvy on the same day. Kavkaz Center – which supported Umarov – has called Zakayev "the head of a telephone government", referring to the fact that Zakayev has little influence on the insurgents on the ground.


title: Akhmed Zakayev

text: On 23 August 2009, in a controversial move, he was reportedly dismissed as prime minister by the Chairman of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria parliament in exile, as he "transgressed his mandate and recognized the legitimacy of the Kremlin’s puppet regime", and shortly afterwards, he was sentenced to death by Sharia Court of the Caucasus Emirate, because he "professes democratic religion, propagates secularism, and prefers the laws established by men to the Shari'a law of Almighty and Great Allah."


title: Iver Johnson

text: Iver Johnson was an American firearms, bicycle, and motorcycle manufacturer from 1871 to 1993. The company shared the same name as its founder, Norwegian-born Iver Johnson (1841–1895).


title: Iver Johnson

text: The name was resold, and Iver Johnson Arms opened in 2006, but since it does not manufacture parts or provide information relating to the pre-1993 company, it represents a continuation of it in name only.


title: Iver Johnson

text: Iver Johnson was born in 1841 in Nordfjord, Sogn og Fjordane county, Norway. He was educated as a gunsmith in Bergen in 1857, and had a gun store in Oslo. Johnson emigrated from Norway to Worcester, Massachusetts, United States in 1863, and continued his work as a gunsmith by trade and an inventor in his spare time. Seeking new and creative uses for his partially idle manufacturing equipment after the American Civil War, he worked not only gunsmithing locally in Fitchburg, but also providing designs and work to other firearms companies; notably making pepper-box pistols for Allen & Wheelock.


title: Iver Johnson

text: On April 9, 1868, Johnson married Mary Elizabeth (, born January 1847) in Worcester; and the couple had three sons, Frederick Iver, John Lovell and Walter Olof, and two daughters, Mary Louise and Nellie.


title: Iver Johnson

text: In 1871, Johnson merged his and Martin Bye's gunsmithing operations to form the Johnson Bye & Company. Beginning in 1876, Johnson and Bye filed jointly for, and received, multiple new firearms features and firearms feature improvement patents. Their primary revenues came from the sale of their self designed and manufactured inexpensive models of revolvers.


title: Iver Johnson

text: The company's name changed to Iver Johnson & Company in 1883, upon Johnson's purchase of Bye's interest, but Bye continued working in the firearm industry for the remainder of his life.


title: Iver Johnson

text: The company's name changed again to Iver Johnson's Arms & Cycle Works in 1891, when the company relocated to Fitchburg, Massachusetts, (sometimes incorrectly referred to as "Fitzburg") in order to have better and larger manufacturing facilities. The company attracted a number of talented immigrant machinists and designers to its ranks, including O.F. Mossberg and Andrew Fyrberg, who would go on to invent the company's top-latching strap mechanism and the "Hammer-the-Hammer" transfer bar safety system used on the company's popular line of top-break safety revolvers.


title: Iver Johnson

text: Iver Johnson died of tuberculosis in 1895, and his sons took over the business. Frederick Iver, (born 10/2/1871), John Lovell (born 6/26/1876), and Walter Olof (born August 1878), each had vastly different levels of involvement in the company ranging from executive leadership to barely any involvement at all. They shepherded the company through a phase of expansion, as bicycle operations grew, then converted to motorcycle manufacturing and sales. They also saw the growth of the firearms business and the eventual restructuring of the company to focus on firearms and related business as they divested non-firearms concerns, such as the motorcycle business, in the face of growing firearms demand, World War I's armaments industry expansion, and other factors. As family ownership waned and outside investment via publicly traded stock and mergers/acquisitions/partnerships took hold, the company changed ownership and moved several times during its operation.


title: Iver Johnson

text: The company eventually dropped "Cycle Works" from its name when that part of the business was shut down. The business successfully weathered the Great Depression (in part thanks to higher rates of armed robbery, which helped maintain demand for personal firearms) and was buoyed by the dramatic increase in the market for arms leading up to and during World War II.


title: Iver Johnson

text: After World War II, the company's introduction of new firearms slowed to a trickle. Increasingly, company fortunes depended upon sales of its increasingly outmoded revolvers and single-barrel shotguns. Without new research and development, most firearms changes were limited to cosmetic updates of existing designs.


title: Iver Johnson

text: As a result of changes in ownership, the company had the first of two major relocations in 1971 when it moved to New Jersey. It moved again to Jacksonville, Arkansas, and was jointly owned by Lynn Lloyd and Lou Imperato, who also owned the Henry brand name, before it finally ceased trading under its own name in 1993, at which time it was owned by American Military Arms Corporation (AMAC).


title: Iver Johnson

text: Iver Johnson nomenclature refers to its top-break revolvers as Safety Automatics. The term "Safety Automatic" refers to Iver Johnson's "Hammer-the-Hammer" transfer bar safety system ("safety") and the automatic ejection of cartridges upon breaking open the revolvers ("automatic").


title: Iver Johnson

text: This model was made from 1890-1894 by Iver Johnson and distributed by John P. Lovell Arms Company of Boston, Massachusetts. It was a double action 5-shot revolver in caliber .38 S&W. It had a nickel finish and was the first Iver Johnson to use the owl's head logo on the grips. In appearance, the Swift model resembles the Safety Automatic Revolver that was introduced in 1894. Some differences include the latch for unlocking the frame pulls down rather than up, the ejector is different, and the Swift model does not have the "hammer the hammer action" of later models. The gun fired a .38 S&W black powder cartridge, and is not safe to shoot with modern smokeless powder cartridges. The hammerless model differed from the hammer model in that it did not have an external hammer protruding from the gun, and it had the addition of a manual safety on the trigger. This feature required the user to place a finger squarely on the trigger to fire the gun. It has the word "Swift" engraved on the top of the gun, and the serial number is stamped under the left grip panel.


title: Iver Johnson

text: On September 6, 1901, American steelworker and anarchist Leon Czolgosz shot President William McKinley at the Temple of Music in Buffalo, New York, with an Iver Johnson .32 caliber Safety Automatic revolver (serial number A18915). McKinley died nearly eight days later, at 2:15 am on the 14th of September. The revolver is currently on display at the Buffalo History Museum in Buffalo.


title: Iver Johnson

text: In 1933, Giuseppe Zangara shot and killed Chicago mayor Anton Cermak at a political event in Miami, in an apparent attempt to assassinate president-elect Franklin D. Roosevelt. Zangara was using a .32 revolver by the United States Revolver Company, a subsidiary of Iver Johnson.


title: Iver Johnson

text: Jordanian Sirhan Sirhan assassinated Presidential candidate United States Senator Robert F. Kennedy with an eight-shot Iver Johnson Cadet 55-A revolver chambered in .22 Long Rifle, (serial number H-53725, Trial-People's Exhibit #6, misidentified in trial testimony as S/N H-18602) at the Ambassador Hotel in Los Angeles, California, on June 5, 1968; Kennedy died the following day at Good Samaritan Hospital. The revolver, as well as the official police files, reports, interviews, ballistics reports, bullet fragments, and other important evidence related to Kennedy's assassination, is currently housed in the California State Archives in Sacramento.


title: Iver Johnson

text: Iver Johnson bicycles are classic examples of early American bicycles, and during the bicycle boom of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the company had a very productive bicycle manufacturing and sales line of business. Today, Iver Johnsons are considered to be "classics" by vintage bicycle collectors, and are considered to be especially pleasing from an aesthetic point of view. O.F. Mossberg worked in the bicycle plant and then started his own firearms factory.


title: Iver Johnson

text: Even when they were new, I-J's were marketed and had a reputation for being very graceful looking, well built, and engineered for performance. Iver Johnson sponsored the career of bicycle racing champion Major Taylor beginning in 1900. The most noted I-J model was the truss-bridge frame which featured a curved tube under the top tube to strengthen the frame for use on the rough roads of the early twentieth century. Bicycle production ceased in 1940 with the buildup of arms production prior to World War II.


title: Iver Johnson

text: Today, Iver Johnson bicycles are highly collectible, well sought after, and relatively rare compared to most other major manufacturer's products from that time. An Iver Johnson bicycle is on display at the Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of American History in the "America on the Move" exhibit.


title: Iver Johnson

text: Launched in Fitchburg, Massachusetts, in 1907, The Iver Johnson Company motorcycle division was born from the conversion of a line of business that had been manufacturing bicycles for some 23 years prior to that point. Ultimately, the arms division of the business was growing so rapidly to meet demand that management decided to focus on that market and as a result motorcycle operations closed in 1916 (varying sources claim the last year as being 1915, with 1916 seeing only the sales of remaining 1915 produced inventory), bringing to an end 33 years of total cycle operations (23 for bicycles, and another 10 for motorcycle and run-off bicycle business).


title: Iver Johnson

text: According to Roland Brown's "History of the Motorcycle", Iver Johnson advertised their machines as "Mechanical Perfection", a boast that was not entirely unbelievable given the number of advanced design features in especially their later models, such as dual crankshafts, nickel-alloy machined parts, chain drive, and a hand-operated three-speed gearbox. Among collectors and researchers who have the benefit of hindsight, Iver-Johnsons, such as the 1915 Model 15-7, along with Scotts, are the finest examples of motorcycle engineering of that era.


title: Iver Johnson

text: In 2006, the name was reused as Iver Johnson Arms Incorporated in Florida as a manufacturer and importer of firearms (from other manufacturers based in Philippines, Turkey and Belgium), including 1911-style semi-automatic pistols unrelated to the old Iver Johnson lines. The new firm was renamed from Squires Bingham International, originally founded in 1973.


title: Helm of Awe

text: The Helm of Awe or Helm of Terror (Icelandic: "Ægishjálmur", Old Norse "Œgishjalmr") is an object in Norse mythology and subsequently the name of an Icelandic magical stave. The symbol used for the reference in the sagas came from the Huld manuscript written and collected in 1847, and has no previous attestations. It was used as a part of a Christian magic ritual that have had some movements rooted in Icelandic culture, but was very common ritualistic practice across Christendom.


title: Helm of Awe

text: While the Helm may not have been an actual helm is up for debate. In the poem's, it never references a symbol as some writers would years later. The very popular symbol as shown on the side has no reference to "Viking Culture" and isn't related to the "Helm of Terror" (Despite having near the same name).


title: Helm of Awe

text: The meaning of the word used to define the helm seemed to change as years went on, going from a physical object to voracious trait of striking fear into one with a glance.


title: Helm of Awe

text: In one of the Icelandic author's writings the aegir referenced to giants who wore helmets that shot beams of light and pierced their foes.


title: Helm of Awe

text: A physical object called the "Helm of Terror" is referenced as one item Sigurd takes from the dragon Fafnir's hoard after he slays him in Völsunga saga. Stanza 16 of Fáfnismál in the Poetic Edda also mentions:


title: Helm of Awe

text: In the next couple stanza's of the poem, Sigurd and Fafnir banter back and forth about the helmet stating that even the bravest of men who see the helm cower in fear.


title: Helm of Awe

text: Stanza 19 eludes to the owner of the helm being a hated individual. Possibly indicating that the item has not only the power to instill fear, but resentment.


title: Helm of Awe

text: There is also very strong evidence that the story written by Tolkien, The Hobbit, was based off the story of Sigurid and his fight against the evil Fafnismol (depicted by Smaug).


title: Mercedes-Benz SL-Class (R230)

text: The R230 generation of the Mercedes-Benz SL-Class was introduced at the 2001 Frankfurt Motor Show and 2001 Bologna Motor Show, replacing the R129. The R230 underwent revisions in 2006 and 2008, and was superseded by the new SL-Class R231 in 2011.


title: Mercedes-Benz SL-Class (R230)

text: In early 1996, over six years into the life of the R129, development work on a successor began. On 27 January 1996, design work commenced and draft designs were submitted from ten designers in Germany, California, and Japan. Hundreds of sketches were submitted and would form the basis for twelve quarter scale models which were digitized for computer manipulation. Design of the R230 would progress through two different formats. The real world process centered on the traditional 1:4 scale models, with most of them initially being done clay. Virtual world design development took place in a room packed with state-of-the-art computer processing technology referred to as the "CAVE" (Computer Aided Virtual Environment). This technology was also used earlier on to design the W203 in 1995.


title: Mercedes-Benz SL-Class (R230)

text: The supercomputer in the "CAVE" was able to create full-size images of selected designs, using its five projectors and allowing designers to inspect every inch of every surface rendered. Parallel to the virtual process, the twelve scale models were scrutinized as well, with four standouts chosen to be created in full-size mockups. This evolution of the scale models occurred alongside the development of the interior design. On 16 June 1997, the final design for the R230 was approved by the board and refined into production specifications into 1998. The design patents for the R230 were later filed in Germany on 9 September 1999 and on 1 March 2000 in the United States.


title: Mercedes-Benz SL-Class (R230)

text: In July 2001, after over five years of development, the new SL was unveiled and introduced at the 2001 Frankfurt Motor Show that September. Production began on 13 October 2001 at the Bremen plant and European sales commenced that November.


title: Mercedes-Benz SL-Class (R230)

text: This car first appeared as the Safety Car for Formula One at the 2001 German Grand Prix in Hockenheim. The street version was unveiled at the 2001 IAA. The range was launched with a film style advertisement called "Lucky Star".


title: Mercedes-Benz SL-Class (R230)

text: Changes include new engines for SL 350 and SL 500 (called SL 550 in North America), with improved performance on SL 55 AMG and SL 600, as well as a new top-of-the-line SL 65 AMG. ABC (Active Body Control) was improved to reduce body movements in dynamic driving by up to 60%, standard on all models except the SL 350. The new engines were mated to a new 7-speed 7G-Tronic automatic, with a Sport option to allow shifting to be performed up to 30% faster in manual "M" mode, and with added steering-wheel shift paddles.


title: Mercedes-Benz SL-Class (R230)

text: Exterior styling changes include a new bumper with three large cooling air intakes and a more pronounced V-shape as well as fog lamps with chrome surrounds, new light-alloy wheels, new rear light. Interior changes include softer leather upholstery, new interior colours, high-quality metal door sills with Mercedes-Benz lettering and embossed aluminium trim elements, removable luggage cover, optional remote boot-lid release. The roof opening mechanism was also revised, reducing the opening time from 20 seconds to 16 seconds.


title: Mercedes-Benz SL-Class (R230)

text: With the 2007 model year, there was a limited production model (550 units) introduced to celebrate the 50th Anniversary of the SL roadster model. This Anniversary Edition version came with a pewter metallic exterior, cognac brown leather interior with black ash wood trim, V8, exclusive twin-spoke rims, custom luggage bag for rear shelf, and many other standard options and features.


title: Mercedes-Benz SL-Class (R230)

text: The facelifted SL model was revealed in the Geneva Motor Show in March 2008. The SL received a new, more aggressive front end reflecting Mercedes's new design philosophy, with a pair of long powerdomes on the bonnet and a single-bar grille replacing the old three-bar effort. Improvements have been made also on the engines. The 3.5 L V6 is uprated to at 6500 rpm. Compared to the previous 3.5-litre engine, the output has been boosted by 16 percent. Torque has also been improved adding to the previous making it . This engine now can rev up to a max of 7200 rpm for a period as the oil temperature and other engine parameters permit, a higher compression ratio, a new intake manifold and featuring extensive modifications to and lightening of the valve train. In this case, however, the extra power does not come at the expense of fuel economy: with a consumption figure of 9.9 litres per 100 kilometres, the new SL 350 undercuts the previous model developing by 0.4 litres per 100 kilometres. Mercedes-Benz is extending the SL-Class line-up by introducing an attractive entry-level model in the shape of the SL 280 developing . The six cylinder powerplant delivers its peak torque of from 2500 rpm and accelerates the roadster from 0 to in 7.8 seconds, whilst fuel consumption (NEDC) is just . It features the AIRSCARF heating system used in the SLK.


title: Mercedes-Benz SL-Class (R230)

text: The facelifted SL loses AMG's 5.4 L M113 in favour of the newer M156 6.2 L V8 used in the S63 AMG, CLK63 AMG and C63 AMG. It produces at 6800 rpm and of torque at 5200 rpm. It can accelerate from rest to in 4.6 seconds going up to a limited top speed of . The SL 63 AMG also includes the new AMG-developed 7-speed MCT "Multi Clutch Technology" automatic transmission.


title: Mercedes-Benz SL-Class (R230)

text: The new MCT transmission is essentially the 7G-Tronic transmission without a torque converter. Instead of a torque converter, it uses a compact wet startup clutch to start the car off, and also supports computer-controlled double declutching. The MCT (Multi-Clutch Technology) acronym refers to a planetary (automatic) transmission's multiple clutches and bands for each gear.


title: Mercedes-Benz SL-Class (R230)

text: The MCT is fitted with four drive modes: "C" (Comfort), "S" (Sport), "S+" (Sport plus), and "M" (Manual) and boasts 100 millisecond shifts in "M" mode. The new car features the new AMG DRIVE UNIT with innovative Race Start function. The AMG DRIVE UNIT is the central control unit for the AMG SPEEDSHIFT MCT 7-speed sports transmission and all driving dynamics functions. The driver can change gears either using the new AMG selector lever with its leather/ carbon-fibre finish, or by nudging the AMG steering-wheel shift paddles. The new Race start Function is a launch control system which enables the SL 63 AMG driver to call on maximum acceleration, while ensuring optimum traction of the driven wheels. A modified version of the SL 63 was the Safety Car for the Formula One seasons of and .


title: Mercedes-Benz SL-Class (R230)

text: The new SL 65 AMG Black Series coupe features a carbon-fiber fixed roof, front fenders, hood, trunk lid, and front and rear aprons. With the absence of retractable roof hardware, the car is more than lighter than the standard SL. AMG placed a modified version of the 6.0-liter AMG V12 engine that now delivers and of torque. This is the same 6.0 L engine as used in the previous SL 65 model with remapped timing and fuel curves to produce 58 PS more. Torque remains the same, as the previous model, due to transmission limitations. This engine has been labeled as the engine with the largest output that will be made by AMG. Its twin turbochargers are 12 percent larger, passages for intake air and the turbo wastegates have been modified, and the intake air intercooler is 30 percent more efficient. The result is 0-to- acceleration of 3.8 seconds, and an electronically limited top speed of .


title: Mercedes-Benz SL-Class (R230)

text: It is a limited (200 units) version of SL 63 AMG. It included Designo Magno Kashmir white finish, AMG Exterior Carbon package with matte surface, interior Carbon matte trim with Tobago Brown nappa leather upholstery, AMG Performance package, 'Grosse Ingenieur' (Big Engineer) watch from Swiss watchmaker IWC Schaffhausen.


title: Mercedes-Benz SL-Class (R230)

text: The performance version of the SL 65 AMG was unveiled in Monterey in 2008. The turbochargers are 12% larger, and the optimised wastegate ducts permit increased air throughout. The intake air ducting and exhaust system are modified to improve response and reduce the exhaust gas backpressure. The Black Series is lighter than regular SL 65 AMG by the use of light carbon fibre composite (CFRP) parts and the omission of the SL's normal foldable hardtop roof, replacing it with a fixed roof. Not only did this save weight, it also made room available for the retractable rear spoiler. It also has a def limited top speed of about and can go from in 3.8 seconds.


title: Mercedes-Benz SL-Class (R230)

text: The AMG Speedshift Plus five-speed automatic transmission include "C", "S", "M1", and "M2" which has gearshift times 25 percent quicker than the "M1" mode. The Black Series front axle track width is 97 millimetres wider and the rear axle track width 85 millimetres wider over regular model. Other changes include retractable rear spoiler and the rear apron with diffuser fins, 265/35R19 front tyres with 19×9.5 inch AMG light-alloy wheels and AMG 20×11.5-inch light-alloy wheels with 325/30R20 tyres (Dunlop Sport Maxx GT tyres), 6-piston front calipers with 390×36mm discs and 4-piston calipers with 360×26mm discs.


title: Mercedes-Benz SL-Class (R230)

text: It is a version of SL roadster in iconic matte black paint with 19-inch AMG five-spoke light-alloy wheels in a two-tone high-gloss finish, silver-painted front brake calipers with the Mercedes-Benz logo, darkened headlamps/tail lights, black nappa leather upholstery with shining chrome trim, seats with arrow-shaped seams and silver-coloured contrasting features, sports steering wheel and shift lever and roof lining in black, trim strip of the draught-stop has a high-gloss finish, silver-coloured vents at AIRSCARF system. Available only in model year 2011, there were 100 made.


title: Mercedes-Benz SL-Class (R230)

text: It is a version of SL 300, SL 350, and SL 500 commemorating 125th anniversary of Karl Benz inventing the automobile.


title: Mercedes-Benz SL-Class (R230)

text: SL 350 Grand Edition included 19-inch AMG 5-spoke alloy wheel in titanium, front brake callipers with the Mercedes-Benz logo, drill bench rated brake discs, twin chrome square exhaust tips, chrome shoulder line trim, high gloss door handle, Grand Edition side emblem, nappa leather seat, SLR design shift knob, prism pattern aluminium trim, silver colour AIRSCARF vent, chrome door sill plate, chrome draught strap, floor mat with Grand Edition logo, ashtray with Grand Edition logo. Other options include AMG sport package, designo piano lacquer black wood trim.


title: Mercedes-Benz SL-Class (R230)

text: SL 500 Grand Edition included 19-inch AMG 5-spoke alloy wheel in titanium, front brake callipers with the Mercedes-Benz logo, drill bench rated brake discs, twin chrome square exhaust tips, chrome shoulder line trim, high gloss door handle, Grand Edition side emblem, SLR design shift knob, designo piano lacquer black wood trim, silver colour AIRSCARF vent, chrome door sill plate, chrome draught strap, floor mat with Grand Edition logo, ashtray with Grand Edition logo. Other options include AMG sport package.


title: Mercedes-Benz SL-Class (R230)

text: SL 63 AMG includes AMG SPEEDSHIFT MCT 7-speed sports transmission, which included 'C' (Comfort), 'S' (Sport), 'S+' (Sport plus) and 'M' (Manual) modes, AMG DRIVE UNIT, Race Start launch control.


title: Mercedes-Benz SL-Class (R230)

text: In 2007, Mercedes created a 75 limited-edition 50th Anniversary SL 550s. According to another article, Mercedes created 550 of these cars, all pewter in colour with burgundy leather, black ash wood trim, 18-inch double five-spoked wheels, and matching 50th Anniversary Edition luggage.


title: Mercedes-Benz SL-Class (R230)

text: The SL 600 is the highest-powered version of the non-AMG SL-Class models. It uses a V12 engine which produced and from 2003 through 2006 and was uprated to and for 2007. It accelerates from 0– in 4.7 seconds, according to Mercedes-Benz. However "Car and Driver" achieved extremely impressive acceleration test figures with achieved in just 3.6 seconds, in 8.6 seconds and a quarter mile run in 11.9 seconds at . However, the article can be subject to speculation that the car's performance may have been tested after modifications were made to the vehicle itself, although none are mentioned, hence the impressive 0– timing. Production of the SL 600 ended in 2009 leaving the SL 65 AMG as the only V12-engined R230 and R231.


title: Mercedes-Benz SL-Class (R230)

text: The new model has only slight visual differentiators, the most noticeable is the three-slat grille rather than the four-slat version used previously. The top speed is limited to , but can be extended to for an additional cost. The 6.2 litre V8 replaced the current engine for the 2009 model year. Upon release in 2002 this was for its time the fastest automatic car in the world. This was before the SLR Mclaren hit the market in 2003. Jeremy Clarkson owned one of the first SL 55 AMGs.


title: Mercedes-Benz SL-Class (R230)

text: The SL 65 AMG version offers from its twin-turbocharged 5,980 cc V12 engine at 5500 rpm. It retailed for $179,720 as of 2005. Mercedes-Benz listed a 0– time of 4.2 seconds on their official website, though several road tests show that it actually takes under 4 seconds to reach . "Car and Driver" achieved from a standstill in 3.6 seconds, in 7.5 seconds and recorded a quarter mile time of 11.6 seconds at .


title: Glow Up: Britain's Next Make-Up Star

text: Glow Up: Britain's Next Make-Up Star (often shortened to Glow Up) is a British reality television competition devised to find new makeup artists. Originally hosted by Stacey Dooley, the first episode premiered on BBC Three on 6 March 2019. The contestants take part in weekly challenges to progress through the competition, which are judged by industry professionals Dominic Skinner and Val Garland, as well as weekly guest stars. After the conclusion of the , "Glow Up" was renewed for a , which premiered on BBC Three in May 2020. The third series began airing in April 2021, with Maya Jama replacing Dooley as the presenter. The fourth series began airing on 11 May 2022.


title: Glow Up: Britain's Next Make-Up Star

text: In January 2019, it was announced that English television personality Stacey Dooley would present "Glow Up: Britain's Next Make-Up Star". On the series, Dooley commented: "I'm delighted to be involved with Glow Up. The make-up artists are so impressive and talented… and Val and Dominic were a scream to work with." Industry professionals Dominic Skinner and Val Garland were also announced as judges for the series. Dooley was criticised for her decision to partake in the programme, with her being accused of "selling out" and "ditching her investigative journalism roots". Dooley responded to the claims, saying: "It's painfully predictable: there are always people who are desperate to put you in your one camp and never let you leave. The idea that you could be interested in the Yazidi community and also in lipstick blows people's minds. It's a really short-sighted Stone Age attitude; it's boring, actually. I've earned my stripes; I don't need to prove myself to anyone. She added that: "We should celebrate make-up. It's a lucrative industry; a massive employer." Netflix acquired the rights to distribute "Glow Up" as a Netflix Original series in 2019.


title: Glow Up: Britain's Next Make-Up Star

text: In July 2019, "Glow Up" was renewed for a . Dooley stated that she had fun filming the first series and expressed her excitement to be involved in the second series. Garland and Skinner echoed the comments, with Skinner adding that the MUAs need to raise the bar from what they had seen in the first series. The second series premiered on BBC Three on 14 May 2020.


title: Glow Up: Britain's Next Make-Up Star

text: In October 2020, Dooley announced that she would not be presenting the third series of "Glow Up" due to scheduling conflicts with her new series "This Is My House". On 14 January 2021, it was announced that "Glow Up" had been renewed for a third series, set to air later that year. On the same day, it was announced that Dooley had been replaced by Maya Jama. On her decision to present "Glow Up", Jama commented: "I absolutely love "Glow Up" and can't wait to join the family! I’m obsessed with makeup and creating different looks- it’s going to be so much fun and I can't wait to see what the MUAs get up to." Executive producer Melissa Brown stated that the series "will build on the massive success of series two with an incredible cast and exciting challenges, with access to the world's biggest film sets and brands." The third series began broadcasting on 20 April 2021.


title: Glow Up: Britain's Next Make-Up Star

text: The fourth series began airing on 11 May 2022 on BBC Three. The series consisted of 8 episodes, debuting for the first time as a weekly slot on BBC Three newly commissioned television channel launch. Previously, all series were directly streaming on BBC Iplayer.


title: Glow Up: Britain's Next Make-Up Star

text: In the professional assignment, the make-up artists (MUAs) are set a task by the judges, outside of the studio, to follow a brief for something. At the end the challenge, the judges choose one to three challenge winners who stay behind to help with more make up looks. At the end of the professional assignment, the judges will choose a provisional bottom two going into the creative brief. The two people in the "red chairs" are given a 15-minute penalty going into the creative brief. In the creative brief, the MUAs are given a description of the look required. The MUAs are typically given preparation time prior to the challenge. If an MUA in a red chair is successful in the challenge, they have 'Beat The Seat'. Therefore, an MUA who performed less successfully take their place in the Face Off. In the face off, two MUAs take part in a challenge; the challenge content normally focuses on one section of the face, such as recreating an eye look or applying the "perfect lip". The MUA who performs the worst is eliminated, and the other progresses onto the next episode.


title: Glow Up: Britain's Next Make-Up Star

text: After its premiere, Jazmin Kapotsha of "Refinery29" described the programme as a mixture of "America's Next Top Model", "The Great British Bake Off" and YouTube beauty tutorials. She added that the "craft is undeniably incredible" and that "it came as a huge surprise". Sara Wallis of the "Daily Mirror" wrote: "I'm fascinated by the astonishing makeup creations and lashings of high drama. It’s an angsty, youthful show that certainly glows."


title: Ogre Battle

text: , sometimes referred to as , is a series of five tactical role-playing and real-time strategy video games developed by Quest Corporation and is currently owned by Square Enix through Square's acquisition of Quest. There are five original games in the series, one of which has received a remake and a subsequent remaster.


title: Ogre Battle

text: The first video game in the series, "", was released in 1993 for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System in Japan, and two years later in North America. The title was a real-time strategy role playing game, set in a medieval fantasy world. The second game in the series, "", was released in 1995 in Japan. It was a turn-based tactical role-playing game making use of isometric graphics, and the title is largely considered to be "exceptionally influential" to the genre. Two subsequent games in the "Ogre Battle" series – "" and "" – follow the real-time strategy gameplay of the original title in the franchise, while "" follows the turn-based tactical role-playing gameplay elements of the second game in the series.


title: Ogre Battle

text: "The Knight of Lodis", released in 2001, is the last original release in the franchise. In 2010, "Tactics Ogre: Let Us Cling Together" was remade for the PlayStation Portable as "", but the characters, story and setting are identical to the 1995 release. The creator of the series, Yasumi Matsuno, directed the remake of the game. Matsuno was also responsible for another highly influential title, "Final Fantasy Tactics", originally released in 1997. Though the title bears no relation to the "Ogre Battle" series, "Final Fantasy Tactics" is considered by some critics to be a spiritual successor to "Tactics Ogre". As of 2016, the franchise mostly remains active through re-releases of the first two games for the Nintendo's Virtual Console service in Japan, North America and Europe.


title: Ogre Battle

text: Both "Ogre Battle" and "The March of the Black Queen" were titles to Queen songs from their 1974 album "Queen II". In addition, "Let Us Cling Together" is the subtitle to their song "Teo Torriatte (Let Us Cling Together)" from 1976's "A Day at the Races".


title: Ogre Battle

text: A prerelease demo of "Tactics Ogre: Let Us Cling Together" was made available in early October 1995 for the Super Famicom add-on Satellaview. It consists of a battle in a preset map where the player has full control over two opposing teams, similar to the training mode in the full version of game.