title: Kennesaw State University

text: Papp announced his retirement on May 10, 2016, and the University System of Georgia's Chief Academic Officer, Dr. Houston Davis, was named interim president, effective July 1, 2016. In September 2016, information leaked from University System of Georgia sources indicated that Georgia state attorney general Sam Olens would likely be named the next university president. The potential appointment of Olens, a Republican who litigated Georgia's stance on same-sex marriage, was seen as controversial by some students and faculty, resulting in organized protests. On October 3, 2016, the University System of Georgia Chancellor Hank Huckaby notified the KSU community of Olens' official request for appointment to the job via an email to all students and faculty. The following day, Olens officially interviewed for the job, with an executive board vote expected October 12, 2016. On October 12, 2016, the University System of Georgia announced publicly that Olens was appointed to the office of President of Kennesaw State University, effective November 1, 2016. He will resign as attorney general, and his successor will be appointed by Governor Nathan Deal.


title: Kennesaw State University

text: On December 14, 2017, Sam Olens announced that he would be stepping down as president, effective February 18, 2018. Pamela Whitten was announced as KSU's President on July 16, 2018. Dr. Whitten stepped down as presdient of Kennesaw State University in 2021 and accepted the position of president of Indiana State University, effective July 1, 2021.


title: Kennesaw State University

text: KSU's Computer Science and Information Systems department hosts the Center for Election Systems, which certified and monitored the direct recording electronic machines used in Georgia elections until June 2018 at the latest. This shift was initiated due in part to lax security by the center, which had accidentally exposed over 6.5 million voter records.


title: Kennesaw State University

text: On December 19, 2018, KSU was classified as a doctoral research institution with R2 status, denoting high research activity, by the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Learning.


title: Kennesaw State University

text: On March 16, 2022 Kathy "Kat" Schwaig was named the sixth president of Kennesaw State University, following her tenure as interim president.


title: Kennesaw State University

text: Kennesaw State University is located on two campuses with a combined of land, of which about 230 acres is located in Marietta and the remainder is located in Kennesaw. The Kennesaw campus is located adjacent to I-75 (similar to four other Georgia universities, Georgia Tech, Dalton State College, and Georgia State University, and Atlanta Metropolitan State College) where views of the campus can be seen from the highway, including Kennesaw State's University Village.


title: Kennesaw State University

text: The Social Sciences building is located on the west section of campus on Campus Loop Road adjacent to the original campus historical district. The building features a 302-seat auditorium, a 100+ seat cinema classroom, a digital media lab, and 40 classrooms with advanced technology. The lobby features a Starbucks and study area. The Social Sciences building also meets Silver Rating LEED Green Building requirements and is the first building in the University System of Georgia to meet these specifications. In December 2020, after the donation of a $9 million dollar gift to the school by Norman and Lindy Radow, the College of Humanities and Social Sciences was renamed the Norman J. Radow College of Humanities and Social Sciences.


title: Kennesaw State University

text: Located adjacent to the Social Sciences Building is a sculpture entitled "Spaceship Earth", created by Finnish American artist Eino. The sculpture was commissioned by the Maxwell Family Foundation in memory of the late environmentalist David Brower. The sculpture was intended to be a permanent reminder to future generations to take care of their delicate planet.


title: Kennesaw State University

text: In late December 2006, only three months after installation on campus, the structure collapsed. After the collapse, Eino attributed the disaster to vandalism, but later reports that surfaced associated the collapse with poor construction. Reconstruction was to have begun in February 2007, but was delayed until July 2007, and was finally completed on October 26, 2010.


title: Kennesaw State University

text: The A. L. Burruss Building is home to the Michael J. Coles College of Business. It is situated in the east section of campus overlooking the Campus Green. The ground floor contains a food court with table seating for eating and studying surrounded by numerous lecture halls. The fourth floor of the Burruss Building is a computer lab open to students and one of the campus data centers. At night, the tower that extends from the center of the Burruss Building facade lights up with the letters "KSU". A sidewalk west of the Burruss building leads north to university housing communities University Village and KSU Place. Access to the arts district northwest of the Burruss Building (Stillwell Theatre, Performance Hall) is offered from the west exit of the Burruss Building.


title: Kennesaw State University

text: The Campus Green is a grass area in the center of campus. It offers students an area to relax, study, or throw a football or flying disc between classes. During the spring and fall, student activity on the green can be seen during the noon and afternoon hours. During graduation ceremonies, the Campus Green is no longer used as a reception area. Signs from the east parking deck lead students and visitors to the Campus Green surrounded by the towering buildings in the area (Burruss Building, Kennesaw Hall, and the Student Recreation and Wellness Center) which offer a unique atmosphere on this suburban campus. The Campus Green offers direct access to Kennesaw State's James V. Carmichael Student Center.


title: Kennesaw State University

text: Kennesaw Hall is home to the Bagwell College of Education and administrative offices of the university. The Office of the President resides on the top floor of the building that can be seen from Barrett Parkway (a busy Kennesaw road a few miles away) and Kennesaw Mountain. Kennesaw Hall overlooks the Campus Green and is one of the largest buildings in the east section of campus.


title: Kennesaw State University

text: The Convocation Center is located southeast of the Campus Green and houses the NCAA Division I men's and women's basketball programs at Kennesaw State University. The Convocation Center is a multipurpose facility that supports academic classes, lectures, concerts, theatrical performances, athletic events, graduations, and convocation ceremonies. The facility has locker rooms, training rooms, and offices for the athletic department. The third floor of the center houses hospitality and conference suits that overlook the arena floor. KSU's Convocation Center is the largest of its kind in northwest Georgia, with seating for 4,800.


title: Kennesaw State University

text: The Bentley Rare Book Gallery and Special Collections, named in honor of Fred and Sara Bentley, brings together a world-class collection of 15,000 items that spans the history of the written word in the Western World. This collection provides undergraduate students the opportunity to study original works firsthand. Recent additions to this collection include a fourth-folio Shakespeare dated 1685b and a first-edition complete works of Chaucer dated 1542. Located on the basement floor of KSU's Sturgis Library, the Rare Book Gallery can be reserved for classroom visits, meetings, and presentations, and is open for research by appointment.


title: Kennesaw State University

text: The Bailey Performance Center opened its doors in October 2007. The $9 million facility contains a 630-seat auditorium designed to accommodate a variety of performance ensembles, the Gwendolyn Brooker Rehearsal Hall, and the Don Russell Clayton Gallery. While serving as the heart of Kennesaw State's Bailey School of Music, the center hosts rehearsals, masterclasses, recording sessions, and recitals for the music faculty and students.


title: Kennesaw State University

text: The historic district of the university (Original Campus) is located in the west section of campus and includes the University College, formerly the Social Sciences Building, Pilcher Public Service and Library, Willingham Hall, Nursing, Advancement, and Technology Annex buildings. These buildings served primarily as the home to the College of Humanities and Social Science until construction on the Social Science Building was completed at the end of 2006. In 2009, a new two-story, 1,500-seat dining hall known as The Commons opened. In 2008, a new $46,000,000, 915-bed freshman residence hall called "University Suites" opened.


title: Kennesaw State University

text: The Joe Mack Wilson Student Center is located near the front entrance on the northern side of campus. It includes resources such as a University bookstore, a game room, eateries, various lounge areas, and many of KSU's departments and offices.


title: Kennesaw State University

text: The Administration Building once housed the administrative offices of SPSU, including admissions, student records, recruitment, public relations, and the president's office. The building now houses the Marietta locations of some of KSU's administrative offices, including enrollment services.


title: Kennesaw State University

text: The main floor of the Academic Building has a major auditorium, some physics labs, and a walk-up help desk. It houses the facilities of the Construction Management Department and the Marietta campus location of University Information Technology Services. The building is near the center of the campus — just south of the Lawrence V. Johnson Library and northwest of the Atrium Building.


title: Kennesaw State University

text: The Design II building was completed December 2010 and houses facilities of the Architecture program. Acting as an extension of Design I, Design II houses six large studio spaces and a 286-seat auditorium.


title: Kennesaw State University

text: The Atrium Building's name refers to the large atrium that lies in its center. The building houses multiple academic departments. The first floor consists mainly of classrooms; computer laboratories are on the second floor, and faculty offices and conference rooms are on the third floor. It is located near the center of the campus — just west of Howell Hall and southeast of the Academic Building.


title: Kennesaw State University

text: On January 24, 2008, Governor Sonny Perdue recommended a little over $33 million toward the construction of a new building to house five programs: Electrical Engineering Technology, Computer Engineering Technology, Telecommunications Engineering Technology, Mechanical Engineering Technology, and Mechatronics Engineering. The facility, the Engineering Technology Center, covers and contains 36 labs, 12 classrooms, two seminar rooms, and a 200-seat lecture room. It was completed in December 2010; it opened on the first day of classes for the spring semester of 2011. It is on the western side of the campus – north of the parking deck and Stingers Restaurant.


title: Kennesaw State University

text: Stingers replaced the established dining hall when it was completed in July 2010. The name references the former SPSU mascot, the Hornets. The upper level dining area supports a commercial food service and the lower level is designed to accommodate special events for the college and its administration. The building is on the western side of the campus, south of the parking deck and the Engineering Technology Center.


title: Kennesaw State University

text: Dormitory facilities were provided at Southern Tech's first location in Chamblee, Georgia. They were created from former bachelor officers' quarters in facilities leased from the Atlanta Naval Air Station. When the campus moved in Marietta, student accommodation was located in former employee housing at the United States Air Force Plant 6. Construction for the Marietta campus' first dormitory began in 1964. The campus dormitories housed only men until 1974.


title: Kennesaw State University

text: At the time of its merger with Kennesaw State University, Southern Polytechnic State University had five on-campus housing facilities for its students. These were Howell Hall, Hornet Village suites, University Commons apartments, University Courtyard apartments, and University Columns houses. These facilities are still used to house Kennesaw State University students.


title: Kennesaw State University

text: Other buildings include the Lawrence V. Johnson Library (C Building), Mathematics Building (D Building), Crawford Lab Building (E Building), Engineering Lab Building (G Building), Civil Engineering Technology Building (L Building), W. Clair Harris Textile Center (M Building), Architecture Building (N Building), Housing Office (R10 Building), Recreation and Wellness Center (S1 Building), and Gymnasium (S2 Building).


title: Kennesaw State University

text: Kennesaw State University is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools and classified as a comprehensive institution by the University System of Georgia.


title: Kennesaw State University

text: In September 2016, "U.S. News" elevated KSU from the category of "regional university" to "national university", joining a list of 297 other universities in that category. This was in part due to the university's new status as a research university by the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Learning, indicating a university that engages in a "moderate" level of research activity.


title: Kennesaw State University

text: In 2018, the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Learning classified KSU as a doctoral research institution with R2 (Doctoral University – High research activity) status.


title: Kennesaw State University

text: The 2020 "U.S. News" rankings placed KSU in Tier Two (#293-#381) in the "National Universities" category.


title: Kennesaw State University

text: The university is divided into 13 colleges and offers 52 bachelor's degrees, 21 master's degree programs, one specialist degree, and five doctoral programs; according to Kennesaw State's Registrar's Office, the university offers 80 undergraduate and graduate degrees.


title: Kennesaw State University

text: Kennesaw State's Department of Continuing Education, the largest in the nation, is housed in the KSU Center, located a mile away from the main campus.


title: Kennesaw State University

text: Kennesaw State is home to the state's largest Educational Technology Training Center (ETTC). The ETTC is one of 13 such centers around the state. Teachers and other school personnel from around the state come to the KSU ETTC for professional development.


title: Kennesaw State University

text: There are four main focal point themes of research that Kennesaw State focuses its research activity on including: Biomedical and Health; Computing and Technology, Human development & Well-being; and Sustainable and Safe Communities.


title: Kennesaw State University

text: KSU has over 300 registered student groups and organizations for student participation. Some of the more active organizations in recent years have been Greeks, Religious Life, and Club Sports. There are seven line-item student organizations, Student Government, Kennesaw Activities Board, African-American Student Alliance, Global Society, International Student Association, Graduate Students Association and Student Media. These organizations are awarded a line-item budget yearly ranging from $30,000 to $144,000 that is spent on student programming and activities. Many of these groups give stipends to their members up to 100 percent of tuition and fees. All other student organizations have the opportunity to spend up to $350 per year on programs from the Student Life budget. The budgets for student organizations are awarded by the Student Activities and Budget Advisory Committee (SABAC), which is a majority student, faculty, and staff run advisory committee to the vice president of students. This committee meets regularly during the fall and spring semesters approving new organizations, funding requests and by-law changes.


title: Kennesaw State University

text: In fall 2021, KSU was 49% male and 51% female. The ethnic diversity was as follows: 48% White, 25% African-American/Black, 13% Hispanic/Latino, 6% Asian, 5% Multi-Racial, and 2% Other.


title: Kennesaw State University

text: Kennesaw State University is home to twenty-one fraternities and sororities: five of the North American Interfraternity Conference (IFC), eight of the National Panhellenic Conference (NPC), six of the National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC), two of the National Multicultural Greek Council (MGC) and two service Greeks. Less than seven percent of the undergraduate student body is active in KSU's Greek system.


title: Kennesaw State University

text: Kennesaw State University's athletic teams are called the "Owls". The school colors are black and gold.


title: Kennesaw State University

text: The Owls participate in Division I of the NCAA and the ASUN Conference. Athletics began in the 1981-82 academic year, with KSU joining both the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) and the Georgia Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (GIAC). James "Spec" Landrum was named the school's first Athletic Director, after football coaching stints at both Georgia and Georgia Tech. Success in initiating a new program, particularly in men's golf and women's basketball, highlighted Landrum's tenure. After Division I's Gulf Star Conference dissolved in 1987, Commissioner Dave Waples replaced the retiring Landrum that fall. The school won its initial National title in 1994, as coach Mike Sansing's baseball team won the NAIA championship. In the fall of 1994, KSU officially joined the NCAA, Division II, Peach Belt Conference. The Owls dominated the loop for the next 11-years, including DII National crowns in softball (1995 and 1996, coach Scott Whitlock), baseball (1996, coach Sansing), women's soccer (2003, coach Rob King) and men's basketball (2004, coach Tony Ingle). Kennesaw State is one of two division II schools to win a national championship in four different team sports, Grand Valley State University being the other. KSU also won several other regional and divisional championships. Both men's and women's cross-country coach Stan Sims and women's basketball coach Colby Tilley made numerous appearance in NCAA, DII, National competition.


title: Kennesaw State University

text: In 2005, the Owls began the painful four-year transition to Division I of the NCAA. The university fully transitioned to Division I status in the National Collegiate Athletic Association at the beginning of the 2009–10 season. Vaughn Williams was hired in April 2011 as the university's third director of athletics. He had previously served for six and a half years as UConn's associate athletic director, where he was responsible for strategic planning, facility master planning, and policy and procedure improvement.


title: Kennesaw State University

text: The Owls field a Division I Football Championship Subdivision football team. KSU announced on November 14, 2013, their first football game. They took on the East Tennessee State Buccaneers in Tennessee on September 3, 2015. It was the first in a home & home series between the schools. East Tennessee faced off against the Owls in Kennesaw for the 2016 season. The Football Owls are the only athletic program at this time to play in the Big South Conference, and took on 6 Big South Schools in their first year. Head Coach Brian Bohannon has stated that Kennesaw State has no interest in playing any games in exchange for guaranteed payments in the team's first few years. "We want to build a winning culture."


title: Kennesaw State University

text: By the end of 2019 the Kennesaw Owls tallied a 48-15 total record from the beginning of the program. That gives the Owls the record of most wins for a football program in its first 5 years.


title: Kennesaw State University

text: Kennesaw State University's mascot is Scrappy the Owl. The Kennesaw State Athletics Association unveiled their new Scrappy mascot on October 13, 2012, during their basketball season preview called Flight Night. The live owl named Sturgis was a Great Horned Owl and was KSU’s first-ever live mascot. He was with the university since his introduction at the second annual “Flight Night” in October 2013. KSU and Sturgis’ owner Daniel Walthers were unable to come to an agreement regarding a contract, and the decision to part ways was reached in 2019.


title: SOLAS Convention

text: The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) is an international maritime treaty that sets minimum safety standards in the construction, equipment and operation of merchant ships. The International Maritime Organization convention requires signatory flag states to ensure that ships flagged by them comply with at least these standards.


title: SOLAS Convention

text: The current version of SOLAS is the 1974 version, known as SOLAS 1974, which came into force on 25 May 1980. , SOLAS 1974 has 167 contracting states, which flag about 99% of merchant ships around the world in terms of gross tonnage.


title: SOLAS Convention

text: SOLAS in its successive forms is generally regarded as the most important of all international treaties concerning the safety of merchant ships.


title: SOLAS Convention

text: The non-parties to SOLAS 1974 include numerous landlocked countries (for obvious reasons), as well as El Salvador, Micronesia and East Timor. Some others including Bolivia, Lebanon and Sri Lanka, all considered flag of convenience states, are deemed to have "potentially negative performance" regarding ratification.


title: SOLAS Convention

text: SOLAS 1974 requires flag states to ensure that ships flagged by them comply with the minimum safety standards in the construction, equipment and operation of merchant ships. The treaty includes articles setting out general obligations, etc., followed by an annexe divided into twelve chapters, two new chapters were added in 2016 and 2017. Of these, chapter five (often called 'SOLAS V') is the only one that applies to all vessels on the sea, including private yachts and small craft on local trips as well as to commercial vessels on international passages. Many countries have turned these international requirements into national laws so that anybody on the sea who is in breach of SOLAS V requirements may find themselves subject to legal proceedings.


title: SOLAS Convention

text: The first version of SOLAS Treaty was passed in 1914 in response to the sinking of the "Titanic", which prescribed numbers of lifeboats and other emergency equipment along with safety procedures, including continuous radio watches. The 1914 treaty never entered into force due to the outbreak of the First World War.


title: SOLAS Convention

text: The 1960 Convention was adopted on 17 June 1960 and entered into force on 26 May 1965. It was the fourth SOLAS Convention and was the first major achievement for International Maritime Organization (IMO). It represented a considerable step forward in modernizing regulations and keeping up with technical developments in the shipping industry.


title: SOLAS Convention

text: In 1974 a completely new Convention was adopted to allow SOLAS to be amended and implemented within a reasonable timescale, instead of the previous procedure to incorporate amendments, which proved to be very slow. Under SOLAS 1960, it could take several years for amendments to come into force since countries had to give notice of acceptance to IMO and there was a minimum threshold of countries and tonnage. Under SOLAS 1974, amendments enter into force via a tacit acceptance procedure – this allows an amendment to enter into force on a specified date, unless objections to an amendment are received from an agreed number of parties.


title: SOLAS Convention

text: The 1974 SOLAS came into force on 25 May 1980, 12 months after its ratification by at least 25 countries with at least 50% of gross tonnage. It has been updated and amended on numerous occasions since then and the Convention in force today is sometimes referred to as SOLAS, 1974, as amended.


title: SOLAS Convention

text: In 1975 the assembly of the IMO decided that the 1974 convention should in future use SI (metric) units only.


title: SOLAS Convention

text: In particular, amendments in 1988 based on amendments of International Radio Regulations in 1987 replaced Morse code with the Global Maritime Distress Safety System (GMDSS) and came into force beginning 1 February 1992. The issues covered by the treaty are set out in the list of sections (above).


title: SOLAS Convention

text: The up-to-date list of amendments to SOLAS is maintained by the IMO. Previous amendments were made in May 2011. In 2015, another later amendment is the SOLAS Container Weight Verification Regulation VI/2. This regulation, implemented by the IMO Maritime Safety Committee (MSC) requires that the full weight of loaded containers must be obtained prior to being onboarded on an ocean vessel. Communicating a weight value has called for the introduction of a new Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) communication protocol called VGM (Verified Gross Mass) or VERMAS (Verification of Mass), and involves cooperation between ocean carriers, Freight Forwarders/NVOCCs, EDI providers as well as exporters. The regulation states that exporters (shippers) are ultimately responsible to obtain a verified container weight. Originally scheduled for implementation on 1 July 2016, the regulation allows for flexibility and practical refinement according to the Maritime Safety Committee Memorandum #1548 to 1 October 2016.


title: Jim Elliot

text: Philip James Elliot (October 8, 1927 – January 8, 1956) was an American Christian missionary and one of five people killed during Operation Auca, an attempt to evangelize the Huaorani people of Ecuador.


title: Jim Elliot

text: Elliot was born in Portland, Oregon, to Fred and Clara Elliot. Fred was of Scottish heritage; his grandparents were the first of his family to settle in North America. Clara's parents moved near the turn of the 20th century from Switzerland to eastern Washington, where they operated a large ranch. They met in Portland, where Clara was studying to be a chiropractor and Fred, having devoted himself to Christian ministry, was working as a traveling preacher with the Plymouth Brethren movement. Robert, their first child, was born in 1921 while they were living in Seattle, and he was followed by Herbert, Jim, and Jane, all three of whom were born after the family moved to Portland. Elliot's parents had firm Christian beliefs, and they raised their children accordingly, taking them to church and reading the Bible regularly. Elliot professed faith in Jesus at the age of six and grew up in a home where obedience and honesty were enforced. The Elliot parents encouraged their children to be adventurous, and encouraged them to "live for Christ".


title: Jim Elliot

text: In 1941,Elliot entered Benson Polytechnic High School, studying architectural drawing. There he participated in numerous activities, including the school newspaper, the wrestling team, school plays, and the public-speaking club. His acting ability led some of the teachers in the school to suggest that he pursue acting as a career, and his oratorical skills were similarly lauded—after Elliot prepared and delivered a speech in honor of President Franklin D. Roosevelt hours after his death, a faculty member praised it.


title: Jim Elliot

text: Elliot used his speaking ability regularly. A classmate recounts how Elliot quoted the Bible to the president of the student body as an explanation for his refusal to attend a school party. Another time, Elliot risked expulsion from the public-speaking club by refusing to give a political speech, believing that Christians were not to involve themselves in politics. A pacifist, he rejected the idea of using force to eliminate slavery in Africa, and he was prepared to stand as a conscientious objector had he been drafted to serve in World War II.


title: Jim Elliot

text: In the summer of 1950, while at Camp Wycliffe (Cameron Townsend's linguistics training camp in Oklahoma), Elliot practiced the skills necessary for writing down a language for the first time by working with a former missionary to the Quechua people. The missionary told him of the Huaorani – also called the "Auca", the Quichua word for "savage" – a group of Ecuadorian indigenous people considered violent and dangerous to outsiders. Elliot remained unsure about whether to go to Ecuador or India until July. His parents and friends wondered if he might instead be more effective in youth ministry in the United States, but considering the home church "well-fed", he felt that international missions should take precedence.


title: Jim Elliot

text: After the completion of his linguistic studies, Elliot applied for a passport and began to make plans with his friend Bill Cathers to leave for Ecuador. However, two months Cathers informed him that he planned to marry, making it impossible for him to accompany Elliot as they had planned. Instead, Elliot spent the winter and spring of 1951 working with his friend Ed McCully in Chester, Illinois, running a radio program, preaching in prisons, holding evangelistic rallies, and teaching Sunday school.


title: Jim Elliot

text: McCully married later that summer, forcing Elliot to look elsewhere for an unmarried man with whom he could begin working in Ecuador. That man turned out to be Pete Fleming, a graduate of the University of Washington with a degree in philosophy. He corresponded frequently with Elliot, and by September he was convinced of his calling to Ecuador. In the meantime, Elliot visited friends on the east coast, including his future wife, Elisabeth. In his journal he expressed hope that they would be able to be married, but at the same time felt that he was called to go to Ecuador without her. Elliot returned to Portland in November and began to prepare to leave the country.


title: Jim Elliot

text: Elliot and Fleming arrived in Ecuador on February 21, 1952, with the purpose of evangelizing Ecuador's Quechua Indians. They first stayed in Quito, and then moved to the jungle. They took up residence at the Shandia mission station. On October 8, 1953, he married fellow Wheaton alumna and missionary Elisabeth Howard. The wedding was a simple civil ceremony held in Quito. Ed and Marilou McCully were the witnesses. The couple then took a brief honeymoon to Panama and Costa Rica, then returned to Ecuador. Their only child, Valerie, was born February 27, 1955. While working with Quechua Indians, Elliot began preparing to reach the Huaorani.


title: Jim Elliot

text: Elliot and his group ( Ed McCully, Roger Youderian, Pete Fleming, and their pilot, Nate Saint) made contact from their Piper PA-14 airplane with the Huaorani using a loudspeaker and a basket to pass down gifts. After several months, the men decided to build a base a short distance from the Amerindian village, along the Curaray River. There they were approached one time by a small group of Huaorani and even gave an airplane ride to one curious Huaorani whom they called "George" (his real name was Naenkiwi). Encouraged by these friendly encounters, they began plans to visit the Huaorani. Their plans were preempted by the arrival of a larger group of about 10 Huaorani warriors, who killed Elliot and his four companions on January 8, 1956. Jim Elliot was the first of the five missionaries killed when he and Peter Fleming were greeting two of those attackers. Elliot's body was found downstream, along with those of the other men. Ed McCully's body was found even farther downstream.


title: Jim Elliot

text: "Life" magazine published a ten-page article on Elliot's and his friends' mission and deaths. After his death, his wife Elisabeth Elliot and other missionaries began working among the Huaorani, where they continued evangelistic work. She later published two books, "Shadow of the Almighty: The Life and Testament of Jim Elliot" and "Through Gates of Splendor", which describe the life and death of her husband. In 1991, the Jim Elliot Christian School was created in Denver, Colorado. In 1997, the Jim Elliot Christian High School was founded in Lodi, California.


title: Jim Elliot

text: In 2002, a documentary based on the story was released, entitled "Beyond the Gates of Splendor". In 2003, a musical based on the story of Jim and Elisabeth Elliot, entitled "Love Above All", was staged at the Victoria Concert Hall in Singapore by Mount Carmel Bible-Presbyterian Church. This musical was staged a second time in 2007 at the NUS University Cultural Centre. In 2006, a theatrical movie was released, entitled "End of the Spear", based on the story of the pilot, Nate Saint, and the return trip of Saint's son, Steve Saint, attempting to reach the natives of Ecuador.


title: Defensive end

text: This position has designated the players at each end of the defensive line, but changes in formations over the years have substantially changed how the position is played.


title: Defensive end

text: Early formations, with six- and seven-man lines, used the end as a containment player, whose job was first to prevent an "end run" around his position, then secondarily to force plays inside.


title: Defensive end

text: When most teams adopted a five-man line, two different styles of end play developed: "crashing" ends, who rushed into the backfield to disrupt plays, and "stand-up" or "waiting" ends, who played the more traditional containment style. Some teams would use both styles of end play, depending on game situations.


title: Defensive end

text: Traditionally, defensive ends are in a three-point stance, with their free hand cocked back ready to "punch" an offensive lineman, or in a two-point stance like a strong safety so they can keep containment. Some defensive ends play the position due to their size; they close down their gap so the running back has no hole to run through. Other ends play the position due to their speed and agility; they are used to rush the quarterback. These ends can time the snap of the ball in order to get a jump on the rush, and stop the play.


title: Defensive end

text: Most of the time it is the job of the defensive end in run defense to keep outside or containment, which means that no one should get to their outside; they must keep everything to the inside. If they have an outside linebacker besides them that is not in pass coverage, this gives the defensive end more freedom to rush the quarterback. The defensive ends are fast for players of their size, often the fastest and smallest players on the defensive line. They must be able to shed blockers to get to the ball. Defensive ends are also often used to cover the outside area of the line of scrimmage, to tackle ball carriers running to the far right or left side, and to defend against screen passes. Since the creation of zone blitz defenses in the late 1990s, defensive ends have sometimes been used in pass coverage, dropping back to cover routes run close to the line of scrimmage.


title: Defensive end

text: In the 3–4 defense, defensive ends are used primarily as run stoppers and are much larger than the normal size of a player at this position. Often, the position is played by a more agile or slightly undersized defensive tackle. Because of the increased popularity of the 3–4 defense, the value of a defensive tackle prospect that can possibly be used in this manner has increased. They are used to occupy an offensive lineman, on pass rushing plays to let the outside linebackers get a sack. They block screen passes and are put outside the offensive tackles to get a sack. Defensive ends in the 3–4 defense average a height of 6′3″–6′8″ and a weight of 285–315 lbs.


title: Varathan

text: Varathan () is a 2018 Indian Malayalam-language action thriller film directed by Amal Neerad. It is an adaptation of "Straw Dogs". It was jointly produced by Nazriya Nazim and Amal Neerad under the banners of Fahadh Faasil and Friends and Amal Neerad Productions. It is written by Suhas-Sharfu and stars Fahadh Faasil and Aishwarya Lekshmi. The film was released on 20 September 2018.


title: Varathan

text: Varathan is a story about a husband and wife, Abin and Priya who return to Kerala from Dubai for a break in their job. They then decide to live at Priya's childhood-home in the hills. Since their first day there, Priya is suspicious of the intentions of the contractors who work on her family's land. The villagers and neighbours are often shown ogling at her. After their wedding anniversary, when the couple go to bed, Priya spots someone staring at them from the window. But when she wakes her husband, the shadow disappears. Next day, when Priya is about to take a bath, she spots a man staring at her through the window. She screams and Abin spots a worker in the upper terrain. He shuts the window with duct tape and newspaper. Priya is constantly seen warning Abin that people around there were not the same as in Bangalore or Dubai, so they ought to be more careful. Even an occasion occurs when Priya's inner wears are stolen by Jithin.


title: Varathan

text: One day, Abin has to meet up with a designer regarding their startup and Priya is left alone at home. She promises to go to the convent after Abin goes. Priya locks the door and goes to the convent Library on her scooty. Although, midway she is hit by a Jeep with the malefic neighbours Josy, Johnny and their right hand man Jithin. While she lays unconscious, they leave her in the hospital . When Abin returns home at night, he sees the house locked. He then goes out on a search for her when he gets a call from the caretaker of the estates, Benny, who informs him that Priya was hospitalized. When Aby reaches the hospital, Priya is furious. She fumes out of the hospital saying nothing. Aby tries to talk to her when they are on their way home, but Priya is agitated. She takes the key, walks into the house and starts packing her bags. When Abin starts to question her, Priya says she was sexually molested she no longer felt safe living with Abin up there in the hills or anywhere else.


title: Varathan

text: Abin walks out and lights a cigarette standing at the front door. A boy and mother, whom Aby and Priya once gave lift to, comes crying to the house. They describe how the boy was caught with the Contractor's daughter Sandra in the bushes that day. They explain how the contractor family is looking to kill him. Abin tells the mother and son to go inside and locks the door. Two men, who work for the contractor comes inquiring about the boy. Abin says he doesn't know where the boy is. Unsatisfied, they return after noticing one of the boy's slippers on the verandah. However, a Jeep and multiple people including the Contractor and all his sons come to Abin's house. They ask for the boy and Abin says he won't let go of the boy. They can find him tomorrow at the Police Station.


title: Varathan

text: None of the people withdraw, upon which Abin walks inside and tries to lock the door. When he is stopped by Johnny, Abin slides out a butcher's knife from the doorside and stabs his left forearm. He locks the door and walks Priya, the mother and the boy to a safe room.


title: Varathan

text: From there, the movie takes an action-mode. Abin sets up the house to electrocute the invaders and successfully does so. Some others who try to invade the house are seen burned with torch flame and LPG gas cylinder, cleverly by Abin. After fighting tooth and nail until the morning, Abin is brutally hit in the head and captured by the contractor and josey. While they aim to shoot him with a gun, Priya walks out with the mother and the son as if in surrender. When they look towards her, Priya shoots two of the perpetrators. Abin, seeing the opportunity, takes charge. The contractor flees away and Abin brutally hits Josey, the last of his wife's abuser. And he informs that police will come & take them.


title: Varathan

text: After chaos, he is seen drinking the coffee with Priya while he narrates Josey how law is still valid and alive in this part of the country. After that, an epilogue 'Two week Later' is seen where Abin locks the gate with a plaque on it saying 'Trespassers will be Shot'. They live happy life after.


title: Varathan

text: Besides directing, Amal Neerad co-produced the film with Nazriya Nazim, which stars her husband Fahadh Faasil alongside Aishwarya Lekshmi. Neerad revealed the film's title on 20 June 2018 by releasing the first poster. "Varathan" in Malayalam means "outsider" in English. Writer Suhas describes the film as a "survival thriller". Shot in Dubai and Wagamon, filming was completed by June 2018.


title: Varathan

text: The music was composed, programmed and arranged by Sushin Shyam. Lyrics were penned by Vinayak Sasikumar.


title: Varathan

text: The film was a commercial success. As of 5 October 2018, the film has grossed ₹22 crore worldwide, with ₹18 crore from Kerala alone. It grossed ₹1.06 crore from Bangalore in 12 days. As of October, it was the highest-grossing Malayalam film of that year in Bangalore. "Varathan" grossed a total of ₹33 crore worldwide at the end of its theatrical run.


title: Battered woman syndrome

text: Battered woman syndrome (BWS) is a pattern of signs and symptoms displayed by a woman who has suffered persistent intimate partner violence: whether psychological, physical, or sexual, from her male partner. It is classified in the ICD-9 (code ) as battered person syndrome, but is not in the DSM-5. It may be diagnosed as a subcategory of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).


title: Battered woman syndrome

text: The condition is the basis for the battered woman legal defense that has been used in cases of physically and psychologically abused women who have killed their male partners. The condition was first researched extensively by Lenore E. Walker, who used Martin Seligman's learned helplessness theory to explain why women stayed in relationships with abusive men.


title: Battered woman syndrome

text: Although the diagnosis has mainly centered on women, it has occasionally been applied to men when employing the term "battered person syndrome", especially as part of a legal defense. It is similar to an insanity plea and has been criticized by survivor advocates as being outdated terminology not used outside of courts. But, because courts are slow to change, many are stuck with using it as a way to introduce specific evidence. The newer term used among advocates and outside of the courts is criminalized survivor.


title: Battered woman syndrome

text: In 1979, Lenore E. Walker proposed the concept of battered woman syndrome (BWS). She described it as consisting "of the pattern of the signs and symptoms that have been found to occur after a woman has been physically, sexually, and/or psychologically abused in an intimate relationship, when the partner (usually, but not always a man) exerted power and control over the woman to coerce her into doing whatever he wanted, without regard for her rights or feelings."


title: Battered woman syndrome

text: Walker stated, "As there are significant differences between the theory underlying the construct of BWS, and to date there are no empirically supported data, it has not yet been applied to men. Therefore, the term used is "BWS" rather than a gender-neutral "battered person syndrome" (BPS) or even "battered man syndrome" (BMS). Of course, men are abused by women, but the psychological impact on the man does not appear to be consistent with trauma in most cases."


title: Battered woman syndrome

text: Occasionally, the term "battered person syndrome" has been used to apply to men, especially as part of a legal defense. Author John Hamel stated that although the term "BWS" has been replaced with "battered person's syndrome" in some legal circles, "and sounds more politically neutral, the new term does not improve on the former in providing a unitary syndrome, and does not account for the characteristics unique to male victimization."


title: Battered woman syndrome

text: It was estimated that in 2010, "roughly one woman" is "battered every seven seconds. It is estimated that one of every four American women will be physically or sexually abused by an intimate during her lifetime."


title: Battered woman syndrome

text: ICD9 code 995.81 lists the syndrome under "battered woman/man/spouse/person NEC", and categorizes it as any person presenting with identified physical descriptors rather than psychological descriptors. It falls under the general heading of "Adult physical abuse", classified under "Injury and Poisoning".


title: Battered woman syndrome

text: The diagnosis, especially with regard to posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), has mainly centered on women. The DSM-IV-TR does not provide a distinct diagnostic category for reactions to battering. The diverse reactions of battered women are treated as separate diagnoses; for example, PTSD or depression. Because there are no subcategories of the diagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder in the DSM-5, the diagnosis is absent from the manual. It may, however, be used as a classification to guide treatment plans and forensic issues.


title: Battered woman syndrome

text: When battered woman syndrome (BWS) manifests as PTSD, it consists of the following symptoms: (a) re-experiencing the battering as if it were recurring even when it is not, (b) attempts to avoid the psychological impact of battering by avoiding activities, people, and emotions, (c) hyperarousal or hypervigilance, (d) disrupted interpersonal relationships, (e) body image distortion or other somatic concerns, and (f) sexuality and intimacy issues.


title: Battered woman syndrome

text: Additionally, repeated cycles of violence and reconciliation can result in the following beliefs and attitudes:


title: Battered woman syndrome

text: The syndrome develops in response to a three-stage cycle found in intimate partner violence situations. First, tension builds in the relationship. Second, the abusive partner releases tension via violence while blaming the victim for having caused the violence. Third, the violent partner makes gestures of contrition. However, the partner does not find solutions to avoid another phase of tension building and release so the cycle repeats. The repetition of the violence, despite the abuser's attempts to "make nice", results in the abused partner feeling at fault for not preventing a repeat cycle of violence. However, since the victim is not at fault and the violence is internally driven by the abuser, this self-blame results in feelings of helplessness rather than empowerment. The feeling of being both responsible for and helpless to stop the violence leads in turn to depression and passivity. This learned depression and passivity makes it difficult for the abused partner to marshal the resources and support system needed to leave.


title: Battered woman syndrome

text: Feelings of depression and passivity may also be created by lack of social support outside of the abusive situation. Research in the 1980s by Gondolf and Fisher found that women in abusive situations increase help-seeking behavior as violence intensifies. However, their attempts at seeking help are often frustrated by unresponsive extended family and social services. In a 2002 study, Gondolf found that more than half of women had negative views of shelters and programs for battered women because of negative experiences with those programs.


title: Battered woman syndrome

text: In 1977 in the US, Francine Hughes' trial for the murder of her husband was one of the first cases involving what was later called "battered-woman syndrome" as a defense.


title: Battered woman syndrome

text: Battered woman syndrome emerged as a legal defense in the 1990s, as a result of several murder cases in England involving women who had killed violent partners in response to what they described as cumulative abuse rather than in response to a single provocative act.


title: Battered woman syndrome

text: In a series of appeals against murder convictions, feminist groups (particularly Southall Black Sisters and Justice for Women) challenged the legal definition of "provocation" and secured the courts' recognition of battered woman syndrome.


title: Battered woman syndrome

text: Until the mid-1990s, the legal definition of "provocation" in England had relied on Devlin J in "R v Duffy" [1949] 1 All ER 932: "Provocation is some act, or series of acts done (or words spoken) ... which would cause in any reasonable person and actually causes in the accused, a sudden and temporary loss of self-control, rendering the accused so subject to passion as to make him or her for the moment not master of his or her mind." Three cases helped to change this: "R v Ahluwalia" [1992] 4 AER 889; "R v Humphreys" [1995] 4 All ER 1008); and "R v Thornton (No 2)" [1996] 2 AER 1023.


title: Battered woman syndrome

text: The courts in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United States have accepted the extensive and growing body of research showing that battered women can use force to defend themselves. This may include even killing their abusers because of the abusive, and sometimes life-threatening, situation in which they find themselves. These women act in the firm belief that there is no other way than to kill for self-preservation. The courts have recognized that this evidence may support a variety of defenses to a charge of murder or to mitigate the sentence if convicted of lesser offenses.


title: Battered woman syndrome

text: Under the term "battered person syndrome", the defense has occasionally been used by men in reference to their abusive spouses.


title: Battered woman syndrome

text: In recent years, BWS has been questioned as a legal defense on several grounds. First, legal changes in many states now make it possible to admit a history of past abuse into evidence. Second, not all battered persons act the same. Third, it pleads pathology when there may, in fact, be completely rational reasons for the victim's assessment that their life or that of their children was in danger. For example, if life-threatening attacks were preceded by a certain look in the eyes in the past, the victim may have had probable cause for believing that another life-threatening attack was likely to occur. Fourth, it does not provide for the possibility that a person may be abused, but have chosen to kill for reasons other than on-going abuse – for example, jealousy or greed. Fifth, it paints survivors of domestic violence exclusively as passive victims rather than resourceful survivors.


title: Battered woman syndrome

text: The effectiveness of new laws in "reducing the incidence of domestic violence, however, has been limited for a number of reasons." A major barrier "to using these laws to protect women is that proving domestic violence in court is difficult. First, the victim is often the only witness to the abuse. For a variety of reasons, victims are reluctant to testify against their abusers and pursue civil and criminal remedies." Even with those who experience domestic violence do testify, they "are often not believed. Despite changes in legal and popular conceptions of domestic violence, judges and juries continue to ignore or discount victims' testimony about the abuse."


title: Battered woman syndrome

text: In "R v Ahluwalia" (1992) 4 AER 889 a woman (Kiranjit Ahluwalia), created napalm and set fire to the bed of her husband, Deepak, after he had gone to sleep. He suffered severe burns over 40% of his body and died 10 days later in the hospital. He allegedly had attempted to break her ankles and burn her with a hot iron on the night of her attack. Accusing him of domestic violence and marital rape, she claimed provocation. The judge directed the jury to consider whether, if she did lose her self-control, a reasonable person having the characteristics of a well-educated married Asian woman living in England would have lost her self-control given her husband's provocation. On appeal, it was argued that he should have directed the jury to consider a reasonable person suffering from 'battered woman syndrome'. Having considered fresh medical evidence, the Court of Appeal ordered a retrial on the basis that the new evidence showed an arguable case of diminished responsibility in English law.


title: Battered woman syndrome

text: Similarly, in "R v Thornton (No 2)" (1996) 2 AER 1023 the battered wife adduced fresh evidence that she had a personality disorder and the Court of Appeal ordered a retrial considering that, if the evidence had been available at the original trial, the jury might have reached a different decision. The victim does not have to be in a position to carry out the threats immediately.


title: Battered woman syndrome

text: In "R v Charlton" (2003) EWCA Crim 415, following threats of sexual and violent abuse against herself and her daughter, the defendant killed her obsessive, jealous, controlling partner while he was restrained by handcuffs, blindfolded and gagged as part of their regular sexual activity. The term of five years' imprisonment was reduced to three and a half years because of the terrifying threats made by a man determined to dominate and control the defendant's life. The threats created a genuine fear for the safety of herself and more significantly, her daughter, and this caused the defendant to lose control and make the ferocious attack.


title: Battered woman syndrome

text: In "HM's AG for Jersey v Holley" (2005) 3 AER 371, the Privy Council regarded the Court of Appeal precedent in "Smith" as wrongly decided, interpreting the Act as setting a purely objective standard. Thus, although the accused's characteristics were to be taken into account when assessing the gravity of the provocation, the standard of self-control to be expected was invariable except for the accused's age and sex. The defendant and the deceased were both chronic alcoholics and had a violent and abusive relationship. The evidence was that the deceased was drunk and taunted him by telling him that she had sex with another man. The defendant then struck the deceased with an axe which was an accident of availability. Psychiatric evidence was that his consumption of alcohol was involuntary and that he had a number of other psychiatric conditions which, independently of the effects of the alcohol, might have caused the loss of self-control and induced him to kill. Lord Nicholls said:


title: Battered woman syndrome

text: Since the passage of the Coroners and Justice Act 2009, the defence of provocation—used in a number of the aforementioned cases—has been replaced with 'loss of control'.


title: Battered woman syndrome

text: The Law Commission Report on "Partial Defences to Murder" (2004) rejects the notion of creating a mitigatory defence to cover the use of excessive force in self-defence but accepts that the "all or nothing" effect of self-defence can produce unsatisfactory results in the case of murder.


title: Battered woman syndrome

text: Provocation is a common defense used in England and Wales in murder cases. Now, this defense is also rising in use in cases of battered woman.


title: Battered woman syndrome

text: In Australia, self-defence might be considered the most appropriate defence to a charge of murder for a woman who kills to protect her life or the lives of her children in a domestic violence context. It is about the rational act of a person who kills in order to save her (or his) own life. But the lack of success in raising self-defence in Australia for battered women has meant that provocation has been the main focus of the courts. In 2005, based on the Victorian Law Reform Commission's "Defences to Homicide: Final Report", the Victorian government announced changes to the homicide laws in that jurisdiction, which are intended to address this perceived imbalance. Under the new laws, victims of family violence will be able to put evidence of their abuse before the court as part of their defence, and argue self-defence even in the absence of an immediate threat, and where the response of killing involved greater force than the threatened harm.


title: Battered woman syndrome

text: In 1911 in Sault Ste. Marie, Angelina Napolitano, a 28-year-old, pregnant immigrant, killed her abusive husband Pietro with an axe after he tried to force her into prostitution. She confessed and was sentenced to hang after a brief trial, but during the delay before the sentence was carried out (a delay necessary to allow her to give birth to her child), a public campaign for her release began. Napolitano's supporters argued that the judge in the case had been wrong to throw out evidence of her long-standing abuse at Pietro's hands (including an incident five months before when he stabbed her nine times with a pocket knife). The federal cabinet eventually commuted her sentence to life imprisonment. She was the first woman in Canada to use the battered woman defense on a murder charge.


title: Battered woman syndrome

text: The Supreme Court of Canada set a precedent for the use of the battered women defence in the 1990 case of "R. v. Lavallee".


title: Battered woman syndrome

text: In "R v Fate" (1998) 16 CRNZ 88 a woman who had come to New Zealand from the small island of Nanumea, which is part of the Tuvalu Islands, received a two-year sentence for manslaughter by provocation. Mrs. Fate spoke no English and was isolated within a small close-knit Wellington community of 12 families, so she felt trapped in the abusive relationship.


title: Battered woman syndrome

text: Similarly, "The Queen v Epifania Suluape" (2002) NZCA 6, deals with a wife who pleaded provocation after she killed her husband with an axe when he proposed to leave her for another woman. There was some evidence of neglect, humiliation, and abuse but the court concluded that this was exaggerated. On appeal, the court was very conscious of the Samoan culture in New Zealand in restricting the power of the wife to act independently of her husband and reduced her sentence for manslaughter to five years.


title: Battered woman syndrome

text: A report of the New Zealand Law Commission examines not only violence by men against women, but also violence by women against men and in same-sex relationships.


title: Battered woman syndrome

text: In 1994, as part of the Violence Against Women Act, the United States Congress ordered an investigation into the role of battered woman syndrome expert testimony in the courts to determine its validity and usefulness. In 1997, they published the report of their investigation, titled "The Validity and Use of Evidence Concerning Battering and Its Effects in Criminal Trials". "The federal report ultimately rejected all terminology related to the battered woman syndrome...noting that these terms were 'no longer useful or appropriate (Rothenberg, "Social Change", 782). Instead of using the term "battered woman", the terminology "battering and its effects" became acceptable. The decision to change this terminology was based on a changing body of research indicating there is more than one pattern to battering and a more inclusive definition more accurately represented the realities of domestic violence.


title: Battered woman syndrome

text: Weiand v. State was a landmark Florida Supreme Court case that took place in March 1999. In this historic case, the state's Supreme Court granted Florida citizens the ability to rely upon battered spouse syndrome as a defense in killing their abuser. While the decision is effective for anyone who is in an abusive situation, the majority of people that would take advantage of this defense are women since they are generally abused more than men. In this notable instance of an attempted defense using BWS, Florida resident Kathleen Weiand shot and killed her husband Todd Weiand. She used the battered woman syndrome in her defense and the defense expert agreed that she was suffering from the syndrome. However, the jury rejected her defense and Kathleen was sentenced to 18 years in prison for second degree murder. Kathleen appealed, eventually reaching Florida's Supreme Court who regarded her case as high priority. Ultimately, the Court overturned the ruling, in favor of Mrs. Weiand.


title: Trebonianus Gallus

text: Gaius Vibius Trebonianus Gallus (206 – August 253) was Roman emperor from June 251 to August 253, in a joint rule with his son Volusianus.


title: Trebonianus Gallus

text: Gallus was born in Italy, in a family with respected Etruscan senatorial background. He had two children in his marriage with Afinia Gemina Baebiana: Gaius Vibius Volusianus, later emperor, and a daughter, Vibia Galla. His early career was a typical "cursus honorum", with several appointments, both political and military. He was suffect consul and in 250 was made governor of the Roman province of Moesia Superior, an appointment that showed the confidence of Emperor Decius in him.


title: Trebonianus Gallus

text: In June 251, Decius and his co-emperor and son Herennius Etruscus died in the Battle of Abrittus at the hands of the Goths they were supposed to punish for raids into the empire. According to rumours supported by Dexippus (a contemporary Greek historian) and the thirteenth Sibylline Oracle, Decius' failure was largely owing to Gallus, who had conspired with the invaders. In any case, when the army heard the news, the soldiers proclaimed Gallus emperor, despite Hostilianus, Decius' surviving son, ascending the imperial throne in Rome. This action of the army, and the fact that Gallus seems to have been on good terms with Decius' family, makes Dexippus' allegation improbable. Gallus did not back down from his intention to become emperor, but accepted Hostilian as co-emperor, perhaps to avoid the damage of another civil war.


title: Trebonianus Gallus

text: Anxious to secure his position at Rome and stabilize the situation on the Danube frontier, Gallus made peace with the Goths. Peace terms allowed the Goths to leave Roman territory while keeping their captives and plunder. In addition, it was agreed that they would be paid an annual subsidy. Reaching Rome, Gallus' proclamation was formally confirmed by the Senate, with his son Volusian being appointed Caesar. On 24 June 251, Decius was deified, but by November Hostilian disappears from history—he may have died in an outbreak of plague.


title: Trebonianus Gallus

text: Gallus may have also ordered a localized and uncoordinated persecution of Christians. However, only two incidents are known to us: the exile of Pope Cornelius to Centumcellae, where he died in 253 and the exile of his successor, Pope Lucius, right after his election. The latter was recalled to Rome during the reign of Valerian.


title: Trebonianus Gallus

text: Like his predecessors, Gallus did not have an easy reign. In the East, an Antiochene nobleman, Mariades, revolted and began ravaging Syria and Cappadocia, then fled to the Persians. Gallus ordered his troops to attack the Persians, but Persian Emperor Shapur I invaded Armenia and destroyed a large Roman army, taking it by surprise at Barbalissos in 253. Shapur I then invaded the defenseless Syrian provinces, capturing all of their legionary posts and ravaging their cities, including Antioch, without any response. Persian invasions were repeated in the following year, but now Uranius Antoninus (a priest originally called Sampsiceramus), a descendant of the royal house of Emesa, confronted Shapur and forced him to retreat. Uranius proclaimed himself emperor, however, and minted coins with his image upon them. On the Danube, Scythian tribes were once again on the loose, despite the peace treaty signed in 251. They invaded Asia Minor by sea, burned the great Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, and returned home with plunder. Lower Moesia was also invaded in early 253. Aemilian, governor of Moesia Superior and Pannonia, took the initiative and defeated the invaders.


title: Trebonianus Gallus

text: Since the army was no longer pleased with the Emperor, the soldiers proclaimed Aemilian emperor. With a usurper, supported by Pauloctus, threatening the throne, Gallus prepared for a fight. He recalled several legions and ordered reinforcements to return to Rome from Gaul under the command of the future emperor Publius Licinius Valerianus. Despite these dispositions, Aemilian marched onto Italy ready to fight for his claim and caught Gallus at Interamna (modern Terni) before the arrival of Valerian. What exactly happened there is not clear. Later sources claim that after an initial defeat, Gallus and Volusian were murdered by their own troops; or Gallus did not have the chance to face Aemilian at all because his army went over to the usurper. In any case, both Gallus and Volusian were killed in August 253.


title: Friz Freleng

text: Isadore "Friz" Freleng (August 21, 1905May 26, 1995), credited as I. Freleng early in his career, was an American animator, cartoonist, director, producer, and composer known for his work at Warner Bros. Cartoons on the "Looney Tunes" and "Merrie Melodies" series of cartoons. In total he created more than 300 cartoons.


title: Friz Freleng

text: He introduced and/or developed several of the studio's biggest stars, including Bugs Bunny, Porky Pig, Tweety, Sylvester, Yosemite Sam (to whom he was said to bear more than a passing resemblance), and Speedy Gonzales. The senior director at Warners' Termite Terrace studio, Freleng directed more cartoons than any other director in the studio (a total of 266), and is also the most honored of the Warner directors, having won five Academy Awards and three Emmy Awards. After Warner closed down the animation studio in 1963, Freleng and business partner David H. DePatie founded DePatie–Freleng Enterprises, which produced cartoons (including "The Pink Panther Show"), feature film title sequences, and Saturday-morning cartoons through the early 1980s.


title: Friz Freleng

text: The nickname "Friz" came from his friend, Hugh Harman, who initially nicknamed him "Congressman Frizby" after a fictional senator who appeared in satirical pieces in the "Los Angeles Examiner", due to the characters strong resemblance to him. Over time, this shortened to "Friz".


title: Friz Freleng

text: Freleng was born to Louis Mendel Freleng, a Polish Jewish immigrant from Kutno, and Elka (née Ribakoff) Freleng (an Ukrainian Jewish who born in Odesa Oblast) in Kansas City, Missouri, where he attended Westport High School from 1919 to 1923 and where began his career in animation at the United Film Ad Service. There, he made the acquaintance of fellow animators Hugh Harman and Ub Iwerks. In 1923, Iwerks' friend, Walt Disney, moved to Hollywood and put out a call for his Kansas City colleagues to join him. Freleng, however, held out until January 1927, when he finally moved to California and joined the Walt Disney studio. He worked alongside other former Kansas City animators, including Iwerks, Harman, Carman Maxwell, and Rudolph Ising. While at Disney, Freleng worked on the Alice Comedies and Oswald the Lucky Rabbit cartoons for producers Margaret Winkler and Charles Mintz. Friz said in an interview with Michael Barrier that Walt had patience and remorse in letters prior to joining him, but did not show that attitude and instead Walt became abusive and he harassed him.


title: Friz Freleng

text: Freleng soon teamed up with Harman and Ising to try to create their own studio. The trio produced a pilot film starring a new Mickey Mouse-like character named Bosko. Looking at unemployment if the cartoon failed to generate interest, Freleng moved to New York City to work on Mintz' Krazy Kat cartoons, all the while still trying to sell the Harman-Ising Bosko picture. Freleng was very unhappy living in New York and made the best of it until another opportunity opened for him. Bosko was finally sold to Leon Schlesinger, who would produce the series for Warner Bros. At first, Freleng was reluctant to return to California when Harman-Ising asked him to work on the series. At the insistence of his sister Jean, Freleng soon moved back to California to work on Looney Tunes.


title: Friz Freleng

text: Harman and Ising left Schlesinger's studio over disputes about budgets in 1933. Schlesinger was left with no experienced directors and therefore lured Freleng away from Harman-Ising to successfully fix cartoons directed by Tom Palmer which Warner rejected. The young animator became Schlesinger's top director, and he introduced the studio's first true post-Bosko star, Porky Pig, in the film, "I Haven't Got a Hat" (1935). Porky was a distinctive character, unlike Bosko or his replacement, Buddy.


title: Friz Freleng

text: As a director, Freleng gained the reputation of a tough taskmaster. His unit, however, consistently produced high-quality animated shorts under his direction.


title: Friz Freleng

text: Friz Freleng directed the largest number of cartoons on the Censored Eleven, a group of Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies cartoons originally produced and released by Warner Bros. that were withheld from syndication in the United States by United Artists (UA) in 1968 because the use of ethnic stereotypes in the cartoons, specifically African stereotypes, was deemed too offensive for contemporary audiences.


title: Friz Freleng

text: David DePatie, when asked about the Japanese beetle in Blue Racer in 1996, said this about Friz's view on race, "It seems like poking fun at certain ethnic groups had always spelled success. Friz had always felt that way in his cartoons, especially with Speedy."


title: Friz Freleng

text: In September 1937, Freleng left Schlesinger after accepting an increase in salary to direct for the new Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer cartoon studio headed by Fred Quimby. Freleng served as a director on "The Captain and the Kids", an animated series adapted from the comic strip, "The Katzenjammer Kids". In November 1938, Freleng became a "junior director" under Hugh Harman but quit after 6 months in April 1939.


title: Friz Freleng

text: Freleng happily returned to Warner Bros. in mid-April 1939 when his MGM contract ended. One of the first "Looney Tunes" cartoon shorts directed by Freleng during his second tenure at the studio was "You Ought to Be in Pictures", a cartoon short which blended animation with live-action footage of the Warner Bros. studio (and included staff such as story man Michael Maltese and Schlesinger himself). The plot, which centers around Porky Pig being tricked by Daffy Duck into terminating his contract with Schlesinger to attempt a career in features, echoes Freleng's experience in moving to MGM.


title: Friz Freleng

text: Schlesinger's hands-off attitude toward his animators allowed Freleng and his fellow directors almost complete creative control and room to experiment with cartoon comedy styles, which allowed the studio to keep pace with the Disney studio's technical superiority. Freleng's style quickly matured, and he became a master of comic timing. Often working alongside layout artist Hawley Pratt, he also introduced or redesigned a number of Warner characters, including Yosemite Sam in 1945, the cat-and-bird duo Sylvester and Tweety in 1947, and Speedy Gonzales in 1955.


title: Friz Freleng

text: Freleng and Chuck Jones would dominate the Warner Bros. studio in the years after World War II, with Freleng largely concentrating on the above-mentioned characters, as well as Bugs Bunny. Freleng continued to produce modernized versions of the musical comedies he animated in his early career, such as "Three Little Bops" (1957) and "Pizzicato Pussycat" (1955). He won four Oscars during his time at Warner Bros., for the films "Tweetie Pie" (1947), "Speedy Gonzales" (1955), "Birds Anonymous" (1957) and "Knighty Knight Bugs" (1958). Other Freleng cartoons, such as "Sandy Claws" (1955), "Mexicali Shmoes" (1959), "Mouse and Garden" (1960) and "The Pied Piper of Guadalupe" (1961) were Oscar nominees.


title: Friz Freleng

text: Freleng's cartoon, "Show Biz Bugs" (1957), with Daffy Duck vying with Bugs Bunny for theatre audience appreciation, was arguably a template for the successful format of "The Bugs Bunny Show" that premiered on television in the autumn of 1960. Further, Freleng directed the cartoons with the erudite and ever-so-polite Goofy Gophers encountering the relentless wheels of human industry, them being "I Gopher You" (1954) and "Lumber Jerks" (1955), and he also directed three cartoons (sponsored by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation) extolling the virtues of free-market capitalism: "By Word of Mouse" (1954), "Heir-Conditioned" (1955) and "Yankee Dood It" (1956), all three of which involved Sylvester. Freleng directed all three of the vintage Warner Brothers cartoons in which a drinking of Dr. Jekyll's potion (of "The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde") induces a series of monstrous transformations: "Dr. Jerkyl's Hide" (1954), "Hyde and Hare" (1955) and "Hyde and Go Tweet" (1960). Other Freleng fancies were man at war with the insect world (as in "Of Thee I Sting" (1946) and "Ant Pasted" (1953)), an inebriated stork delivering the wrong baby (in "A Mouse Divided" (1952), "Stork Naked" (1955) and "Apes of Wrath" (1959)), and characters marrying for money and finding themselves with a shrewish wife and a troublesome step-son ("His Bitter Half" (1949) and "Honey's Money" (1962)).


title: Friz Freleng

text: Freleng was occasionally the subject of in-jokes in Warner cartoons. In "Canary Row" (1950), there were billboards in the background of scenes advertising various products called "Friz". The "Hotel Friz" was featured in "Racketeer Rabbit" (1946) and "Frizby the Magician" was one of the acts Bugs Bunny pitched in "High Diving Hare" (1949).


title: Friz Freleng

text: Freleng was somewhat of a musical composer and a classically trained violinist who timed his cartoons on musical bar sheets. Freleng would time gags that best utilized Carl Stalling's, Milt Franklyn's or William Lava's music. He was one of a very few directors at Warner Bros. to have musical knowledge for making cartoons. Every cartoon Freleng directed from the late 1930s to 1963 was made with his creative musical technique. Freleng's directorial style differed from Chuck Jones and Robert McKimson.


title: Friz Freleng

text: Warner Bros. Cartoons was closed in 1964, leading Freleng to take a job at Hanna-Barbera Productions as story supervisor on their first feature, "Hey There, It's Yogi Bear!" Freleng rented the same space from Warners to create cartoons with his now-former boss, producer David H. DePatie (the final producer hired by Warner Bros. to oversee the cartoon division), forming DePatie–Freleng Enterprises. When Warner decided to reopen their cartoon studio in 1964, due to Freleng asking them if he can rent the studio, eventually settling for $500, they did so in name only; DePatie–Freleng produced the cartoons into 1966.


title: Friz Freleng

text: The DePatie–Freleng studio's signature achievement was The Pink Panther. DePatie–Freleng was commissioned to create the opening titles for the feature film "The Pink Panther" (1963), for which layout artist and director Hawley Pratt and Freleng created a suave, cool cat character. The Pink Panther cartoon character became so popular that United Artists, distributors of "The Pink Panther", had Freleng produce a short cartoon starring the character, "The Pink Phink" (1964).


title: Friz Freleng

text: After "The Pink Phink" won the 1965 Academy Award for Best Short Subject (Cartoons), Freleng and DePatie responded by producing a whole series of Pink Panther cartoons. Other original cartoon series, among them "The Inspector", "The Ant and the Aardvark", "Tijuana Toads", "The Dogfather", "Roland and Rattfink" and "Crazylegs Crane", soon followed. In 1969, "The Pink Panther Show", a Saturday morning anthology program featuring DePatie–Freleng cartoons, debuted on NBC. "The Pink Panther" and the other original DePatie–Freleng series would remain in production through 1980, with new cartoons produced for simultaneous Saturday morning broadcast and United Artists theatrical release.


title: Friz Freleng

text: Layout artist Hawley Pratt, who worked at DePatie–Freleng during the time, is credited with the creation of Frito-Lay's Chester Cheetah, on the Food Network show "Deep Fried Treats Unwrapped", though some sources say it was DDB Worldwide, while others credit Brad Morgan. The studio is also known for creating the color opening title sequence for the "I Dream of Jeannie" television series. DePatie–Freleng also contributed special effects to the original version of "Star Wars" (1977), particularly the animation of the lightsaber blades.


title: Friz Freleng

text: By 1967, DePatie and Freleng had moved their operations to the San Fernando Valley. Their studio was located on Hayvenhurst Avenue in Van Nuys. One of their projects, titled "Goldilocks", featured Bing Crosby and his family, and had songs by the Sherman Brothers. At their new facilities, they continued to produce new cartoons until 1980, when they sold DePatie–Freleng to Marvel Comics, which renamed it Marvel Productions.


title: Friz Freleng

text: Freleng later served as an executive producer on three 1980s "Looney Tunes" compilation features, "The Looney Looney Looney Bugs Bunny Movie" (1981), "" (1982), and "Daffy Duck's Fantastic Island" (1983),


title: Friz Freleng

text: In 1986, Freleng stepped down and gave his position at Warner Bros. to his secretary at the time, Kathleen Helppie-Shipley, who ended up being the second-longest producer of the Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies franchise, behind only Leon Schlesinger.


title: Friz Freleng

text: In 1994, the International Family Film Festival presented its first Lifetime Achievement of Excellence in Animation award to Freleng, and the award has since been referred to as the "Friz Award" in his honor.


title: Friz Freleng

text: On May 26, 1995, Friz Freleng died of natural causes in Los Angeles, aged 89. The WB animated TV series "The Sylvester & Tweety Mysteries", and the "Looney Tunes" cartoon "From Hare to Eternity" (which was the last one directed by Chuck Jones), were both dedicated to his memory. After his death, Cartoon Network aired a variation of one of their station idents with the words "Friz Freleng: 1906–1995" (the birth year is disputed) appearing and an announcer paying tribute to Freleng and his works. He is interred in Hillside Memorial Park Cemetery.


title: Thermosphere

text: The thermosphere is the layer in the Earth's atmosphere directly above the mesosphere and below the exosphere. Within this layer of the atmosphere, ultraviolet radiation causes photoionization/photodissociation of molecules, creating ions; the thermosphere thus constitutes the larger part of the ionosphere. Taking its name from the Greek θερμός (pronounced "thermos") meaning heat, the thermosphere begins at about 80 km (50 mi) above sea level. At these high altitudes, the residual atmospheric gases sort into strata according to molecular mass (see turbosphere). Thermospheric temperatures increase with altitude due to absorption of highly energetic solar radiation. Temperatures are highly dependent on solar activity, and can rise to or more. Radiation causes the atmospheric particles in this layer to become electrically charged, enabling radio waves to be refracted and thus be received beyond the horizon. In the exosphere, beginning at about 600 km (375 mi) above sea level, the atmosphere turns into space, although, by the judging criteria set for the definition of the Kármán line (100 km), most of the thermosphere is part of space. The border between the thermosphere and exosphere is known as the thermopause.


title: Thermosphere

text: The highly attenuated gas in this layer can reach during the day. Despite the high temperature, an observer or object will experience low temperatures in the thermosphere, because the extremely low density of the gas (practically a hard vacuum) is insufficient for the molecules to conduct heat. A normal thermometer will read significantly below , at least at night, because the energy lost by thermal radiation would exceed the energy acquired from the atmospheric gas by direct contact. In the anacoustic zone above , the density is so low that molecular interactions are too infrequent to permit the transmission of sound.


title: Thermosphere

text: The dynamics of the thermosphere are dominated by atmospheric tides, which are driven predominantly by diurnal heating. Atmospheric waves dissipate above this level because of collisions between the neutral gas and the ionospheric plasma.


title: Thermosphere

text: The thermosphere is uninhabited with the exception of the International Space Station, which orbits the Earth within the middle of the thermosphere between and the Tiangong space station, which orbits between .


title: Thermosphere

text: It is convenient to separate the atmospheric regions according to the two temperature minima at an altitude of about (the tropopause) and at about (the mesopause) (Figure 1). The thermosphere (or the upper atmosphere) is the height region above , while the region between the tropopause and the mesopause is the middle atmosphere (stratosphere and mesosphere) where absorption of solar UV radiation generates the temperature maximum near an altitude of and causes the ozone layer.


title: Thermosphere

text: The density of the Earth's atmosphere decreases nearly exponentially with altitude. The total mass of the atmosphere is M = ρ H  ≃ 1 kg/cm within a column of one square centimeter above the ground (with ρ = 1.29 kg/m the atmospheric density on the ground at z = 0 m altitude, and H ≃ 8 km the average atmospheric scale height). Eighty percent of that mass is concentrated within the troposphere. The mass of the thermosphere above about is only 0.002% of the total mass. Therefore, no significant energetic feedback from the thermosphere to the lower atmospheric regions can be expected.


title: Thermosphere

text: Turbulence causes the air within the lower atmospheric regions below the turbopause at about to be a mixture of gases that does not change its composition. Its mean molecular weight is 29 g/mol with molecular oxygen (O) and nitrogen (N) as the two dominant constituents. Above the turbopause, however, diffusive separation of the various constituents is significant, so that each constituent follows its barometric height structure with a scale height inversely proportional to its molecular weight. The lighter constituents atomic oxygen (O), helium (He), and hydrogen (H) successively dominate above an altitude of about and vary with geographic location, time, and solar activity. The ratio


title: Thermosphere

text: N/O which is a measure of the electron density at the ionospheric F region is highly affected by these variations. These changes follow from the diffusion of the minor constituents through the major gas component during dynamic processes.


title: Thermosphere

text: The thermosphere contains an appreciable concentration of elemental sodium located in a thick band that occurs at the edge of the mesosphere, above Earth's surface. The sodium has an average concentration of 400,000 atoms per cubic centimeter. This band is regularly replenished by sodium sublimating from incoming meteors. Astronomers have begun using this sodium band to create "guide stars" as part of the optical correction process in producing ultra-sharp ground-based observations.


title: Thermosphere

text: The thermospheric temperature can be determined from density observations as well as from direct satellite measurements. The temperature vs. altitude z in Fig. 1 can be simulated by the so-called Bates profile:


title: Thermosphere

text: T = 355 K, and z = 120 km reference temperature and height, and s an empirical parameter depending on T and decreasing with T. That formula is derived from a simple equation of heat conduction. One estimates a total heat input of q≃ 0.8 to 1.6 mW/m above z = 120 km altitude. In order to obtain equilibrium conditions, that heat input q above z is lost to the lower atmospheric regions by heat conduction.


title: Thermosphere

text: The exospheric temperature T is a fair measurement of the solar XUV radiation. Since solar radio emission F at 10.7  cm wavelength is a good indicator of solar activity, one can apply the empirical formula for quiet magnetospheric conditions.


title: Thermosphere

text: with T in K, F in 10 W m Hz (the Covington index) a value of F averaged over several solar cycles. The Covington index varies typically between 70 and 250 during a solar cycle, and never drops below about 50. Thus, T varies between about 740 and 1350 K. During very quiet magnetospheric conditions, the still continuously flowing magnetospheric energy input contributes by about 250  K to the residual temperature of 500  K in eq.(2). The rest of 250  K in eq.(2) can be attributed to atmospheric waves generated within the troposphere and dissipated within the lower thermosphere.


title: Thermosphere

text: The solar X-ray and extreme ultraviolet radiation (XUV) at wavelengths < 170  nm is almost completely absorbed within the thermosphere. This radiation causes the various ionospheric layers as well as a temperature increase at these heights (Figure 1).


title: Thermosphere

text: While the solar visible light (380 to 780  nm) is nearly constant with the variability of not more than about 0.1% of the solar constant, the solar XUV radiation is highly variable in time and space. For instance, X-ray bursts associated with solar flares can dramatically increase their intensity over preflare levels by many orders of magnitude over some time of tens of minutes. In the extreme ultraviolet, the Lyman α line at 121.6 nm represents an important source of ionization and dissociation at ionospheric D layer heights. During quiet periods of solar activity, it alone contains more energy than the rest of the XUV spectrum. Quasi-periodic changes of the order of 100% or greater, with periods of 27 days and 11 years, belong to the prominent variations of solar XUV radiation. However, irregular fluctuations over all time scales are present all the time. During the low solar activity, about half of the total energy input into the thermosphere is thought to be solar XUV radiation. That solar XUV energy input occurs only during daytime conditions, maximizing at the equator during equinox.


title: Thermosphere

text: The second source of energy input into the thermosphere is solar wind energy which is transferred to the magnetosphere by mechanisms that are not well understood. One possible way to transfer energy is via a hydrodynamic dynamo process. Solar wind particles penetrate the polar regions of the magnetosphere where the geomagnetic field lines are essentially vertically directed. An electric field is generated, directed from dawn to dusk. Along the last closed geomagnetic field lines with their footpoints within the auroral zones, field-aligned electric currents can flow into the ionospheric dynamo region where they are closed by electric Pedersen and Hall currents. Ohmic losses of the Pedersen currents heat the lower thermosphere (see e.g., Magnetospheric electric convection field). Also, penetration of high energetic particles from the magnetosphere into the auroral regions enhance drastically the electric conductivity, further increasing the electric currents and thus Joule heating. During the quiet magnetospheric activity, the magnetosphere contributes perhaps by a quarter to the thermosphere's energy budget. This is about 250  K of the exospheric temperature in eq.(2). During the very large activity, however, this heat input can increase substantially, by a factor of four or more. That solar wind input occurs mainly in the auroral regions during both day and night.


title: Thermosphere

text: Two kinds of large-scale atmospheric waves within the lower atmosphere exist: internal waves with finite vertical wavelengths which can transport wave energy upward, and external waves with infinitely large wavelengths that cannot transport wave energy. Atmospheric gravity waves and most of the atmospheric tides generated within the troposphere belong to the internal waves. Their density amplitudes increase exponentially with height so that at the mesopause these waves become turbulent and their energy is dissipated (similar to breaking of ocean waves at the coast), thus contributing to the heating of the thermosphere by about 250  K in eq.(2). On the other hand, the fundamental diurnal tide labeled (1, −2) which is most efficiently excited by solar irradiance is an external wave and plays only a marginal role within the lower and middle atmosphere. However, at thermospheric altitudes, it becomes the predominant wave. It drives the electric Sq-current within the ionospheric dynamo region between about 100 and 200  km height.


title: Thermosphere

text: Heating, predominately by tidal waves, occurs mainly at lower and middle latitudes. The variability of this heating depends on the meteorological conditions within the troposphere and middle atmosphere, and may not exceed about 50%.


title: Thermosphere

text: Within the thermosphere above an altitude of about , all atmospheric waves successively become external waves, and no significant vertical wave structure is visible. The atmospheric wave modes degenerate to the spherical functions P with m a meridional wave number and n the zonal wave number (m = 0: zonal mean flow; m = 1: diurnal tides; m = 2: semidiurnal tides; etc.). The thermosphere becomes a damped oscillator system with low-pass filter characteristics. This means that smaller-scale waves (greater numbers of (n,m)) and higher frequencies are suppressed in favor of large-scale waves and lower frequencies. If one considers very quiet magnetospheric disturbances and a constant mean exospheric temperature (averaged over the sphere), the observed temporal and spatial distribution of the exospheric temperature distribution can be described by a sum of spheric functions:


title: Thermosphere

text: Here, it is φ latitude, λ longitude, and t time, ω the angular frequency of one year, ω the angular frequency of one solar day, and τ = ωt + λ the local time. t = June 21 is the date of northern summer solstice, and τ = 15:00 is the local time of maximum diurnal temperature.


title: Thermosphere

text: The first term in (3) on the right is the global mean of the exospheric temperature (of the order of 1000  K). The second term [with P = 0.5(3 sin(φ)−1)] represents the heat surplus at lower latitudes and a corresponding heat deficit at higher latitudes (Fig. 2a). A thermal wind system develops with the wind toward the poles in the upper level and winds away from the poles in the lower level. The coefficient ΔT ≈ 0.004 is small because Joule heating in the aurora regions compensates that heat surplus even during quiet magnetospheric conditions. During disturbed conditions, however, that term becomes dominant, changing sign so that now heat surplus is transported from the poles to the equator. The third term (with P = sin φ) represents heat surplus on the summer hemisphere and is responsible for the transport of excess heat from the summer into the winter hemisphere (Fig. 2b). Its relative amplitude is of the order ΔT ≃ 0.13. The fourth term (with P(φ) = cos φ) is the dominant diurnal wave (the tidal mode (1,−2)). It is responsible for the transport of excess heat from the daytime hemisphere into the nighttime hemisphere (Fig. 2d). Its relative amplitude is ΔT≃ 0.15, thus on the order of 150 K. Additional terms (e.g., semiannual, semidiurnal terms, and higher-order terms) must be added to eq.(3). However, they are of minor importance. Corresponding sums can be developed for density, pressure, and the various gas constituents.


title: Thermosphere

text: In contrast to solar XUV radiation, magnetospheric disturbances, indicated on the ground by geomagnetic variations, show an unpredictable impulsive character, from short periodic disturbances of the order of hours to long-standing giant storms of several days' duration. The reaction of the thermosphere to a large magnetospheric storm is called a thermospheric storm. Since the heat input into the thermosphere occurs at high latitudes (mainly into the auroral regions), the heat transport is represented by the term P in eq.(3) is reversed. Also, due to the impulsive form of the disturbance, higher-order terms are generated which, however, possess short decay times and thus quickly disappear. The sum of these modes determines the "travel time" of the disturbance to the lower latitudes, and thus the response time of the thermosphere with respect to the magnetospheric disturbance. Important for the development of an ionospheric storm is the increase of the ratio N/O during a thermospheric storm at middle and higher latitude. An increase of N increases the loss process of the ionospheric plasma and causes therefore a decrease of the electron density within the ionospheric F-layer (negative ionospheric storm).


title: Thermosphere

text: A contraction of the thermosphere has been observed as a possible result in part due to increased carbon dioxide concentrations, the strongest cooling and contraction occurring in that layer during solar minimum. The most recent contraction in 2008–2009 was the largest such since at least 1967.


title: AngelList

text: AngelList is a U.S. website for startups, angel investors, and job-seekers looking to work at startups. Founded in 2010, it started as an online introduction board for tech startups that needed seed funding. Since 2015, the site allows startups to raise money from angel investors free of charge.


title: AngelList

text: AngelList was founded in 2010 by serial entrepreneur Naval Ravikant and Babak Nivi. Using the traction from the Venture Hack blog on entrepreneur financing, Naval and Babak started a list of 25 investors with whom they would share interesting companies to invest in. They announced the list as "AngelList" in 2010, with the subscription of 50 angel investors who intended to invest USD $80 million that year.


title: AngelList

text: Business Insider dubbed AngelList the "Match.com for investors and startups". In a recent interview, Naval Ravikant wants more "innovation on [the] infrastructure for innovation itself" by helping startups with money, talent, and customers.


title: AngelList

text: AngelList's Syndicate facilitates startup financing with accredited investors. AngelList Jobs connect talents with startups, with over 35,000 recruiting companies, more than 2,000,000 candidates and 5 million registered users. AngelList's acquisition of Product Hunt will allow more support for startups with customer generation and product launch. AngelList Syndicates allow startups to raise money from accredited investors investing alongside prominent angel investors.


title: AngelList

text: In late 2012, AngelList launched a portal for accelerators and incubators to accept and manage applications from startups to their programs. At opening, AngelList accepted applications for 500 Startups, TechStars Boston, and AngelPad. Other accelerators, like Rock Health, accept applications exclusively through AngelList.


title: AngelList

text: In 2013, AngelList received a no-action letter from the SEC, allowing the operations of its Syndicates platform. FundersClub also received such a letter in the same period. AngelList Syndicates was noted as one of the most important innovations in the venture capital and angel investment industries, getting momentum with several well-known figures in the tech community creating syndicates, including Jason Calacanis, Scott Banister, Tim Ferriss, Gil Penchina, Scott and Cyan Banister, Fabrice Grinda, Elad Gil and more. In 2017, AngelList had 4,400 investors operating across 165 syndicates.


title: AngelList

text: In March 2014, AngelList launched Maiden Lane, a first online venture fund for investing in syndicated deals. It was launched with more than $25 million in funding from a variety of investors. In 2014, women represented only 7.4% of all AngelList investors.


title: AngelList

text: In October 2015, AngelList announced a deal with a Chinese third-largest private equity firm CSC (China Science & Merchants Investment Management Group) for establishing a new $400 million fund for early-stage startup investments. According to The Wall Street Journal, the deal became the "largest single pool of funds devoted to early-stage startups — ever," and also the "largest-ever single investment by a Chinese private-equity firm in a U.S. fund."


title: AngelList

text: Prior to the deal, according to TWSJ, AngelList "had raised $205 million from all sources, including $43 million from institutional investors."


title: AngelList

text: In July 2016, AngelList launched Republic - a spinoff addressing the democratization of startup equity crowdfunding with non-accredited investors.


title: AngelList

text: In November 2016, AngelList acquired Product Hunt for $20 million. Naval Ravikant plans to build Product Hunt further in "helping companies find their early customers."


title: AngelList

text: In October 2017, CoinList - initial coin offering services for startups and accredited investors - spun off from AngelList. At the end of 2017 AngelList had profiles of over 70,000 startups.


title: AngelList

text: In 2020, AngelList launched rolling funds, an investment vehicle that raises money through a quarterly subscription from interested investors. In the same year, AngelList India's CEO, Utsav Somani, launched a $5 million micro-fund, iSeed SEA, to invest in startups located in Southeast Asia.


title: AngelList

text: In 2021, AngelList raised $25 million for the AngelList Early Stage Quant Fund, an investment vehicle which plans to invest $250,000 in over 100 companies.


title: AngelList

text: In March 2022, AngelList closed its $100 million Series B led by Tiger Global. One month later, the company raised another bridge round of $44 million.