title: Living Next Door to Alice

text: The song is about a man's long-standing unrequited and unadmitted love toward Alice, his next door neighbour of 24 years. The protagonist learned through mutual friend Sally that Alice is moving away, and begins to reflect on childhood memories and his friendship with Alice, and becomes heartbroken as he sees Alice drive away in a limousine. In the final verse, Sally reveals that all the time she has been waiting 24 years for her opportunity with him ("Alice is gone, but I'm still here").


title: Living Next Door to Alice

text: Later versions of the song insert an interjection during a pause in the chorus (from the audience during live performances or from a guest separate from the lead singer): "Alice! Who the fuck is Alice?" (guests will sometimes say "hell" or "heck"). These performances may also change a line in the chorus so that the singer's affections are as much sexual as they are romantic, and that the singer had hoped to "get inside her pants" instead of "get a second glance."


title: Living Next Door to Alice

text: On the "American Top 40" broadcast of 26 May 1979, Casey Kasem reported that Chapman stated that his source of inspiration for "Living Next Door to Alice" was "Sylvia's Mother" by Dr. Hook.


title: Living Next Door to Alice

text: In November 1976, the British band Smokie released their version of "Living Next Door to Alice". The single peaked at number five on the UK Singles Chart and, in March 1977, reached 25 in the United States. It was a number one hit in Austria, Germany, Ireland, The Netherlands, Norway and Switzerland and a number 2 hit in Australia staying in the charts for 23 weeks.


title: Living Next Door to Alice

text: Smokie collaborated on a novelty re-recording in 1995 with comedian Roy Chubby Brown, with the song interspersed with Roy Chubby Brown saying "Who the fuck is Alice?". In March 1995, Smokie's singer Alan Barton died following an accident in Germany, and the version with Brown was released with all proceeds going to the family of Barton. The song peaked at number three on the UK Singles Chart in October 1995, selling almost half a million copies.


title: Living Next Door to Alice

text: A more risqué version of "Living Next Door to Alice" was released by the Dutch novelty act Gompie in 1995, titled "Alice, Who the X Is Alice?". Their version topped the charts in Flanders and the Netherlands, and reached the top 10 in Austria, Germany, Norway, and Switzerland. In the United Kingdom, the song peaked at number 17.


title: Living Next Door to Alice

text: Gompie is a project of Peter Koelewijn and Rob Peters. Peters, while visiting a bar called Gompie in Nijmegen, heard "Living Next Door to Alice" by Smokie. After the name Alice in the song, the disc jockey Onno Pelser turned down the volume and the crowd sang "Alice, who the fuck is Alice?". Peters realized it could become a hit record, contacted Koelewijn and a day later the song was recorded and released under the name Gompie.


title: Living Next Door to Alice

text: The success of this version resulted in various similar versions, including a new recording by Smokie with blue comedian Roy 'Chubby' Brown. A dance version of the cover was released by the Steppers, titled "Alice, Who the F..k Is Alice?", and reached No. 2 on the Australian Singles Chart in September 1995. Actor Alan Fletcher, who plays doctor Karl Kennedy in the soap opera "Neighbours", took up the song as "Who the Fuck Is Susan?" at fan events, in reference to his erstwhile fictional wife.


title: Living Next Door to Alice

text: Alan Jones from "Music Week" wrote, "In the finest tradition of Dutch compatriots Stars On 45, Gompie perform a very accurate imitation of Smokie's 1976 Top Five hit, Living Next Door To Alice. Their template only slips after they sing the title refrain, where upon an ensemble pipes up, "Alice, Who The Fuck Is Alice?", at least on the unedited version. It's a one-joke song, and the irony is that it may succeed as much on the strength of the original song as the imitation. However, competing versions by Smokie themselves (with Roy Chubby Brown) and Paddy Goes To Holyhead will be in there fighting too."


title: Living Next Door to Alice

text: Concurrent with Smokie's American success with the song, country music singer Johnny Carver released his own version of "Living Next Door to Alice" in 1977. Carver's version peaked at No. 29 on the "Billboard" Hot Country Singles chart in April 1977.


title: Living Next Door to Alice

text: In 1973, the American band, Gallery recorded the song and included it on the second album, "Gallery featuring Jim Gold". It was released as a single in 1974 but failed to chart.


title: Living Next Door to Alice

text: In 1982, British punk band Chron Gen included a live, sexually explicit version of "Living Next Door to Alice" on the cassette "Apocalypse Live Tour June '81 (Live at Leicester)" and released a studio version of the song on the debut album "Chronic Generation".


title: Living Next Door to Alice

text: In 1985, Australian comedian Kevin Bloody Wilson released "Living Next Door to Alan", a parody of "Living Next Door to Alice" imagining an Aboriginal family living next door to Alan Bond, a famous Australian entrepreneur.


title: Living Next Door to Alice

text: The 1996 album "The Smurfs Go Pop!" by The Smurfs included a song to the same tune, titled "Smurfland".


title: Living Next Door to Alice

text: Ex-Smokie vocalist Chris Norman included his solo cover of the song on his 2000 studio album "Full Circle".


title: Living Next Door to Alice

text: Danish singer Flemming "Bamse" Jørgensen covered the song as "Alice" on his 1977 solo debut "Din Sang".


title: Living Next Door to Alice

text: In Finnish, the song was recorded in 1977 by Kari Tapio, with the title "Viisitoista kesää" (""Fifteen Summers""). The arrangement is by and the Finnish lyrics by Juha Vainio.


title: Living Next Door to Alice

text: In Norwegian, there is a translation, "I 24 år har jeg bodd i samme gård som Anne". There are also other songs to the same tune. "Storholt, Stensen, Stenshjemmet, Sjøbrend åsså'n Hjallis" deals about the famous Norwegian speed skating team known as The Four Aces. The single was released in 1977 by Stein Ingebrigtsen & Store Stå and peaked at No. 3 on the Norwegian VG-lista.


title: Living Next Door to Alice

text: A German version of the song, titled "Tür an Tür mit Alice", was a hit for Howard Carpendale in 1977. The single peaked at No. 8 in Germany and Switzerland and at No. 11 in Austria.


title: Living Next Door to Alice

text: In Czechoslovakia, the song was released on 21 February 1973 under the title "Alenka v říši divů" (""Alice in Wonderland""), performed by Karel Zich. There is also a parody version recorded under the name Denis, from the Czech Republic.


title: Living Next Door to Alice

text: A Hungarian version was performed by István Torontáli with the title "Drága Alice" (""Dear Alice""), including lyrics translated by Tibor Bornai.


title: Living Next Door to Alice

text: In former Yugoslavia, Toni Montano made a song based on the original tune, titled "10 godina" (""10 Years"").


title: Living Next Door to Alice

text: A Russian version of the song, titled "Элис" (""Alice"") was released by Конец фильма (Movie End) rock band in 2001 as the closing song of their studio album "Soundtracks (Goodbye, Innocence)". Its lyrics are by Mikhail Bashakov. The humorous lyrics are driven by the "А кто такая Элис?" ("But who is actually Alice?") interjection (thus, no profanity in the Russian version) and are about some company considering crashing at Alice's place, indeed answering to the ever repeated question in form of a long list of her virtues ("she is well dressed, she speaks beautifully, she is fluent in English and Hebrew" etc.). There is also an animated cartoon by Dmitry Rezchikov based on this version.


title: 2021–22 Danish Superliga

text: The 2021–22 Danish Superliga (officially the 3F Superliga for sponsorship reasons) was the 32nd season of the Danish Superliga. Brøndby were the defending champions. The season began on 16 July 2021 and ended on 29 May 2022.


title: 2021–22 Danish Superliga

text: Lyngby Boldklub (relegated after two years in the top flight) and AC Horsens (relegated after five years in the top flight) finished the 2020–21 season in 11th and 12th place, respectively, and were relegated to the 2021–22 1st Division.


title: 2021–22 Danish Superliga

text: The relegated teams were replaced by 2020–21 1st Division champions Viborg FF, who returned after four years of absence, as well as the runners-up Silkeborg IF who returned after a one-year absence.


title: 2021–22 Danish Superliga

text: The fifth-placed team of the championship round, advanced to a play-off match against the winning team of the relegation round. The winners earned a place in the Europa Conference League second qualifying round.


title: East Germanic languages

text: The East Germanic languages, also called the Oder–Vistula Germanic languages, are a group of extinct Germanic languages that were spoken by East Germanic peoples. East Germanic is one of the primary branches of Germanic languages, along with North Germanic and West Germanic.


title: East Germanic languages

text: The only East Germanic language of which texts are known is Gothic, although a word list and some short sentences survive from its relative Crimean Gothic. Other East Germanic languages include Vandalic and Burgundian, though the only remnants of these languages are in the form of isolated words and short phrases. Furthermore, the inclusion of Burgundian has been called into doubt. Crimean Gothic is believed to have survived until the 18th century in isolated areas of Crimea.


title: East Germanic languages

text: East Germanic was presumably native to the north of Central Europe, especially modern Poland, and likely even the first branch to split off from Proto-Germanic in the first millennium BCE.


title: East Germanic languages

text: For many years, the least controversial theory of the origin of the Germanic (and East Germanic) languages was the so-called Gotho-Nordic hypothesis: that they originated in the Nordic Bronze Age of Southern Scandinavia and along the coast of the northernmost parts of Germany.


title: East Germanic languages

text: By the 1st century CE, the writings of Pomponius Mela, Pliny the Elder, and Tacitus indicate a division of Germanic-speaking peoples into large groupings with shared ancestry and culture. (This division has been taken over in modern terminology about the divisions of Germanic languages.)


title: East Germanic languages

text: Based on accounts by Jordanes, Procopius, Paul the Deacon and others, as well as linguistic, toponymic, and archaeological evidence, the East Germanic tribes, the speakers of the East Germanic languages related to the North Germanic tribes, had migrated from Scandinavia into the area lying east of the Elbe. In fact, the Scandinavian influence on Pomerania and today's northern Poland from c. 1300–1100 BCE (Nordic Bronze Age sub-period III) onwards was so considerable that this region is sometimes included in the Nordic Bronze Age culture (Dabrowski 1989:73).


title: East Germanic languages

text: There is also archaeological and toponymic evidence which has been taken as suggesting that Burgundians lived on the Danish island of Bornholm (), and that Rugians lived on the Norwegian coast of Rogaland ().


title: Weeekly

text: Weeekly () is a South Korean girl group under IST Entertainment (formerly Play M Entertainment). The group is Play M Entertainment's second girl group in 10 years, after Apink. The group consists of six members: Lee Soo-jin, Monday, Park So-eun, Lee Jae-hee, Jihan and Zoa. The group debuted on June 30, 2020, with their debut EP, "We Are". Originally a septet, Shin Ji-yoon left the group on June 1, 2022.


title: Weeekly

text: The group's name, Weeekly, taken from the role of the member in charge of each day of the week as the catchphrase says that "every day brings a new and special week".


title: Weeekly

text: Soojin, Jiyoon and Soeun were contestants of YG Entertainment and JTBC's survival show "Mix Nine", with Soojin being the "prominent face" among the female contestants during the initial stages of the show's launch. However, on January 8, 2018, Soojin withdrew from the show following injury from a traffic accident and had received emergency surgery.


title: Weeekly

text: In October 2018, Fave Entertainment had announced its plans to debut a new girl group, temporarily named Fave Girls (페이브 걸즈, stylised as FAVE GIRLS). The lineup included Soojin, Jiyoon, Monday, Soeun and Jaehee. The group was subsequently named PlayM Girls (플레이엠 걸즈) following the merger of Plan A Entertainment and Fave Entertainment, to form Play M Entertainment, on April 1, 2019.


title: Weeekly

text: On May 8, 2020, Play M Entertainment announced that PlayM Girls were confirmed to make their debut in June. On May 11, the group name was revealed to be Weeekly, with all seven members of the group and their profile pictures revealed. On June 12, the group's debut extended play "We Are" was announced to be released on June 30, together with a release schedule.


title: Weeekly

text: On June 30, the music video for the EP's lead single "Tag Me (@Me)" was released 18 hours before the release of the EP. Subsequently, "We Are" was released digitally, with Jiyoon involved in writing and composing two songs of the EP. The group had a press showcase on the same day. Originally, the group would also have a live debut showcase through V Live, but a fire that broke out near the venue of the showcase resulted in its cancelation. The music video for "Tag Me (@Me)" went on to achieve 10 million views in its first 7 days, while the EP sold over 10,000 copies within its first 8 days.


title: Weeekly

text: The group sang KakaoTV variety show Wannabe Ryan's signal song "Boom Chi Ki" (붐 치키). The single was digitally released on September 25. On September 28, the Korean Consumer Forum awarded Weeekly the "Female Rookie of the Year Award," using data from a poll of over 550,000 Koreans.


title: Weeekly

text: The group released their second EP "We Can" on October 13, featuring the lead single "Zig Zag". On October 15, they had their debut stage for the song on M Countdown. The choreography was distinct for its integration of 10-pound cubes into the dance, which the members pushed around the stage. The song achieved 10 million views on YouTube within 4 days, beating their previous record.


title: Weeekly

text: The group released their third EP "We Play", featuring "After School" as the lead single on March 17.


title: Weeekly

text: The group released a single "7Days Tension", in collaboration with South Korean eyewear brand Davich, on May 28.


title: Weeekly

text: On February 28, 2022, it was announced that Shin Ji-yoon would be taking a hiatus temporarily due to tension and anxiety.


title: Weeekly

text: On June 1, 2022, it was confirmed that Shin Ji-yoon would be leaving the group due to ongoing anxiety, and that Weeekly would be continuing as a six-member group.


title: Weeekly

text: On May 11, 2021, Weeekly was selected as the advertising models for Korean eyewear brand Davich Optical Chain's Tension 7-Day Lens contact lenses.


title: Weeekly

text: In August 2021, Lee Soo-jin was selected as the ambassador for the 23rd Bucheon International Animation Festival (BIAF2021) that was held from October 22nd to 26th, 2021.


title: Weeekly

text: In August 2022, Weeekly collaborated with AliMoli Studio for an XR Animation Game 'Astrostation' that is planned for release. 'Astrostation' is a 3D VR animation game with the theme of 'Space Exploration'. The project revolves around the theme of 'collaboration' between the Korean Wave Industry and Media Content Companies that allowing them to promote contents with idea and marketing support, and can expect various concepts and genre expansions. They have appeared in the CAST Park Festival at Gwanghwamun, on October 23rd to introduce the product to domestic consumers.


title: Volcanic winter

text: A volcanic winter is a reduction in global temperatures caused by volcanic ash and droplets of sulfuric acid and water obscuring the Sun and raising Earth's albedo (increasing the reflection of solar radiation) after a large, particularly explosive volcanic eruption. Long-term cooling effects are primarily dependent upon injection of sulfur gases into the stratosphere where they undergo a series of reactions to create sulfuric acid which can nucleate and form aerosols. Volcanic stratospheric aerosols cool the surface by reflecting solar radiation and warm the stratosphere by absorbing terrestrial radiation. The variations in atmospheric warming and cooling result in changes in tropospheric and stratospheric circulation.


title: Volcanic winter

text: The effects of volcanic eruptions on recent winters are modest in scale, but historically have been significant.


title: Volcanic winter

text: The causes of the population bottleneck – a sharp decrease in a species' population, immediately followed by a period of great genetic divergence (differentiation) among survivors – is attributed to volcanic winters by some researchers. Such events may diminish populations to "levels low enough for evolutionary changes, which occur much faster in small populations, to produce rapid population differentiation". With the Lake Toba bottleneck, many species showed massive effects of narrowing of the gene pool, and Toba may have reduced the human population to between 15,000 and 40,000, or even fewer.


title: AGM-176 Griffin

text: The AGM-176 Griffin is a lightweight, precision-guided munition developed by Raytheon. It can be launched from the ground or air as a rocket-powered missile or dropped from the air as a guided bomb. It carries a relatively small warhead, and was designed to be a precision low-collateral damage weapon for irregular warfare. It has been used in combat by the United States military during the War in Afghanistan.


title: AGM-176 Griffin

text: Raytheon developed the Griffin as a low-cost modular system, using components from earlier projects, including the FGM-148 Javelin and the AIM-9X Sidewinder. It was originally designed to be launched from the US Special Operations Command's MC-130W Dragon Spear gunship and can be guided either by a semi-active laser seeker or with GPS. Its precision combined with a relatively small 5.9 kg warhead reduces collateral damage.


title: AGM-176 Griffin

text: The munition comes in two versions. Griffin A is an unpowered precision munition that can be dropped from a rear cargo door or a door-mounted launcher that can drop while the cabin is pressurized. Weighing 15 kg and measuring 1.1 meters in length, it is launched from a 10-tube "Gunslinger" launcher that fits on the rear ramp of a Marine KC-130 tanker/transport or both the US Air Force AC-130W "Stinger II" and AC-130J "Ghostrider" gunship variants.


title: AGM-176 Griffin

text: Griffin Block II B is a short-range, rocket-powered air-to-surface or surface-to-surface missile that can be fired from UAVs as well as helicopters, attack aircraft, U.S. Air Force AC-130W gunships, and Marine Corps KC-130J tankers.


title: AGM-176 Griffin

text: The missile's folding fins allow it to be launched from a 140 mm tube. It can be set to engage the target with height of burst, point detonation or fuze delay. The U.S. Navy has tested the Griffin as a shipboard missile guided by laser at fast-moving small boats; they planned to use it on the Littoral Combat Ships. The missile version is less than half the weight of a Hellfire round and includes a 5.9 kg warhead. It has a range of 15 km when air-launched, or 5.5 km when launched from the surface. It has been fired from the U.S. Army Remote weapon station, multi-round Wedge Launcher, Smart Launcher and Kiowa Warrior manned helicopters.


title: AGM-176 Griffin

text: The missile is smaller than the Hellfire typically used by armed UAVs, which reduces the potential for collateral damage. The Griffin missile and launch assembly is also lighter than the Hellfire, allowing more to be mounted on the Predator. Three Griffins can be carried in place of one Hellfire.


title: AGM-176 Griffin

text: In 70 months of production from 2008 to early February 2014, Raytheon delivered 2,000 Griffin missiles. In late February 2014, Raytheon demonstrated the improved Griffin Block III missile, hitting static and moving targets. The Block III includes an improved semi-active laser seeker with better electronics and signal processing and a new Multi-Effects Warhead System to maximize lethality against different targets.


title: AGM-176 Griffin

text: Raytheon developed an extended-range version of the Griffin for integration onto Littoral Combat Ships. The "Sea Griffin" has a new motor and guidance system to increase its firing range from an LCS. Raytheon faced competition in equipping the LCS with a missile, as the Navy looked for other vendors. Competition came from MBDA with the Sea Spear version of its Brimstone missile. Both missiles are intended to give the LCS protection from small boat swarm attacks. The Navy instead selected the AGM-114L Hellfire to equip the LCS. The decision was made from the ship's use of the Saab's Sea Giraffe radar. While each Griffin requires a semi-active laser to paint a target, so a volley of them can only engage one target at a time, the Longbow Hellfire missiles can use the ship's and their own millimeter wave radar to separately track and engage multiple targets at the same time.


title: AGM-176 Griffin

text: The MK-60 Patrol Coastal Griffin Missile System achieved initial operational capability (IOC) with the U.S. Navy in March 2014, which is intended to provide protection for vessels in littoral areas against swarm boat attacks and other threats. The MK-60 includes the Griffin missile, a laser targeting system, a Navy-designed launcher, and a battle management system. Each Mk-60 can launch four missiles, and a patrol ship has two MK-60 launchers on board. The U.S. Navy began installing Griffin missiles on Patrol Craft in 2013; as of May 2014, four were outfitted with Griffin missile systems, with plans to equip ten PCs by 2016. When mounted on a ship, the missile is designated the "BGM-176B". Arming PCs with Griffin missiles adds a layer of defense to the ships beyond the range of their 25 mm gun mounts, out to , and also provides 360-degree coverage; the missiles' thrust-vectoring engines can move the missile to its target even when launched vertically. Installation onto a PC involves adding the launcher and weapons control system, the BRITE Star II sensor/laser designator, and the Griffin B Block II missile in a process taking one month.


title: AGM-176 Griffin

text: Raytheon is continuing to fund the development of the Sea Griffin to extend the missile's range. The Sea Griffin will use a dual-mode seeker with an imaging infrared seeker and semi-active laser guidance, and a data-link to track multiple threats simultaneously and give it a fire-and-forget capability. The new seeker and an extended-range rocket motor, which will add 9.1 kg, will increase the range of the Sea Griffin to 15 km. In tests, the Sea Griffin's new imaging infrared (IIR) seeker has streamed video back to operators through the data-link to provide verification before the missile strikes the target. Its In-Flight Target Update (IFTU) capability allows it to be redirected to a new target in mid-flight, a vital feature against swarming small boats moving between friendly forces and neutral shipping. The Sea Griffin has been renamed the "Griffin C".


title: Brezhnev Doctrine

text: The Brezhnev Doctrine was a Soviet foreign policy that proclaimed any threat to socialist rule in any state of the Soviet Bloc in Central and Eastern Europe was a threat to them all, and therefore justified the intervention of fellow socialist states. It was proclaimed in order to justify the Soviet-led occupation of Czechoslovakia earlier in 1968, with the overthrow of the reform government there. The references to "socialism" meant control by the communist parties loyal to the Kremlin. Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev repudiated the doctrine in the late 1980s, as the Kremlin accepted the peaceful overthrow of communist rule in all its satellite countries in Eastern Europe.


title: Brezhnev Doctrine

text: The policy was first and most clearly outlined by Sergei Kovalev in a September 26, 1968 "Pravda" article entitled "Sovereignty and the International Obligations of Socialist Countries". Leonid Brezhnev reiterated it in a speech at the Fifth Congress of the Polish United Workers' Party on November 13, 1968, which stated: "When forces that are hostile to socialism try to turn the development of some socialist country towards capitalism, it becomes not only a problem of the country concerned, but a common problem and concern of all socialist countries."


title: Brezhnev Doctrine

text: This doctrine was announced to retroactively justify the invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968 that ended the Prague Spring, along with earlier Soviet military interventions, such as the invasion of Hungary in 1956. These interventions were meant to put an end to liberalization efforts and uprisings that had the potential to compromise Soviet hegemony inside the Soviet Bloc, which was considered by the Soviet Union to be an essential and defensive and strategic buffer in case hostilities with NATO were to break out.


title: Brezhnev Doctrine

text: In practice, the policy meant that only limited independence of the satellite states' communist parties was allowed and that none would be allowed to compromise the cohesiveness of the Eastern Bloc in any way. That is, no country could leave the Warsaw Pact or disturb a ruling communist party's monopoly on power. Implicit in this doctrine was that the leadership of the Soviet Union reserved, for itself, the power to define "socialism" and "capitalism". Following the announcement of the Brezhnev Doctrine, numerous treaties were signed between the Soviet Union and its satellite states to reassert these points and to further ensure inter-state cooperation. The principles of the doctrine were so broad that the Soviets even used it to justify their military intervention in the communist (but non-Warsaw Pact) nation of Afghanistan in 1979. The Brezhnev Doctrine stayed in effect until it was ended with the Soviet reaction to the Polish crisis of 1980–1981.


title: Brezhnev Doctrine

text: Mikhail Gorbachev refused to use military force when Poland held free elections in 1989 and Solidarity defeated the Polish United Workers' Party. It was superseded by the facetiously named Sinatra Doctrine in 1989, alluding to the Frank Sinatra song "My Way". The refusal to intervene in the emancipation of the Eastern European satellite states and the Pan-European Picnic then led to the fall of the Iron Curtain and the largely peaceful collapse of the Eastern Bloc.


title: Brezhnev Doctrine

text: The period between 1953–1968 was saturated with dissidence and reformation within the Soviet satellite states. 1953 saw the death of Soviet Leader Joseph Stalin, followed closely by Nikita Khrushchev's 1956 "Secret Speech" denouncing Stalin. This denouncement of the former leader led to a period of the Soviet Era known commonly as "De-Stalinization." Under the blanket reforms of this process, Imre Nagy came to power in Hungary as the new Prime Minister, taking over for Mátyás Rákosi. Almost immediately Nagy set out on a path of reform. Police power was reduced, collectivized farms were breaking apart, industry and food production shifted and religious tolerance was becoming more prominent. These reforms shocked the Hungarian Communist Party. Nagy was quickly overthrown by Rákosi in 1955, and stripped of his political livelihood. Shortly after this coup, Khrushchev signed the Belgrade Declaration which stated "separate paths to socialism were permissible within the Soviet Bloc." With hopes for serious reform just having been extinguished in Hungary, this declaration was not received well by the Hungarians. Tensions quickly mounted in Hungary with demonstrations and calls for not only the withdrawal of Soviet troops, but for a Hungarian withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact as well. By October 23 Soviet forces landed in Budapest. A chaotic and bloody squashing of revolutionary forces lasted from October 24 until November 7. Although order was restored, tensions remained on both sides of the conflict. Hungarians resented the end of the reformation, and the Soviets wanted to avoid a similar crisis from occurring again anywhere in the socialist camp.


title: Brezhnev Doctrine

text: When the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 ended, the Soviets adopted the mindset that governments supporting both Communism and capitalism must coexist, and more importantly, build relations. The Communist Party of the Soviet Union called for a peaceful coexistence, where the war between the United States and Soviet Union would come to a close. This ideal, further stressed that all people are equal, and own the right to solve the problems of their own countries themselves. The idea was that in order for both states to peacefully coexist, neither country can exercise the right to get involved in each other's internal affairs. The Soviets did not want the Americans getting into their business, as the Americans did not want the Soviets in theirs. While this idea was brought up following the events of Hungary, they were not put into effect for a great deal of time. This is further explained in the Renunciation section.


title: Brezhnev Doctrine

text: Notions of reform had been slowly growing in Czechoslovakia since the early-mid 1960s. However, once the Stalinist President Antonín Novotný resigned as head of the Czechoslovak Communist Party in January 1968, the Prague Spring began to take shape. Alexander Dubček replaced Novotný as head of the party, initially thought a friend to the Soviet Union. It was not long before Dubček began making serious liberal reforms. In an effort to establish what Dubček called "developed socialism", he instituted changes in Czechoslovakia to create a much more free and liberal version of the socialist state. Aspects of a market economy were implemented, travel abroad became easier for citizens, state censorship loosened, the power of the secret police was limited, and steps were taken to improve relations with the west. As the reforms piled up, the Kremlin quickly grew uneasy as they hoped to not only preserve socialism within Czechoslovakia, but to avoid another Hungarian-style crisis as well. Soviet panic compounded in March of ’68 when student protests erupted in Poland and Antonín Novotný resigned as the Czechoslovak President. March 21 Yuri Andropov, the KGB Chairman, issued a grave statement concerning the reforms taking place under Dubček. "The methods and forms by which the work is progressing in Czechoslovakia remind one very much of Hungary. In this outward appearance of chaos…there is a certain order. It all began like this in Hungary also, but then came the first and second echelons, and then, finally the social democrats."


title: Brezhnev Doctrine

text: Leonid Brezhnev sought clarification from Dubček on March 21, with the Politburo convened, on the situation in Czechoslovakia. Eager to avoid a similar fate as Imre Nagy, Dubček reassured Brezhnev that the reforms were totally under control and not on a similar path to those seen in 1956 in Hungary. Despite Dubček's assurances, other socialist allies grew uneasy by the reforms taking place in an Eastern European neighbor. Namely, the Ukrainians were very alarmed by the Czechoslovak deviation from standard socialism. The First Secretary of the Ukrainian Communist Party called on Moscow for an immediate invasion of Czechoslovakia in order to stop Dubček's "socialism with a human face" from spreading into Ukraine and sparking unrest. By May 6 Brezhnev condemned Dubček's system, declaring it a step toward "the complete collapse of the Warsaw Pact." After three months of negotiations, agreements, and rising tensions between Moscow and Czechoslovakia, the Soviet/Warsaw Pact invasion began on the night of August 20, 1968 which was to be met with great Czechoslovak discontent and resistance for many months into 1970.


title: Brezhnev Doctrine

text: Brezhnev realized the need for a shift from Nikita Khrushchev's idea of "different paths to socialism" towards one that fostered a more unified vision throughout the socialist camp. "Economic integration, political consolidation, a return to ideological orthodoxy, and inter-Party cooperation became the new watchwords of Soviet bloc relations." On November 12, 1968 Brezhnev stated that "[w]hen external and internal forces hostile to socialism try to turn the development of a given socialist country in the direction of … the capitalist system ... this is no longer merely a problem for that country's people, but a common problem, the concern of all socialist countries." Brezhnev's statement at the Fifth Congress of the Polish United Workers Party effectively classified the issue of sovereignty as less important than the preservation of international socialism. While no new doctrine had been officially announced, it was clear that Soviet intervention was imminent if Moscow perceived any country to be at risk of jeopardizing the integrity of socialism.


title: Brezhnev Doctrine

text: The vague, broad nature of the Brezhnev Doctrine allowed application to any international situation the USSR saw fit. This is clearly evident not only through the Prague Spring in 1968, and the indirect pressure on Poland from 1980–81, but also in the Soviet involvement in Afghanistan starting in the 1970s. Any instance which caused the USSR to question whether or not a country was becoming a risk to international socialism, the use of military intervention was, in Soviet eyes, not only justified, but necessary.


title: Brezhnev Doctrine

text: The Soviet government's desire to link its foreign policy to the Brezhnev Doctrine was evoked again when it ordered a military intervention in Afghanistan in 1979. This was perhaps the last chapter of this doctrine's saga.


title: Brezhnev Doctrine

text: In April 1978, a coup in Kabul brought the Afghan Communist Party to power with Nur Muhammad Taraki being installed as the second president of Afghanistan. The previous president, Mohammed Daoud Khan was killed during the coup. The Saur Revolution (as the coup was known) took Moscow by surprise, who preferred that the pro-Soviet Daoud Khan stay in power. The previous regime had maintained a pro-Soviet foreign policy as Daoud Khan was a Pashtun who rejected the Durand Line as the frontier with Pakistan. The Afghan Communist Party was divided into a murderous factional struggle between factions known as the Khalq and Parcham. The Parcham was the more moderate of the two factions, arguing that Afghanistan was not ready for socialism, requiring more gradual process while the ultra-Communist Khalq favored a more radical approach. The Khalq faction was victorious and the leader of the Pacham faction Babrak Karmal fled to Moscow in fear of his life, to take up the position as Afghan ambassador in Moscow.


title: Brezhnev Doctrine

text: Islamic fundamentalists took issue with the Communist party in power. As a result, a "jihad" was proclaimed against the Communist government. Brezhnev and other Soviet leaders believed that the United States was behind the "jihad" in Afghanistan, and the rebellion in Afghanistan was seen in Moscow not so much in the context of Afghan politics with an unpopular government pursuing policies that much of the population rejected as the collectivisation of agriculture, but rather in the context of the Cold War, being seen as the first stage of an alleged American plot to instigate a "jihad" in Soviet Central Asia where the majority of the population was Muslim. To assist the government, the Soviet Union drastically increased its military aid to Afghanistan while sending Soviet advisers to train the Afghan military.


title: Brezhnev Doctrine

text: Following a split in the Communist Party, the leader of the Khalq faction, Hafizullah Amin, overthrew President Nur Muhammad Taraki and had him murdered on 8 October 1979. Soviet diplomats in Kabul had a low opinion of Taraki's ability to handle the rebellion, and an even lower one of Amin, who was regarded as a fanatic, but incompetent leader who lost control of the situation. In the fall of 1979, the leaders who pressed the most strongly for an invasion of Afghanistan to replace the incompetent Amin with Karmal who was the man better able to handle the crisis were the Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko; the Chairman of KGB, Yuri Andropov and the Defense Minister Marshal Dmitry Ustinov. What was envisioned in Moscow was merely a short intervention to stabilize the situation and allow the Communist government to stay in power. Brezhnev was indecisive, fearing that an occupation of Afghanistan might not be the short war that Gromyko, Ustinov and Andropov kept insisting it would be, but was fearful of the possibility of an Islamic fundamentalist regime being established that would expand to export radical Islam into Soviet Central Asia. As it was, the inability and unwillingness of much of the Afghan Army to fight led the Soviets to fight in Afghanistan for almost 10 years. Ironically, despite what was being feared in Moscow, the United States was not supporting the Islamic fundamentalist rebellion in Afghanistan, and only started to support the "mujahideen" ("warriors of Allah") with weapons after the Soviet invasion, concentrating foreign policy matters in the form of linkage towards preventing Soviet expansion.


title: Brezhnev Doctrine

text: During his talks with the Soviets during his time as Ambassador, Karmal coordinated with the Soviet government to replace Amin. It was this coordination that led to both Soviet soldiers and airborne units attacking the Amin-lead Afghanistan government. In light of this attack, Amin ended up dead. The Soviets took it upon themselves to place their ally, former-Ambassador Babrak Karmal as the new lead of the government in Afghanistan.


title: Brezhnev Doctrine

text: The Soviet Union, once again, fell back to the Brezhnev Doctrine for rationale, claiming that it was both morally and politically justified. It was also explained by the Soviets that they owed help to their friend and ally Babrak Karmal.


title: Brezhnev Doctrine

text: The long lasting struggle of the war in Afghanistan made the Soviets realize that their reach and influence was in fact limited. "[The war in Afghanistan] had shown that socialist internationalism and Soviet national interests were not always compatible." Tensions between the USSR and Czechoslovakia since 1968, as well as Poland in 1980, proved the inefficiencies inherent in the Brezhnev Doctrine. The Solidarity Crisis in Poland was resolved without outside intervention, leaving the Brezhnev doctrine effectively dead. Although the Kremlin wanted to preserve socialism in its satellites, the decision was not to intervene. Gorbachev's Glasnost and Perestroika finally opened the door for Soviet Bloc countries and republics to make reforms without fear of Soviet intervention. When East Germany desperately asked for Soviet troops to put down growing unrest in 1989, Gorbachev flatly refused.


title: Brezhnev Doctrine

text: With the agreement to terminate the Brezhnev Doctrine, later came on a new leader for the Soviets—Mikhail Gorbachev. His were much more relaxed. This is most likely due to the fact that Brezhnev Doctrine was no longer at the disposal of the Soviet Union. This had a major effect on the way that the Soviets carried out their new mentality when dealing with countries they once tried to control. This was best captured by Gorbachev's involvement with a group by the name of the Council of Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA). This organization lessens the control that the Soviet's had on all other partners of the agreement. This notion provided other countries that were once oppressed under communist intervention, to go about their own political reform. This actually carried over internally as well. In fact, the Soviet Union's biggest problem after the removal of the Brezhnev Doctrine, was the Khrushchev Dilemma. This did not address how to stop internal political reform, but how to tame the physical violence that comes along with it. It had become clear that the Soviet Union was beginning to loosen up.


title: Brezhnev Doctrine

text: It is possible to pinpoint the renouncement of the Brezhnev Doctrine as to what started the end for the Soviet Union. Countries that were once micromanaged now could do what they wanted to politically, because the Soviets could no longer try to conquer where they saw fit. With that, the Soviet Union began to collapse. While the communist agenda had caused infinite problems for other countries, it was the driving force behind the Soviet Union staying together. After all, it seems that the removal of the incentive to conquer, and forcing of communism upon other nations, defeated the one thing Soviet Russia had always been about, the expansion of Communism.


title: Brezhnev Doctrine

text: With the fall of the Brezhnev Doctrine, came the fall of the man, Brezhnev himself, the share of power in the Warsaw Pact, and perhaps the final moment for the Soviet Union, the Berlin Wall. The Brezhnev Doctrine coming to a close, was perhaps the beginning of the end for one of the strongest empires in the world's history, the Soviet Union.


title: Brezhnev Doctrine

text: The Soviet Union was not the only Communist country to intervene militarily in fellow countries. Vietnam deposed the Khmer Rouge in the Cambodian–Vietnamese War of 1978, which was followed by a revenge Chinese invasion of Vietnam in the Sino-Vietnamese War of 1979.


title: Brezhnev Doctrine

text: This doctrine was even furthermore a problem in the view of the United Nations. The UN's first problem was that it permits use of force. This is a clear violation of Article 2, Chapter 4 of the United Nations Charter which states, "All members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity political independence of any state, or in any other manner inconsistent with the Purposes of the United Nations." When international law conflicts with the Charter, the Charter has precedent. It is this, that makes the Brezhnev Doctrine illegal.


title: Footlights

text: Cambridge University Footlights Dramatic Club, commonly referred to simply as the Footlights, is an amateur theatrical club in Cambridge, England, founded in 1883 and run by the students of Cambridge University.


title: Footlights

text: Footlights' inaugural performance took place in June 1883. For some months before the name "Footlights" was chosen, the group had performed to local audiences in the Cambridge area (once, with a cricket match included, at the "pauper lunatic asylum"). They wished to go wider than the University Amateur Dramatic Club (ADC), founded in 1855, with its membership drawn largely from Trinity College, and its theatre seating only 100. They were to perform every May Week at the Theatre Royal, Barnwell, Cambridge, the shows soon open to the public. A local paper commended the Club's appeal to the "general public, the many different classes of which life in Cambridge is made up".


title: Footlights

text: The club grew in prominence in the 1960s as a hotbed of comedy and satire, and established a permanent home in the basement of the Cambridge Union. Having established a tradition of performing at the annual Edinburgh Festival Fringe, the club entered the mainstream when its members formed half of "Beyond the Fringe", the hugely popular stage revue which toured Britain and America in 1960. The 1963 revue then followed in the footsteps of "Beyond the Fringe", appearing in Edinburgh and London's West End, before travelling to New Zealand and the United States, where it made appearances on Broadway and "The Ed Sullivan Show" and received a full-page review in "Time".


title: Footlights

text: The first woman to be given full membership was Germaine Greer. She joined in October 1964 on the same day as Clive James and Russell Davies. There had been women before that time who had been allowed to join in, including Eleanor Bron in the late 1950s, but Greer was the first to be billed as a full member. Apparently Tim Brooke-Taylor was instrumental in having women admitted. She was part of the Footlights' 1965 revue "My Girl Herbert".


title: Footlights

text: Over the next decade, Footlights members came to dominate British comedy, creating and starring in shows such as "Not Only... But Also", "I'm Sorry, I'll Read That Again", "At Last the 1948 Show", "That Was the Week That Was and The Hitchhiker's Guide To The Galaxy", forming comedy groups such as Monty Python, and The Goodies, and generally fuelling the satire boom. During the 1980s, Footlights reinforced its position at the heart of British comedy. The 1981 revue, featuring Emma Thompson, Hugh Laurie, Stephen Fry, Tony Slattery, Penny Dwyer and Paul Shearer, won the inaugural Perrier Award at the Edinburgh Fringe Festival and spawned Fry and Laurie, the first in a long line of popular and successful double acts formed at the club including Armstrong and Miller and Mitchell and Webb. Their revue, The Cellar Tapes, at St Mary Street Hall was billed as "the annual revue: one of the strongest casts for several years, has already toured in southern England with great success."


title: Footlights

text: Former members have gone on to win Oscars, BAFTAs and other awards and enjoy success in the entertainment industry.


title: Footlights

text: During term, Footlights produce the regular "Smokers"—an informal mixture of sketches and stand-up—at the ADC Theatre. The club also produces the annual Pantomime (in collaboration with CUADC) and the Spring Revue, as well as staging the winning entry of the Footlights Harry Porter Prize; a competition in which any student at the university may enter a one-hour comic play. The Footlights International Tour Show takes place from June until October, and travels to Cambridge, London, Edinburgh and venues across the USA. For information about individual Footlights revues, see Cambridge Footlights Revue.


title: Footlights

text: This is a list of former members of Footlights who achieved notability after graduating from Cambridge University.


title: Footlights

text: The elected leader of Cambridge University Footlights Dramatic Club is known as the president, who is assisted by a vice-president, treasurer, archivist and several other posts to form the committee.


title: Consortium

text: A consortium (plural: consortia) is an association of two or more individuals, companies, organizations or governments (or any combination of these entities) with the objective of participating in a common activity or pooling their resources for achieving a common goal.


title: Consortium

text: The Big Ten Academic Alliance in the Midwest and Mid-Atlantic U.S., Claremont Colleges consortium in Southern California, Five College Consortium in Massachusetts, and Consórcio Nacional Honda are among the oldest and most successful higher education consortia in the World. The Big Ten Academic Alliance, formerly known as the Committee on Institutional Cooperation, includes the members of the Big Ten athletic conference. The participants in Five Colleges, Inc. are: Amherst College, Hampshire College, Mount Holyoke College, Smith College, and the University of Massachusetts Amherst. Another example of a successful consortium is the Five Colleges of Ohio of Ohio: Oberlin College, Ohio Wesleyan University, Kenyon College, College of Wooster and Denison University. The aforementioned Claremont Consortium (known as the Claremont Colleges) consists of Pomona College, Claremont Graduate University, Scripps College, Claremont McKenna College, Harvey Mudd College, Pitzer College, and Keck Graduate Institute. These consortia have pooled the resources of their member colleges and the universities to share human and material assets as well as to link academic and administrative resources.


title: Consortium

text: An example of a non-profit consortium is the Appalachian College Association (ACA) located in Richmond, Kentucky. The association consists of 35 private liberal arts colleges and universities spread across the central Appalachian mountains in Kentucky, North Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia. Collectively these higher education institutions serve approximately 42,500 students. Six research universities in the region (University of Kentucky, University of North Carolina, University of Tennessee, West Virginia University, University of Virginia, and Virginia Tech) are affiliated with the ACA. These institutions assist the ACA in reviewing grant and fellowship applications, conducting workshops, and providing technical assistance. The ACA works to serve higher education in the rural regions of these five states.


title: Consortium

text: An example of a for-profit consortium is a group of banks that collaborate to make a loan—also known as a syndicate. This type of loan is more commonly known as a syndicated loan. In England it is common for a consortium to buy out financially struggling football clubs in order to keep them out of liquidation.


title: Consortium

text: Alyeska Pipeline Service Company, the company that built the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System in the 1970s, initially was a consortium of BP, ARCO, ConocoPhillips, Exxon, Mobil, Unocal, and Koch Alaska Pipeline Company.


title: Consortium

text: Airbus Industries was formed in 1970 as a consortium of aerospace manufacturers. The retention of production and engineering assets by the partner companies in effect made Airbus Industries a sales and marketing company. This arrangement led to inefficiencies due to the inherent conflicts of interest that the four partner companies faced; they were both shareholders of, and subcontractors to, the consortium. The companies collaborated on development of the Airbus range, but guarded the financial details of their own production activities and sought to maximize the transfer prices of their sub-assemblies.


title: Consortium

text: In 2001, EADS (created by the merger of French, German and Spanish Airbus partner companies) and BAE Systems (the British partner company) transferred their Airbus production assets to a new company, Airbus SAS. In return, they got 80% and 20% shares respectively. BAE would later sell its share to EADS.


title: Consortium

text: The Tornado was developed and built by Panavia Aircraft GmbH, a tri-national consortium consisting of British Aerospace (previously British Aircraft Corporation), MBB of West Germany, and Aeritalia of Italy.


title: Consortium

text: The aircraft first flew on 14 August 1974 and was introduced into service in 1979–1980. Due to its multi-role design, it was able to replace several different fleets of aircraft in the adopting air forces. The Royal Saudi Air Force (RSAF) became the only export operator of the Tornado in addition to the three original partner nations. Including all variants, 992 aircraft were built.


title: Consortium

text: "Coopetition" is a word coined from cooperation and competition. It is used when companies otherwise competitors collaborate in a consortium to cooperate on areas non-strategic for their core businesses. They prefer to reduce their costs on these non-strategic areas and compete on other areas where they can differentiate better.


title: Consortium

text: For example, the GENIVI Alliance, now called COVESA, is a not-for-profit consortium between different car makers in order to ease building an In-Vehicle Infotainment system.


title: Consortium

text: Another example is the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), which is a consortium that standardizes web technologies like HTML, XML and CSS.


title: Consortium

text: The Institute for Food Safety and Health is a consortium consisting of the Illinois Institute of Technology, the Food and Drug Administration's Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, and members of the food industry. Some of the work done at the institute includes, "assessment and validation of new and novel food safety and preservation technologies, processing and packaging systems, microbiological and chemical methods, health promoting food components, and risk management strategies."


title: Consortium

text: Commonly known in the United States as a rotating savings and credit association (ROSCA) and also called Savings Clubs, Christmas clubs, "sousou" or even money circles, they are typically informal associations of people saving money together with a commonly shared goal: buying something with the same value. In this association its members contribute by paying equal amount installments (usually monthly or weekly) towards a common fund. On every installment the common fund reaches the goal value and someone is awarded this sum and from this point forward this person own the association the remaining amount, just as in a loan. This process repeats until every member is awarded the entire sum.


title: Consortium

text: These informal associations are specially popular among immigrants since they are a cheaper alternative to traditional financing and usually require no formal papers, credit history or even a bank account.


title: Consortium

text: Outside the United States these savings clubs can be formal and have a proper legislation. In some countries like Brazil, the "consórcios" are an integral part of the traditional banking system, where there are clubs for purchasing real estate, cars, and even for plastic surgery costs. Over 7 million people have engaged in these formal savings associations over the past years, adding to over U$10 billions in credit. Since these clubs have up to thousands of members, the awarding process is made by lottery and bidding and the common fund administrators charge a fixed fee in order to take responsibility and guarantee the integrity of the entire process. The only similar organization that offers a FDIC approved service in the US is savings.club.


title: Consortium

text: In France, the consortium, considered a sub-type of joint venture, has important theoretical and practical significance. The French legal system does not provide a definition and does not explicitly use the concept of a joint venture or consortium ("groupements momentanés d’entreprises"). The consortium agreement in France is a purely contractual cooperative contract that does not entail the creation of a third party. The consortium has no legal personality or legal capacity. The contract is concluded between two or more natural or legal persons who undertake to carry out certain works in order to implement a joint project which consortium members would not be able to carry out themselves. The consortium agreement is not explicitly regulated by the French legislator, but it is admissible in the light of the principle of freedom of contract interpreted from articles 6 and 1134 of the French Civil Code.


title: Consortium

text: Neither consortium nor joint venture have a legal definition in U.K. law. The second term is usually used to describe various types of agreements where two or more parties cooperate in conducting business activities. This manifests e.g. in the joint distribution of profit, sharing cash, assets, knowledge or abilities. As there are no legal provisions regulating in detail the consortium or joint venture, the relations between the parties participating in this type of agreement—when choosing a joint venture as a collaboration agreement or a special partnership—are subject to common law or the provisions of the partnership law. A consortium agreement governed by the general law of contract, similar to an ordinary partnership agreement, does not create a separate entity.


title: Consortium

text: In Germany the view prevails that the consortium is a type of internal civil law partnership (§ 705–740 of the BGB). In external relations, consortium members may decide on joint and several liability regulated by § 421 BGB, while internally there is sometimes a release from this liability. Joint ventures often include credit syndicates (Kreditkonsortien), securities issuing consortia, including mainly shares ("Emissionskonsortien"), construction consortia ("Baukonsortien") also referred to as investment ("Investitionskonsortien") and profit pools ("Ergebnispools"). Sometimes, special purpose partnerships established to jointly use construction facilities ("Planungsgesellschaften") are listed in one category with the consortium and the pool. Cooperation agreements concluded under German law are not of a uniform legal nature. There is a great wealth of legal forms of cooperation that could be cautiously qualified as consortium agreements. This is in particular a civil law partnership in its internal and occasional variants ("Gelegenheitsgesellschaft"), as well as a partnership of building contractors ("ARGE") and a structure simply referred to as the “consortium.”


title: Consortium

text: In the Polish legal system, the legal nature of the consortium agreement is disputed. According to the prevailing approach, a consortium is a form of cooperation, different from a civil law partnership, undertaken between economically independent entities already operating on the market in order to implement a specific undertaking that is a segment of the regular activities of these entities, based on an unnamed contract and characterized by a temporary nature, minimization of institutionalization, and lack of separate property, the need to specify how the parties participate in the joint venture and the intention not to establish a “community” with partly own interests (the partnership as such). According to this concept, despite the very broad formula of a civil partnership provided for entities that undertake to cooperate in a designated way to achieve a common economic goal (which is a common element for both types of contracts), the partnership contract do not exhaust all forms of cooperation and automatic qualification of consortium contracts as partnerships is not allowed.


title: Meteor shower

text: A meteor shower is a celestial event in which a number of meteors are observed to radiate, or originate, from one point in the night sky. These meteors are caused by streams of cosmic debris called meteoroids entering Earth's atmosphere at extremely high speeds on parallel trajectories. Most meteors are smaller than a grain of sand, so almost all of them disintegrate and never hit the Earth's surface. Very intense or unusual meteor showers are known as meteor outbursts and meteor storms, which produce at least 1,000 meteors an hour, most notably from the Leonids. The Meteor Data Centre lists over 900 suspected meteor showers of which about 100 are well established. Several organizations point to viewing opportunities on the Internet. NASA maintains a daily map of active meteor showers.


title: Meteor shower

text: In the modern era, the first great meteor storm was the Leonids of November 1833. One estimate is a peak rate of over one hundred thousand meteors an hour, but another, done as the storm abated, estimated more than two hundred thousand meteors during the 9 hours of the storm, over the entire region of North America east of the Rocky Mountains. American Denison Olmsted (1791–1859) explained the event most accurately. After spending the last weeks of 1833 collecting information, he presented his findings in January 1834 to the "American Journal of Science and Arts", published in January–April 1834, and January 1836. He noted the shower was of short duration and was not seen in Europe, and that the meteors radiated from a point in the constellation of Leo. He speculated the meteors had originated from a cloud of particles in space. Work continued, yet coming to understand the annual nature of showers though the occurrences of storms perplexed researchers.


title: Meteor shower

text: The actual nature of meteors was still debated during the 19th century. Meteors were conceived as an atmospheric phenomenon by many scientists (Alexander von Humboldt, Adolphe Quetelet, Julius Schmidt) until the Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli ascertained the relation between meteors and comets in his work ""Notes upon the astronomical theory of the falling stars" (1867)." In the 1890s, Irish astronomer George Johnstone Stoney (1826–1911) and British astronomer Arthur Matthew Weld Downing (1850–1917) were the first to attempt to calculate the position of the dust at Earth's orbit. They studied the dust ejected in 1866 by comet 55P/Tempel-Tuttle before the anticipated Leonid shower return of 1898 and 1899. Meteor storms were expected, but the final calculations showed that most of the dust would be far inside Earth's orbit. The same results were independently arrived at by Adolf Berberich of the Königliches Astronomisches Rechen Institut (Royal Astronomical Computation Institute) in Berlin, Germany. Although the absence of meteor storms that season confirmed the calculations, the advance of much better computing tools was needed to arrive at reliable predictions.


title: Meteor shower

text: In 1981, Donald K. Yeomans of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory reviewed the history of meteor showers for the Leonids and the history of the dynamic orbit of Comet Tempel-Tuttle. A graph from it was adapted and re-published in "Sky and Telescope". It showed relative positions of the Earth and Tempel-Tuttle and marks where Earth encountered dense dust. This showed that the meteoroids are mostly behind and outside the path of the comet, but paths of the Earth through the cloud of particles resulting in powerful storms were very near paths of nearly no activity.


title: Meteor shower

text: In 1985, E. D. Kondrat'eva and E. A. Reznikov of Kazan State University first correctly identified the years when dust was released which was responsible for several past Leonid meteor storms. In 1995, Peter Jenniskens predicted the 1995 Alpha Monocerotids outburst from dust trails. In anticipation of the 1999 Leonid storm, Robert H. McNaught, David Asher, and Finland's Esko Lyytinen were the first to apply this method in the West. In 2006 Jenniskens published predictions for future dust trail encounters covering the next 50 years. Jérémie Vaubaillon continues to update predictions based on observations each year for the Institut de Mécanique Céleste et de Calcul des Éphémérides (IMCCE).


title: Meteor shower

text: Because meteor shower particles are all traveling in parallel paths and at the same velocity, they will appear to an observer below to radiate away from a single point in the sky. This radiant point is caused by the effect of perspective, similar to parallel railroad tracks converging at a single vanishing point on the horizon. Meteor showers are normally named after the constellation from which the meteors appear to originate. This "fixed point" slowly moves across the sky during the night due to the Earth turning on its axis, the same reason the stars appear to slowly march across the sky. The radiant also moves slightly from night to night against the background stars (radiant drift) due to the Earth moving in its orbit around the Sun. See "IMO" Meteor Shower Calendar 2017 (International Meteor Organization) for maps of drifting "fixed points."


title: Meteor shower

text: When the moving radiant is at the highest point, it will reach the observer's sky that night. The Sun will be just clearing the eastern horizon. For this reason, the best viewing time for a meteor shower is generally slightly before dawn — a compromise between the maximum number of meteors available for viewing and the brightening sky, which makes them harder to see.


title: Meteor shower

text: Meteor showers are named after the nearest constellation, or bright star with a Greek or Roman letter assigned that is close to the radiant position at the peak of the shower, whereby the grammatical declension of the Latin possessive form is replaced by "id" or "ids." Hence, meteors radiating from near the star Delta Aquarii (declension "-i") are called the Delta Aquariids. The International Astronomical Union's Task Group on Meteor Shower Nomenclature and the IAU's Meteor Data Center keep track of meteor shower nomenclature and which showers are established.


title: Meteor shower

text: A meteor shower results from an interaction between a planet, such as Earth, and streams of debris from a comet. Comets can produce debris by water vapor drag, as demonstrated by Fred Whipple in 1951, and by breakup. Whipple envisioned comets as "dirty snowballs," made up of rock embedded in ice, orbiting the Sun. The "ice" may be water, methane, ammonia, or other volatiles, alone or in combination. The "rock" may vary in size from a dust mote to a small boulder. Dust mote sized solids are orders of magnitude more common than those the size of sand grains, which, in turn, are similarly more common than those the size of pebbles, and so on. When the ice warms and sublimates, the vapor can drag along dust, sand, and pebbles.


title: Meteor shower

text: Each time a comet swings by the Sun in its orbit, some of its ice vaporizes, and a certain number of meteoroids will be shed. The meteoroids spread out along the entire trajectory of the comet to form a meteoroid stream, also known as a "dust trail" (as opposed to a comet's "gas tail" caused by the tiny particles that are quickly blown away by solar radiation pressure).


title: Meteor shower

text: Recently, Peter Jenniskens has argued that most of our short-period meteor showers are not from the normal water vapor drag of active comets, but the product of infrequent disintegrations, when large chunks break off a mostly dormant comet. Examples are the Quadrantids and Geminids, which originated from a breakup of asteroid-looking objects, and 3200 Phaethon, respectively, about 500 and 1000 years ago. The fragments tend to fall apart quickly into dust, sand, and pebbles and spread out along the comet's orbit to form a dense meteoroid stream, which subsequently evolves into Earth's path.


title: Meteor shower

text: Shortly after Whipple predicted that dust particles traveled at low speeds relative to the comet, Milos Plavec was the first to offer the idea of a "dust trail", when he calculated how meteoroids, once freed from the comet, would drift mostly in front of or behind the comet after completing one orbit. The effect is simple celestial mechanics – the material drifts only a little laterally away from the comet while drifting ahead or behind the comet because some particles make a wider orbit than others. These dust trails are sometimes observed in comet images taken at mid infrared wavelengths (heat radiation), where dust particles from the previous return to the Sun are spread along the orbit of the comet (see figures).


title: Meteor shower

text: The gravitational pull of the planets determines where the dust trail would pass by Earth orbit, much like a gardener directing a hose to water a distant plant. Most years, those trails would miss the Earth altogether, but in some years, the Earth is showered by meteors. This effect was first demonstrated from observations of the 1995 alpha Monocerotids, and from earlier not widely known identifications of past earth storms.


title: Meteor shower

text: Over more extended periods, the dust trails can evolve in complicated ways. For example, the orbits of some repeating comets, and meteoroids leaving them, are in resonant orbits with Jupiter or one of the other large planets – so many revolutions of one will equal another number of the other. This creates a shower component called a filament.


title: Meteor shower

text: A second effect is a close encounter with a planet. When the meteoroids pass by Earth, some are accelerated (making wider orbits around the Sun), others are decelerated (making shorter orbits), resulting in gaps in the dust trail in the next return (like opening a curtain, with grains piling up at the beginning and end of the gap). Also, Jupiter's perturbation can dramatically change sections of the dust trail, especially for a short period comets, when the grains approach the giant planet at their furthest point along the orbit around the Sun, moving most slowly. As a result, the trail has a "clumping", a "braiding" or a "tangling" of "crescents", of each release of material.


title: Meteor shower

text: The third effect is that of radiation pressure which will push less massive particles into orbits further from the sun – while more massive objects (responsible for bolides or fireballs) will tend to be affected less by radiation pressure. This makes some dust trail encounters rich in bright meteors, others rich in faint meteors.


title: Meteor shower

text: Over time, these effects disperse the meteoroids and create a broader stream. The meteors we see from these streams are part of "annual showers", because Earth encounters those streams every year at much the same rate.


title: Meteor shower

text: When the meteoroids collide with other meteoroids in the zodiacal cloud, they lose their stream association and become part of the "sporadic meteors" background. Long since dispersed from any stream or trail, they form isolated meteors, not a part of any shower. These random meteors will not appear to come from the radiant of the leading shower.


title: Meteor shower

text: In most years, the most visible meteor shower is the Perseids, which peak on 12 August of each year at over one meteor per minute. NASA has a tool to calculate how many meteors per hour are visible from one's observing location.


title: Meteor shower

text: The Leonid meteor shower peaks around 17 November of each year. The Leonid shower produces a meteor storm, peaking at rates of thousands of meteors per hour. Leonid storms gave birth to the term "meteor shower" when it was first realised that, during the November 1833 storm, the meteors radiated from near the star Gamma Leonis. The last Leonid storms were in 1999, 2001 (two), and 2002 (two). Before that, there were storms in 1767, 1799, 1833, 1866, 1867, and 1966. When the Leonid shower is not "storming", it is less active than the Perseids.


title: Meteor shower

text: Any other Solar System body with a reasonably transparent atmosphere can also have meteor showers. As the Moon is in the neighborhood of Earth it can experience the same showers, but will have its own phenomena due to its lack of an atmosphere "per se", such as vastly increasing its sodium tail. NASA now maintains an ongoing database of observed impacts on the moon maintained by the Marshall Space Flight Center whether from a shower or not.


title: Meteor shower

text: Many planets and moons have impact craters dating back large spans of time. But new craters, perhaps even related to meteor showers are possible. Mars, and thus its moons, is known to have meteor showers. These have not been observed on other planets as yet but may be presumed to exist. For Mars in particular, although these are different from the ones seen on Earth because of the different orbits of Mars and Earth relative to the orbits of comets. The Martian atmosphere has less than one percent of the density of Earth's at ground level, at their upper edges, where meteoroids strike; the two are more similar. Because of the similar air pressure at altitudes for meteors, the effects are much the same. Only the relatively slower motion of the meteoroids due to increased distance from the sun should marginally decrease meteor brightness. This is somewhat balanced because the slower descent means that Martian meteors have more time to ablate.


title: Meteor shower

text: On March 7, 2004, the panoramic camera on Mars Exploration Rover "Spirit" recorded a streak which is now believed to have been caused by a meteor from a Martian meteor shower associated with comet 114P/Wiseman-Skiff. A strong display from this shower was expected on December 20, 2007. Other showers speculated about are a "Lambda Geminid" shower associated with the Eta Aquariids of Earth ("i.e.", both associated with Comet 1P/Halley), a "Beta Canis Major" shower associated with Comet 13P/Olbers, and "Draconids" from 5335 Damocles.


title: Meteor shower

text: Isolated massive impacts have been observed at Jupiter: The 1994 Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 which formed a brief trail as well, and successive events since then (see List of Jupiter events.) Meteors or meteor showers have been discussed for most of the objects in the Solar System with an atmosphere: Mercury, Venus, Saturn's moon Titan, Neptune's moon Triton, and Pluto.


title: Prison Break: The Final Break

text: Prison Break: The Final Break is a 2009 television film of the "Prison Break" franchise. The movie covers the events which occurred in between the downfall of The Company, and the revelation of Michael Scofield's (Wentworth Miller) death. It details the manipulated arrest and incarceration of Sara Tancredi (Sarah Wayne Callies) for the murder of Christina Scofield, the final escape plan which Michael devises for Sara, and the details surrounding Michael's death. It also reveals the ultimate fate of Gretchen Morgan (Jodi Lyn O'Keefe). This was the initial ending for Prison Break, until the release of season 5.


title: Prison Break: The Final Break

text: Sara is arrested for the murder of Christina (Scofield) Hampton. She is held in the Miami-Dade State Penitentiary, where overcrowding necessitates that the female prison and jail inmates are housed in the same building. Prisoner Gretchen Morgan watches from a distance. Across the yard, Krantz and T-Bag are being held in the men's facility.


title: Prison Break: The Final Break

text: The General offers a $100,000 bounty for Sara's death. Sara is poisoned, but is saved by the prison doctor, who informs her that her baby will be taken away shortly after its birth.


title: Prison Break: The Final Break

text: Michael asks Warden Simms to protect Sara, but she refuses. Michael decides that he must break Sara out, enlisting Lincoln Burrows and Fernando Sucre's help. Gretchen sees Lincoln and Sucre scoping out the prison, and demands Sara include her in any escape.


title: Prison Break: The Final Break

text: Michael discovers a blind spot in the security cameras. Alexander Mahone, offered reinstatement with the FBI if he finds evidence incriminating Michael, offers to help Michael. FBI Agent Todd Wheatley breaks into Michael's apartment and sees the prison diagrams. When Michael returns, he says he was looking for weaknesses to report to Simms in the hopes that she grants him visitation.


title: Prison Break: The Final Break

text: Sara's attorney secures a court order allowing Michael to visit. Leaving the prison, he sees the cameras being adjusted to eliminate the blind spot.


title: Prison Break: The Final Break

text: Sara joins the "Family" of inmate Daddy, who gets her work in the motor pool, making Wife and other Family members suspicious.


title: Prison Break: The Final Break

text: Michael devises a new plan based on parachuting into the prison. Lincoln offer T-Bag $5,000 to help by setting off a fire alarm. T-Bag demands $100,000, suggesting they rob the bounty money from the General's agent, Joe Daniels. Lincoln and Sucre carry out the theft.


title: Prison Break: The Final Break

text: Gretchen kills a Family member who is attacking Sara. Gretchen again demands Sara include her in the escape because she wishes to see her daughter, Emily, and give her a gift. Daddy becomes infuriated when she hears what Sara and Gretchen have done.


title: Prison Break: The Final Break

text: It is revealed that Mahone has informed Wheatley about Michael's parachute plot. Michael continues to trust Mahone, giving him material to pass to Sara in the event of his death. Michael visits Sara and cryptically tells her the new plan; she must get to the chapel, which Michael has discovered has an emergency escape tunnel.


title: Prison Break: The Final Break

text: Just before the escape begins, Gretchen distracts a guard, and Sara confronts Daddy. Sara pushes Daddy into inmate Skittlez, instigating a larger altercation. Gretchen grabs the guard's keys, then hides in the kitchen with Sara.


title: Prison Break: The Final Break

text: Having been tipped off, Wheatley orders all lights shut off and positions armed officers near Michael's planned landing site. They shoot the parachutist, which turns out to be a dummy, while Michael sneaks out from under Wheatley's car.


title: Prison Break: The Final Break

text: Gretchen is spotted by guards, but she stalls them and covers Sara's presence, who makes it into the chapel. The guards take Gretchen away, but Sara retrieves the necklace that Gretchen made for Emily.


title: Prison Break: The Final Break

text: Michael reaches Sara, and they wait for T-Bag to get confirmation of the $100,000 and trip the fire alarm. Sucre reaches the money transfer store to find it closed; when T-Bag finds out that the money wasn't deposited, he reveals the plot to Simms. Wheatley responds by turning off the fire alarm and other systems that could cover escape noises.


title: Prison Break: The Final Break

text: Michael had predicted T-Bag's double-cross. With the alarms off, he burns through a locked door with a blowtorch. When the electronic lock on the next door stymies him, he instructs Sara to proceed as he goes elsewhere to short circuit the door. Sara refuses, but Michael emphasizes that this allows her to keep their baby. Michael is electrocuted while causing the short circuit. Sara escapes to a waiting Lincoln, Sucre, and Mahone. Mahone reveals he was part of Michael's true plan, and that Michael knew it required the deadly short circuit.


title: Prison Break: The Final Break

text: When Lincoln and Sara board a boat to the Dominican Republic, Sucre gives Sara the $100,000. Mahone gives Sara and Lincoln the material from Michael. On the boat, the two watch Michael's video, where he tells then that his terminal brain tumor had returned. He asks Lincoln to always be there for the child, and he asks Sara to watch out for Lincoln.


title: Prison Break: The Final Break

text: In the United States and Canada, the movie was first released on DVD and Blu-ray on July 21, 2009. It aired on May 27 in the United Kingdom on Sky1 and aired also on May 24 in Israel on Yes.


title: Prison Break: The Final Break

text: Kevin Carr gave it 3.5 out of a possible 5 stars. Carr praises Sarah Wayne Callies for her role, but calls Lori Petty the scene stealer and "the most memorable character in the film."


title: Aoraki / Mount Cook

text: Aoraki / Mount Cook is the highest mountain in New Zealand. Its height, as of 2014, is listed as . It sits in the Southern Alps, the mountain range that runs the length of the South Island. A popular tourist destination, it is also a favourite challenge for mountain climbers. Aoraki / Mount Cook consists of three summits: from south to north, the Low Peak (), the Middle Peak () and the High Peak. The summits lie slightly south and east of the main divide of the Southern Alps / Kā Tiritiri o te Moana, with the Tasman Glacier to the east and the Hooker Glacier to the southwest.


title: Aoraki / Mount Cook

text: The mountain is in the Aoraki / Mount Cook National Park, in the Canterbury Region. The park was established in 1953 and along with Westland National Park, Mount Aspiring National Park and Fiordland National Park forms one of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The park contains more than 140 peaks standing over and 72 named glaciers, which cover 40 percent of its .


title: Aoraki / Mount Cook

text: The peak is located at the northern end of the Kirikirikatata / Mount Cook Range, where it meets with the main spine of the Main Divide, forming a massif between the Hooker Valley to the southwest and the Tasman Valley east of the mountain. These two valleys provide the closest easily accessible view points of Aoraki / Mount Cook. A lookout point at the end of the Hooker Valley Track located only 10 km from the peak has views of the entire mountainside.


title: Aoraki / Mount Cook

text: The settlement of Mount Cook Village, also referred to as "Aoraki / Mount Cook", is a tourist centre and base camp for the mountain. It is 7 km from the end of the Tasman Glacier and 15 km south of Aoraki / Mount Cook's summit.


title: Aoraki / Mount Cook

text: On clear days, Aoraki / Mount Cook is visible from the West Coast as far north as Greymouth, some 150 kilometres away, and from most of State Highway 80 along Lake Pukaki and State Highway 6 south of Lake Pukaki. The near horizontal ridge connecting the mountain's three summits forms a distinctive blocky shape when viewed from an eastern or western direction.


title: Aoraki / Mount Cook

text: Another popular view point is from Lake Matheson on the West Coast, described as the "view of views", where on calm days, the peaks of Aoraki / Mount Cook and Mt Tasman are reflected in Lake Matheson.


title: Aoraki / Mount Cook

text: Aoraki / Mount Cook receives substantial orographic precipitation throughout the year, as breezy, moisture-laden westerly winds dominate all year-round, bringing rainclouds from the Tasman Sea with them.


title: Aoraki / Mount Cook

text: Annual precipitation around the mountain ranges varies greatly as the local climate is dominated by the eastward movement of depressions and anticyclones from across the Tasman Sea. The Aoraki / Mount Cook massif is a major obstacle to the prevailing westerly winds as they push depressions and associated cold fronts of moist air from the subtropics in the northwest against the mountain range. As the air rises towards the peaks, it expands and cools, and forms clouds. Rain and snowfall are often heaviest around the level and can last for several days if the front is slow-moving.


title: Aoraki / Mount Cook

text: As a result of the local weather patterns, the western slopes of Aoraki / Mount Cook can receive well over of annual precipitation, whereas the nearby Mount Cook Village, only south of the mountain receives of rain or snowfall.


title: Aoraki / Mount Cook

text: While the weather on the eastern side of the mountain is generally better, rain or snow can quickly become widespread on that side as well if the wind turns to the south or southeast. This brings with it a rapid drop in temperature and poor visibility, adding to the difficult climbing conditions on Aoraki / Mount Cook.


title: Aoraki / Mount Cook

text: Temperatures at the mountain's base in the Hooker Valley around range from to , and generally fall just over 1 °C for every 200 metres of altitude.


title: Aoraki / Mount Cook

text: From about and higher, semi-permanent snow and ice fields exist during winter. Winter and spring are usually less settled than summer and autumn. Anticyclones often bring days of settled weather in summer, or clear cold conditions in winter with severe frost.


title: Aoraki / Mount Cook

text: ' is the name of a person in the traditions of the Ngāi Tahu iwi; an early name for the South Island is ' (Aoraki's Canoe). In the past many believed it meant "Cloud Piercer", a romantic rendering of the name's components: ' (world, daytime, cloud, etc.) and ' or ' (day, sky, weather, etc.). Historically, the Māori name has been spelt ', using the standard Māori form.


title: Aoraki / Mount Cook

text: Aoraki / Mount Cook became known to Māori after their arrival in New Zealand some time around the 14th century CE. The first Europeans who may have seen Aoraki / Mount Cook were members of Abel Tasman's crew, who saw a "large land uplifted high" (probably some part of the Southern Alps) while off the west coast of the South Island, just north of present-day Greymouth on 13 December 1642 during Tasman's first Pacific voyage. The English name of "Mount Cook" was given to the mountain in 1851 by Captain John Lort Stokes to honour Captain James Cook who surveyed and circumnavigated the islands of New Zealand in 1770. Captain Cook did not sight the mountain during his exploration.


title: Aoraki / Mount Cook

text: Following the settlement between Ngāi Tahu and the Crown in 1998, the name of the mountain was officially changed from Mount Cook to Aoraki / Mount Cook to incorporate its historic Māori name, Aoraki. As part of the settlement, a number of South Island placenames were amended to incorporate their original Māori name. Signifying the importance of Aoraki / Mount Cook, it is the only one of these names where the Māori name precedes the English. Under the settlement the Crown agreed to return title to Aoraki / Mount Cook to Ngāi Tahu, who would then formally gift it back to the nation. Neither transfer has yet occurred; Ngāi Tahu can decide when this will happen.


title: Aoraki / Mount Cook

text: The Southern Alps in the South Island were formed by tectonic uplifting and pressure as the Pacific and Indo-Australian Plates collided along the island's western coast. The uplifting continues, raising Aoraki / Mount Cook an average of each year. However, erosive forces are also powerful shapers of the mountains. The severe weather is due to the mountain's jutting into powerful westerly winds of the Roaring Forties which run around approximately 45°S latitude, south of both Africa and Australia. The Southern Alps are the first obstacle the winds encounter after South America, having moved east across the Southern Ocean.


title: Aoraki / Mount Cook

text: The height of Aoraki / Mount Cook was established in 1881 by G. J. Roberts (from the west side) and in 1889 by T. N. Brodrick (from the Canterbury side). Their measurements agreed closely at . The height was reduced by when approximately 12–14 million cubic metres of rock and ice fell off the northern peak on 14 December 1991. Two decades of erosion of the ice cap exposed after this collapse reduced the height by another 30 m to 3724 m, as revealed by new GPS data from a University of Otago climbing expedition in November 2013.


title: Aoraki / Mount Cook

text: Aoraki / Mount Cook lies in the centre of the distinctive Alpine Fault, a 650 km long active fault in the Southern Alps. It is responsible for the uplift of Aoraki / Mt Cook and is believed to move every 100 to 300 years. It last moved in 1717.


title: Aoraki / Mount Cook

text: The average annual rainfall in the surrounding lowlands, in particular to the west, is around . This very high rainfall leads to temperate rainforests in these coastal lowlands and a reliable source of snow in the mountains to keep the glaciers flowing. These include the Tasman Glacier to the east of the mountain and the smaller Hooker Glacier immediately to its south.


title: Aoraki / Mount Cook

text: The vegetation in the valleys to the east, in particular the Tasman Valley, is noticeably less lush than that on the western slopes of the mountain. Forest would normally grow to about 1,300 m in this area, but a lack of soil due to scree, rock falls and the effects of glaciation prevent this in most localities around the mountain. Snow tussock and other alpine plants cling to as high as 1,900 m.


title: Aoraki / Mount Cook

text: Above the snowline, only lichen can be found amongst the rock, snowfields and ice that dominate the highest parts of Aoraki / Mt Cook.


title: Aoraki / Mount Cook

text: The first recorded attempt on the summit was made by the Irishman Rev. William S. Green, the Swiss hotelier Emil Boss and the Swiss mountain guide Ulrich Kaufmann on 2 March 1882 via the Tasman and Linda Glaciers. They came within a few feet of the top, as did the 1890 ascent attempt by Mannering and Dixon.


title: Aoraki / Mount Cook

text: The first known ascent was on 25 December 1894, when New Zealanders Tom Fyfe, John Michael (Jack) Clarke and George Graham reached the summit via the Hooker Valley and the north ridge. Despite an earlier failed attempt on 20 December, the local climbers were spurred on by their desire for the first ascent to be made by New Zealand mountaineers amid reports that the American mountaineer Edward FitzGerald had his eye on the summit.<ref name="Aoraki/Mt Cook"></ref> The party reached the summit at approximately 1:30pm after bounding up the last leg of the mountain full of excitement at reaching the top. The route they had successfully traversed was not repeated again until the 100th ascent over 60 years later in 1955.


title: Aoraki / Mount Cook

text: Swiss guide Matthias Zurbriggen of FitzGerald's party made the second ascent on 14 March 1895 from the Tasman Glacier side, via the ridge that now bears his name. This is credited as the first solo ascent, although Zurbriggen was accompanied part of the way up the ridge by J Adamson. After Zurbriggen's ascent it was another ten years before the mountain was climbed again. In February 1905 Jack Clarke with four others completed the third ascent following Zurbriggen's route. Clarke therefore became the first person to do a repeat ascent.


title: Aoraki / Mount Cook

text: The first woman to ascend the mountain was Australian Freda Du Faur on 3 December 1910. Local guide George Bannister, a nephew of another guide, Butler Te Koeti of Ngāi Tahu, was the first Māori to successfully scale the peak in 1912.


title: Aoraki / Mount Cook

text: A traverse of the three peaks was first accomplished in 1913 by Freda Du Faur and guides Alec and Peter Graham. This 'grand traverse' was repeated in January 1916 by Conrad Kain, guiding the 57-year-old Jane Thomson, considered at the time "a marvellous feat unequalled for daring in the annals of the Southern Alps".


title: Aoraki / Mount Cook

text: Sir Edmund Hillary made his first ascent in January 1948. In February 1948 with Ruth Adams, Harry Ayres and Mick Sullivan, Hillary made the first ascent of the South Ridge to the Low Peak To celebrate the life of Hillary the South Ridge was renamed as Hillary Ridge in August 2011.


title: Aoraki / Mount Cook

text: Aoraki/Mount Cook is a technically challenging mountain with a high level of glaciation. Its level of difficulty is often underestimated and can change dramatically depending on weather, snow and ice conditions. The climb crosses large crevasses, and involves risks of ice and rock falls, avalanches and rapidly changing weather conditions.


title: Aoraki / Mount Cook

text: Since the early 20th century, around 80 people have died attempting to climb the mountain, making it New Zealand's deadliest peak. The climbing season traditionally runs from November to February, and hardly a season goes by without at least one fatality.


title: Aoraki / Mount Cook

text: According to Māori legend, Aoraki was a young boy who, along with his three brothers, were the sons of Rakinui, the Sky Father. On their voyage around the Papatūānuku, the Earth Mother, their canoe became stranded on a reef and tilted. Aoraki and his brothers climbed onto the top side of their canoe. However, the south wind froze them and turned them to stone. Their canoe became the Te Waka o Aoraki, the South Island, and their prows, the Marlborough Sounds. Aoraki, the tallest, became the highest peak, and his brothers created the Kā Tiritiri o te Moana, the Southern Alps.


title: Aoraki / Mount Cook

text: Ngāi Tahu, the main iwi (tribe) of New Zealand's southern region, consider Aoraki as the most sacred of the ancestors that they had descended from. Aoraki brings the iwi with its sense of community and purpose, and remains the physical form of Aoraki and the link between the worlds of the supernatural and nature.


title: Ghostrunner

text: Ghostrunner is an action-platform video game developed by One More Level, 3D Realms and Slipgate Ironworks and published by All In! Games and 505 Games. It was released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One in October 2020, and Nintendo Switch in November 2020, followed by a next gen release for PlayStation 5 and Xbox Series X/S in September 2021. A version for Amazon Luna was made available in April 2021. "Ghostrunner" is co-produced by 3D Realms and co-developed by Slipgate Ironworks. A story expansion, titled "Ghostrunner: Project Hel", was released on 3 March 2022. A sequel is in development.


title: Ghostrunner

text: As Jack the Ghostrunner, the player must traverse dangerous environments by dashing, jumping, wall-running, and grappling. The player will also encounter enemies, which must be handled carefully, as both enemies and the player can be killed in one hit. Jack can use a mechanic called Sensory Boost, allowing him to slow down time and dodge and deflect bullets in midair. As the player progresses through the story, they will unlock new abilities and upgrades, which they can apply using tetromino-like pieces on a grid system.


title: Ghostrunner

text: After an unspecified global cataclysm known as the Burst, mankind is housed in Dharma Tower, a vast skyscraper-like arcology sheltering the rest of humanity. The Ghostrunner awakens with no recollection, but is ordered to free the Architect, Adam's preserved consciousness who established and ruled Dharma Tower and designed the Ghostrunners, technologically enhanced super humans that served as a peacekeeping and policing force. Mara, the Architect's confidant, betrayed him in a coup that destroyed most of the Ghostrunner units, and now she is known as the Keymaster. The Ghostrunner was discovered for repairs by a group of rebels known as the Climbers, though the uprising was put down just before the Ghostrunner was reactivated. The Architect assigns the mission of defeating the Keymaster to the Ghostrunner.


title: Ghostrunner

text: The remaining Cybervoid systems, the digital network connecting Dharma Tower, and the basis upon which the Architect's intelligence is based are all accessible to the Ghostrunner. As a result, the Architect is able to repair damage to the Ghostrunner's coding. Zoe, a surviving Climber, gets contacted by the Ghostrunner when trying to call for help. She offers him assistance in his quest to defeat the Keymaster. Zoe also gives him the moniker 'Jack,' which was a pseudonym the Climbers used when attempting to repair him. Mara disables the air filtering systems in the district where the uprising took place, potentially causing all of the district's residents to die from the radioactive dust in the outside atmosphere. To the Architect's dismay, the Ghostrunner agrees to reinitialize the turbines at Zoe's request.


title: Ghostrunner

text: To go to Dharma City, the Tower's elite sector, the Ghostrunner takes the Amida elevator. The Ghostrunner proceeds on to the Repository, a protected Cybervoid server that has pre-Burst data as well as certain Project Ghostrunner knowledge. Zoe sees a distortion in the monitoring systems, which turns out to be a replica of the Ghostrunners constructed by Mara, with whom she worked on their design. The unit takes the data, forcing the Ghostrunner to defeat it in order to obtain access to the data's enhancements. The Keymaster tells the Architect and his "puppet" that once the Ghostrunner is beaten, she will destroy all surviving Cybervoid systems, wiping out the Architect's intelligence. The Ghostrunner then moves on to the Keymaster's power center, the Core. The Architect is always dismissive of the Ghostrunner's friendship with Zoe, and views the Ghostrunner's willfulness to be a flaw in the Architect's perfect weapon.


title: Ghostrunner

text: Zoe receives a distress signal while the Ghostrunner traverses the Core, prompting her to leave her safe location in the hopes of rescuing a fellow Climber, despite the Ghostrunner's warning that it could be a trap. Regardless, she bids him farewell. The Keymaster speaks directly to the citizens of the Tower, outlining her ultimate goal: invasively changing the human body to allow humanity to depart by allowing it to survive the conditions of the Outside. The products of her research are capable of doing so, but the nature of the augments would harm their minds, leaving them with little that could be called human. The Ghostrunner discovers a last Cybervoid server and acquires the ability to hack his opponents' ubiquitous 'Atma' neural implants. The Ghostrunner realizes the Architect has the ability to manipulate individuals as a result of this skill, and remarks that the Architect is worse than Mara. Mara recognizes that the only reason the Ghostrunner would have preserved the sector from earlier rather than continuing his journey to confront her is because he wasn't totally obedient, and she tries to persuade him that the Architect is nothing more than a mad machine. The Ghostrunner realizes the Architect has been lying about his capabilities within the Tower when he silences her.


title: Ghostrunner

text: After defeating Mara, the Architect drives the Ghostrunner into Cybervoid since the Architect's strength increased when the Ghostrunner connected with the Cybervoid servers, with the Architect aiming to entirely absorb the Ghostrunner into itself because the Ghostrunner is now independent and sentient. As the objective of both the original Adam and the Architect is revealed to be complete subjugation of humanity, the Ghostrunner resists and traverses the landscape. The Architect sees this as a win-win situation, whereas the Ghostrunner believes Mara's first coup was correct. The Ghostrunner arrives at the Architect's manifestation, who informs him that without him, Cybervoid would cease to exist, effectively killing the Ghostrunner. Regardless, the Ghostrunner destroys the Architect and reintroduces himself as Jack. The epilogue is narrated by Zoe, who claims that mankind is now free to choose its own destiny, free of the delusional Architect and Mara's tyranny. She conveys her thankfulness to Jack, who appears to have been reactivated.


title: Ghostrunner

text: Polish developer One More Level worked with 3D Realms to create the game. The game was made using Unreal Engine 4 and supports Nvidia's RTX technology. "Ghostrunner" was announced during Gamescom 2019. A demo was available 6–13 May 2020 on Steam. The game received positive comments prior to its release. "Forbes" called the game a mix of "Titanfall, Dishonored" and "Superhot". Andy Chalk from "PC Gamer" called the game a mix between "Mirror's Edge" and "Dishonored". The game was released for Microsoft Windows, Xbox One and PlayStation 4 on 27 October 2020 by All In! Games and 505 Games, with a Nintendo Switch version launching on 10 November 2020 and versions for PlayStation 5 and Xbox Series X/S releasing on 28 September 2021. A version for Amazon Luna was also made available on 6 April 2021.


title: Ghostrunner

text: On 13 May 2021, 505 Games parent company Digital Bros announced that "Ghostrunner 2" was in development for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 5 and Xbox Series X/S.