title: Annik Honoré

text: According to Honoré, in a 2010 interview, her relationship with Ian Curtis, which ended with his death in 1980, was platonic. Curtis' widow, Deborah Curtis, has characterised the relationship, which she claims began in August 1979, as an "affair".


title: Annik Honoré

text: In "Control", the Ian Curtis biographical film directed by Anton Corbijn in 2007, Honoré was played by Alexandra Maria Lara.


title: Annik Honoré

text: Honoré left the music business in 1985. From 1986 she worked as a civil servant, specifically as a secretary in the Research and Innovation department of the European Commission in Brussels. She had two children, Bertrand and Sasha. She died of cancer on 3 July 2014.


title: Ganga Expressway

text: Ganga Expressway is an under-construction 594 km long, 6-lane wide (expandable to 8) greenfield expressway in the state of Uttar Pradesh, India. Phase-1 will connect Bijauli village on NH-334 in Meerut district with Judapur Dandu village on NH-19 in Allahabad district. The foundation stone of Ganga Expressway was laid by Prime Minister Narendra Modi on 18 December 2021 in Shahjahanpur. The expressway is expected to be completed by 2024.


title: Ganga Expressway

text: It is being implemented by the Uttar Pradesh Expressways Industrial Development Authority (UPEIDA) on the DFBOT Model and will be constructed and maintained by IRB Infrastructure and Adani Enterprises The Uttar Pradesh Cabinet, led by Yogi Adityanath met at Prayagraj, the venue of the Kumbh Mela and cleared the decks to construct Ganga Expressway on 29 January 2019.


title: Ganga Expressway

text: The 594 km long Ganga Expressway will connect Bijauli village near Kharkhauda on NH-334 in Meerut district with Judapur Dandu village near Soraon on NH-19 in Allahabad district. It will pass through 12 districts of Uttar Pradesh namely (from west to east), Meerut, Hapur, Bulandshahr, Amroha, Sambhal, Budaun, Shahjahanpur, Hardoi, Unnao, Raebareli, Pratapgarh and Prayagraj.


title: Ganga Expressway

text: The Ganga Expressway project was initially launched in 2007 by the then Uttar Pradesh Chief Minister Mayawati. The project aims to construct a 1,047 km access-controlled 8-lane wide expressway running along the Ganga river. This expressway will connect Greater Noida to Ballia, ensuring high-speed connectivity between the Eastern and Western boundaries of Uttar Pradesh. The proposed expressway from Ballia to Greater Noida is also planned to serve as a flood control embankment since floods are a major cause of agricultural and environmental damage in the area, and lead to many deaths as well as the spread of diseases during India's monsoon season. The construction work on Ganga Expressway was not started then because of an order from the Allahabad High Court. The order instructed that the state and the concessionaire complete a full environmental study and obtain permission from the Government before embarking on the construction.


title: Ganga Expressway

text: The UPEIDA has divided the construction work of 594 km long Phase-1 (Meerut to Prayagraj) into 12 different packages. The total expected project value is around ₹37,350 crores, including the land acquisition cost of around ₹9,500 crores.


title: Ganga Expressway

text: On 30 November 2021, Adani Enterprises and IRB Infrastructure Developers emerged as the preferred bidders for the expressway’s development. Both were awarded the agreement to build and Operate the Expressway on DFBOT Basis with tolling rights for a period of 30 years. IRB Infrastructure bagged Group 1 (consisting of Packages 1, 2 & 3); while Adani bagged Groups 2, 3 & 4 (consisting of Packages 4 to 12)


title: Ganga Expressway

text: Note: The Adani Enterprises has further sub-contracted the civil construction work of Package-4, 5 and 6 to HG Infra Engineering Limited. Similarly it has sub-contracted Package-10, 11 and 12 to ITD Cementation India Limited.


title: Ganga Expressway

text: The Government of Uttar Pradesh decided to extend the project on either ends i.e. Meerut to Haridwar (Spur-1) and Prayagraj to Ballia (Spur-2) via Varanasi. As of February 2021, a Detailed Project Report (DPR) for Phase-2 has not yet been prepared yet.


title: Fiza

text: Fiza, also known as Fiza: In Search Of Her Brother, is a 2000 Indian Hindi-language crime thriller film written and directed by Khalid Mohammed. It stars Karisma Kapoor as the eponymous lead, along with Hrithik Roshan as her terrorist brother and Jaya Bachchan as their mother. The film was produced by Pradeep Guha on a budget of and had a theatrical release worldwide on 8 September 2000.


title: Fiza

text: Upon release, "Fiza" received positive reviews, with its storyline and soundtrack, as well as cast performances earning praise. A box office hit, the film earned worldwide. "Fiza" received seven nominations at the 46th Filmfare Awards and won Best Actress for Kapoor and Best Supporting Actress for Bachchan.


title: Fiza

text: The film is about a girl, Fiza (Karisma Kapoor), whose brother, Amaan (Hrithik Roshan), disappears during the 1993 Bombay riots. Fiza and her mother Nishatbi (Jaya Bachchan) desperately hold on to the hope that one day he will return. However, in 1999, six years after his disappearance, Fiza, fed up of living with uncertainty, resolves to search of her brother. Driven by her mother's fervent hope and her own determination, Fiza decides to use whatever means she can—the law, media, and even politicians—to find her brother, which brings her into contact with various characters and situations.


title: Fiza

text: When she does find him, to her horror she sees that he has joined a terrorist group. She forces him to come home, and he finally reunites with their mother. However, his allegiance and thoughts make him want to return to the terrorist network, led by Murad Khan (Manoj Bajpayee). A confrontation with two men who harass Fiza leads Amaan to revealing about his involvement with the terrorist network to his sister, mother, and the police. His mother's grief and disappointment eventually lead her to commit suicide.


title: Fiza

text: Amaan is sent on a mission to kill two powerful politicians; when he does succeed in assassinating them, his own terrorist group tries to kill him. He escapes, and Fiza follows him. They confront each other, and with the police closing in on him, Amaan asks Fiza to kill him. As a last resort to give him an honourable end, Fiza kills her brother.


title: Fiza

text: Khalid Mohammed originally wanted to have Ram Gopal Varma direct this movie when he finished the script and had Urmila Matondkar in mind for the central role of Fiza, which was eventually played by Kapoor. Although Kapoor plays Roshan's older sister in this film, he is 5 months older than her in real life. Originally, the role played by Roshan was supposed to be a minor one. But after his debut film "Kaho Naa... Pyaar Hai" (2000) became a blockbuster overnight, Mohammed panicked. He knew expectations were high because of Roshan, so he increased the length of his role. Many scenes like his workout, and an extra song were added to suit Roshan's new status of a superstar. Additionally, the film was set to be an artistic film. But Mohammed decided to commercialize the film due to pressure from the distributors. A dance number for Kapoor was added, in addition to the park scene with Johnny Lever.


title: Fiza

text: The film was critically acclaimed and did well at the box office. Critics praised the lead performances. Kapoor in particular was applauded for her performance as a disillusioned sister.


title: Fiza

text: Vinayak Chakravorty from "Hindustan Times" gave the film 4 out of 5 stars, writing, ""Fiza" is more than just about Mohammed's foray into film-making. It is about Kapoor proving a point as an actress of some substance. It is about Roshan's establishing that he doesn't need maximum footage or glitz to impress. It is about the return after a hiatus of the ever-delightful Bachchan." Mimmy Jain of "The Indian Express", in a positive review, wrote, ""Fiza" is the kind of movie that every critic prays will never come his way. For a critic's job, after all, is to criticize. And "Fiza" offers little scope for criticism." She further noted Kapoor for delivering "a superbly flawless performance". Sanjeev Bariana of "The Tribune" labelled the film "only a little above average", but was highly appreciative of the performances. Suman Tarafdar of "Filmfare" gave a positive review of the film and Kapoor's acting, and Chaya Unnikrishnan of "Screen" praised the performances and concluded that "Fiza" "does live upto the expectations". "Screen" magazine's critic Chaya Unnikrishnan, while disappointed with the film's second half, described it as "a mature film" and commended the performances. Dinesh Raheja of "India Today" praised the performances but concluded: ""Fiza" remains watchable for its captivatingly-captured sequences within a close-knit family. But, the big picture it wants to capture remains underdeveloped."


title: Fiza

text: In May 2010, "Fiza" was one of the 14 Hindi films selected by the Film Society of Lincoln Center to be screened as part of a section called "Muslim Cultures of Bombay Cinema" which aims to "celebrate and explore the rich influence of Muslim cultural and social traditions on the cinema of Bombay to the present".


title: Fiza

text: Initially, A. R. Rahman was approached to compose the music for the film, but he declined citing date issues. However he agreed to compose one song which became "Piya Haji Ali", while rest of the songs were composed by Anu Malik. He later composed for the director's next, "Tehzeeb" (2003). For the background score of "Fiza", Rahman suggested his associate Ranjit Barot. Barot composed the score. The album was one of the most popular soundtracks of the year. It features popular songs like "Aaja Mahiya", "Aankh Milaoongi", "Tu Fiza Hai" and "Mehboob Mere". "Mehboob Mere" was performed by Sushmita Sen as an Item number. At the 46th Filmfare Awards, Malik received a Best Music Director nomination for the soundtrack of the film. for his work on this album. According to the Indian trade website "Box Office India", with around 25,00,000 units sold, this film's soundtrack album was one of the highest-selling of the year.


title: New Zealand English

text: New Zealand English (NZE) is the dialect of the English language spoken and written by most English-speaking New Zealanders. Its language code in ISO and Internet standards is en-NZ. English is the first language of the majority of the population.


title: New Zealand English

text: The English language was established in New Zealand by colonists during the 19th century. It is one of "the newest native-speaker variet[ies] of the English language in existence, a variety which has developed and become distinctive only in the last 150 years". The varieties of English that had the biggest influence on the development of New Zealand English were Australian English and Southern England English, with lesser influences from American English, Hiberno-English, Scottish English and the British prestige accent Received Pronunciation (RP). An important source of vocabulary is the Māori language of the indigenous people of New Zealand, whose contribution distinguishes New Zealand English from other varieties.


title: New Zealand English

text: Non-rhotic New Zealand English is most similar to Australian English in pronunciation, with some key differences. A prominent difference is the realisation of (the vowel): in New Zealand English this is pronounced as a schwa.


title: New Zealand English

text: The first dictionary with entries documenting New Zealand English was probably the "Heinemann New Zealand Dictionary" published in 1979. Edited by Harry Orsman (1928–2002), it is a 1,337-page book with information relating to the usage and pronunciation of terms that were widely accepted throughout the English-speaking world, and those peculiar to New Zealand. It includes a one-page list of the approximate date of entry into common parlance of the many terms found in New Zealand English but not elsewhere, such as "haka" (1827), "boohai" (1920), and "bach" (1905). A second edition was published in 1989 with the cover subtitle "The first dictionary of New Zealand English and New Zealand pronunciation". A third edition, edited by Nelson Wattie, was published as "The Reed Dictionary of New Zealand English" by Reed Publishing in 2001.


title: New Zealand English

text: The first dictionary fully dedicated to the New Zealand variety of English was "The New Zealand Dictionary" published by New House Publishers in 1994 and edited by Elizabeth and Harry Orsman. A second edition was published in 1995, edited by Elizabeth Orsman.


title: New Zealand English

text: In 1997, Oxford University Press produced the Harry Orsman-edited "The Dictionary of New Zealand English: A Dictionary of New Zealandisms on Historical Principles", a 981-page book, which it claimed was based on over 40 years of research. This research started with Orsman's 1951 thesis and continued with his editing this dictionary. To assist with and maintain this work, the New Zealand Dictionary Centre was founded in 1997. It has published several more dictionaries of New Zealand English, including "The New Zealand Oxford Paperback Dictionary", edited by New Zealand lexicographer Tony Deverson in 1998, culminating in the 1,374-page "The New Zealand Oxford Dictionary" in 2004, by Tony Deverson and Graeme Kennedy. A second, revised edition of "The New Zealand Oxford Paperback Dictionary" was published in 2006, this time using standard lexicographical regional markers to identify the New Zealand content, which were absent from the first edition.


title: New Zealand English

text: Another authoritative work is the "Collins English Dictionary", first published in 1979 by HarperCollins, which contains an abundance of well-cited New Zealand words and phrases, drawing from the 650-million-word Bank of English, a British research facility set up at the University of Birmingham in 1980 and funded by Collins publishers. Although this is a British dictionary of International English there has always been a credited New Zealand advisor for the New Zealand content, namely Professor Ian Gordon from 1979 until 2002 and Professor Elizabeth Gordon from the University of Canterbury since 2003. New Zealand-specific dictionaries compiled from the "Collins English Dictionary" include the "Collins New Zealand Concise English Dictionary" (1982), "Collins New Zealand School Dictionary" (1999) and "Collins New Zealand Paperback Dictionary" (2009).


title: New Zealand English

text: Australia's "Macquarie Dictionary" was first published in 1981, and has since become the authority on Australian English. It has always included an abundance of New Zealand words and phrases additional to the mutually shared words and phrases of both countries. Every edition has retained a New Zealand resident advisor for the New Zealand content, the first being Harry Orsman. and the most recent being Victoria University of Wellington lexicographer Laurie Bauer.


title: New Zealand English

text: A light-hearted look at English as spoken in New Zealand is "A Personal Kiwi-Yankee Dictionary", written by the American-born University of Otago psychology lecturer Louis Leland in 1980. This slim volume lists many of the potentially confusing and/or misleading terms for Americans visiting or emigrating to New Zealand. A second edition was published in 1990.


title: New Zealand English

text: From the 1790s, New Zealand was visited by British, French and American whaling, sealing and trading ships. Their crews traded European goods with the indigenous Māori. The first settlers to New Zealand were mainly from Australia, many of them ex-convicts or escaped convicts. Sailors, explorers and traders from Australia and other parts of Europe also settled.


title: New Zealand English

text: When in 1788 the , most of New Zealand was nominally included, but no real legal authority or control was exercised. However, when the New Zealand Company announced in 1839 its plans to establish colonies in New Zealand this and the increased commercial interests of merchants in Sydney and London spurred the British to take stronger action. Captain William Hobson was sent to New Zealand to persuade Māori to cede their sovereignty to the British Crown and on 6 February 1840, Hobson and about forty Māori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi at Waitangi in the Bay of Islands. From this point onward there was considerable European settlement, primarily from England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland; and to a lesser extent the United States, South Africa, and various parts of continental Europe. Some 400,000 settlers came from Britain, of whom 300,000 stayed permanently. Most were young people and 250,000 babies were born. New Zealand ceased to be part of New South Wales and became a British colony on 1 July 1841.


title: New Zealand English

text: Gold discoveries in Otago (1861) and Westland (1865), caused a worldwide gold rush that more than doubled the population from 71,000 in 1859 to 164,000 in 1863. Between 1864 and 1865, under the New Zealand Settlements Act 1863, 13 ships carrying citizens of England, Ireland and South Africa arrived in New Zealand under the Waikato Immigration Scheme. According to census data from 1871, around half the early settlers were English, a quarter were Irish, a quarter were Scots and 5% were Australian. The European population of New Zealand grew explosively from fewer than 1000 in 1831 to 500,000 by 1881. By 1911 the number of European settlers had reached a million. The settlement of peoples from various foreign countries and the intermingling of the people with the indigenous Māori brought about what would eventually evolve into a "New Zealand accent" and a unique regional English lexicon.


title: New Zealand English

text: A distinct New Zealand variant of the English language has been recognised since at least 1912, when Frank Arthur Swinnerton described it as a "carefully modulated murmur". From the beginning of the haphazard Australian and European settlements and latter official British migrations, a new dialect began to form by adopting Māori words to describe the different flora and fauna of New Zealand, for which English did not have words of its own.


title: New Zealand English

text: The New Zealand accent appeared first in towns with mixed populations of immigrants from Australia, England, Ireland, and Scotland. These included the militia towns of the North Island and the gold-mining towns of the South Island. In more homogeneous towns such as those in Otago and Southland, settled mainly by people from Scotland, the New Zealand accent took longer to appear, while the accent was quick to develop in schools starting from the 1890s.


title: New Zealand English

text: Since the latter 20th century New Zealand society has gradually divested itself of its fundamentally British roots and has adopted influences from all over the world, especially in the early 21st century when New Zealand experienced an increase of non-British immigration which has since brought about a more prominent multi-national society. The Internet, television, movies and popular music have all brought international influences into New Zealand society and the New Zealand lexicon. Americanization of New Zealand society and language has subtly and gradually been taking place since World War II and especially since the 1970s, as has happened also in neighbouring Australia.


title: New Zealand English

text: While both the Māori language and New Zealand Sign Language have official status, as detailed in legislation, this is mostly limited to the right to use these languages in legal proceedings and other limited circumstances. English has no equivalent legal protection, but its widespread use is commonly accepted and generally assumed by common law. Though requiring a completely “English only” workplace, without a justifiable reason, could be seen as discriminatory. In February 2018, Clayton Mitchell MP from New Zealand First led a campaign for English to be recognised as an official language in New Zealand. Justice Minister Amy Adams said "English is a de facto official language by virtue of its widespread use," while Professor Andrew Geddis called Mitchell's bill "legal nonsense".


title: New Zealand English

text: Not all New Zealanders have the same accent, as the level of cultivation (i.e. the closeness to Received Pronunciation) of every speaker's accent differs. An identifiable feature of New Zealand English is its chain shift where the vowel has moved up to the place of the traditional vowel, which in turn has moved up towards the traditional vowel, which in turn is centralised. This makes "bat" sound like "bet", "bet" sound like "bit", and "bit" sound like "but" to foreign ears. For example "six" is in New Zealand English but in Australian English. General New Zealand English is non-rhotic, however Southland is semi-rhotic due to the accent's Scottish influence.


title: New Zealand English

text: New Zealand English has a number of dialectal words and phrases. These are mostly informal terms that are more common in casual speech. Numerous loanwords have been taken from the Māori language or from Australian English.


title: New Zealand English

text: New Zealand adopted decimal currency in 1967 and the metric system in 1974. Despite this, several imperial measures are still widely encountered and usually understood, such as feet and inches for a person's height, pounds and ounces for an infant's birth weight, and in colloquial terms such as referring to drinks in pints. In the food manufacturing industry in New Zealand both metric and non-metric systems of weight are used and usually understood owing to raw food products being imported from both metric and non-metric countries. However per the December 1976 Weights and Measures Amendment Act, all foodstuffs must be retailed using the metric system. In general, the knowledge of non-metric units is lessening.


title: New Zealand English

text: The word "spud" for "potato", now common throughout the English-speaking world, is first recorded in New Zealand English.


title: New Zealand English

text: As with Australian English, but in contrast to most other forms of the language, some speakers of New Zealand English use both the terms "bath" and "bathe" as verbs, with "bath" used as a transitive verb (e.g. "I will bath the dog"), and "bathe" used predominantly, but not exclusively, as an intransitive verb (e.g. "Did you bathe?").


title: New Zealand English

text: Both the words "amongst" and "among" are used, as in British English. The same is true for two other pairs, "whilst" and "while" and "amidst" and "amid".


title: New Zealand English

text: New Zealand English terms of Australian origin include "bushed" (lost or bewildered), "chunder" (to vomit), "drongo" (a foolish or stupid person), "fossick" (to search), "larrikin" (mischievous person), "Maccas" (slang for McDonald's food), "maimai" (a duckshooter's hide; originally a makeshift shelter, from aboriginal "mia-mia"), "paddock" (field, or meadow), "pom" or "pommy" (an Englishman), "skite" (verb: to boast), "station" (for a very large farm), "wowser" (non-drinker of alcohol, or killjoy), and "ute" (pickup truck).


title: New Zealand English

text: Advancing from its British and Australian English origins, New Zealand English has evolved to include many terms of American origin, or which are otherwise used in American English, in preference over the equivalent contemporary British terms. Some examples of such words in New Zealand English are the preferred usage of the American "bobby pin" over the British "hair pin", "muffler" for "silencer", "truck" for "lorry", "station wagon" for "estate car", "stove" for "cooker", "creek" over "brook" or "stream", "eggplant" for "aubergine", "median strip" for "central reservation", "pushup" for "press-up", and "potato chip" for "potato crisp".


title: New Zealand English

text: Other examples of vocabulary directly borrowed from American English include "the boonies", "bucks" (dollars), "bushwhack" (fell timber), "butt" (bum or arse), "ding" (dent), "dude", "duplex", "faggot" or "fag" (interchangeable with the British "poof" and "poofter"), "figure" (to think or conclude; consider), "hightail it", "homeboy", "hooker", "lagoon", "lube" (oil change), "man" (in place of "mate" or "bro" in direct address), "major" (to study or qualify in a subject), "to be over" [some situation] (be fed up), "rig" (large truck), "sheltered workshop" (workplace for disabled persons), "spat" (a small argument), and "subdivision", and "tavern". Regarding grammar, since about 2000 the American "gotten" has been increasingly commonly used as the past participle of "get" instead of the standard British English "got".


title: New Zealand English

text: In a number of instances, terms of British and American origin can be used interchangeably. Additionally, many American borrowings are not unique to New Zealand English, and may be found in other dialects of English, including British English.


title: New Zealand English

text: In addition to word and phrase borrowings from Australian, British and American English, New Zealand has its own unique words and phrases derived entirely in New Zealand, many of which are slang terms. The following list summarises some such words and phrases:


title: New Zealand English

text: Many of these relate to words used to refer to common items, often based on which major brands become eponyms.


title: New Zealand English

text: Some New Zealanders often reply to a question with a statement spoken with a rising intonation at the end. This often has the effect of making their statement sound like another question. There is enough awareness of this that it is seen in exaggerated form in comedy parody of New Zealanders, such as in the 1970s comedy character "Lyn Of Tawa". This rising intonation can also be heard at the end of statements that are not in response to a question but to which the speaker wishes to add emphasis. High rising terminals are also heard in Australia.


title: New Zealand English

text: In informal speech, some New Zealanders use the third person feminine "she" in place of the third person neuter "it" as the subject of a sentence, especially when the subject is the first word of the sentence. The most common use of this is in the phrase "She'll be right" meaning either "It will be okay" or "It is close enough to what is required". Similar to Australian English are uses such as "she was great car" or "she's a real beauty, this [object]".


title: New Zealand English

text: Another specific New Zealand usage is the way in which New Zealanders refer to the country's two main islands. They are always (except on maps) referred to as "the North Island" and "the South Island". And because of their size, New Zealanders tend to think of these two islands as being 'places', rather than 'pieces of land', so the preposition "in" (rather than "on") is usually used – for example, "my mother lives in the North Island", "Christchurch is in the South Island". This is true only for the two main islands; for smaller islands, the usual preposition "on" is used – for example, "on Stewart Island" (the third largest), or "on Waiheke Island" (the third most populous).


title: New Zealand English

text: Many local everyday words have been borrowed from the Māori language, including words for local flora, fauna, place names and the natural environment.


title: New Zealand English

text: The dominant influence of Māori on New Zealand English is lexical. A 1999 estimate based on the Wellington corpora of written and spoken New Zealand English put the proportion of words of Māori origin at approximately 0.6%, mostly place and personal names.


title: New Zealand English

text: The everyday use of Māori words, usually colloquial, occurs most prominently among youth, young adults and Māori populations. Examples are "kia ora" ("hello"), "nau mai" ("welcome"), and "kai" ("food").


title: New Zealand English

text: Māori is ever present and has a significant conceptual influence in the legislature, government, and community agencies (e.g. health and education), where legislation requires that proceedings and documents be translated into Māori (under certain circumstances, and when requested). Political discussion and analysis of issues of sovereignty, environmental management, health, and social well-being thus rely on Māori at least in part. Māori as a spoken language is particularly important wherever community consultation occurs.


title: New Zealand English

text: Recognisable regional variations are slight, except for Southland and the southern part of neighbouring Otago, with its "Southland burr", where the postvocalic R is pronounced rather than clipped. This southern area traditionally received heavy immigration from Scotland (see Dunedin). Several words and phrases common in Scots or Scottish English persist there; examples include the use of "wee" for "small", and phrases such as "to do the messages" meaning "to go shopping". Other Southland features which may also relate to early Scottish settlement are the use of the (short A) vowel in a set of words which usually use the vowel (long A), such as "dance" or "castle", which is also common in Australian English. Another feature is the maintaining of the ~ distinction (e.g. where "which" and "witch" are not homophones).


title: New Zealand English

text: Recent research (2012) suggests that postvocalic is not restricted to Southland, but is found also in the central North Island where there may be a Pasifika influence, but also a possible influence from modern New Zealand hip‐hop music, which has been shown to have high levels of non‐prevocalic after the vowel.


title: New Zealand English

text: Taranaki has been said to have a minor regional accent, possibly due to the high number of immigrants from the south-west of England. However, this is becoming less pronounced.


title: New Zealand English

text: Some Māori have an accent distinct from the general New Zealand accent; and also tend to include Māori words more frequently. Comedian Billy T. James and the bro'Town TV programme were notable for featuring exaggerated versions of this. Linguists recognise this as "Māori English", and describe it as strongly influenced by syllable-timed Māori speech patterns. Linguists count "Pākehā English" as the other main accent, and note that it is beginning to adopt similar rhythms, distinguishing it from other stress-timed English accents.


title: New Zealand English

text: It is commonly held that New Zealand English is spoken very quickly. This idea is given support by a study comparing adult New Zealand English and American English speakers which observed faster speaking and articulation rates among the New Zealand English group overall. However, a similar study with American and New Zealand English-speaking children found the opposite, with the speaking and articulation rates of the New Zealand children being slower. The same study proposed that differences in the relative number of tense and lax vowels between the two speaker groups may have influenced the speaking and articulation rates.


title: Ruston Kelly

text: Ruston Samuel Kelly (born July 31, 1988) is an American singer-songwriter. After landing a publishing deal with BMG Nashville in 2013, he got his first cut with Tim McGraw's song "Nashville Without You", which appeared on McGraw's album "Two Lanes of Freedom". Following a record deal with Razor & Tie's Washington Square, he released his debut EP "Halloween" produced by Mike Mogis in 2017.


title: Ruston Kelly

text: In 2018 Kelly signed with Rounder Records and released his debut studio album "Dying Star" to generally favorable critical appraisal.


title: Ruston Kelly

text: Ruston Kelly was born in South Carolina. His family moved frequently because of his father's job. He comes from a musical family. He began playing music and writing songs as a teenager.


title: Ruston Kelly

text: Kelly struggled with drug addiction for years and decided to pursue a life of sobriety following an overdose in December 2015. Regarding his recovery he stated, "I went to rehab once, but it was all I could afford, so it was this kind of rehab in North Carolina."


title: Ruston Kelly

text: Kelly met singer Kacey Musgraves after performing at the Bluebird Café in Nashville in March 2016. They married in October 2017 and filed for divorce in July 2020.


title: John Galsworthy

text: John Galsworthy (; 14 August 1867 – 31 January 1933) was an English novelist and playwright. Notable works include "The Forsyte Saga" (1906–1921) and its sequels, "A Modern Comedy" and "End of the Chapter". He won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1932.


title: John Galsworthy

text: Galsworthy was born at what is now known as Galsworthy House (then called Parkhurst) on Kingston Hill in Surrey, England, the son of John and Blanche Bailey ("née" Bartleet) Galsworthy. His family was prosperous and well established, with a large property in Kingston upon Thames that is now the site of three schools: Marymount International School, Rokeby Preparatory School, and Holy Cross Preparatory School. He attended Harrow and New College, Oxford. He took a Second in Law (Jurisprudentia) at Oxford in 1889, then trained as a barrister and was called to the bar in 1890. However, he was not keen to begin practising law and instead travelled abroad to look after the family's trans-European shipping agency. During these travels, he met Joseph Conrad in 1893, then the first mate of a sailing-ship moored in the harbour of Adelaide, Australia, and the two future novelists became close friends. In 1895 Galsworthy began an affair with Ada Nemesis Pearson Cooper (1864–1956), the wife of his cousin Major Arthur Galsworthy. After her divorce ten years later, they were married on 23 September 1905 and stayed together until his death in 1933. Before their marriage, they often stayed clandestinely in a farmhouse called Wingstone that was in the village of Manaton on Dartmoor, Devon. In 1908 Galsworthy took a long lease on part of the building, and it was their regular second home until 1923.


title: John Galsworthy

text: "From the Four Winds", a collection of short stories, was Galsworthy's first published work in 1897. These and several subsequent works were published under the pen name of John Sinjohn, and it was not until "The Island Pharisees" (1904) that he began publishing under his own name, probably owing to the recent death of his father. His first full-length novel, "Jocelyn", was published in an edition of 750 under the name of John Sinjohn—he later refused to have it republished. His first play, "The Silver Box" (1906),—in which the theft of a prostitute's purse by a rich 'young man of good family' is placed beside the theft of a silver cigarette case from the rich man's father's house by 'a poor devil', with very different repercussions, though justice was clearly done in each case—became a success, and he followed it up with "The Man of Property" (1906), the first book of a Forsyte trilogy. Although he continued writing both plays and novels, it was as a playwright that he was mainly appreciated at the time. Along with those of other writers of the period, such as George Bernard Shaw, his plays addressed the class system and other social issues, two of the best known being "Strife" (1909) and "The Skin Game" (1920).


title: John Galsworthy

text: He is now far better known for his novels, particularly "The Forsyte Saga", his trilogy about the eponymous family and connected lives. These books, as with many of his other works, deal with social class, and upper-middle class lives in particular. Although sympathetic to his characters, he highlights their insular, snobbish, and acquisitive attitudes and their suffocating moral codes. He is viewed as one of the first writers of the Edwardian era who challenged some of the ideals of society depicted in the preceding literature of Victorian England. The depiction of a woman in an unhappy marriage furnishes another recurring theme in his work. The character of Irene in "The Forsyte Saga" is drawn from Ada Pearson, though her previous marriage was not as miserable as that of the character. The publishers William Heinemann were responsible for the publication of much of his work.


title: John Galsworthy

text: In 1924 he agreed to write a preface free of charge, to secure the publication of "The Spanish Farm", the debut novel of family friend R. H. Mottram; the book was duly published by Chatto and Windus to great acclaim.


title: John Galsworthy

text: Through his writings Galsworthy campaigned for a variety of causes, including prison reform, women's rights, and animal welfare, and also against censorship. Galsworthy was a supporter of British involvement in the First World War. In an article for "The Daily News" on 31 August 1914 Galsworthy called for war on Germany to protect Belgium. Galsworthy added "What are we going to do for Belgium — for this most gallant of little countries, ground, because of sheer loyalty, under an iron heel?" During the First World War he worked in a hospital in France as an orderly, after being passed over for military service, and in 1917 turned down a knighthood, for which he was nominated by Prime Minister David Lloyd George, on the precept that a writer's reward comes simply from writing itself.


title: John Galsworthy

text: Galsworthy opposed the slaughter of animals and fought for animal rights. He was also a humanitarian and a member of the Humanitarian League. He opposed hunting and supported the League for the Prohibition of Cruel Sports.


title: John Galsworthy

text: Galsworthy was offered and refused a knighthood in 1918, but he was incorrectly stated to have received the knighthood because his letter to decline the knighthood was lost. Galsworthy was in 1921 elected to be the first president of the PEN International literary association. He was appointed to the Order of Merit in 1929. He was awarded the 1932 Nobel Prize for Literature, after his nomination by Henrik Schück who was a member of the Swedish Academy, and he donated the prize money from the Nobel Prize to PEN International. He was too ill to attend the Nobel Prize Ceremony on 10 December 1932, and he died seven weeks later.


title: John Galsworthy

text: Galsworthy during the final seven years of his life lived at Bury, West Sussex, but he died from a brain tumour at his London home, Grove Lodge in Hampstead, and he was cremated at Woking, after which his ashes were scattered over the South Downs from an aeroplane. There are also memorials to him in Highgate (West) Cemetery and in the cloisters of New College, Oxford, that are by Eric Gill. The popularity of his fiction declined subsequent to his death, until the highly popular black-and-white television adaptation "The Forsyte Saga" (1967) increased public interest in his work.


title: John Galsworthy

text: A trove of John Galsworthy's letters and papers is held at the Special Collections of the University of Birmingham. A building at Kingston University, which was opened during 2007, and Galsworthy Road in Kingston, which is the location of Kingston Hospital, are named for him.


title: John Galsworthy

text: Galsworthy's sister Lilian (1864–1924) was married to the German painter and lithographer Georg Sauter from 1894. With the beginning of World War I, Sauter was interned as an enemy alien at Alexandra Palace and later expelled. Their son Rudolf Sauter (1895–1971) was also a painter and graphic artist, who among other things, illustrated the works of his uncle.


title: John Galsworthy

text: "The White Monkey" was made into a silent film of the same name in 1925, directed by Phil Rosen, and starring Barbara La Marr, Thomas Holding, and Henry Victor.


title: John Galsworthy

text: "The Skin Game" was adapted and directed by Alfred Hitchcock in 1931. It starred C.V. France, Helen Haye, Jill Esmond, Edmund Gwenn, John Longden and Phyllis Konstam.


title: John Galsworthy

text: "Escape" was filmed in 1930 and 1948. The latter was directed by Joseph L. Mankiewicz, starring Rex Harrison, Peggy Cummins, and William Hartnell. The screenplay was by Philip Dunne.


title: John Galsworthy

text: "One More River" (a film version of Galsworthy's "Over the River") was filmed by James Whale in 1934. The film starred Frank Lawton, Colin Clive (one of Whale's most frequently used actors) and Diana Wynyard, and featured Mrs. Patrick Campbell in a rare sound film appearance.


title: John Galsworthy

text: "The First and the Last", a short play, was adapted as "21 Days", starring Vivien Leigh and Laurence Olivier.


title: John Galsworthy

text: Galsworthy's short story "The Apple Tree" was adapted into a radio play for Orson Welles's "Lady Esther Almanac" radio series on CBS, first broadcast on 12 January 1942; the play was again produced by Welles for CBS on "The Mercury Summer Theatre" of 6 September 1946. The 1988 film "A Summer Story" was also based on "The Apple Tree".


title: John Galsworthy

text: The "NBC University Theater" aired radio adaptations of his plays "Justice" on 31 October 1948 and "The Patrician" on 26 February 1950.


title: Daniel Lewis Lee

text: Daniel Lewis Lee (January 31, 1973 – July 14, 2020) was an American man convicted and executed by the United States federal government for the murders of William Frederick Mueller, Nancy Ann Mueller, and their daughter, Sarah Elizabeth Powell. In January 1996, Lee and his accomplice, Chevie Kehoe, murdered the family during a robbery at their Arkansas home. Kehoe was found guilty of the triple murder in a separate trial and was sentenced to three consecutive terms of life imprisonment without parole. Lee was sentenced to death.


title: Daniel Lewis Lee

text: Upon conviction by the US federal government, Lee stayed on death row for 21 years before he was scheduled to be executed on July 13, 2020, but on that date, a U.S. district judge blocked the execution, citing unresolved legal issues. Thereafter, on July 14, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that the execution could proceed. It was scheduled for 4:00 a.m. that same day. After another short delay, he was executed at 8:07 a.m. He was the first person executed by the US federal government since 2003.


title: Daniel Lewis Lee

text: Lee was born on January 31, 1973, in Yukon, Oklahoma. He was reportedly abused and neglected as a child.


title: Daniel Lewis Lee

text: On July 24, 1990, in Oklahoma City, Lee got into an altercation with another man, Joseph "Joey" Wavra III, at a party. Lee struck Wavra in the face and kicked him on the floor once he had collapsed. He then assisted his cousin, John David Patton, in moving Wavra to a sewer tunnel. Lee took items from Wavra and handed Patton a knife which Patton used to kill him. Lee then assisted in disposing of Wavra's clothes. On December 2, 1990, Lee pleaded guilty to robbery, whereupon the murder charge was dismissed. He received a five-year suspended sentence for his involvement in the crime, while Patton was sentenced to life without parole. Patton died in prison on January 7, 2014.


title: Daniel Lewis Lee

text: Lee met white supremacist Chevie Kehoe in 1995 and was recruited into a white supremacist organization known as the Aryan Peoples' Republic or the Aryan Peoples' Resistance (APR). On May 3, 1995, Lee was convicted of carrying a concealed weapon and was sentenced to six months probation.


title: Daniel Lewis Lee

text: Lee lost his left eye sometime before April 1996 when he was hit by a cue ball in a bar fight in Spokane, Washington, after he called a Native American a racial slur. He refused to wear an eyepatch and among his neo-Nazi skinhead friends gained a nickname "Cy", short for "Cyclops".


title: Daniel Lewis Lee

text: In January 1996, Lee and Kehoe left the state of Washington and traveled to Arkansas. On January 11, 1996, they arrived at the home of William Frederick Mueller, a gun dealer who lived near Tilly, Arkansas who possessed a large collection of weapons, ammunition, and cash. Kehoe and his father had robbed Mueller in February 1995, and Kehoe expected to find valuable property at the house. Dressed in police raid clothing, Lee and Kehoe tried to enter Mueller's home, but the family was not in. When they returned, Lee and Kehoe overpowered and incapacitated Mueller and his wife, Nancy Ann Mueller (née Branch). They then questioned Nancy Mueller's 8-year-old daughter, Sarah Elizabeth Powell, about where they could find the cash, guns, and ammunition, forcing her to talk by shocking her with an electric cattle prod. After finding $50,000 in cash and gold (), and $30,000 worth of firearms and firearm parts, they shot each of the three victims with a stun gun. They then placed plastic bags over their heads and sealed the bags with duct tape, suffocating them to death. They took the victims in Kehoe's vehicle to the Illinois Bayou river, away, where they taped rocks to them and threw each family member into the swamp. Lee received $3,000 or $4,000 and a pistol for his part in the crime. The bodies were discovered in Lake Dardanelle near Russellville, Arkansas in late June 1996.


title: Daniel Lewis Lee

text: Kehoe and his family took the stolen property to a motel in Spokane, Washington, by way of the Christian Identity community of Elohim City, Oklahoma. On June 17, 1997, Kehoe was arrested in Cedar City, Utah.


title: Daniel Lewis Lee

text: The Mueller family murders were a federal crime since they had been committed to support a racketeering enterprise. Prosecutors sought death sentences for both Kehoe and Lee.


title: Daniel Lewis Lee

text: When Kehoe was sentenced to life imprisonment, federal prosecutors initially planned to pursue a similar sentence of life imprisonment for accomplice Daniel Lewis Lee, but were directed by the United States Department of Justice in Washington, D.C. to argue for a death sentence. U.S. Attorney Paula Casey requested U.S. Attorney General Janet Reno withdraw jeopardy of capital punishment but was told by Deputy U.S. Attorney General Eric Holder to continue seeking a death sentence. On May 4, 1999, Lee received a death sentence for three counts of murder in aid of racketeering after the prosecution pointed to his previous convictions as evidence that he was a future danger to society. The mother of Nancy Mueller, Earlene Branch Peterson, pleaded for clemency on behalf of Lee. She stated, "I can't see how executing Daniel Lee will honor my daughter in any way. In fact, it's kinda like it dirties her name. Because she wouldn't want it and I don't want it."


title: Daniel Lewis Lee

text: In December 1999, the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit issued a writ of mandamus quashing Lee's subpoenas of Reno and Holder regarding the sentencing decision. In March 2000, District Judge Garnett Thomas Eisele granted Lee's motion for a new penalty phase trial if the Attorney General herself decided not to withdraw the death penalty. In December 2001, that judgment was reversed by the Eighth Circuit, which reinstated Lee's death sentence. In July 2004, the Eighth Circuit affirmed Lee's conviction and death sentence on the merits.


title: Daniel Lewis Lee

text: In April 2013, the Eighth Circuit affirmed the denial of Lee's "habeas corpus" petition challenging the constitutionality of his conviction. In July 2015, the Eighth Circuit affirmed the denial of Lee's subsequent habeas motion challenging the constitutionality of his prior habeas motion. Lee was scheduled to be executed on December 9, 2019, and would have been the first inmate to be executed by the federal government since the execution of Louis Jones Jr. in 2003. On November 20, 2019, U.S. District Judge Tanya S. Chutkan issued a preliminary injunction preventing the resumption of federal executions. Lee and the other three plaintiffs in the case argued that the use of pentobarbital may violate the Federal Death Penalty Act of 1994.


title: Daniel Lewis Lee

text: On December 5, 2019, an Indiana federal court stayed Lee's execution, but the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit vacated the Indiana federal court's stay of execution on December 6, 2019. Later that same day, the Supreme Court of the United States denied a stay of Chutkan's injunction against all federal executions while the U.S. Court of Appeals reviews Chutkan's decision.


title: Daniel Lewis Lee

text: In April 2020, a panel of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit vacated District Judge Chutkan's injunction in a "per curiam" decision. Circuit Judges Gregory G. Katsas and Neomi Rao both wrote concurring opinions concluding that Lee may be executed, but for different reasons. Circuit Judge David S. Tatel dissented, arguing that the statute explicitly requires the federal government to follow state execution protocols. On June 29, 2020, the Supreme Court denied Lee's petition for a writ of "certiorari", with Justices Ruth Bader Ginsburg and Sonia Sotomayor dissenting.


title: Daniel Lewis Lee

text: The execution date was set for July 13, 2020, the first of several federal executions scheduled after the D.C. Circuit's ruling. The victims' families asked for a rescheduling of the date, saying they were unable to travel to witness the execution due to the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States, but the Seventh Circuit ruled that while allowing the victims' families to attend such events is standard practice, there are no rights or legal basis for their attendance, and denied a change in date. The victims' families sent an emergency appeal to the Supreme Court. Before the Supreme Court could rule, Judge Chutkan ordered a halt to all federal executions on the basis that the process was "very likely to cause extreme pain and needless suffering". The Department of Justice appealed to both the Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit and the Supreme Court. The D.C. Circuit Court did not intervene. In the early morning of July 14, 2020, the Supreme Court lifted the hold that Judge Chutkan previously implemented in a 5–4 decision. This action allowed the Department of Justice to proceed with the execution; Lee's lawyers said that the execution could not go forward after midnight under federal regulations.


title: Daniel Lewis Lee

text: Lee was executed later that morning. When asked for a final statement, he denied committing the crime, stating, "I didn't do it. I've made a lot of mistakes in my life, but I'm not a murderer. You're killing an innocent man", and that he and Kehoe had been in a different part of the country when the crime occurred. Lee was pronounced dead at 8:07 a.m. after receiving a single-dose lethal injection of pentobarbital.


title: Daniel Lewis Lee

text: Lee was the first person to be executed by the United States federal government since the execution of Louis Jones Jr. in 2003. Overall, his execution was the fourth federal execution since legislation permitting the resumption of the practice was passed in 1988.


title: Daniel Lewis Lee

text: The Discovery Channel's docudrama series "The FBI Files" reenacts the behavior of Kehoe and Lee while also showing the forensic science used by the FBI to arrest them in season 2, episode 16, "Deadly Mission", originally aired: 2000.


title: Battle of Issus

text: The Battle of Issus (also Issos) occurred in southern Anatolia, on November 5, 333 BC between the Hellenic League led by Alexander the Great and the Achaemenid Empire, led by Darius III. It was the second great battle of Alexander's conquest of Asia, and the first encounter between Darius III and Alexander the Great. The battle resulted in the Macedonian troops defeating the Persian forces.


title: Battle of Issus

text: After the Hellenic League soundly defeated the Persian satraps of Asia Minor (led by Greek mercenary Memnon of Rhodes) at the Battle of the Granicus, Darius took personal command of his army. He gathered reinforcements and proceeded to lead his men in a surprise march behind the Hellenic advance, in order to cut off their line of supply. Alexander was forced to countermarch, and the stage was set for the battle near the mouth of the Pinarus River and the town of Issus.


title: Battle of Issus

text: The battle took place south of the ancient town Issus, which is close to the present-day Turkish town of Iskenderun (the Turkish equivalent of "Alexandria", founded by Alexander to commemorate his victory), on either side of a small river called Pinarus. At that location, the distance from the Gulf of Issus to the surrounding mountains is only , a place where Darius could not take advantage of his superiority in numbers. Speculation on the location of the Pinarus has taken place for over 80 years. Older historians believed it to be the Deli Tchai river, but historians N.G.L. Hammond and A. M. Devine claim that the Pinarus is actually the Payas River, the latter using his own examination of the course of the river, which he considered would not have drastically changed since antiquity. Their evidence is based on Callisthenes' accounts of the measurements of the battlefield and distances marched by both sides' armies in the prelude to the battle and distance given by Diodorus after the battle.


title: Battle of Issus

text: Alexander set out into Asia in 334 BC and defeated the local Persian satraps at the Battle of the Granicus. He then proceeded to occupy all of Asia Minor, with the idea of capturing all coastal settlements so as to negate the power of the vastly superior Persian fleet. He captured several important settlements such as Miletus in 334 BC and Halicarnassus, a siege lasting four months, starting in late December the same year. While Alexander was in Tarsus, he heard of Darius massing a great army in Babylon. If Darius were to reach the Gulf of Issus, he could use the support from the Persian fleet under Pharnabazus still operating in the Mediterranean Sea, thus easing his supply and possibly landing troops behind the enemy. Alexander kept his main army at Tarsus but sent Parmenion ahead to occupy the coast around Issus. In November, Alexander received reports that the great Persian army had advanced into Syria to a town named Sochoi. Alexander decided to mass his scattered army and advance south from Issus through the Pass of Jonah.


title: Battle of Issus

text: Darius knew that Parmenion held the Pass of Jonah and thus chose a northern route of advance. The Persians captured Issus without opposition and cut off the hands of all the sick and wounded that Alexander had left behind. Now Darius found out he had placed his army behind the Hellenic League and had cut their supply lines. He then advanced to the south and got no further than the river Pinarus before his scouts spotted Alexander marching north. Darius had to set up camp on this narrow coastal plain.


title: Battle of Issus

text: There is much debate as to the motives of Alexander and Darius preceding Issus. One modern perspective, based on Curtius, is that Darius was forced to move camp to terrain that favored Alexander because Alexander was fighting defensively due to a recommendation by his war council and Parmenion. Darius' large army could not be supported in the field during winter and his cities in Phoenicia were already in unrest at the arrival of Alexander. Darius was forced to move his large army to a small battlefield, greatly to the advantage of Alexander's smaller force.


title: Battle of Issus

text: Alexander was waiting for Darius to come south around the Amanus Mountain range because the pass Darius would have used, the Belen Pass, was much closer to Sochi and offered the quickest access to the area Alexander defended. Alexander was waiting to the west of the Belen Pass at Myriandus to spring a trap on Darius as he crossed through the Belen Pass or through the Pillar of Jonah if he moved north, where Darius' army would be disorganized and disjointed in the narrow crossing. Darius instead moved north from Sochi and around the mountains, through the Amanic Gate or another nearby pass, emerging behind Alexander's position and on his supply and communication lines. Thus Alexander was forced to march to Darius, who had caught him off guard in a large flanking maneuver. This gives the illusion that Darius was the one acting defensively, since Alexander was forced to march to him.


title: Battle of Issus

text: Some ancient sources (Arrian and Plutarch), who based their accounts on earlier Greek sources, estimated 600,000 Persian soldiers in total, while Diodorus and Justin estimated 400,000, and Curtius Rufus estimated 250,000.


title: Battle of Issus

text: Modern historians find Arrian's count of 600,000 men highly unlikely. They argue that the logistics of fielding more than 100,000 soldiers in battle was extremely difficult at the time. Hans Delbrück gives an estimate as small as 25,000, although most (including Engels and Green) estimate the total size of Darius' army to be no larger than 100,000 at Issus, including 11,000 cavalry, 10,000 Persian Immortals, and 10,000 Greek mercenaries. Warry estimates 108,000 in total.


title: Battle of Issus

text: The size of the Hellenic army may not have exceeded 40,000 men, including their other allies, led by Alexander. Alexander's army may have consisted of about 24,000 heavy infantry (9,000 phalangites, 3,000 hypaspists and 7,000 allied and 5,000 mercenary Greek hoplites), 13,000 light infantry (peltasts, archers, slingers) and 5,850 cavalry.


title: Battle of Issus

text: The Greeks advanced through the Pillar of Jonah. Alexander led his Companion cavalry on the right flank and he set his Thessalian allied cavalry on the left of the phalanx with Parmenion in command.


title: Battle of Issus

text: Darius formed his line with his heavy cavalry concentrated next to the coast on his right, followed by the Greek mercenary phalanx (historian A. M. Devine places them at a strength of 12,000, comparable to Alexander's Greek phalanx). Next to the Greek phalanx Darius spread his Persian infantry, the Cardaces, along the river and into the foothills, where they wrapped around to the other bank and threatened Alexander's right flank (the formation resembled "gamma", Γ). Arrian gives an inflated figure of 20,000 to these troops. Darius positioned himself in the centre with the Greek mercenaries, his royal cavalry guard, and his best infantry. According to some historians, like P. Stratikis, he was trying to replicate the Hellenic battle formation of the Battle of the Granicus.


title: Battle of Issus

text: The Persian cavalry first charged Parmenion and the allied cavalry, crossing the river to open battle. Alexander's right wing became the crux of the battle, as at Gaugamela two years later, where Parmenion held the left wing long enough against superior Persian numbers for Alexander to make his calculated cavalry strike against Darius and break the Persian army. The infantry of the Greek left flank was commanded by the general Craterus, in a promotion from his position commanding a single brigade of "pezhetairoi" infantry at the Granicus.


title: Battle of Issus

text: Things did not go well for the Macedonians in the beginning. Their center phalanx, having to advance across a river and up a fortified bank, suffered severely against the Greek mercenaries waiting for them on the other side. Arrian noted that a hundred and twenty Macedonians “of note” (probably meaning officers) were slain here, and the Macedonians were forced to retreat across the river. In the left flank, the Thessalian struggled against the outnumbering mass of Persian heavy horse that faced them, delivering charges and retreating again to buy time.


title: Battle of Issus

text: Then the Hypaspists led by Alexander on foot delivered an assault on the Cardaces, and managed to punch a hole through the Persian line. The Agrianians too drove back a mass of Persian skirmishers menacing Alexander's far right, securing the flank of the Companions. Alexander then mounted a horse at the head of his Companions and led a direct assault against Darius and his bodyguards, causing them to flee from the battlefield. Alexander then saw his left flank and center in trouble, and allowing Darius to flee, he crashed into the rear of the Greek mercenaries. The Greek mercenaries broke up and started retreating from the battlefield as well. The Persians saw that their Great King had gone and that the battle was being lost, and they abandoned their positions and fled in full rout. The Hellenic cavalry pursued the fleeing Persians for as long as there was light. As with most ancient battles, significant carnage occurred after the battle as the pursuing Greeks slaughtered their crowded, disorganized foe. Arrian notes Ptolemy mentioning that while pursuing Darius, Alexander and his bodyguards came upon a ravine which they easily crossed on the piled up bodies of dead Persians. It was a decisive victory for Alexander.


title: Battle of Issus

text: The Battle of Issus was a decisive Hellenic victory and it marked the beginning of the end of Persian power. It was the first time the Persian army had been defeated with the King (Darius III at the time) present. After the battle, the Hellenes captured Darius' wife, Stateira I, his daughters, Stateira II and Drypetis, and his mother, Sisygambis, all of whom had accompanied Darius on his campaign. Alexander, who later married Stateira II, treated the captured women with great respect.


title: Battle of Issus

text: Later, the Spartan king Agis III recruited the Greek mercenary survivors of the Battle of Issus who had served in the Persian army, a force of 8,000 veterans, and used them in his fight against the Macedonians. In the summer of 331 BC, Agis defeated Coragus, the Macedonian general in command of the Peloponnese and the garrison of Corinth, but was finally defeated at the Battle of Megalopolis.


title: Sheryl Swoopes

text: Sheryl Denise Swoopes (born March 25, 1971) is an American former professional basketball player. She was the first player to be signed in the WNBA, is a three-time WNBA MVP, and was named one of the league's Top 15 Players of All Time at the 2011 WNBA All-Star Game. Swoopes has won three Olympic gold medals and is one of eleven women's basketball players to have won an Olympic gold medal, an NCAA Championship, a Fiba world cup gold, and a WNBA title. She was elected to the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in 2016. In 2017, she was inducted into the Women's Basketball Hall of Fame.


title: Sheryl Swoopes

text: Born in Brownfield, Texas, Swoopes was raised by her mother, Louise Swoopes, and played basketball with her three older brothers. She began competing at age seven in a local children's league called Little Dribblers. She played basketball at Brownfield High School.


title: Sheryl Swoopes

text: Initially recruited by the University of Texas, Swoopes left the school shortly after her arrival without playing a game and enrolled at South Plains College. After playing at South Plains for two years, Swoopes transferred to Texas Tech, near her hometown.


title: Sheryl Swoopes

text: In 1993, Swoopes won the NCAA women's basketball championship with the Texas Tech Lady Raiders during her senior season. Her jersey was retired by the school the following year, making her one of only three Lady Raiders to be honored in this way. The others are Carolyn Thompson and Krista Kirkland, Swoopes' teammate from the 1993 championship team.


title: Sheryl Swoopes

text: As of 2010, Swoopes was still a part of the women's basketball record books in many categories, including single-game scoring record (53 points on March 13, 1993 vs. Texas, tied for tenth place), single-season scoring (955 points in the 1993 season, fourth place), highest championship tournament scoring average (35.4 in the 1993 tournament, second place), best single-game championship scoring performance (47 points vs. Ohio State, 1993 championship), which broke Bill Walton's record, and scoring record for championship series (177 points, five games). She set the record for the most field goals in the championship game with 16.


title: Sheryl Swoopes

text: Swoopes also set several school records at Texas Tech. She scored 955 in the 1992–93 season, which is an all-time scoring record for a single season (as of 2006). Swoopes' 24.9 points-per-game average for her career is the best in school history; she also boasts three triple-doubles and 23 double-doubles, 14 of which came during her senior year.


title: Sheryl Swoopes

text: Swoopes was the 1993 winner of the Naismith College Player of the Year award, the Honda Sports Award, was selected as that year's WBCA Player of the Year, and was chosen to the Division I All-American squad in both 1992 and 1993. Swoopes was named the 1993 Sportswoman of the Year (in the team category) by the Women's Sports Foundation.


title: Sheryl Swoopes

text: Swoopes was named to the USA national team and competed in the 1994 World Championships, held in June 1994 in Sydney, Australia. The team was coached by Tara VanDerveer, and won their first six games, when they faced Brazil. In a closely contested, high-scoring game, Brazil hit 10 of 10 free throws in the final minute to secure a 110–107 victory. The USA won a close final game against Australia 100–95 to earn the bronze medal. Swoopes averaged 9.1 points per game, while recording seven steals, second-highest on the team.


title: Sheryl Swoopes

text: Swoopes was selected to represent the US at the 1995 USA Women's Pan American Games, but only four teams committed to participate, so the event was cancelled.


title: Sheryl Swoopes

text: Swoopes continued as a member of the USA team at the 1996 Olympics, held in Atlanta, Georgia. The USA team won all their pool play games by large margins, although they were behind Cuba by as many as seven points before Lisa Leslie's 24 points helped the USA take over the game.


title: Sheryl Swoopes

text: In 2002, Swoopes was named to the national team which competed in the World Championships in Zhangjiagang, Changzhou, and Nanjing, China. The team was coached by Van Chancellor. Swoopes scored 16.9 points per game, second-highest on the team and recorded a team-high 24 steals. The USA team won all nine games, including a close title game against Russia, which had a one-point difference late in the game.


title: Sheryl Swoopes

text: Swoopes was named to the National Team representing the US at the 2006 World Championships, held in Barueri and Sao Paulo, Brazil. The team won eight of their nine contests, but the lone loss came in the semifinal medal round to Russia. The USA beat Brazil in the final game to earn the bronze medal. Swoopes, hampered by injuries, averaged 3.0 points per game and was second on the team with six blocks.


title: Sheryl Swoopes

text: Swoopes was recruited for the Houston Comets of the WNBA during the 1997 inaugural season. She returned only six weeks after giving birth to her son to play the last third of the WNBA inaugural season and led the Comets in the 1997 WNBA Championship. As a member of the Houston Comets, she accumulated over 2,000 career points, 500 career rebounds, 300 career assists, and 200 career steals. Her extraordinary scoring and defensive ability made her the first three-time WNBA MVP (2000, 2002, and 2005) and the first three-time WNBA Defensive Player of the Year (2000, 2002, and 2003). Swoopes is a four-time WNBA champion (1997–2000).


title: Sheryl Swoopes

text: Swoopes is the second player in WNBA history to win both the regular season MVP award and the All-Star Game MVP award in the same season. The first player to accomplish this was Lisa Leslie. Swoopes is also the first player in WNBA history to record a triple-double in both the regular season and the playoffs.


title: Sheryl Swoopes

text: Swoopes gained national prominence when she won the gold medal with the USA Basketball Women's National Team at the 1996 Olympic Games and became a focal point of the fledgling WNBA. The 1996 Olympic win over Brazil (117–87) is considered by some to be the "best woman's basketball game they'd ever seen." She is a three-time Olympic gold medalist (1996, 2000, and 2004).


title: Sheryl Swoopes

text: Swoopes is the first women's basketball player to have a Nike shoe named after her: the "Air Swoopes".


title: Sheryl Swoopes

text: On March 3, 2008, Swoopes signed with the Seattle Storm, ending her 11-year career with the Houston Comets. She was waived by the Storm on February 3, 2009.


title: Sheryl Swoopes

text: Two days after her 40th birthday in 2011, sources for the Associated Press claimed that Swoopes was preparing to return to the WNBA in anticipation of an official signing announcement from the Tulsa Shock. At the 2011 WNBA All-Star Game, she was announced as one of the top 15 players in the 15-year history of the WNBA.


title: Sheryl Swoopes

text: On August 26, 2011, the 40-year-old Swoopes hit a buzzer-beating shot to edge the Los Angeles Sparks 77–75 and end the Shock's WNBA-record 20-game losing streak.


title: Sheryl Swoopes

text: Swoopes became an unrestricted free agent after the 2011 season: Tulsa Shock owner Steve Swetoha announced on 15 February 2012 that the team did not intend to offer Swoopes a new contract. As of the beginning of the 2012 preseason on 5 May, Swoopes remained an unsigned free agent. While no official announcement has been made, when Swoopes began blogging at the "Shape" magazine website during the 2012 Olympic Summer Games, she identified herself as "a former professional basketball player." In 2016, she was voted into the WNBA Top 20@20, in celebration of the league's 20th anniversary.


title: Sheryl Swoopes

text: In 2008, Sheryl Swoopes made an appearance on "Shirts & Skins", a reality series on Logo TV. Swoopes mentored the San Francisco Rockdogs, a gay basketball team, and shared her experiences on basketball, family, faith, and coming out.


title: Sheryl Swoopes

text: Swoopes was a color analyst for the Texas Tech women's basketball broadcast during the 2012–2013 season.


title: Sheryl Swoopes

text: In 2013, Swoopes became head coach of the Loyola University Chicago women's basketball team. In April 2016, Loyola announced that it was investigating Swoopes of alleged mistreatment, after the school newspaper reported that 10 of the team's players have either transferred or want a release from their scholarships. On July 4, 2016, Loyola announced it had fired Swoopes as a result of the investigation but declined to say what it had found.


title: Sheryl Swoopes

text: In July 2017, Swoopes returned to her alma mater, Texas Tech, hired as the women's basketball program's Director of Player Development, where her job included resuming work as broadcast color analysis for Lady Raiders games. Following the firing of head coach Candi Whitaker on January 1, 2018, Swoopes was promoted to regular assistant coach under interim head coach Shimmy Gray-Miller.


title: Sheryl Swoopes

text: Swoopes was married from June 1995 to 1999 to her high school sweetheart, with whom she has one son, Jordan Eric Jackson (b. 1997).


title: Sheryl Swoopes

text: In October 2005, Swoopes announced she was gay, becoming one of the highest-profile athletes in a team sport to do so publicly. Swoopes said, "it doesn't change who I am. I can't help who I fall in love with. No one can. ... Discovering I'm gay just sort of happened much later in life. Being intimate with [Alisa] or any other woman never entered my mind. At the same time, I'm a firm believer that when you fall in love with somebody, you can't control that." She and her partner, former basketball player and Houston Comets assistant coach Alisa Scott, together raised Swoopes' son. The couple broke up in 2011. Later that year, Swoopes got engaged to Chris Unclesho, a longtime male friend; the couple wed after a long engagement on July 21, 2017.


title: Sheryl Swoopes

text: Swoopes won the female Associated Press Athlete of the Year award in 1993. The same year, she also won the Honda Sports Award for basketball and the WBCA Player of the Year award. She was named one of the 20 female athletes of the decade for 2000 to 2010 by "Sports Illustrated". She was named an LGBT History Month Icon by the Equality Forum.


title: Peking Man

text: Peking Man (Homo erectus pekinensis) is a subspecies of "H. erectus" which inhabited the Zhoukoudian Cave of northern China during the Middle Pleistocene. The first fossil, a tooth, was discovered in 1921, and the Zhoukoudian Cave has since then become the most productive "H. erectus" site in the world. Peking Man was instrumental in the foundation of Chinese anthropology, and fostered an important dialogue between Western and Eastern science for decades to come. The fossils became the centre of anthropological discussion, and were classified as a direct human ancestor, propping up the Out of Asia hypothesis that humans evolved in Asia. Peking Man also played a vital role in the restructuring of the Chinese identity following the Chinese Communist Revolution, and was intensively communicated to working class and peasant communities to introduce them to Marxism and science (overturning deeply-rooted superstitions and creation myths). Early models of Peking Man society strongly leaned towards communist or nationalist ideals, leading to discussions on primitive communism and polygenism. This produced a strong schism between Western and Eastern interpretations, especially as the West adopted the Out of Africa hypothesis by late 1967, and Peking Man's role in human evolution diminished as merely an offshoot of the human line. Though Out of Africa is now the consensus, Peking Man interbreeding with human ancestors is frequently discussed especially in Chinese circles.


title: Peking Man

text: Peking Man is characterised by a long and heavily fortified skull, featuring an inflated bar of bone circumscribing the crown, crossing along the brow ridge, over the ears, and connecting at the back of the skull, as well as a sagittal keel running across the midline. The bone of the skull and long bones is exorbitantly thickened. The face was protrusive (midfacial prognathism), eye sockets wide, jaws robust and chinless, and teeth large. Brain volume ranged from 850 to 1,225 cc, for an average of just over 1,000 cc (compared to an average of 1,270 cc for present-day modern males and 1,130 for present-day modern females). The limbs are broadly anatomically comparable to those of modern humans. "H. erectus" in such northerly latitudes may have averaged roughly in height, compared to for more tropical populations.


title: Peking Man

text: Peking Man lived in a cool, predominantly steppe, partially forested environment, alongside deer, rhinos, elephants, bison, buffalo, bears, wolves, big cats, and a menagerie of other creatures. Peking Man intermittently inhabited the Zhoukoudian Cave, but the exact chronology is unclear, with estimates as far back as 780,000 years ago and as recent as 230,000 years ago. This spans several cold glacial and warm interglacial periods. The cultural complexity of Peking Man is fiercely debated. If the inhabitants were capable of hunting (as opposed to predominantly scavenging), making clothes, and controlling fire, they would have been well-equipped to survive frigid glacial periods. If not, they would have had to retreat southward and return later. It is further disputed how the Peking Man fossils were predominantly deposited in the cave, either because they lived and died there, or they were killed by giant hyaenas ("Pachycrocuta") and dumped there, in addition to other natural processes. Over 100,000 pieces of stone tools were recovered, mainly small and inconsistently shaped flakes no more than long, but they were sometimes refined into scrapers, choppers, and, towards the later end of occupation, points, burins, and awls.


title: Peking Man

text: In 1921, near the city of Beijing (also romanised as Peking), Swedish archaeologist Johan Gunnar Andersson was teaching Austrian palaeontologist Otto Zdansky and American archaeologist Walter Granger how to work on Chinese sites near the village of Zhoukoudian ("shop on the Zhoukou”) at the Chi Ku Shan ("Chicken Bone Hill") locality, when they were advised by local quarrymen to dig at the nearby Longgushan ("Dragon Bone Hill") locality. Zdansky found the first human tooth in the site that year, specimen PMU M3550, but only reported it in 1926. On 16 October 1927, Swedish archaeological student Anders Birger Bohlin extracted another tooth, specimen K11337: 3, which Davidson Black made the holotype of a new taxon, "Sinanthropus pekinensis".


title: Peking Man

text: That year, Chinese geologist Wēng Wénhào drafted an agreement with all the Zhoukoudian scientists at the time that the Zhoukoudian remains remain in China. In 1928, the Chinese government similarly clamped down on the exportation of Chinese artefacts and other archaeologically relevant materials to the West for study, as this was viewed as an imperialistic attack; foreign scientists were instead encouraged to research these materials within China. In 1929, Canadian palaeoanthropologist Davidson Black persuaded the Peking Union Medical College (his employer), the Geological Survey of China (headed by Wēng), and the Rockefeller Foundation to found and fund the Cenozoic Research Laboratory and continue excavation.


title: Peking Man

text: On 2 December 1929, Chinese anthropologist Péi Wénzhōng discovered a surprisingly complete skullcap, and the Zhoukoudian proved to be a valuable site, with a preponderance of human remains, stone tools, and potential evidence of early fire use, becoming the most productive "Homo erectus" site in the world. An additional four rather complete skullcaps were discovered by 1936, three of which were unearthed over an 11-day period in November 1936, overseen by Chinese palaeoanthropologist Jiǎ Lánpō. Excavation employed 10 to over 100 local labourers depending on the stage, who were paid five or six jiao per day, in contrast to local coal miners who only received a pittance of 40 to 50 yuan annually. The Zhoukoudian also employed some of the biggest names in Western and Chinese geology, palaeontology, palaeoanthropology, and archaeology, and facilitated an important discourse and collaboration between these two civilisations. After Black's sudden death in 1934, Jewish anatomist Franz Weidenreich, who fled Nazi Germany, carried on Black's study of the Zhoukoudian.


title: Peking Man

text: In 1941, to safeguard them during the Second Sino-Japanese War, the Zhoukoudian human fossils—representing at least 40 different individuals—and artefacts were deposited into two wooden footlockers and were to be transported by the United States Marine Corps from the Peking Union Medical College to the "SS President Harrison" which was to dock at Qinhuangdao Port (near the Marine basecamp Camp Holcomb), and eventually arrive at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City. En route to Qinhuangdao, the ship was attacked by Japanese warships, and ran aground. Though there have been many attempts to locate the crates—including offering large cash rewards—it is unknown what happened to them after they left the college.


title: Peking Man

text: Rumours about the fate of the fossils range from their having been on board a Japanese ship (the "Awa Maru") or an American ship that was sunk, to being ground up for traditional Chinese medicine. The affair also provoked allegations of robbery against Japanese or American groups, especially during the Resist America, Aid Korea Campaign in 1950 and 1951 to promote anti-American sentiment during the Korean War.


title: Peking Man

text: Marine Richard Bowen recalled finding a box filled with bones while digging a foxhole one night next to some stone barracks in Qinhuangdao. This happened in 1947 while the city was under siege by the CCP Eighth Route Army, who were under fire from Nationalist gunboats (a conflict of the Chinese Civil War). According to Mr. Wang Qingpu who had written a report for the Chinese government on the history of the port, if Bowen's story is accurate, the most probable location of the bones is underneath roads, a warehouse, or a parking lot.


title: Peking Man

text: Four of the teeth from the original excavation period are still in the possession of the Paleontological Museum of Uppsala University in Sweden.


title: Peking Man

text: Excavation of the Zhoukoudian had halted from 1941 until the conclusion of the Chinese Civil War and the formation of the People's Republic of China in 1949 under Mao Zedong. Field work took place in 1949, 1951, 1958–1960, 1966, and 1978–1981. Given the meticulousness of the dig teams, going so far as to sieve out unidentifiable fragments as small as long, excavation of the Zhoukoudian is generally considered to be more or less complete.


title: Peking Man

text: Through the Mao era, but most especially in 1950 and 1951, Peking Man took on a central role in the restructuring of the Chinese identity under the new government, specifically to link socialist ideologies with human evolution. Peking Man was taught in educational books for all levels, pop science magazines and articles, museums, and lectures given in workspaces, including factories. This campaign was primarily to introduce the general populace (including those without advanced education) to Marxism, as well as to overturn widespread superstitions, traditions, and creation myths. Nonetheless, research was constricted as scientists were compelled to fit new discoveries within the frame of communism. In 1960, the lab was converted into an independent organisation as the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology (IVPP), a division of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, and was headed by Péi, Jiǎ, and Chinese palaeoanthropologist Yang Zhongjian.


title: Peking Man

text: During the Cultural Revolution from 1966 to 1976, all intellectuals, including scientists, came under much persecution, and among other things were conscripted into manual labour as part of a campaign to turn "intellectuals into labourers and labourers into intellectuals", which impeded research. Though palaeoanthropology was still able to continue, the field became much less important to the Chinese government with its new resolve to become economically independent, and popular science topics switched from human evolution to production-related matters. As the Revolution's policies relaxed after 1970, palaeoanthropology and academia resurged, especially with the rise of Deng Xiaoping in 1978 (renowned as a "springtime for science"). The Zhoukoudian had been threatened several times by nearby mining operations or acid rain from air pollution, but the post-Mao China also witnessed budding environmentalist actions. To this extent, the United Nations declared the Zhoukoudian to be a World Heritage Site in 1987, and custody of the site was handed over from the IVPP to the city of Beijing (which has greater resources) in 2002.


title: Peking Man

text: The productivity of the Zhoukoudian elicited strong palaeoanthropological interest in China, and 14 other fossil-bearing sites have since been discovered across the country as of 2016 in the Yuanmou, Tiandong, Jianshi, Yunxian, Lantian, Luonan, Yiyuan, Nanzhao, Nanjing, Hexian, and Dongzhi counties.


title: Peking Man

text: The Zhoukoudian Cave currently sits above sea level. The fossil-bearing sediments are divided into 27 localities, and Peking Man is known from Locality 1 ("Dragon Bone Hill"). This deep locality is further divided into 17 layers, of which fossils are found above Layer 13, and Peking Man from Layers 10–3. The fossil-bearing regions can also be organised into Loci A–O. Major stone tool accumulations occur in Layers 3 and 4, and the tops of Layers 8 and 10. The animal fossils in the locality suggest it dates to the Middle Pleistocene. There have been a myriad of attempts and methodologies to more finely tune the date of each layer, starting in the late 1970s. In 1985, Chinese scientist Zhao Shusen proposed the chronology: 700,000 years ago for Layer 13; 500,000 years ago for Layer 10; and 230,000 years ago for Layers 3. Though these general timeframes are normally agreed upon, the exact date of each layer is subject to intense discussion. In 2004, Shen Chengde and colleagues argued Layer 3 was deposited 400 to 500 thousand years ago, and Layer 10 as far back as about 600 to 800 thousand year ago, during a mild glacial period. The earliest "H. erectus" fossils in all of China, Yuanmou Man, may date to 1.7 million years ago, though stone tools from the Shangchen site in Lantian, central China, extend the occupation of the region to as far back as 2.12 million years ago.


title: Peking Man

text: Because human remains (encompassing males, females, and children), tools, and evidence of fire were found in so many layers, it has often been assumed Peking Man lived in the cave for hundreds of thousands of years. In 1929, French archaeologist Henri Breuil suggested the overabundance of skulls compared to body remains is conspicuous, and hypothesised the remains represent the trophies of cannibalistic headhunters, either a band of "H. erectus" or a more "advanced" species of human. In 1937, French palaeoanthropologist Marcellin Boule believed the Peking Man brain was insufficiently developed for such behaviour, based on its small size, and suggested the skulls belonged to a primitive species and the limbs to a more evolved one, the latter manufacturing stone tools and cannibalising the former. Weidenreich did not believe brain size could be a dependable measure of cultural complexity, but, in 1939, he detailed the pathology of the Peking Man fossils and came to the conclusion of cannibalism or headhunting. The majority of the remains bear evidence of scars or injuries which he ascribed to attacks from clubs or stone tools; all the skulls have broken-in bases which he believed was done to extract the brain; and the femora (thigh bones) have lengthwise splits, which he supposed was done to harvest the bone marrow. Weidenreich's sentiments became widely popular. Another school of thought, proposed by Péi in 1929, held that individuals were dragged in by hyenas. In 1939, pioneering the field of taphonomy (the study of fossilisation), German palaeontologist highlighted parallels between the Zhoukoudian fossils and cow bones gnawed by hyaenas he studied at Vienna Zoo. Weidenreich subsequently conceded in 1941 that the breaking-off of the epiphyses of long bones is most likely due to hyena activity, but he was unconvinced that hyenas broke open the skull base or were capable of creating the long splits in the robust femora, still ascribing those to stone-tool-wielding cannibals.


title: Peking Man

text: After World War II, the hypothesis that Peking Man inhabited the cave once again became the mainstay, modeled around Jiǎ's 1975 book "The Cave Home of Peking Man". In 1985, American archaeologist Lewis Binford and Chinese palaeoanthropologist Ho Chuan Kun instead hypothesised that Zhoukoudian was a "trap" which humans and animals fell into. They further proposed deer remains, earlier assumed to have been Peking Man's prey, were, in fact, predominantly carried in by the giant hyaena "Pachycrocuta", and ash was deposited by naturally occurring wildfires, fueled by bat guano, as they did not believe any human species had yet mastered hunting or fire at this time. In 2001, American geologist Paul Goldberg, Israeli archaeologist Steve Weiner, and colleagues determined Layer 4 was primarily deposited with loess (wind-blown dust), and Layer 3 with travertine (water-lain limestone). They also concluded that supposed evidence of fire is actually a result of completely different depositional circumstances related to water. In 2000, American anthropologist Noel T. Boaz and colleagues argued the state of the bones is consistent with general hyena biting, gnawing, and bone-crunching, and suggested "Pachycrocuta", the largest known hyena to have ever lived, was more than capable of splitting robust bones, contrary to Weidenreich. They identified bite marks on 67% of the Peking Man fossils (28 specimens), and attributed this and all other perimortem (around the time of death) damage to hyenas. Boaz and colleagues conceded that stone tools must indicate human activity in (or at least near) the cave, but, with few exceptions, tools were randomly scattered across the layers (as mentioned by several previous scientists), which Goldberg and colleagues ascribed to bioturbation . This means that the distribution of the tools gives no indication of the duration of human habitation. In 2016, Shuangquan Zhang and colleagues were unable to detect significant evidence of animal, human, or water damage to the few deer bones collected from Layer 3, and concluded they simply fell into the cave from above. They noted taphonomic debates are nonetheless still ongoing. Indeed, the fire debate is still heated, with Chinese palaeoanthropologist Xing Gao and colleagues declaring "clear-cut evidence for intentional fire use" in 2017.


title: Peking Man

text: Despite what Charles Darwin had hypothesised in his 1871 "Descent of Man", many late-19th century evolutionary naturalists postulated that Asia (instead of Africa) was the birthplace of humankind as it is midway between all continents via land routes or short sea crossings, providing optimal dispersal routes throughout the world. Among the latter was Ernst Haeckel who argued that the first human species (which he proactively named ""Homo primigenius"") evolved on the now-disproven hypothetical continent "Lemuria" in what is now Southeast Asia, from a genus he termed ""Pithecanthropus"" ("ape-man"). "Lemuria" had supposedly sunk below the Indian Ocean, so no fossils could be found to prove this. Nevertheless, Haeckel's model inspired Dutch scientist Eugène Dubois to join the Dutch East India Company and search for his "missing link" in Java. He found a skullcap and a femur (Java Man) which he named ""P. erectus"" (using Haeckel's hypothetical genus name) and unfruitfully attempted to convince the European scientific community that he had found an upright-walking ape-man dating to the late Pliocene or early Pleistocene, who dismissed his findings as some kind of malformed non-human ape. Dejected, Dubois fully withdrew from anthropology by the turn of the century.


title: Peking Man

text: Instead, in regard to the ancestry of Far Eastern peoples, racial anthropologists had long placed the origin of Chinese civilisation in the Near East, namely Babylon as suggested by French archaeologist Terrien de Lacouperie in 1894, whereby the Chinese peoples regressed compared to the superior races of Europe (degeneration theory). This came under fire by the time Peking Man was discovered, when China was in the midst of the New Culture Movement and surging nationalism subsequent to the fall of the Qing dynasty and the establishment of the Republic of China. These ideologies not only aimed to remove imperialistic influences, but also to replace ancient Chinese traditions and superstitions with western science to modernise the country, and lift its standing on the world stage to that of Europe. Consequently, unlike previously discovered extinct human species, notably the Neanderthal and Java Man, the Peking Man was readily accepted into the human family tree. In the West, this was aided by a popularising hypothesis for the origin of humanity in Central Asia, championed primarily by American palaeontologist Henry Fairfield Osborn and his apprentice William Diller Matthew. They believed that Asia was the "mother of continents" and the rising of the Himalayas and Tibet and subsequent drying of the region forced human ancestors to become terrestrial and bipedal. They also believed that populations which retreated to the tropics – namely Dubois' Java Man and the "Negroid race" — substantially regressed (again, degeneration theory). This required them to reject Raymond Dart's far more ancient South African Taung child ("Australopithecus africanus") as a human ancestor, favouring the hoax Piltdown Man from Britain.


title: Peking Man

text: In 1927, Black classified newly discovered human remains from the Zhoukoudian into a new genus and species as ""Sinanthropus pekinensis"". The Peking Man, with a brain volume much larger than living apes, was used to further invalidate African or European origin models. Peking Man's importance in human evolution was championed by geologist Amadeus William Grabau in the 1930s, who pushed that the lifting of the Himalayas caused the emergence of proto-humans (""Protanthropus"") in the Miocene, who then dispersed during the Pliocene into the Tarim Basin in Northwest China where they learned to control fire and make stone tools, and then went out to colonise the rest of the Old World where they evolved into ""Pithecanthropus"" in Southeast Asia, ""Sinanthropus"" in China, ""Eoanthropus"" (Piltdown Man) in Europe, and ""Homo"" in Africa (again abiding by degeneration theory). To explain the paucity of stone tools in Asia compared to Europe (an apparent contradiction if humans had occupied Asia for longer), he also stated that Pleistocene Central Asia was too cold to permit back-migration by early modern humans or Neanderthals until the Neolithic. The Central Asia model was the leading consensus of the time.


title: Peking Man

text: Peking Man became an important matter of national pride, and was used to extend the antiquity of the Chinese people and the occupation of the region to 500,000 years ago, with discussions of human evolution becoming progressively Sinocentric even in Europe. In the 1930s, Weidenreich already began arguing that Peking Man was ancestral to the "Mongoloid race", forwarding his multiregional theory where local populations of archaic humans evolved into the local modern humans (polygenism), though other scientists working on the site made no such claims. This sentiment, that all Chinese ethnic groups—including the Han, Tibetan, and Mongols—were indigenous to the area for such a long time, became more popular during the Second Sino-Japanese War and the occupation of China by Japan. By the Maoist era, Peking Man was ubiquitously heralded as a human ancestor in China.


title: Peking Man

text: In the 1950s, Ernst Mayr had entered the field of anthropology, and, surveying a "bewildering diversity of names," decided to subsume human fossils into three species of "Homo": ""H. transvaalensis"" (the australopithecines), "H. erectus" (including ""Sinanthropus"", ""Pithecanthropus"", and various other putative Asian, African, and European taxa), and "Homo sapiens" (including anything younger than "H. erectus", such as modern humans and Neanderthals), as had been broadly recommended by various priors. Mayr defined them as a sequential lineage, with each species evolving into the next (chronospecies). Though later Mayr changed his opinion on the australopithecines (recognising "Australopithecus"), his more conservative view of archaic human diversity became widely adopted in the subsequent decades. Thus, Peking Man was considered a human ancestor in both Western and Eastern thought. Nonetheless, Chinese and Soviet scientists wholly denounced polygenism, viewing it as scientific racism propagated by Western capitalist scholars. They instead argued all modern human races are closely related to each other.


title: Peking Man

text: The contributions of Chinese scientists during the Mao era were under much suspicion in the West for fears of propagandic contamination. In the 60s and 70s, the position of the more ancient "Australopithecus" in human evolution once again became a centre of debate; in China, Wú Rǔkāng argued that "Australopithecus" was the "missing link" between apes and humans, but was met with much derision from Chinese peers, most notably soldier Lài Jīnliáng. Following the "opening" of China with the rise of Dèng Xiǎopíng in 1978, Western works contradictory to Maoist ideology disseminated through China, radically altering Eastern anthropological discussions. By the late 20th century, human evolution had become Afrocentric with the gradual acceptance of "Australopithecus" as human ancestors, and consequent marginalisation of Peking Man.


title: Peking Man

text: To counter this, many Chinese scientists commonly pushed Sinocentric and often polygenic arguments, forwarding the antiquity of racial distinctness before the evolution and dispersal of modern humans, and racial continuity between local "H. erectus" and modern descendent races (for example, the "typically 'Mongoloid' features" of a flat face and shovel-like incisors carried over from Peking Man to modern Chinese). They often cited the 2 million year old Wushan Man from central China, which is no longer classified as a human, and asserted several Chinese apes millions of years old were human ancestors. Jiǎ proposed the earliest human species evolved on the Tibetan Plateau, and the adjacent Guizhou Province was another popularly proposed genesis point. Various late Middle Pleistocene Chinese specimens have been argued, namely by Chinese palaeoanthropologist Wu Xinzhi, to represent hybrid populations between Peking Man and the ancestors of modern humans, such as the Dali Man or the Jinniushan Man.


title: Peking Man

text: Peking Man's ancestral position is still widely maintained among especially Chinese scientists using the assimilation model, wherein archaic humans such as Peking Man interbred with and were effectively absorbed into modern humans in their respective locations (so according to this, Peking Man has lent some ancestry to modern Chinese populations). On this matter, palaeogenetic analyses — the first in 2010 — have reported that all humans whose ancestry lies beyond Subsaharan Africa contain genes from the archaic Neanderthals and Denisovans indicating early modern humans interbred with archaic humans. The common ancestor of Neanderthals and Denisovans in turn interbred with another archaic species even farther removed from modern humans.


title: Peking Man

text: Peking Man is known from 13 skull and cranial fragments, 15 mandibles (lower jawbone), 157 isolated and "in situ" teeth, an atlas (the first neck vertebra), a clavicle, 3 humeri (upper arm bones), potentially 2 iliac fragments (the hip), 7 femora, a tibia (shinbone), and a lunate bone (a wrist bone). The material may represent as many as 40 individuals.


title: Peking Man

text: Peking Man and anatomically similar East Asian contemporaries are sometimes referred to as "classic" "H. erectus".