title: Deep Purple (album)

text: Back in England in early June, the decision taken had to be kept secret until the promotional tour for the British release of "The Book of Taliesyn" was completed. Meanwhile, the search for a new singer to replace Evans began and Blackmore asked for help in this task from his old acquaintance Mick Underwood, at the time drummer of the British rock band Episode Six. Underwood recommended Episode Six singer Ian Gillan, whom Blackmore and Lord contacted at a London gig. Gillan, who did not see a future in his then current band, was enthusiastic about joining Deep Purple and involved bassist Roger Glover, with whom he formed a songwriting duo. According to Simper, his replacement by Glover was initially not planned and was due to the creative togetherness of the two Episode Six members. Gillan convinced the reluctant Glover to audition for Deep Purple and the two soon found themselves torn between the new band, which gladly welcomed both of them, and obligations with Episode Six for the completion of a UK tour. Evans, Simper and Episode Six's management were kept unaware of these events and of the fact that the new line-up was already active in writing and rehearsing new songs. In between gigs all over the country, Deep Purple had rehearsed the song "Hallelujah" with Evans and Simper to be released as a new single, but it was recorded in secret on 7 June by the fresh Mark II line-up at De Lane Studios instead, with Glover still acting as a session musician. The final show of the Mark I lineup was in Cardiff on 4 July 1969, and the Mark II lineup debuted live at The Speakeasy Club in London on 10 July. The final show played by Gillan and Glover with Episode Six was in Little Bardfield on 26 July 1969. The single "Hallelujah" was released in late July in the US and the UK and featured an edited version of "April" as B-side, the final original appearance on vinyl of the Mark I formation.


title: Deep Purple (album)

text: After his dismissal, Evans left for the US with his wife and resurfaced in 1971 as lead singer in the American progressive rock band Captain Beyond. Simper sued Deep Purple's management for breaking his contract, and the dispute was settled economically out of court. He later formed the rock band Warhorse.


title: Deep Purple (album)

text: The music of the album "Deep Purple" was played only during the tours of 1969 and never performed again by other line-ups, though Simper played songs from the first three Deep Purple albums with the tribute band Nasty Habits in Europe in 2010.


title: Deep Purple (album)

text: "Deep Purple" was practically ignored by the music press in the US upon its release in June 1969 and bounced up and down on the "Billboard" 200 chart for a few weeks, peaking at No. 162 and not coming close to the success of its two predecessors. Tetragrammaton's financial problems were partially to blame, for promotion was lackluster, but the lack of a hit single to be aired on FM radio or a tour in support of the album were also important factors.


title: Deep Purple (album)

text: In the UK, the single "Emmaretta" did not convince critics and buying public and failed to chart. At the time of release, "Deep Purple" was generally ignored by the British music press, more focused on the eventful "Concerto for Group and Orchestra" than on an album by an extinct line-up. The album was a slow seller in Europe, but eventually was certified Gold in Germany in 1990.


title: Deep Purple (album)

text: Modern reviews are generally positive. AllMusic's Bruce Eder calls the album "one of the most bracing progressive rock albums ever, and a successful vision of a musical path that the group might have taken but didn't", remarking how Deep Purple succeeded in combining "heavy metal's early, raw excitement, intensity, and boldness with progressive rock's complexity and intellectual scope." Jedd Beaudoin of PopMatters appreciates in his review the heavier sound of the songs and notices how "Evans sounds more and more out of place in a band that was increasingly more comfortable with stretching itself beyond the confines of pure pop pieces", like in the track "April", which he considers not only "the most ambitious thing on the entire record, but also arguably the best." David Bowling, in his Blogcritics column, reviews the album as "the least satisfying of their three early career releases, although it can also be considered their most adventurous" for its "meandering through a number of different styles and sounds." However, considering the growth shown by Blackmore and Lord as performers in this release, he concludes that it is "a fitting conclusion to the band's formative years." Martin Popoff praised the album for being "stronger, more aggressive and much better recorded" than "either of the first two records", showing the original work of "a strangely soulful psych band distinguished", with the exception of singer Evans, "by its hard-hitting players".


title: Data definition language

text: In the context of SQL, data definition or data description language (DDL) is a syntax for creating and modifying database objects such as tables, indices, and users. DDL statements are similar to a computer programming language for defining data structures, especially database schemas. Common examples of DDL statements include codice_1, codice_2, and codice_3.


title: Data definition language

text: The concept of the data definition language and its name was first introduced in relation to the Codasyl database model, where the schema of the database was written in a language syntax describing the records, fields, and sets of the user data model. Later it was used to refer to a subset of Structured Query Language (SQL) for declaring tables, columns, data types and constraints. SQL-92 introduced a schema manipulation language and schema information tables to query schemas. These information tables were specified as SQL/Schemata in . The term DDL is also used in a generic sense to refer to any formal language for describing data or information structures.


title: Data definition language

text: Many data description languages use a declarative syntax to define columns and data types. Structured Query Language (SQL), however, uses a collection of imperative verbs whose effect is to modify the schema of the database by adding, changing, or deleting definitions of tables or other elements. These statements can be freely mixed with other SQL statements, making the DDL not a separate language.


title: Data definition language

text: The "CREATE" statement in SQL creates a component in a relational database management system (RDBMS). In the SQL 1992 specification, the types of components that can be created are schemas, tables, views, domains, character sets, collations, translations, and assertions. Many implementations extend the syntax to allow creation of additional elements, such as indexes and user profiles. Some systems, such as PostgreSQL and SQL Server, allow "CREATE", and other DDL commands, inside a database transaction and thus they may be rolled back.


title: Data definition language

text: Some forms of "CREATE TABLE DDL" may incorporate DML (data manipulation language)-like constructs, such as the "CREATE TABLE AS SELECT" (CTaS) syntax of SQL.


title: Data definition language

text: A "DROP" statement in SQL removes a component from a relational database management system (RDBMS). The types of objects that can be dropped depends on which RDBMS is being used, but most support the dropping of tables, users, and databases. Some systems (such as PostgreSQL) allow DROP and other DDL commands to occur inside of a transaction and thus be rolled back. The typical usage is simply:


title: Data definition language

text: The "DROP" statement is distinct from the "DELETE" and "TRUNCATE" statements, in that "DELETE" and "TRUNCATE" do not remove the table itself. For example, a "DELETE" statement might delete some (or all) data from a table while leaving the table itself in the database, whereas a "DROP" statement removes the entire table from the database.


title: Data definition language

text: An "ALTER" statement in SQL changes the properties of an object inside of a relational database management system (RDBMS). The types of objects that can be altered depends on which RDBMS is being used. The typical usage is:


title: Data definition language

text: For example, the command to add (then remove) a column named bubbles for an existing table named sink is:


title: Data definition language

text: Another type of DDL sentence in SQL is used to define referential integrity relationships, usually implemented as primary key and foreign key tags in some columns of the tables. These two statements can be included in a "CREATE TABLE" or an "ALTER TABLE" sentence;


title: Judy Norton

text: Judy Norton (born January 29, 1958) is an American actress and theater director who is best known for her role as Mary Ellen Walton on "The Waltons" television series and subsequent Waltons TV movies.


title: Judy Norton

text: She was born in Santa Monica, California, to parents Harry and Constance (née Glazebrook) Norton. She began practicing Scientology at age 13, and became a minister in the Church. She married Douglas Taylor in 1976 at the age of 18; the marriage ended in divorce in 1978. She then married former football player Lynn Hughes whom she later divorced.


title: Judy Norton

text: Still being viewed as a child actress in her early 20s, Norton posed nude for the August 1985 issue of "Playboy" in a bid to shed her wholesome "family" image. In 1991, Norton married Randy Apostle. They had one son, Devin, before divorcing in 2001.


title: Judy Norton

text: Norton is married to Robert Graves. Norton has been writing, directing and starring in movies and theater. She also is a singer. An avid athlete, Norton has participated in competitive horse jumping and skydiving, in addition to skiing and tennis. Norton frequently showcased her athletic skills on "Battle of the Network Stars" in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Her CD "Reflections" was released in August 2016.


title: Economy of Nepal

text: The economy of Nepal is developing category and largely dependent on agriculture and remittances. An isolated, agrarian society until the mid-20th century, Nepal entered the modern era in 1951 without schools, hospitals, roads, telecommunications, electric power, industry, or civil service. The country has, however, made progress toward sustainable economic growth since the 1950s. The country was opened to economic liberalization, leading to economic growth and improvement in living standards when compared to the past. The biggest challenges faced by the country in achieving higher economic development are the frequent changes in political leadership, as well as corruption.


title: Economy of Nepal

text: Nepal has used a series of five-year plans in an attempt to make progress in economic development. It completed its ninth economic development plan in 2002; its currency has been made convertible, and 17 state enterprises have been privatised. Foreign aid to Nepal accounts for more than half of the development budget. Government priorities over the years have been the development of transportation and communication facilities, agriculture, and industry. Since 1975, improved government administration and rural development efforts have been emphasised.


title: Economy of Nepal

text: Agriculture remains Nepal's principal economic activity, employing about 65% of the population and providing 31.7% of GDP. Only about 20% of the total area is cultivable; another 40.7% is forested (i.e., covered by shrubs, pastureland and forest); most of the rest is mountainous. Fruits and vegetables (apples, pears, tomatoes, various salads, peach, nectarine, potatoes), as well as rice and wheat are the main food crops. The lowland Terai region produces an agricultural surplus, part of which supplies the food-deficient hill areas.


title: Economy of Nepal

text: GDP is heavily dependent on remittances (9.1%) of foreign workers. Subsequently, economic development in social services and infrastructure in Nepal has not made dramatic progress. A countrywide primary education system is under development, and Tribhuvan University has several campuses. Although eradication efforts continue, malaria had been controlled in the fertile but previously uninhabitable Terai region in the south. Kathmandu is linked to India and nearby hill regions by road and an expanding highway network. The capital was almost out of fuel and supplies, due to a crippling general strike in southern Nepal on 17 February 2008.


title: Economy of Nepal

text: Major towns are connected to the capital by telephone and domestic air services. The export-oriented carpet and garment industries have grown rapidly in recent years. Together, they account for approximately 70% of the country's merchandise exports.


title: Economy of Nepal

text: The Cost of Living Index in Nepal is comparatively lower than many countries but not the least. The quality of life has declined to a much less desirous value in recent years. In the 2021 Global Hunger Index, Nepal ranks 76th out of the 116 countries with sufficient data to calculate 2021 GHI scores. With a score of 19.1, Nepal has a level of hunger that is moderate.


title: Economy of Nepal

text: Huge numbers of Small Foreign Investments come to Nepal via the Non Resident Nepali, who are investing in many sectors. Nepal has a huge potential for hydroelectricity. Accordingly, a large number of foreign companies are willing to invest in Nepal, but political instability has stopped the process.


title: Economy of Nepal

text: Nepal has entered into agreements for avoidance of double taxation (all in credit method) with 10 countries (PSRD) since 2000. Similarly, it has Investment protection agreements with 5 countries (PSRD) since 1983. In 2014, Nepal restricted the Foreign aid by setting a minimum limit for foreign grants, soft and commercial loans from its development partners.


title: Economy of Nepal

text: Nepal's merchandise trade balance has improved somewhat since 2000 with the growth of the carpet and garment industries. In the fiscal year 2000–2001, exports posted a greater increase (14%) than imports (4.5%), helping bring the trade deficit down by 4% from the previous year to $749 million. Recently, the European Union has become the largest buyer of ready-made garments; fruits and vegetables (mostly apples, pears, tomatoes, various salads, peach, nectarine, potatoes, rice) from Nepal. Exports to the EU accounted for 46.13 percent of the country's garment exports.


title: Economy of Nepal

text: The annual monsoon rain strongly influences economic growth. From 1996 to 1999, real GDP growth averaged less than 4%. The growth rate recovered in 1999, rising to 6% before slipping slightly in 2001 to 5.5%.


title: Economy of Nepal

text: Strong export performance, including earnings from tourism, and external aid have helped improve the overall balance of payments and increase international reserves. Nepal receives substantial amounts of external assistance from the United Kingdom, the United States, Japan, Germany, and the Scandinavian countries.


title: Economy of Nepal

text: Several multilateral organisations such as the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank, and the UN Development Programme also provide assistance. In June 1998, Nepal submitted its memorandum on a foreign trade regime to the World Trade Organization and in May 2000 began direct negotiations on its accession.


title: Economy of Nepal

text: Progress has been made in exploiting Nepal's natural resources, tourism and hydroelectricity. With eight of the world's 10 highest mountain peaks, including Mount Everest at 8,848.86 m. In the early 1990s, one large public sector project and a number of private projects were planned; some have been completed. The most significant private sector financed hydroelectric projects currently in operation are the Khimti Khola (60 MW) and the Bhote Koshi Project (36 MW). The project is still undergoing and has dependency on China, India and Japan to take the further steps.


title: Economy of Nepal

text: Nepal has 83,000 MW of theoretical and 42,133 MW of technically/financially viable hydroelectric potential, however the total installed capacity, at present, is mere 1095 MW.


title: Economy of Nepal

text: The environmental impact of Nepal's hydroelectric Own calendar (Bikram Sambat) New year in mid- April projects has been limited by the fact that most are "run-of-the-river" with only one storage project undertaken to date. The largest hydroelectric plant under consideration is the West Seti Dam (750 MW) storage project dedicated to exports to be built by the private sector. Negotiations with India for a power purchase agreement have been underway for several years, but agreement on pricing and financing remains a problem. Currently demand for electricity is increasing at 8-10% a year whereas Nepal's option to have agreement with India will make this fulfilment against demand. As of June 2022 surplus electricity up to 364 MWp by Nepal is exported to India.


title: Economy of Nepal

text: Population pressure on natural resources is increasing. Over-population is already straining the "carrying capacity" of the middle hill areas, particularly the Kathmandu Valley, resulting in the depletion of forest cover for crops, fuel, and fodder and contributing to erosion and flooding. Although steep mountain terrain makes exploitation difficult, mineral surveys have found small deposits of limestone, magnesite, zinc, copper, iron, mica, lead, and cobalt. Coal mining is also done with 11522 tones produced in 2018 alone.


title: Economy of Nepal

text: The development of hydroelectric power projects also cause some tension with local indigenous groups, recently empowered by Nepal's ratification of ILO Convention 169.


title: Economy of Nepal

text: This is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of Nepal at market prices estimated by the International Monetary Fund and EconStats with figures in millions of Nepali Rupees.


title: Economy of Nepal

text: Population below poverty line: 25.6% (2017/2018)<ref name="2017/2018 economic survey, Nepal ministry of finance">https://mof.gov.np/uploads/document/file/for%20web_Economic%20Survey%202075%20Full%20Final%20for%20WEB%20_20180914091500.pdf </ref>


title: Economy of Nepal

text: tourism, carpet, textile; small rice, jute, sugar, and oilseed mills; cigarette; cement and brick production


title: Economy of Nepal

text: Fruits and vegetables, mostly: apples, pears, tomatoes, peaches, nectarines, potatoes, rice, maize, wheat, sugarcane, root crops, milk, and buffalo meat.


title: Economy of Nepal

text: Imports - partners: India 70.1%, China 10.3%, UAE 2.6%, Singapore 2.1%, Saudi Arabia 1.2%. (2016 est.)


title: Zhou Dongyu

text: Zhou Dongyu () is a Chinese actress, who gained recognition after appearing in Zhang Yimou's film "Under the Hawthorn Tree". She was also chosen by "Southern Metropolis Daily" as one of the "Four Dan actresses of the post-90s Generation", along with Zheng Shuang,


title: Zhou Dongyu

text: Guan Xiaotong and Yang Zi. In 2016, she won the Golden Horse Award for Best Leading Actress with her performance in "Soul Mate". In 2020, she won the Hong Kong Film Award for Best Actress and Golden Rooster Award for Best Actress with her performance in "Better Days".


title: Zhou Dongyu

text: Zhou was born in Shijiazhuang, Hebei to an ordinary working family. When she was in the third grade of primary school, her father died in a car accident, and her mother later remarried. She practiced gymnastics as a child and joined the Shijiazhuang gymnastics team at the age of 12. In middle school, she studied in Shijiazhuang No. 27 Middle School Class 9 in 2004 and Shijiazhuang No. 12 Middle School in Class 2007.


title: Zhou Dongyu

text: In 2010, Zhou was picked by Zhang Yimou to star in his film "Under the Hawthorn Tree", despite having no acting experience prior to taking on the role. She rose to fame for her appearance in the film and won several awards, including the Best Actress at the 56th Valladolid International Film Spain Festival, Outstanding New Actress at the 14th Huabiao Award and Best New Performer at the 20th Shanghai Film Critics Awards.


title: Zhou Dongyu

text: In 2011, she starred in Barbara Wong's romance film "The Allure of Tears"; and also featured in war film "The Road Of Exploring", playing Yang Kaihui, the wife of political leader Mao Zedong.


title: Zhou Dongyu

text: In 2013, she starred in historical romance film "The Palace", the fourth installment of the "Gong" series by Yu Zheng. "Variety" praised her performance saying, "Zhou holds the screen very well, turning an initially daft personality into an angsty but stoical heroine".


title: Zhou Dongyu

text: In 2014, she starred alongside Lin Gengxin in youth romance film "My Old Classmate". The film topped China's box office and Zhou was praised for her "acting breakthrough". The same year, she featured in comedy "Breakup Buddies". Opposite to her usual pure and fresh image, Zhou challenged the role of a "Smart" in the film. "Breakup Buddies" became one of the highest-grossing films of all time in China.


title: Zhou Dongyu

text: In 2015, she starred opposite Ethan Juan in suspense film "The Unbearable Lightness of Inspector Fan" and youth drama "The Ark of Mr. Chow" alongside Sun Honglei.


title: Zhou Dongyu

text: Zhou achieved breakthrough with her performance in the film "Soul Mate", based on the novel of the same name by Anni Baobei. Zhou received the Best Actress award at the 53rd Golden Horse Awards together with her "Soul Mate" co-star Sandra Ma, and also won Best Actress at the 28th Hong Kong Film Critics Society Award. The same year, she won the Best Actress award at the 8th Macau International Movie Festival for her performance in the South Korean-Chinese romance film "Never Said Goodbye". Zhou also starred in her first television series, spy war drama "Sparrow". The series was commercially successful, and became the highest rated war drama to date with a peak rating of 2.46 and 11 billion online views. Zhou was praised by both the audience and director for successfully tackling a challenging role.


title: Zhou Dongyu

text: In 2017, Zhou starred alongside Takeshi Kaneshiro in romantic comedy "This Is Not What I Expected". The film grossed over 100 million yuan and received an 8.9 out of 10 score on "Maoyan". Along with the success of "Soul Mate", Zhou was coined the representative of Chinese chick flicks. The same year, she starred in the coming-of-age romance drama "Shall I Compare You to a Spring Day" alongside Zhang Yishan; and featured in science fiction wuxia film "The Thousand Faces of Dunjia" directed by Tsui Hark.


title: Zhou Dongyu

text: In 2018, Zhou starred in Rene Liu's romance film "Us and Them" alongside Jing Boran. It was a hit in China, earning $191 million over its first two weekends.


title: Zhou Dongyu

text: In 2019, Zhou starred in the youth film "Better Days" helmed by "Soul Mate" director Derek Tsang, that tackles school bullying. The film topped box office and received positive reviews. Zhou won the Best Actress at the 39th Hong Kong Film Awards for her performance. The same year, she featured in the drama film "On The Balcony" which she serves as one of the co-producers. Zhou ranked seventh on "Forbes" China Celebrity 100 list in 2019, the highest for female celebrities.


title: Zhou Dongyu

text: At the 2010 Hawaii International Film Festival, she apologized in Mandarin that she spoke no English (unlike her co-star Shawn Dou who interpreted for her). At the 2019 Cannes Film Festival, however, she was able to talk in fluent English.


title: Zhou Dongyu

text: In March 2021, Zhou terminated her contract with Burberry as brand ambassador after the company announced that they will not purchase cotton from the Chinese autonomous region of Xinjiang due to concerns of forced labor of Uyghurs. The campaign was an ongoing publicity effort orchestrated by the Chinese government to refute allegations of ethnic genocide and human rights abuses in Xinjiang. Her actions were mimicked by other Chinese celebrities.


title: University of Montana

text: The University of Montana (UM) is a public research university in Missoula, Montana. UM is a flagship institution of the Montana University System and its second largest campus. UM reported 10,962 undergraduate and graduate students in the fall of 2018. It is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity" as of 2022.


title: University of Montana

text: The University of Montana ranks 17th in the nation and fifth among public universities in producing Rhodes Scholars; it has 11 Truman Scholars, 14 Goldwater Scholars, and 40 Udall Scholars to its name.


title: University of Montana

text: An act of Congress of February 18, 1881, dedicated 72 sections () in Montana Territory for the creation of the university.


title: University of Montana

text: Montana was admitted to the Union on November 8, 1889, and the state legislature soon began to consider where the state's permanent capital and state university would be located. To be sure that the new state university would be located in Missoula, the city's leaders made an agreement with the standing capital of Helena that Missoula would stay out of the bidding for the new capital and would support Helena over its leading competitor, Anaconda. The cities' bids were supported by the rival "Copper Kings," William A. Clark and Marcus Daly, respectively.


title: University of Montana

text: Missoula won the legislative vote for the new university at the Third Montana Legislative Assembly in February 1893, and it was formally opened in 1895. While plans for a university campus were progressing, classes were temporarily held at nearby Willard School. The South Missoula Land Company, owned by A.B. Hammond, Richard Eddy and Marcus Daly, joined with the Higgins family in donating land for the new campus. In June 1898 the cornerstone for A.J. Gibson designed University Hall was laid and Missoula became "the University City."


title: University of Montana

text: From 1945 until 1965, the name was changed by the legislature to "Montana State University," while the school in Bozeman was known as "Montana State College."


title: University of Montana

text: The University of Montana comprises eleven full colleges and schools: College of Humanities & Sciences; Phyllis J. Washington College of Education and Human Sciences; W.A. Franke College of Forestry and Conservation; College of Health Professions and Biomedical Sciences; College of Visual and Performing Arts; Alexander Blewett III UM School of Law; UM College of Business; UM School of Journalism; UM School of Extended and Lifelong Learning; Missoula College and Bitterroot College.


title: University of Montana

text: The Phyllis J. Washington College of Education and Human Sciences is divided into five academic departments and the Institute of Educational Research and Service. In 1914, the University of Montana School of Law became a member of The Association of American Law Schools and in 1923, the school received accreditation from the American Bar Association. The W.A. Franke College of Forestry and Conservation offers five undergraduate majors (Ecosystem Science & Restoration; Forestry; Parks, Tourism & Recreation Management; Resource Conservation; and Wildlife Biology) and five Master's of Science and three PhDs.


title: University of Montana

text: For the fall 2017 term, 6,182 students applied to the University of Montana. Ninety-three percent were accepted. The entering freshman class had an average high school GPA of 3.55, and the middle 50% range of SAT scores were 540-650 for reading and writing, 520-620 for math, while the ACT Composite range was 21–26.


title: University of Montana

text: The original plan of the campus was designed by one of its first professors, Frederich Scheuch, who called for the central oval to be surrounded by immediate and future university buildings. Although Scheuch's plan called for all building entrances to face the center of the Oval, forming a radiating building pattern, buildings were later constructed with three-story in the Renaissance Revival style, with hipped roofs and Spanish green roof tiles.


title: University of Montana

text: The first set of buildings were set up around the oval in 1895. Since that time, various campus plans and architectural styles have been used. Today the campus consists of and is bordered to the east by Mount Sentinel and the north by the Clark Fork River. The main campus comprises 64 buildings, including nine residence halls and various athletic venues, including Washington–Grizzly Stadium, a 26,500-seat football stadium and the Adams Center (formerly, Dahlberg Arena), a 7,500-seat multi-purpose arena where the university's basketball teams play.


title: University of Montana

text: A swath of grass running east to west, marking the traditional center of the university. Today it is divided into quadrants by two intersecting brick-laid paths, though originally the oval was solid grass and forbidden to be crossed by students. A double row of trees was planted around the oval on Arbor Day 1896, but many of the trees have since died and are in the process of being replanted. The original gravel driveway that once surrounded the Oval has also been replaced by sidewalk. The original master plan of the university called for all buildings to face the center of the oval, but this plan proved difficult and a new plan was created in 1935.


title: University of Montana

text: On the western extreme of the Oval is a life-sized grizzly bear statue created by ceramic artist and sculptor Rudy Autio in 1969. The bronze statue is in height, weighs , and took a year to create. Many photographs of the university picture the bear with the Oval, university (Main) Hall, and Mount Sentinel's 'M' in the background.


title: University of Montana

text: A trail with 13 switchbacks, it ascends , from above sea level, from the university at the base of Mount Sentinel. The trail offers sweeping views of the city below.


title: University of Montana

text: There is debate of when "The 'M'" was first placed on Mount Sentinel. Around 1908, members of the Forestry Club forged a zigzag trail up the mountain and students carried up stones to shape the symbol of the University of Montana. Originally made of whitewashed rocks and only measuring by 25 feet, the very first "M" was poorly constructed and ultimately replaced by a wooden "M" in 1912, which cost $18. That "M," unlike today's "M," stood upright on the face of Mount Sentinel. A larger wooden version of the "M" was built in 1913 and upkeep of the structure was formally charged to each year's freshman class.


title: University of Montana

text: When the large wooden "M" was destroyed by a blizzard in 1915, an even larger version was constructed of whitewashed granite. Once again the freshman class was tasked with annual renovation of the symbol, beginning a new tradition. Each year from then on, University of Montana freshmen made the hike up to the "M" to apply a fresh coat of whitewash and remove any weeds and grass that had grown in and around the structure.


title: University of Montana

text: The annual tradition ended in 1968 when a concrete "M" was built at a cost of $4,328. Behind the decision to replace rock with concrete were maintenance issues; with the coming of the 1960s, UM students exhibited waning enthusiasm for the annual trek up the hill and for annual upkeep of the "M." Although the annual whitewashing went by the wayside, one tradition that lives on today is the lighting of the "M" during the university's annual Homecoming celebration each fall. Originally lit by a group of students on October 9, 1919, following the fall whitewashing, the event was so popular that students have continued to light the "M" each year during Homecoming week; special beacons light up the giant letter, welcoming former students back to the university.


title: University of Montana

text: On the north side of campus, 29 evergreen trees stand in two columns forming Memorial Row along what used to be the path of Van Buren Avenue. The trees, running from the corner of the Oval to Eddy Avenue, were planted in 1919 following the end of the Great War to honor UM students, alumni, and faculty who died in the war, some to combat and many more to the influenza epidemic. The trees are "Pinus ponderosa" (Western Yellow Pines or Ponderosa Pine), the state tree of Montana. Originally, a white T-board stood in front of each tree, with the name of the person whom it honors; in 1925, these were replaced with 35 brass nameplates atop concrete markers. At the same time, the university added a memorial tablet on a boulder near the edge of the Oval closest to Memorial Row. It lists 21 of the 31 honorees from 1919. By 1925, the university had increased the number of names on the official list to 35, and sometime later, it grew to 37.


title: University of Montana

text: The University of Montana is the main campus for the university, which includes four other campuses. The public university system is one of two in Montana; the other is Montana State University. Both systems are governed as the Montana University System by the Montana Board of Regents, which consists of seven members appointed by the state governor, and confirmed by the state Senate to serve overlapping terms of seven years, except for one student member who is appointed for one year at a time.. The governor and Superintendent of Public Instruction, both statewide elected officials, are "ex officio" members of the Board, as is the Commissioner of Higher Education, who is appointed by the Board of Regents.


title: University of Montana

text: The Board of Regents appoints the university president, who is directly responsible and accountable to the Commissioner of Higher Education.


title: University of Montana

text: The total operating budget for the University of Montana for fiscal year 2017 was approximately $423 million. About $149 million comes from the General Funds budget, $108 million from restricted funds, auxiliary funds ($51 million), designated funds ($44 million), and plant funds ($61 million).


title: University of Montana

text: Over the past 30 years, state support for higher education has dropped dramatically. In 1990, the State of Montana provided for 69% of the educational and general funds budget. It now supports 33% of the general fund or 13% of the university's operating budget. This decrease in funding has, in part, been made up by the university successfully competing for sponsored research money with a growth from $12 million in 1994 to $88 million in 2017 and salaries as low as 3/5 the national average.


title: University of Montana

text: The "Montana Kaimin", founded in 1898, is the student-run college newspaper. It is independent of the university. It attracted national attention in 2009, when football coach Bobby Hauck refused to take questions from the paper in retaliation for a story about an alleged assault by two Grizzly football players. The "Montanan" is the university's alumni magazine, published by the University Relations office. "CutBank", founded in 1973 by the Creative Writing Program, is a literary magazine. "Camas: The Nature of the West", is a literary journal run by graduate students of the Environmental Studies Program.


title: University of Montana

text: KBGA (89.9 FM) is the college radio station. KUFM-FM is the flagship and founding station of Montana Public Radio. Founded in 1965, its studios are located in the Broadcast Media Center, of the Performing Arts/Radio Television Center. KUFM-TV (Channel 11) is the local Montana PBS station.


title: University of Montana

text: A variety of student organizations exist on campus. Seven fraternities and four sororities have chapters on campus. The fraternities are Phi Delta Theta (1921), Sigma Nu (established at UM in 1904), Sigma Chi (1905), Sigma Phi Epsilon (1918), Sigma Alpha Epsilon (1927), and Kappa Sigma (1927). The sororities are Kappa Alpha Theta (1909), Kappa Kappa Gamma (1909), Delta Gamma (1911), and Alpha Phi (1918).


title: University of Montana

text: The University of Montana's International Program began as the International Student club in 1924. It was founded by Alex Stepanzoff and four other Russians who were the first foreign exchange students at the university and is the oldest student organization at the university. The first study abroad programs were created with programs to France, Germany, and Spain in 1971. In 1981, the Mansfield Center was established and certification in teaching of English as a second language (TESL) began. As of 2010, the university has partnerships established with over 90 universities in over 40 countries. The largest number of partnership are with universities in Japan (eight), China (seven), and Chile (seven).


title: University of Montana

text: Programs on Central and Southwest Asia were created in 1997. UM is currently the only American university offering a Bachelor of Arts in Central and Southwest Asian Studies. In September 2010, the Montana Board of Regents unanimously approved the creation of the Center for the Study of Central and Southwest Asia at The University of Montana.


title: University of Montana

text: The athletic teams are nicknamed the Montana Grizzlies, often shortened to Griz or Lady Griz (Lady Griz is only used when referring to the women's basketball team; all other women's teams are known as the Griz). The university has competed in the NCAA's Big Sky Conference since the conference was formed in 1963. From 1924 to 1950, the University of Montana was a member of the Pacific Coast Conference (precursor to today's Pac-12). The University of Montana has an ongoing rivalry with Montana State University, most notably the cross-state football matchups, known as the "Brawl of the Wild."


title: University of Montana

text: Other intercollegiate sports include men's and women's cross country, women's golf, men's and women's track and field, men's and women's indoor track and field, men's and women's tennis, women's volleyball and women's soccer. In 2015 UM added women's softball.


title: University of Montana

text: Intramural sports include men's lacrosse (won 2007 national championship in their division, MCLA-B) and women's lacrosse, the Alpine Ski Team (went to the national championships in winter 2006), rowing, dance and cheer, men's and women's ice hockey, men's soccer, the Woodsman Team, rodeo, the Missoula Footbag Alliance. triathlon, cycling, fencing, Jesters Rugby, and Betterside Women's Rugby.


title: University of Montana

text: The mascot of the university is Monte, a Grizzly Bear. In 1897, a live bear cub traveled with UM's football team, then known as the "Bears" (the "Grizzlies" name was adopted in 1923). Numerous live bear cubs who served as university mascots, first named "Teddy", then "Fessy" and finally, in the 1960s, "Cocoa". UM's costumed mascot during the 1980s, dubbed "Otto", donned a variety of fun-loving outfits to entertain crowds at Grizzly football games. Monte (short for "Montana") was born in the mountains of Missoula in the fall 1993. The 2002–03 and 2004–05 National Champion Mascot of the Year (Capital One/ESPN) has evolved into a "motorcycle-riding, break-dancing, back flipping, slam-dunking, movie-making, crowd-surfing, goal post smashing, prank-pulling superstar."


title: Superconducting Super Collider

text: The Superconducting Super Collider (SSC) (also nicknamed the desertron) was a particle accelerator complex under construction in the vicinity of Waxahachie, Texas.


title: Superconducting Super Collider

text: Its planned ring circumference was with an energy of 20 TeV per proton and was designed to be the world's largest and most energetic particle accelerator. The laboratory director was Roy Schwitters, a physicist at the University of Texas at Austin. Department of Energy administrator Louis Ianniello served as its first project director, followed by Joe Cipriano, who came to the SSC Project from the Pentagon in May 1990. After 22.5 km (14 mi) of tunnel had been bored and about 2 billion dollars spent, the project was cancelled by the US Congress in 1993.


title: Superconducting Super Collider

text: The supercollider was formally discussed in the 1984 National Reference Designs Study, which examined the technical and economic feasibility of a machine with the design energy of 20 TeV per proton.


title: Superconducting Super Collider

text: Early in 1983, HEPAP (High-Energy Physics Advisory Panel) formed the New Facilities for the US High-Energy Physics Program subpanel. Led by Stanford University physicist Stanley Wojcicki, and charged with making recommendations “for a forefront United States High Energy Physics Program in the next five to ten years.” the HEPAP subpanel recommended that the US build the Superconducting Super Collider.


title: Superconducting Super Collider

text: Fermilab director and subsequent Nobel physics prizewinner Leon Lederman was a very prominent early supporter – some sources say the architect or proposer – of the Superconducting Super Collider project, as well as a major proponent and advocate throughout its lifetime.


title: Superconducting Super Collider

text: A Central Design Group (CDG) was organized in California at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, which became the gathering place for physicists to come and support the SSC design effort. In the mid-1980s, many leading high-energy physicists, including theorist J. David Jackson of Berkeley, Chris Quigg of Fermilab, Maury Tigner of Cornell, Stanley Wojcicki, as well as Lederman, Chicago’s James Cronin, Harvard theorist Sheldon Glashow, and Roy Schwitters, continued their efforts to promote the Super Collider.


title: Superconducting Super Collider

text: An extensive U.S. Department of Energy review was also done during the mid-1980s. Seventeen shafts were sunk and of tunnel were bored by late 1993.


title: Superconducting Super Collider

text: During the design and the first construction stage, a heated debate ensued about the high cost of the project. In 1987, Congress was told the project could be completed for $4.4 billion, and it gained the enthusiastic support of Speaker Jim Wright of nearby Fort Worth, Texas. A recurring argument was the contrast with NASA's contribution to the International Space Station (ISS), a similar dollar amount. Critics of the project (Congressmen representing other US states and scientists working in non-SSC fields who felt the money would be better spent on their own fields) argued that the US could not afford both of them.


title: Superconducting Super Collider

text: Estimates of the additional cost caused by not using existing physical and human infrastructure at Fermilab in Illinois range from $495 million to $3.28 billion.


title: Superconducting Super Collider

text: Leaders hoped to get financial support from Europe, Canada, Japan, Russia, and India. This was hindered by promotion of the project as promoting American superiority. European funding remained at CERN, which was already working on the Large Hadron Collider. India pledged $50 million, but talks with Japan foundered over trade tensions in the automobile industry. A US-Japanese trade mission where SSC funding was supposed to be discussed ended in the George H. W. Bush vomiting incident.


title: Superconducting Super Collider

text: Congress began appropriating annual funding for the project. In 1992, it was opposed by a majority of the House of Representatives (231-181), but was included in the final reconciled budget due to support in the Senate (62-32).


title: Superconducting Super Collider

text: Early in 1993, a group supported by funds from project contractors organized a public relations campaign to lobby Congress directly in support of the project.


title: Superconducting Super Collider

text: In February, the General Accounting Office reported a $630 million overrun in the $1.25 billion construction budget. By March, the "New York Times" reported the estimated total cost had grown to $8.4 billion. In June, the non-profit Project on Government Oversight released a draft audit report by the Department of Energy's Inspector General heavily criticizing the Super Collider for its high costs and poor management by officials in charge of it.


title: Superconducting Super Collider

text: The Inspector General investigated $500,000 in questionable expenses over three years, including $12,000 for Christmas parties, $25,000 for catered lunches, and $21,000 for the purchase and maintenance of office plants. The report also concluded that there was inadequate documentation for $203 million in project spending, or 40% of the money spent up to that point.


title: Superconducting Super Collider

text: In 1993, Clinton tried to prevent the cancellation by asking Congress to continue "to support this important and challenging effort" through completion because "abandoning the SSC at this point would signal that the United States is compromising its position of leadership in basic science".


title: Superconducting Super Collider

text: After $2 billion had been spent ($400 million by the host state of Texas, the rest by the Department of Energy), the House of Representatives rejected funding on October 19, 1993, and Senate negotiators failed to restore it.


title: Superconducting Super Collider

text: Following Rep. Jim Slattery's successful orchestration in the House, President Clinton signed the bill that finally cancelled the project on October 30, 1993, stating regret at the "serious loss" for science.


title: Superconducting Super Collider

text: Many factors contributed to the cancellation: rising cost estimates (to $12bn); poor management by physicists and Department of Energy officials; the end of the need to prove the supremacy of American science with the collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War; belief that many smaller scientific experiments of equal merit could be funded for the same cost; Congress's desire to generally reduce spending (the United States was running a $255bn budget deficit); the reluctance of Texas Governor Ann Richards; and President Bill Clinton's initial lack of support for a project begun during the administrations of Richards's predecessor, Bill Clements, and Clinton's predecessors, Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush. The project's cancellation was also eased by opposition from within the scientific community. Prominent condensed matter physicists, such as Philip W. Anderson and Nicolaas Bloembergen, testified before Congress opposing the project. They argued that, although the SSC would certainly conduct high-quality research, it was not the only way to acquire new fundamental knowledge, as some of its supporters claimed, and so was unreasonably expensive. Scientific critics of the SSC pointed out that basic research in other areas, such as condensed matter physics and materials science, was underfunded compared to high energy physics, despite the fact that those fields were more likely to produce applications with technological and economic benefits.


title: Superconducting Super Collider

text: Steven Weinberg, a Nobel laureate in Physics, places the cancellation of the SSC in the context of a bigger national and global socio-economic crisis, including a general crisis in funding for science research and for the provision of adequate education, healthcare, transportation and communication infrastructure, and criminal justice and law enforcement.


title: Superconducting Super Collider

text: Leon Lederman, a promoter and advocate from its early days, wrote his 1993 popular science book "" – which sought to promote awareness of the significance of the work which necessitated such a project – in the context of the project's last years and loss of congressional support.


title: Superconducting Super Collider

text: The closing of the SSC had adverse consequences for the southern part of the Dallas–Fort Worth Metroplex, and resulted in a mild recession, most evident in those parts of Dallas which lay south of the Trinity River. When the project was cancelled, of tunnel and 17 shafts to the surface were already dug, and nearly two billion dollars had already been spent on the massive facility.


title: Superconducting Super Collider

text: The SSC's planned collision energy of 2 x 20 = 40 TeV was roughly three times that of the 2 x 6.5 = 13 TeV (as of June 2015) of its European counterpart, the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN in Geneva. However, the planned luminosity was only one tenth of the design luminosity of the LHC.


title: Superconducting Super Collider

text: Although some claimed that the SSC cost was largely due to the massive civil engineering project of digging a huge tunnel, that was somewhat of a distortion. The tunneling and conventional facility buildout budget was only about ten percent of the total budgeted cost (1.1 billion dollars out of a total cost of 10 billion). The major cost item was the magnets, still in laboratory development phase, consequently with a higher level of uncertainty attached to the final cost. The ring circumference of the LHC is , compared to the planned of the SSC.


title: Superconducting Super Collider

text: The LHC's advantage in terms of cost was the use of the pre-existing engineering infrastructure and 27 km long cavern of the Large Electron–Positron Collider, and its use of a different, innovative magnet design to bend the higher energy particles into the available tunnel. The LHC eventually cost the equivalent of about 5 billion US dollars to build. The total operating budget of CERN runs to about $1 billion per year. The Large Hadron Collider became operational in August 2008.


title: Superconducting Super Collider

text: In a 2021 interview, Schwitters speculated that, had the project been completed, it would have led to the discovery of the Higgs boson particle 10 years before its eventual discovery in Switzerland and attracted an equivalent number of visitors to North Texas as CERN's 120,000 per year.


title: Superconducting Super Collider

text: After the project was cancelled, the main site was deeded to Ellis County, Texas, and the county tried numerous times to sell the property. The property was sold in August 2006 to an investment group led by the late J.B. Hunt.


title: Superconducting Super Collider

text: In 2009, Collider Data Center had contracted with GVA Cawley to market the site as a data center. In 2012, chemical company Magnablend bought the property and facilities against some opposition from the local community. The buildings in the facility, which had become prime spots for thieves and drug parties, were renovated and were re-opened in 2013 by Magnablend. The facility makes a range of oil field products for the energy service industry.


title: Superconducting Super Collider

text: "Supercollider," a 1993 song by the Boston-based alternative band Tribe, describes the point of view of a scientist hired to help build the (then-uncancelled) project.


title: Superconducting Super Collider

text: John G. Cramer's 1997 hard science fiction novel "Einstein's Bridge" centers around a fictional version of the Superconducting Super Collider.


title: Superconducting Super Collider

text: "A Hole In Texas" is a 2004 novel by Herman Wouk, which describes the adventures of a high-energy physicist following the surprise announcement that a Chinese physicist had discovered the long-sought Higgs boson. Parts of the plot are based on the aborted Superconducting Super Collider project.


title: Superconducting Super Collider

text: On the January 21, 2021 episode of "Young Sheldon" the supercollider is mentioned when Sheldon Cooper's (Iain Armitage) mentor Dr. John Sturgis (Wallace Shawn) gets a new job there. A subsequent episode on the April 1, 2021 episode shows an exterior shot of the facility with Dr. Sturgis receiving a phone call from Sheldon's grandmother (Annie Potts).


title: Superconducting Super Collider

text: In 2021, the project was cited as a case study of the hypothetical demon of Bureaucratic Chaos, which "blocks good things from happening" at the United States Department of Energy.


title: Perry Expedition

text: The Perry Expedition (, , "Arrival of the Black Ships") was a diplomatic and military expedition during 1853–1854 to the Tokugawa Shogunate involving two separate voyages by warships of the United States Navy. The goals of this expedition included exploration, surveying, and the establishment of diplomatic relations and negotiation of trade agreements with various nations of the region; opening contact with the government of Japan was considered a top priority of the expedition, and was one of the key reasons for its inception.


title: Perry Expedition

text: The expedition was commanded by Commodore Matthew Calbraith Perry, under orders from President Millard Fillmore. Perry's primary goal was to force an end to Japan's 220-year-old policy of isolation and to open Japanese ports to American trade, through the use of gunboat diplomacy if necessary. The Perry Expedition led directly to the establishment of diplomatic relations between Japan and the western Great Powers, and eventually to the collapse of the ruling Tokugawa shogunate and the restoration of the Emperor. Following the expedition, Japan's burgeoning trade routes with the world led to the cultural trend of Japonisme, in which aspects of Japanese culture influenced art in Europe and America.


title: Perry Expedition

text: Growing commerce between America and China, the presence of American whalers in waters off Japan, and the increasing monopolization of potential coaling stations by European colonial powers in Asia were all contributing factors in the decision by President Fillmore to dispatch an expedition to Japan. The Americans were also driven by concepts of manifest destiny and the desire to impose the benefits of western civilization and the Christian religion on what they perceived as backward Asian nations. By the early 19th century, the Japanese policy of isolation was increasingly under challenge. In 1844, Dutch King William II sent a letter urging Japan to end the isolation policy on its own before change would be forced from the outside. Between 1790 and 1853 at least twenty-seven U.S. ships (including three warships) visited Japan, only to be turned away.


title: Perry Expedition

text: There were increased sightings and incursions of foreign ships into Japanese waters, and this led to considerable internal debate in Japan on how best to meet this potential threat to Japan's economic and political sovereignty. In May 1851, American Secretary of State Daniel Webster authorized Commodore John H. Aulick, commander of the American East India Squadron, to attempt to return seventeen shipwrecked Japanese sailors residing in San Francisco, which might provide the opportunity for opening commercial relations with Japan. On May 10, 1851, Webster drafted a letter addressed to the "Japanese Emperor" with assurances that the expedition had no religious purpose, but was only to request "friendship and commerce" and supplies of coal needed by American ships en route to China. The letter also boasted of American expansion across the North American continent and its technical prowess, and was signed by President Fillmore. However, Aulick became involved in a diplomatic row with a Brazilian diplomat and quarrels with the captain of his flagship, and was relieved of his command before he could undertake the Japan expedition. His replacement, Commodore Matthew Calbraith Perry, was a senior-ranking officer in the United States Navy, and had extensive diplomatic experience.


title: Perry Expedition

text: Perry was well aware of the difficulties involved in attempting to establish relations with Japan, and initially protested that he would prefer to command the Mediterranean Squadron of the U.S. Navy instead of being assigned to yet another attempt to open Japan, which he considered unlikely to succeed. Relevant precedents included:


title: Perry Expedition

text: In advance of his voyage, Perry read widely amongst available books about Japan. His research also included consultation with the renowned Japanologist Philipp Franz von Siebold. Siebold spent eight years working, teaching, and studying at the isolated Dutch island-trading post of Dejima in Nagasaki harbour, before returning to Leiden in the Netherlands. Perry also demanded greater latitude in his orders from Webster, a demand the Secretary of State granted just before his death in October 1852. Perry thus sailed for Japan with "full and discretionary powers", including possible use of force if the Japanese tried to treat him as they had the unfortunate Commodore Biddle. Perry also refused to allow any professional diplomats to accompany the expedition. He asked the German painter Wilhelm Heine and pioneer daguerreotype photographer Eliphalet M. Brown, Jr. to join the expedition as official artists. Agricultural specialist Dr. James Morrow was assigned by the US State Department. Several Japanese castaways were also taken on as unofficial interpreters.


title: Perry Expedition

text: The expedition was assigned the steam warships , , and , the armed store steamships "Lexington", "Supply", and "Southampton", and the sailing sloops , , and . To command his fleet, Perry chose officers with whom he had served in the Mexican–American War. Commander Franklin Buchanan was captain of "Susquehanna" and Joel Abbot was captain of "Macedonian". Commander Henry A. Adams became the Commodore's chief of staff with the title "Captain of the Fleet". Major Jacob Zeilin (future commandant of the United States Marine Corps) was the ranking Marine officer, and was stationed on "Mississippi". Perry also received permission to take government stores as gifts for the natives, especially obsolete small arms. These included 40 M1819 Hall rifles (with 4,000 cartridges), 20 percussion pistols (with 2,000 cartridges), 20 artillery swords, 20 muskets with Maynard percussion locks and 40 light cavalry sabers, as well as 100 Colt revolvers.


title: Perry Expedition

text: Perry chose the black-hulled paddle-wheeled "Mississippi" as his flagship, and cleared Hampton Roads, Virginia on 24 November 1852. Perry made port calls at Madeira (December 11–15), St Helena (January 10–11), Cape Town (January 24 – February 3), Mauritius (February 18–28), Ceylon (March 10–15), Singapore (March 25–29), and Macao and Hong Kong (April 7–28). There he met with American-born Sinologist Samuel Wells Williams (who had been to Japan with the "Morrison" in 1837), who provided Chinese language translations of Perry's official letters, and rendezvoused with "Plymouth" and "Saratoga". He continued to Shanghai (May 4–17), where he met with the Dutch-born American diplomat Anton L. C. Portman, who translated his official letters into the Dutch language, and rendezvoused with "Susquehanna".


title: Perry Expedition

text: Perry then switched his flag to "Susquehanna" and called on the Ryukyu islands from May 17–26. Ignoring the claims of Satsuma Domain to the islands, as well as his own orders, he threatened and bluffed local authorities by threatening to attack with 200 troops unless he were allowed trading rights and land for a coaling station. Perry landed his Marines, whom he drilled on the beach for hours at a time, and demanded an audience with the Ryukyu King Shō Tai at Shuri Castle. Knowing that his every action would be reported to Japanese authorities in Edo, Perry carefully avoided meeting with low-ranked officials and made much use of military ceremony and shipboard hospitality to demonstrate both American military power and the peaceful intent of his expedition. Perry left with promises that the islands would be completely open to trade with the United States. Continuing on the Ogasawara Islands in mid-June, Perry met with the local inhabitants and even purchased a plot of land.


title: Perry Expedition

text: Perry finally reached Uraga at the entrance to Edo Bay in Japan on 8 July 1853. His fleet at this time consisted of four vessels: "Susquehanna", "Mississippi", "Plymouth" and "Saratoga". As he arrived, Perry ordered his ships to steam past Japanese lines towards the capital of Edo, and position their guns towards the town of Uraga. He also fired blank shots from his 73 cannons, which he claimed was in celebration of the American Independence Day. Perry's ships were equipped with new Paixhans shell guns, cannons capable of wreaking great explosive destruction with every shell.


title: Perry Expedition

text: The American ships were almost surrounded by Japanese guard boats; however, Perry ordered that any attempt at boarding was to be repelled. One boat carried a large sign in French ordering the American fleet to depart immediately. On 9 July, a "yoriki" from the "Uraga bugyō", Nakajima Saburosuke, accompanied by interpreter Hori Tatsunosuke, rowed out to "Susquehanna", but were at first refused permission to come on board. After some negotiation, they were permitted to board, where they displayed the order that no foreign ships were allowed into Japanese ports. Perry remained in his cabin and refused to meet them, sending word through his officers that as he carried a letter from the President of the United States, he would only deal with officials of sufficient stature and authority. On 10 July, "yoriki" Kayama Eizaemon, pretending to be the "Uraga bugyō", called on "Susquehanna" and was allowed to meet Captain Franklin, whom he advised to travel to Nagasaki, as this was the designated port for all foreign contact. Kayama was told that unless a suitable official came to receive the document, Perry would land troops and march on Edo, to deliver the letter in person. Kayama asked for three days in order to respond. The actual "Uraga bugyō", Ido Hiromichi, sent a report to the "shōgun" and advised that his defenses were totally inadequate to repel the Americans by force.


title: Perry Expedition

text: In the meantime, Perry began a campaign of intimidation, by sending boats to survey the surrounding area, and threatened to use force if the Japanese guard boats around the American squadron did not disperse. He also presented the Japanese with a white flag and a letter which told them that in case they chose combat, the Americans would necessarily vanquish them.


title: Perry Expedition

text: The Japanese government was paralyzed due to the incapacitation by illness of "Shōgun" Tokugawa Ieyoshi and by political indecision on how to handle the unprecedented threat to the nation's capital. On 11 July, senior "rōjū" Abe Masahiro temporized, deciding that simply accepting a letter from the Americans would not constitute a violation of Japanese sovereignty. The decision was conveyed to Uraga, and Perry was asked to move his fleet slightly southwest to the beach at Kurihama (in modern-day Yokosuka), where he was allowed to land on 14 July.


title: Perry Expedition

text: Perry went ashore with considerable pomp, landing with 250 sailors and Marines in 15 ships’ boats after a 13-gun salute from "Susquehanna". Major Zuilin's Marines presented arms, and a band played "Hail Columbia". President Fillmore's letter was formally received by hatamoto Toda "Izu-no-kami" Ujiyoshi and by Ido "Iwami-no-kami" Hiromichi. Perry's squadron eventually departed on 17 July for the Chinese coast, promising to return for a reply.


title: Perry Expedition

text: After Perry's departure, an extensive debate ensued within the Shogunal court on how to respond to the American's implied threats. "Shōgun" Tokugawa Ieyoshi died days after Perry's departure, and was succeeded by his sickly young son, Tokugawa Iesada, leaving effective administration in the hands of the Council of Elders ("rōjū") led by Abe Masahiro. Abe felt that it was currently impossible for Japan to resist the American demands by military force, and yet was reluctant to take any action on his own authority for such an unprecedented situation. Attempting to legitimize any decision taken, Abe polled all of the "daimyōs" for their opinions. This was the first time that the Tokugawa shogunate had allowed its decision-making to be a matter of public debate, and had the unforeseen consequence of portraying the Shogunate as weak and indecisive. The results of the poll also failed to provide Abe with an answer, as of the 61 known responses, 19 were in favor of accepting the American demands, and 19 were equally opposed. Of the remainder, 14 gave vague responses expressing concern of possible war, 7 suggested making temporary concessions and two advised that they would simply go along with whatever was decided. The only universal recommendation was that steps be taken immediately to bolster Japan's coastal defenses. Fortifications were hurriedly built close to current day Odaiba in order to protect Edo from a subsequent American naval incursion.


title: Perry Expedition

text: Although having told the Japanese that he would return the following year, Perry soon learned that Russian admiral Vice-Admiral Yevfimiy Putyatin had called in at Nagasaki shortly after he departed from Edo Bay, and had spent a month attempting to force the Japanese to sign a treaty before his return. He also was told by both the British and French that they intended to accompany him to Japan in the spring to ensure that the Americans did not obtain any exclusive privileges. Perry thus returned on 13 February 1854 with eight vessels and 1600 men. The fleet had lost "Plymouth" of the original four, and now also included: , , , , and . arrived loaded with coal and stores on 19 March, bringing the total strength to nine.


title: Perry Expedition

text: By the time of Perry's return, the Tokugawa shogunate had decided to accept virtually all the demands in Fillmore's letter. However, negotiators procrastinated for weeks over the site for negotiations, with Perry insisting on Edo, and the Japanese offering various other locations. Perry eventually lost his temper and threatened to bring 100 ships (more than the actual size of the US Navy at the time) within 20 days to war on Japan. Both sides eventually compromised on the tiny village of Yokohama, where a purpose-built hall was erected. Perry landed on 8 March with 500 sailors and Marines in 27 ships' boats, with three bands playing "The Star-Spangled Banner." Three weeks of negotiation ensued, accompanied by diplomatic gestures such as the exchange of state gifts. The Americans presented the Japanese with a miniature steam locomotive, a telegraph apparatus, various agricultural tools, and small arms, as well as one hundred gallons of whiskey, clocks, stoves, and books about the United States. The Japanese responded with gold-lacquered furniture and boxes, bronze ornaments, silk and brocade garments, porcelain goblets, and upon learning of Perry's personal hobby, a collection of seashells. Cultural displays were also performed on both sides, with the American sailors aboard the "Powhatan " putting on a minstrel show, while a number of high-ranking sumo wrestlers performed feats of strength and held exhibition matches.


title: Perry Expedition

text: Finally, on 31 March, Perry signed the Convention of Kanagawa which opened the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate to American ships, provided for care of shipwrecked sailors, and the establishment of an American consulate in Shimoda. The treaty was signed on the Japanese side by Hayashi Akira. Perry then dispatched the "Saratoga" home with the signed treaty, while the rest of the squadron went to survey Hakodate, Shimoda and the site of the future consulate. After departing from Shimoda, the fleet returned to the Ryukyu Islands, where Perry swiftly drafted the "Compact between the United States and the Ryukyu Kingdom," which was formally signed on 11 July 1854.


title: Perry Expedition

text: After Perry returned to the United States in 1855, Congress voted to grant him a reward of $20,000 (~$737,000 in 2022) in appreciation of his work in Japan. Perry used part of this money to prepare and publish a report of the expedition in three volumes, titled "Narrative of the Expedition of an American Squadron to the China Seas and Japan". This was written by Francis L. Hawks under Perry's supervision, using the written materials compiled by Perry and his colleagues on the expedition; it was first presented as a report to the United States Senate, then published commercially, in 1856. Perry was also promoted to the rank of rear-admiral on the retired list (when his health began to fail) as a reward for his services. He was known to have suffered severe arthritis that left him in frequent pain, that on occasion prevented him from fulfilling his duties.


title: Perry Expedition

text: Perry spent his last years preparing for publication of his account of the Japan expedition, announcing its completion on 28 December 1857. Two days later he was detached from his last post, an assignment to the Naval Efficiency Board. He died awaiting further orders on 4 March 1858 in New York City, of rheumatism that had spread to the heart, compounded by complications of gout.


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: Roman military personal equipment was produced in large numbers to established patterns, and used in an established manner. These standard patterns and uses were called the "res militaris" or "disciplina". Its regular practice during the Roman Republic and Roman Empire led to military excellence and victory. The equipment gave the Romans a very distinct advantage over their barbarian enemies, especially so in the case of armour. This does not mean that every Roman soldier had better equipment than the richer men among his opponents. According to Edward Luttwak, Roman equipment was not of a better quality than that used by the majority of Rome's adversaries. Other historians and writers have stated that the Roman army's need for large quantities of "mass produced" equipment after the Marian Reforms and subsequent civil wars led to a decline in the quality of Roman equipment compared to the earlier Republican era:


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: Initially, they used weapons based on Greek and Etruscan models. On encountering the Celts, they based new varieties on Celtic equipment. To defeat the Carthaginians, they constructed an entire fleet "de novo" based on the Carthaginian model. Once a weapon was adopted, it became standard. The standard weapons varied somewhat during Rome's long history, but the equipment and its use were never individual.


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: A "pugio" is a dagger used by Roman soldiers, likely as a sidearm. Like other items of legionary equipment, the dagger underwent some changes during the 1st century. Generally, it had a large, leaf-shaped blade 18 to 28 cm long and 5 cm or more in width. A raised midrib ran the length of each side, either simply standing out from the face or defined by grooves on either side. It was changed by making the blade a little thinner, about 3 mm, and the handle was also made out of metal. The tang was wide and flat initially, and the grip was riveted through it, as well as through the shoulders of the blade.


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: Around 50 AD, a rod tang was introduced, and the hilt was no longer riveted through the shoulders of the blade. This in itself caused no great change to the "pugio's" appearance, but some of these later blades were narrower (under 3.5 cm wide), and had little or no waisting, and had reduced or vestigial midribs.


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: Throughout the period, the outline of the hilt remained approximately the same. It was made with two layers of horn, wood or bone sandwiching the tang, each overlaid with a thin metal plate. Often the hilt was decorated with inlaid silver. The hilt was 10–12 cm long overall and the grip was quite narrow; which produced a very secure grip. An expansion or lump in the middle of the handle made the user's grip even more secure.


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: "Gladius" is the general Latin word for "sword". In the Roman Republic, the term "gladius Hispaniensis" (Spanish sword) referred (and still refers) specifically to the short sword, 60 cm (24 inches) long, used by Roman legionaries from the 3rd century BC. It is considered to be the primary weapon used by soldiers in war. Several different better-known designs followed; among collectors and historical reenactors, the two primary kinds of swords are known as the Mainz "gladius", and the Pompeii "gladius" which follows the Mainz type, which had itself followed the Hispaniensis (these names refer to where or how the canonical example was found). More recent archaeological finds have confirmed the appearance of the earlier version, the "gladius Hispaniensis". The legionaries wore their "gladii" on their right hips. In order to craft a sword with the strength and flexibility of the "gladius," blacksmiths used harder steels on the outer layers of the sword while using softer steels in the centre of the blade.


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: A "spatha" could be any sword (in late Latin), but most often one of the longer swords characteristic of the middle and late Roman Empire. In the 1st century, Roman cavalry started using these longer swords, and in the late 2nd or early 3rd century, Roman infantry also switched to longer swords, as well as mostly changing from carrying javelins to carrying spears.


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: Shorter weapons (short swords and possibly sometimes daggers) were known as "semispathae" or half-swords. A large 3rd-century hoard from Künzing included one triangular-bladed short sword and several narrow-bladed short swords (with 23–39 cm blades). Bishop and Coulston suggest that some or all were made from broken "spathae".


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: "Hasta" is a Latin word meaning a thrusting spear. "Hastae" were carried by early Roman legionaries ("camillan"); in particular, they were carried by and gave their name to those Roman soldiers known as "hastati". However, during republican times, the "hastati" were re-armed with "pila" and "gladii", and only the "triarii" still used "hastae".


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: A "hasta" was about 1.8 metres (six feet) in length. The shaft was generally made from ash while the head was usually of iron, although early republican "hastae" also had tips made of bronze.


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: Although Romans often used the word "pila" to refer to all thrown javelins, the term "pilum" also means specifically the heavy Roman throwing javelin of the legions. Lighter, shorter javelins existed, such as those used by the "velites" and the early legions, called "verutum". Other types of javelins were adopted by the late Roman army, such as the "lancea" and the "spiculum", which were heavily influenced by the weapons of Italic warriors.


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: The "pilum" (plural "pila") was a heavy javelin commonly used by the Roman army in ancient times. It was generally somewhat less than long overall, consisting of a wooden shaft from which projected an iron shank about in diameter and long with a pyramidal head. The iron shank was socketed or, more usually, widened to a flat tang. A "pilum" usually weighed between , with the versions produced during the empire era being somewhat lighter.


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: "Pila" were designed to penetrate both shield and armour, wounding the wearer; but, if they simply stuck in a shield, they could not easily be removed. Some believed that the iron shank would bend upon impact, weighing down the enemy's shield and also preventing the "pilum" from being immediately re-used. Some versions of the shaft may have fallen off on impact, leaving the enemy with a bent shank in their shield. However, recent evidence suggests that many types of "pilum" did not bend at all, but reduced the effectiveness of enemy shields by simply getting stuck due to the shape of its larger head and thin shank. In fact, there were many cases where the whole shank was hardened, making the "pilum" more suitable as a close quarters melee weapon, while also rendering it usable by enemy soldiers."" Newer work by M. C. Bishop states that the "pila" are "unlikely to bend under their own weight when thrown and striking a target or ground" - rather, it is human intervention [e.g., improper removal of a "pilum" stuck in a target] that is responsible in some way, and that Caesar's writings should be interpreted as the "pilum" bent when soldiers tried to remove them. A sturdy "pilum" that does not bend upon impact would be in line with the numerous historical Roman writings that state the "pilum" was often used as a weapon in melee combat:


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: For example, in "The Gallic Wars" Caesar writes that at Alesia his troops used the "pila" as spears or pikes. In the "Life of Pompey" and "Life of Antony", Plutarch describes Caesar's men at Pharsalus jabbing upwards at the faces of Pompey's cavalry with their javelins and Marc Antony's men stabbing at Parthian cavalry with theirs. In Arrian in Array against the Alans, Arrian writes that the first four ranks of the formation should use their "pila" like spearmen, while the rest should use them like javelins.


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: The "sagittarius" was armed with a composite bow ("arcus"), shooting an arrow ("sagitta"), made of horn, wood, and sinew held together with hide glue. However, Vegetius recommended training recruits ""arcubus ligneis"", with wooden bows. The reinforcing laths for the composite bows were found throughout the empire, even in the western provinces where wooden bows were traditional.


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: The "cheiroballistra", also known as the "manuballista", was a crossbow that was occasionally used by the Romans. The ancient world knew a variety of mechanical hand-held weapons similar to the later medieval crossbow. The exact terminology is a subject of continuing scholarly debate. Roman authors like Vegetius (fl. 4th century) note repeatedly the use of arrow shooting weapons such as "arcuballista" and "manuballista" respectively "cheiroballista". While most scholars agree that one or more of these terms refer to handheld mechanical weapons, there is disagreement whether these were flexion bows or torsion powered like the recent Xanten find.


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: The Roman commander Arrian records in his "Tactica" Roman cavalry training for shooting some mechanical handheld weapon from horseback.


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: Sculptural reliefs from Roman Gaul depict the use of crossbows in hunting scenes. These are remarkably similar to the later medieval crossbow.


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: Late infantrymen often carried a half-dozen lead-weighted throwing-darts called "plumbatae" (from "plumbum", meaning "lead"), with an effective range of c. 30 m, well beyond that of a javelin. The darts were carried clipped to the back of the shield.


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: Ancient writers, including Julius Caesar, documented the use of spades and other digging implements as important tools of war. A Roman legion when on the march would dig a ditch and rampart around their camps every night where established camps were not available. They were also useful as improvised weapons.


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: The "falx" was a curved blade that was sharp on the inside edge such as a sickle or a scythe. It was used to clear overgrowth.


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: Not all troops wore torso armour. Light infantry, especially in the early republic, wore little or no armour. This was both to allow swifter movement for light troops and also as a matter of cost.


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: Legionary soldiers of the 1st and 2nd centuries used a variety of armour types. Some wore mail shirts, while others wore scale armour or "lorica segmentata" or laminated-strip cuirass. This last type was a complex piece of armour which in certain circumstances provided superior protection to the other types of Roman armour, mail armour ("lorica hamata") and scale armour ("lorica squamata"). The testing of modern replicas has demonstrated that this kind of armour was impenetrable to most direct hits and missile strikes. It was, however, uncomfortable without padding: re-enactors have confirmed that wearing a padded undergarment known as a "subarmalis" relieves the wearer from bruising both from prolonged wear and from shock produced by weapon blows against the armour. It was also expensive to produce and difficult to maintain. In the 3rd century, the "segmentata" appears to have been dropped and troops are depicted wearing mail armour (mainly) or scale, the standard armour of the 2nd-century "auxilia". The artistic record shows that most late soldiers wore metal armour, despite Vegetius' statement to the contrary. For example, illustrations in the "Notitia" show that the army's "fabricae" (arms factories) were producing mail armour at the end of the 4th century. Actual examples of both scale armour and quite large sections of mail have been recovered, at Trier and Weiler-La-Tour respectively, within 4th-century contexts. Officers generally seem to have worn bronze or iron cuirasses, as in the days of the "principate", together with traditional "pteruges".


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: "Lorica segmentata" was a type of body armour primarily used in the early Roman Empire, but the Latin name was first used in the 16th century (the ancient form is unknown). The armour itself consisted of broad ferrous strips ('girth hoops') fastened to internal leather straps. The strips were arranged horizontally on the body, overlapping downwards, and they surrounded the torso in two halves, being fastened at the front and back by means of brass hooks, which were joined by leather laces. The upper body and shoulders were protected by additional strips ('shoulder guards') and breast- and backplates. The form of the armour allowed it to be stored very compactly, since it was possible to separate it into four sections. During the time of its use, it was modified several times, the currently recognised types being the Kalkriese (c. 20 BC to 50), Corbridge (c. 40 to 120), and Newstead (c. 120 to possibly the early 4th century) types. There is also a little-known fourth type, known only from a statue found at Alba Julia in Romania, where there appears to have been a hybrid form, the shoulders being protected by scale armour and the torso hoops being fewer in number and deeper.


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: The earliest evidence of the "lorica segmentata" being worn is around 9 BC (Dangstetten), and the armour was evidently quite common in service until the 2nd century AD, judging from the number of finds throughout this period (over 100 sites are known, many of them in Britain). However, even during the 2nd century AD, the "segmentata" never replaced the "lorica hamata" - thus the "hamata" mail was still standard issue for both heavy infantry and auxiliaries alike. The last recorded use of this armour seems to have been for the last quarter of the 3rd century AD (Leon, Spain).


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: There are two opinions as to who used this form of armour. One is that only legionaries (heavy infantry of the Roman legions) and "praetorians" were issued "lorica segmentata". Auxiliary forces would more commonly wear the "lorica hamata", or "lorica squamata". The second viewpoint is that both legionaries and auxiliary soldiers used the "segmentata" armour and this latter view is supported, to some degree, by archaeological findings. The "lorica segmentata" offered greater protection than the "lorica hamata" for about half of the weight, but was also more difficult to produce and repair. The expenses attributed to the "segmentata" may account for the reversion to ring-mail after the 3rd to 4th century. Alternatively, all forms of armour may have fallen into disuse as the need for heavy infantry waned in favour of the speed of mounted troops.


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: "Lorica hamata" was a type of mail armour used during the Roman Republic continuing throughout the Roman Empire as a standard-issue armour for the primary heavy infantry legionaries and secondary troops ("auxilia"). They were mostly manufactured out of iron, though sometimes bronze was used instead. The rings were linked together, alternating closed washer-like rings with riveted rings. This produced a very flexible, reliable and strong armour. Each ring had an inside diameter of between 5 and 7 mm, and an outside diameter of 7 to 9 mm. The shoulders of the "lorica hamata" had flaps that were similar to those of the Greek "linothorax"; they ran from about mid-back to the front of the torso, and were connected by brass or iron hooks which connected to studs riveted through the ends of the flaps. Several thousand rings would have gone into one "lorica hamata".


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: Although labour-intensive to manufacture, it is thought that, with good maintenance, they could be continually used for several decades. Its utility was such that the later appearance of the famous "lorica segmentata"—which afforded greater protection for a third of the weight—never led to the disappearance of the ubiquitous mail, and, in fact, the army of the late empire reverted to the "lorica hamata" once the "segmentata" had fallen out of fashion.


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: "Lorica squamata" was a type of scale armour used during the Roman Republic and at later periods. It was made from small metal scales sewn to a fabric backing. It is typically seen on depictions of standard bearers, musicians, centurions, cavalry troops, and even auxiliary infantry, but could be worn by regular legionaries as well. A shirt of scale armour was shaped in the same way as a "lorica hamata", mid-thigh length with the shoulder doublings or cape.


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: The individual scales ("squamae") were either iron or bronze, or even alternating metals on the same shirt. They could be tinned as well, one surviving fragment showing bronze scales that were alternately tinned and plain. The metal was generally not very thick, 0.5 mm to 0.8 mm (0.02 to 0.032 in) perhaps being a common range. Since the scales overlapped in every direction, however, the multiple layers gave good protection. The size ranged from as small as 6 mm (0.25 in) wide by 1.2 cm tall up to about 5 cm (2 in) wide by 8 cm (3 in) tall, with the most common sizes being roughly 1.25 by 2.5 cm (0.5 by 1 in). Many had rounded bottoms, while others were pointed or had flat bottoms with the corners clipped off at an angle. The scales could be flat, slightly domed, or have a raised midrib or edge. All the scales in a shirt were generally of the same size; however, scales from different shirts varied significantly.


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: The scales were wired together in horizontal rows that were then laced or sewn to the backing. Therefore, each scale had from four to 12 holes: two or more at each side for wiring to the next in the row, one or two at the top for fastening to the backing, and sometimes one or two at the bottom to secure the scales to the backing or to each other.


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: It is possible that the shirt could be opened either at the back or down one side so that it was easier to put on, the opening being closed by ties. Much has been written about scale armour's supposed vulnerability to an upward thrust, but this is probably exaggerated.


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: No examples of an entire "lorica squamata" have been found, but there have been several archaeological finds of fragments of such shirts and individual scales are quite common finds—even in non-military contexts.


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: The "parma" was a circular shield, three Roman feet across. It was smaller than most shields, but was strongly made and regarded as effective protection. Its strength came from its design of gluing multiple layers of wood together while stretching leather across it to eliminate the shields' vulnerability to water. This may have been due to the use of iron in its frame. It had a handle and a shield boss ("umbo").


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: The "parma" was used in the Roman army of the mid-Republic, by the lowest class division of the army — the "velites". The "velites"' equipment consisted of a "parma", javelin, sword and helmet. Later, the "parma" was replaced by the "scutum".


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: A light shield of wood and leather, the name from Greek (καίτρεα, "Hesych".). Used by tribesmen from Hispania, Mauretania, and Britannia.


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: Roman helmets, "galea" or "cassis", varied greatly in form. One of the earliest types was the Montefortino helmet used by the Republic armies up to the 1st century BC. This was replaced directly by the Coolus helmet, which "raised the neck peak to eye level and set a sturdy frontal peak to the brow of the helmet". The Galea was used from the late 1st century BC to the late 2nd century AD and it drew influence from the Gallic tribes to the north, hence its name. Roman helmets usually featured a bowl protecting the head, an extension at the back with a neck guard, a ridge above the forehead for additional impact protection and decoration, and hinged cheek guards which left the ears exposed for better hearing in the battlefield. They were eventually replaced by the ridge helmet and the Spangenhelm during the late imperial period.


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: From early imperial times to after the fall of the Western Empire, some troops wore segmented armour on one or both arms. The "manica" was first used by gladiators and it was made either from padded cloth or overlapping metal sheets. Roman legionaries are depicted wearing "manicas" in engravings of the Dacian Wars.


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: Greaves, sheet metal protecting the legs, were widely used in the early republic, and by some troops in the imperial army. Early Roman legionaries would wear a single greave on the left leg which was more exposed under the shield, as it was fashion in Italic cultures.


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: A military pack carried by legionaries. The pack included a number of items suspended from a "furca" or carrying pole. Items carried in the pack included:


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: The ballista was a powerful catapult, consisting of a beam with a frame at the end, mounting two rigid arms powered by torsion in bundles of sinew at each side, which would pull a bowstring between them propelling the projectile. It launched heavy darts called bolts, or spherical stone projectiles of various sizes. Ballistas were fit with grappling hooks to seize enemy vessels during the Roman civil wars. The Romans would develop an improved version with inward facing arms in the 3rd century, the remains of such were found in the town of Hatra in Iraq.


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: The scorpio was a torsion-powered catapult-type weapon, similar to a smaller ballista, which fired bolts capable of piercing enemy shields and armour. The Roman army supplied 60 to each legion and they were used both offensively during sieges and defensively as part of the Romans' field camp defenses. They were also mounted on ships and carriages to provide support to infantry.


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: The onager was a torsion-powered siege engine in which a sinew or horse hair spring mounted on a wooden frame swung an arm vertically against a stop, hurling projectiles in a high arc. It launched stones from a cup or sling, and it was named after a species of Asiatic ass due to its kick.


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: A brass instrument used in the ancient Roman army. It was originally designed as a tube measuring some 11 to 12 feet in length, of narrow cylindrical bore, and played by means of a cup-shaped mouthpiece. The tube was bent around upon itself from the mouthpiece to the bell in the shape of a broad "C" and was strengthened by means of a bar across the curve, which the performer grasped while playing, in order to steady the instrument; the curves over his head or shoulder.


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: The "buccina" was used for the announcement of night watches and various other announcements in the camp.


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: The instrument is the ancestor of both the trumpet and the trombone. The German word for trombone, "Posaune", is derived from "buccina".


title: Roman military personal equipment

text: A "tribulus" (caltrop) was a weapon made up of four sharp nails or spines arranged in such a manner that one of them always pointed upward from a stable base (for example, a tetrahedron). Caltrops served to slow down the advance of horses, war elephants, and human troops. It was said to be particularly effective against the soft feet of camels.


title: Argument (complex analysis)

text: In mathematics (particularly in complex analysis), the argument of a complex number "z", denoted arg("z"), is the angle between the positive real axis and the line joining the origin and "z", represented as a point in the complex plane, shown as formula_1 in Figure 1.


title: Argument (complex analysis)

text: To define a single-valued function, the principal value of the argument (sometimes denoted Arg "z") is used. It is often chosen to be the unique value of the argument that lies within the interval .


title: Argument (complex analysis)

text: The names "magnitude," for the modulus, and "phase", for the argument, are sometimes used equivalently.


title: Argument (complex analysis)

text: Under both definitions, it can be seen that the argument of any non-zero complex number has many possible values: firstly, as a geometrical angle, it is clear that whole circle rotations do not change the point, so angles differing by an integer multiple of radians (a complete circle) are the same, as reflected by figure 2 on the right. Similarly, from the periodicity of [[sine| and [[cosine|]], the second definition also has this property. The argument of zero is usually left undefined.


title: Argument (complex analysis)

text: The complex argument can also be defined algebraically in terms of [[Square root#Algebraic_formula|complex roots]] as:


title: Argument (complex analysis)

text: This definition removes reliance on other difficult-to-compute functions such as [[arctangent]] as well as eliminating the need for the [[piecewise]] definition. Because it's defined in terms of [[nth root|roots]], it also inherits the [[Square_root#Principal_square_root_of_a_complex_number|principal branch of square root]] as its own principle branch. The [[Unit complex number|normalization]] of formula_7 by dividing by formula_8 isn't necessary for convergence to the correct value, but it does speed up convergence and ensures that formula_9 is left undefined.


title: Argument (complex analysis)

text: Because a complete rotation around the origin leaves a complex number unchanged, there are many choices which could be made for formula_1 by circling the origin any number of times. This is shown in figure 2, a representation of the [[multi-valued]] (set-valued) function formula_11, where a vertical line (not shown in the figure) cuts the surface at heights representing all the possible choices of angle for that point.


title: Argument (complex analysis)

text: When a [[well-defined]] function is required, then the usual choice, known as the "[[principal value]]", is the value in the open-closed [[interval (mathematics)|interval]] , that is from to [[radian]]s, excluding rad itself (equiv., from −180 to +180 [[degree (angle)|degree]]s, excluding −180° itself). This represents an angle of up to half a complete circle from the positive real axis in either direction.


title: Argument (complex analysis)

text: The principal value sometimes has the initial letter capitalized, as in , especially when a general version of the argument is also being considered. Note that notation varies, so and may be interchanged in different texts.


title: Argument (complex analysis)

text: If a complex number is known in terms of its real and imaginary parts, then the function that calculates the principal value is called the [[atan2|two-argument arctangent function atan2]]:


title: Argument (complex analysis)

text: The atan2 function (also called arctan2 or other synonyms) is available in the math libraries of many programming languages, and usually returns a value in the range .


title: Argument (complex analysis)

text: Many texts say the value is given by , as is slope, and converts slope to angle. This is correct only when , so the quotient is defined and the angle lies between and , but extending this definition to cases where is not positive is relatively involved. Specifically, one may define the principal value of the argument separately on the two half-planes and (separated into two quadrants if one wishes a branch cut on the negative -axis), , , and then patch together.


title: Argument (complex analysis)

text: For the variant where is defined to lie in the interval , the value can be found by adding to the value above when it is negative (when ).


title: Argument (complex analysis)

text: Alternatively, the principal value can be calculated in a uniform way using the [[tangent half-angle formula]], the function being defined over the complex plane but excluding the origin:


title: Argument (complex analysis)

text: This is based on a parametrization of the circle (except for the negative -axis) by rational functions. This version of is not stable enough for [[floating point]] computational use (as it may overflow near the region ), but can be used in [[symbolic calculation]].


title: Argument (complex analysis)

text: One of the main motivations for defining the principal value is to be able to write complex numbers in modulus-argument form. Hence for any complex number ,


title: Argument (complex analysis)

text: This is only really valid if is non-zero, but can be considered valid for if is considered as an [[indeterminate form]]—rather than as being undefined.