title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: Saint-Just's rise to prominence wrought a remarkable change in his personality. Freewheeling and passionate in his youth, Saint-Just quickly became focused, "tyrannical and pitilessly thorough". He became "the ice-cold ideologist of republican purity", "as inaccessible as stone to all the warm passions". A measure of his change can be inferred from the experience of his former love interest Thérèse, who is known to have left her husband and taken up residence in a Parisian neighborhood near Saint-Just in late 1793. Saint-Just—who had already developed something of a relationship, tepid but potentially expedient, with the sister of his colleague Le Bas—refused to see her. Thérèse stayed there for over a year, returning to Blérancourt only after Saint-Just was dead. No record exists of any exchanges they might have had, but Saint-Just is known to have written to a friend complaining impatiently about the rumors connecting him to "citizen Thorin".


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: In his public speaking, Saint-Just was even more daring and outspoken than his mentor Robespierre. Regarding France's internal strife, he spared few: "You have to punish not only the traitors, but even those who are indifferent; you have to punish whoever is passive in the republic, and who does nothing for it". He thought the only way to create a true republic was to rid it of enemies, to enforce the "complete destruction of its opposite". Regarding the war, he declared without regret to the Convention, "The vessel of the Revolution can arrive in port only on a sea reddened with torrents of blood". He urged the deputies to embrace the notion that "a nation generates itself only upon heaps of corpses".


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: Despite his flaws, Saint-Just is often accorded respect for the strength of his convictions. Although his words and actions may be viewed as reprehensible, his commitment to them is rarely questioned: he was "implacable but sincere". Like Robespierre, he was incorruptible in the sense that he exhibited no attraction to material benefits but devoted himself entirely to the advancement of a political agenda.


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: In Albert Camus's "The Rebel" (1951), Saint-Just is discussed extensively in the context of an analysis of rebellion and man's progression towards enlightenment and freedom. Camus identifies Saint-Just's successful argument for the execution of Louis XVI as the moment of death for monarchical divine right, a Nietzschean "Twilight of the Idols". Saint-Just's dedication to "the sovereignty of the people and the sacred power of laws" is described as "a source of absolutism" and indeed "the new God". His kind of "deification of the political" is examined as the source of the creeping totalitarianism which grew so powerfully in Camus' own lifetime. Camus also references Saint-Just in "The Plague" (1947).


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: Representations of Saint-Just include those found in the novels "Stello" (1832) by Alfred de Vigny, and "A Place of Greater Safety" by Hilary Mantel, and The Sandman comic "Thermidor" by Neil Gaiman; as well as in the plays "Danton's Death" (1835, by Georg Büchner) and "Poor Bitos" ("Pauvre Bitos, ou Le dîner de têtes", 1956, by Jean Anouilh). Saint-Just’s quote, “Nobody can rule guiltlessly,” appears as an epigraph before chapter one in Arthur Koestler’s 1941 anti-totalitarian novel "Darkness At Noon". In film, Saint-Just has been portrayed by Abel Gance in "Napoléon" (1927); Jess Barker in "Reign of Terror" (1949); Bogusław Linda in "Danton" (1983); and Christopher Thompson in "La Révolution française" (1989). Jean-Pierre Léaud plays a farcical caricature of Saint-Just in Jean-Luc Godard's "Week End" (1967).


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: Louis Antoine Léon de Saint-Just is a dateable non-player character in the historically-based dating sim video game "Ambition: A Minuet in Power" published by Joy Manufacturing Co.


title: Leukoplakia

text: Oral leukoplakia is a "potentially malignant disorder" affecting the oral mucosa. It is defined as "essentially an oral mucosal white lesion that cannot be considered as any other definable lesion." Oral leukoplakia is a white patch or plaque that develops in the oral cavity and is strongly associated with smoking. Leukoplakia is a firmly attached white patch on a mucous membrane which is associated with increased risk of cancer. The edges of the lesion are typically abrupt and the lesion changes with time. Advanced forms may develop red patches. There are generally no other symptoms. It usually occurs within the mouth, although sometimes mucosa in other parts of the gastrointestinal tract, urinary tract, or genitals may be affected.


title: Leukoplakia

text: The cause of leukoplakia is unknown. Risk factors for formation inside the mouth include smoking, chewing tobacco, excessive alcohol, and use of betel nuts. One specific type is common in HIV/AIDS. It is a precancerous lesion, a tissue alteration in which cancer is more likely to develop. The chance of cancer formation depends on the type, with between 3–15% of localized leukoplakia and 70–100% of proliferative leukoplakia developing into squamous cell carcinoma.


title: Leukoplakia

text: Leukoplakia is a descriptive term that should only be applied after other possible causes are ruled out. Tissue biopsy generally shows increased keratin build up with or without abnormal cells, but is not diagnostic. Other conditions that can appear similar include yeast infections, lichen planus, and keratosis due to repeated minor trauma. The lesions from a yeast infection can typically be rubbed off while those of leukoplakia cannot.


title: Leukoplakia

text: Treatment recommendations depend on features of the lesion. If abnormal cells are present or the lesion is small surgical removal is often recommended; otherwise close follow up at three to six month intervals may be sufficient. People are generally advised to stop smoking and limit the drinking of alcohol. In potentially half of cases leukoplakia will shrink with stopping smoking; however, if smoking is continued up to 66% of cases will become more white and thick. The percentage of people affected is estimated at 1–3%. Leukoplakia becomes more common with age, typically not occurring until after 30. Rates may be as high as 8% in men over the age of 70.


title: Leukoplakia

text: Leukoplakia could be classified as mucosal disease, and also as a premalignant condition. Although the white color in leukoplakia is a result of hyperkeratosis (or acanthosis), similarly appearing white lesions that are caused by reactive keratosis (smoker's keratosis or frictional keratoses e.g. morsicatio buccarum) are not considered to be leukoplakias. Leukoplakia could also be considered according to the affected site, e.g. oral leukoplakia, leukoplakia of the urinary tract, including bladder leukoplakia or leukoplakia of the penis, vulvae, cervix or vagina. Leukoplakia may also occur in the larynx, possibly in association with gastro-esophageal reflux disease. Oropharyngeal leukoplakia is linked to the development of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma, and sometimes this is associated with tylosis, which is thickening of the skin on the palms and soles of the feet (see: Leukoplakia with tylosis and esophageal carcinoma). Dyskeratosis congenita may be associated with leukoplakia of the oral mucosa and of the anal mucosa.


title: Leukoplakia

text: Within the mouth, leukoplakia is sometimes further classified according to the site involved, e.g. leukoplakia buccalis (leukoplakia of the buccal mucosa) or leukoplakia lingualis (leukoplakia of the lingual mucosa). There are two main clinical variants of oral leukoplakia, namely homogeneous leukoplakia and non-homogeneous (heterogenous) leukoplakia, which are described below. The word leukoplakia is also included within the nomenclature of other oral conditions which present as white patches, however, these are specific diagnoses that are generally considered separate from leukoplakia, with the notable exception of proliferative verrucous leukoplakia, which is a recognized sub-type of leukoplakia.


title: Leukoplakia

text: Homogeneous leukoplakia (also termed "thick leukoplakia") is usually well defined white patch of uniform, flat appearance and texture, although there may be superficial irregularities. Homogeneous leukoplakia is usually slightly elevated compared to surrounding mucosa, and often has a fissured, wrinkled or corrugated surface texture, with the texture generally consistent throughout the whole lesion. This term has no implications on the size of the lesion, which may be localized or extensive. When homogeneous leukoplakia is palpated, it may feel leathery, dry, or like cracked mud.


title: Leukoplakia

text: Non-homogeneous leukoplakia is a lesion of non-uniform appearance. The color may be predominantly white or a mixed white and red. The surface texture is irregular compared to homogeneous leukoplakia, and may be flat (papular), nodular or exophytic. "Verrucous leukoplakia" (or "verruciform leukoplakia") is a descriptive term used for thick, white, papillary lesions. Verrucous leukoplakias are usually heavily keratinized and are often seen in elderly people. Some verrucous leukoplakias may have an exophytic growth pattern, and some may slowly invade surrounding mucosa, when the term proliferative verrucous leukoplakia may be used. Non-homogeneous leukoplakias have a greater risk of cancerous changes than homogeneous leukoplakias.


title: Leukoplakia

text: Proliferative verrucous leukoplakia (PVL) is a recognized high risk subtype of non-homogeneous leukoplakia. It is uncommon, and usually involves the buccal mucosa and the gingiva (the gums). This condition is characterized by (usually) extensive, papillary or verrucoid keratotic plaques that tends to slowly enlarge into adjacent mucosal sites. An established PVL lesion is usually thick and exophytic (prominent), but initially it may be flat. Smoking does not seem to be as strongly related as it is to leukoplakia generally, and another dissimilarity is the preponderance for women over 50. There is a very high risk of dysplasia, transformation to squamous cell carcinoma with high mortality (PVL does not transform into verrucous carcinoma, which is a lesion with a good prognosis usually; the similarity of names does not reflect the common origin, but only the resemblance of their appearance).


title: Leukoplakia

text: Erythroleukoplakia (also termed speckled leukoplakia, erythroleukoplasia or leukoerythroplasia) is a non-homogeneous lesion of mixed white (keratotic) and red (atrophic) color. Erythroplakia (erythroplasia) is an entirely red patch that cannot be attributed to any other cause. Erythroleukoplakia can therefore be considered a variant of either leukoplakia or erythroplakia since its appearance is midway between. Erythroleukoplakia frequently occurs on the buccal mucosa in the commissural area (just inside the cheek at the corners of the mouth) as a mixed lesion of white nodular patches on an erythematous background, although any part of the mouth may be affected. Erythroleukoplakia and erythroplakia have a higher risk of cancerous changes than homogeneous leukoplakia.


title: Leukoplakia

text: Sometimes leukoplakia of the floor of mouth or under the tongue is called "sublingual keratosis". though this is not universally accepted to be a distinct clinical entity from idiopathic leukoplakia generally, as it is distinguished from the latter by location only. Usually sublingual keratoses are bilateral and possess a parallel-corrugated, wrinkled surface texture described as "ebbing tide".


title: Leukoplakia

text: Candidal leukoplakia is usually considered to be a largely historical synonym for a type of oral candidiasis, now more commonly termed "chronic hyperplastic candidiasis", rather than a subtype of true leukoplakia. However, some sources use this term to refer to leukoplakia lesions that become colonized secondarily by Candida species, thereby distinguishing it from hyperplastic candidiasis.


title: Leukoplakia

text: Oral hairy leukoplakia is a corrugated ("hairy") white lesion on the sides of the tongue caused by opportunistic infection with Epstein-Barr virus on a systemic background of immunodeficiency, almost always human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. This condition is not considered to be a true idiopathic leukoplakia since the causative agent has been identified. It is one of the most common oral lesions associated with HIV infection, along with pseudomembraneous candidiasis. The appearance of the lesion often heralds the transition from HIV to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).


title: Leukoplakia

text: This term refers to a white lesion associated with syphilis, specifically in the tertiary stage of the infection. It is not considered to be a type of idiopathic leukoplakia, since the causative agent "Treponema pallidum" is known. It is now rare, but when syphilis was more common, this white patch usually appeared on the top surface of the tongue and carried a high risk of cancerous changes. It is unclear if this lesion was related to the condition itself or whether it was caused by the treatments for syphilis at the time.


title: Leukoplakia

text: Leukoplakia of the esophagus is rare compared to oral leukoplakia. The relationship with esophageal cancer is unclear because the incidence of esophageal leukoplakia is so low. It usually appears as a small, nearly opaque white lesion that may resemble early esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. The histologic appearance is similar to oral leukoplakia, with hyperkeratosis and possible dysplasia.


title: Leukoplakia

text: In the context of lesions of the mucous membrane lining of the bladder, "leukoplakia" is a historic term for a visualized white patch which histologically represents keratinization in an area of squamous metaplasia. The symptoms may include frequency, suprapubic pain (pain felt above the pubis), hematuria (blood in the urine), dysuria (difficult urination or pain during urination), urgency, and urge incontinence. The white lesion may be seen during cystoscopy, where it appears as a whitish-gray or yellow lesion, on a background of inflamed urothelium and there may be floating debris in the bladder. Leukoplakia of the bladder may undergo cancerous changes, so biopsy and long term follow up are usually indicated.


title: Leukoplakia

text: Leukoplakia of the anal canal is rare. It may extend up to the anorectal junction. On digital examination it feels hard and granular, and at proctoscopy, it appears as white plaques which may be diffuse, circumferential, or circumscribed. The histologic appearance is similar to oral leukoplakia, with hyperkeratosis and acanthosis. It may be asymptomatic, with symptoms due to other lesions such as hemorrhoids or fissures. Progression to anal stenosis has been described. The malignant potential is seemingly low, and few cases of anal carcinoma have been reported associated with anal leukoplaka.


title: Leukoplakia

text: Most cases of leukoplakia cause no symptoms, but infrequently there may be discomfort or pain. The exact appearance of the lesion is variable. Leukoplakia may be white, whitish yellow or grey. The size can range from a small area to much larger lesions. The most common sites affected are the buccal mucosa, the labial mucosa and the alveolar mucosa, although any mucosal surface in the mouth may be involved. The clinical appearance, including the surface texture and color, may be homogeneous or non-homogeneous (see: classification). Some signs are generally associated with a higher risk of cancerous changes (see: prognosis).


title: Leukoplakia

text: The exact underlying cause of leukoplakia is largely unknown, but it is likely multifactorial, with the main factor being the use of tobacco. Tobacco use and other suggested causes are discussed below. The mechanism of the white appearance is thickening of the keratin layer, called hyperkeratosis. The abnormal keratin appears white when it becomes hydrated by saliva, and light reflects off the surface evenly. This hides the normal pink-red color of mucosae (the result of underlying vasculature showing through the epithelium). A similar situation can be seen on areas of thick skin such as the soles of the feet or the fingers after prolonged immersion in water. Another possible mechanism is thickening of the stratum spinosum, called acanthosis.


title: Leukoplakia

text: Tobacco smoking or chewing is the most common causative factor, with more than 80% of persons with leukoplakia having a positive smoking history. Smokers are much more likely to develop leukoplakia than non-smokers. The size and number of leukoplakia lesions in an individual is also correlated with the level of smoking and how long the habit has lasted for. Other sources argue that there is no evidence for a direct causative link between smoking and oral leukoplakia. Cigarette smoking may produce a diffuse leukoplakia of the buccal mucosa, lips, tongue and rarely the floor of mouth. Reverse smoking, where the lit end of the cigarette is held in the mouth is also associated with mucosal changes. Tobacco chewing, e.g. betel leaf and areca nut, called paan, tends to produce a distinctive white patch in a buccal sulcus termed "tobacco pouch keratosis". In the majority of persons, cessation triggers shrinkage or disappearance of the lesion, usually within the first year after stopping.


title: Leukoplakia

text: Although the synergistic effect of alcohol with smoking in the development of oral cancer is beyond doubt, there is no clear evidence that alcohol is involved in the development of leukoplakia, but it does appear to have some influence. Excessive use of a high alcohol-containing mouth wash (> 25%) may cause a grey plaque to form on the buccal mucosa, but these lesions are not considered true leukoplakia.


title: Leukoplakia

text: Sanguinaria (Bloodroot) is a herbal extract that is included in some toothpastes and mouthwashes. Its use is strongly associated with development of leukoplakia, usually in the buccal sulcus. This type of leukoplakia has been termed "sanguinaria associated keratosis" and more than 80% of people with leukoplakia in the vestibule of the mouth have used this substance. Upon stopping contact with the causative substance, the lesions may persist for many years. Although this type of leukoplakia may show dysplasia, the potential for malignant transformation is unknown.


title: Leukoplakia

text: Ultraviolet radiation is believed to be a factor in the development of some leukoplakia lesions of the lower lip, usually in association with actinic cheilitis.


title: Leukoplakia

text: Candida in its pathogenic hyphal form is occasionally seen in biopsies of idiopathic leukoplakia. It is debated whether candida infection is a primary cause of leukoplakia with or without dysplasia, or a superimposed (secondary) infection that occurs after the development of the lesion. It is known that Candida species thrive in altered tissues. Some leukoplakias with dysplasia reduce or disappear entirely following use of antifungal medication. Smoking, which as discussed above can lead to the development of leukoplakia, can also promote oral candidiasis. Candida in association with leukoplakia should not be confused with white patches which are primarily caused by candida infection, such as chronic hyperplastic candidiasis ("candidal leukoplakia").


title: Leukoplakia

text: The involvement of viruses in the formation of some oral white lesions is well established, e.g. Epstein-Barr virus in oral hairy leukoplakia (which is not a true leukoplakia). Human papilloma virus (HPV), especially HPV 16 and 18, is sometimes found in areas of leukoplakia, however, since this virus can be coincidentally found on normal, healthy mucosal surfaces in the mouth, it is unknown if this virus is involved in the development of some leukoplakias. "In vitro "experimentation has demonstrated that HPV 16 is capable of inducing dysplastic changes in previously normal squamous epithelium.


title: Leukoplakia

text: Leukoplakia is more likely to develop in areas of epithelial atrophy. Conditions associated with mucosal atrophy include iron deficiency, some vitamin deficiencies, oral submucous fibrosis, syphilis and sideropenic dysphagia.


title: Leukoplakia

text: Another very common cause of white patches in the mouth is frictional or irritational trauma leading to keratosis. Examples include nicotine stomatitis, which is keratosis in response to heat from tobacco smoking (rather than a response to the carcinogens in tobacco smoke). The risk of malignant transformation is similar to normal mucosa. Mechanical trauma, e.g. caused by a sharp edge on a denture, or a broken tooth, may cause white patches which appear very similar to leukoplakia. However, these white patches represent a normal hyperkeratotic reaction, similar to a callus on the skin, and will resolve when the cause is removed. Where there is a demonstrable cause such as mechanical or thermal trauma, the term idiopathic leukoplakia should not be used.


title: Leukoplakia

text: Tumor suppressor genes are genes involved in the regulation of normal cell turnover and apoptosis (programmed cell death). One of the most studied tumor suppressor genes is p53, which is found on the short arm of chromosome 17. Mutation of p53 can disrupt its regulatory function and lead to uncontrolled cell growth. Mutations of p53 have been demonstrated in the cells from areas of some leukoplakias, especially those with dysplasia and in individuals who smoke and drink heavily.


title: Leukoplakia

text: Leukoplakia is a diagnosis of exclusion, meaning that which lesions are included depends upon what diagnoses are currently considered acceptable. Accepted definitions of leukoplakia have changed over time and are still controversial. It is possible that the definition will be further revised as new knowledge becomes available.


title: Leukoplakia

text: In 1984 an international symposium agreed upon the following definition: "a whitish patch or plaque, which cannot be characterized clinically or pathologically as any other disease, and is not associated with any physical or chemical agent except the use of tobacco." There were, however, problems and confusion in applying this definition. At a second international symposium held in 1994, it was argued that whilst tobacco was a likely causative factor in the development of leukoplakia, some white patches could be linked directly to the local effects of tobacco by virtue of their disappearance following smoking cessation, suggesting that this kind of white patch represents a reactive lesion to local tissue irritation rather than a lesion caused by carcinogens in cigarette smoke, and could be better termed to reflect this etiology, e.g. smokers' keratosis. The second international symposium, therefore, revised the definition of leukoplakia to: "a predominantly white lesion of the oral mucosa that cannot be characterized as any other definable lesion."


title: Leukoplakia

text: In the mouth, the current definition of oral leukoplakia adopted by the World Health Organization is "white plaques of questionable risk having excluded (other) known diseases or disorders that carry no increased risk for cancer". However, this definition is inconsistently applied in the medical literature, and some refer to any oral white patch as "leukoplakia".


title: Leukoplakia

text: The term has been incorrectly used for white patches of any cause (rather than specifically referring to idiopathic white patches) and also to refer only to white patches which have a risk of cancerous changes. It has been suggested that "leukoplakia" is an unhelpful term since there is so much inconsistency surrounding its use, and some clinicians now avoid using it at all.


title: Leukoplakia

text: Tissue biopsy is usually indicated to rule out other causes of white patches and also to enable a detailed histologic examination to grade the presence of any epithelial dysplasia. This is an indicator of malignant potential and usually determines the management and recall interval. The sites of a leukoplakia lesion that are preferentially biopsied are the areas that show induration (hardening) and erythroplasia (redness), and erosive or ulcerated areas. These areas are more likely to show any dysplasia than homogeneous white areas.


title: Leukoplakia

text: Brush biopsy/exfoliative cytology is an alternative to incisional biopsy, where a stiff brush is scraped against the lining of the mouth to remove a sample of cells. This is then made into a smear which can be examined microscopically. Sometimes the biopsy site can be selected with adjunct methods which aim to highlight areas of dysplasia. Toluidine blue staining, where the dye is preferentially retained by dysplastic tissue, is sometimes used, but there is high false positive rate. Other methods involve the use of luminescence, relying on either the property of normal autoflorescent molecules in mucosa such as collagen and keratin which is lost from areas of dysplasia or carcinoma under blue light or by initially staining of the mucosa with toluidine blue or dilute acetic acid and examination under white light.


title: Leukoplakia

text: Leukoplakia has a wide range of possible histologic appearances. The degree of hyperkeratosis, epithelial thickness (acanthosis/atrophy), dysplasia and inflammatory cell infiltration in the underlying lamina propria are variable. In mucous membranes, hyperkeratosis can be defined as "an increase in the thickness of the keratin layer of the epithelium, or the presence of such a layer in a site where none would normally be expected." In leukoplakia, the hyperkeratosis varies in thickness and may be either ortho- or para-keratosis, (depending upon whether cell nuclei are lost or retained in the superficial layers respectively), or a mixture of both in different areas of the lesion.


title: Leukoplakia

text: The epithelium may show hypertrophy (e.g. acanthosis) or atrophy. Red areas within leukoplakia represent atrophic or immature epithelium which has lost the ability to keratinize. The transition between the lesion and normal surrounding mucosa may be well-demarcated, or poorly defined. Melanin, a pigment naturally produced in oral mucosa, can leak from cells and give a grey color to some leukoplakia lesions.


title: Leukoplakia

text: Hyperkeratosis and altered epithelial thickness may be the only histologic features of a leukoplakia lesion, but some show dysplasia. The word "dysplasia" generally means "abnormal growth", and specifically, in the context of oral red or white lesions, refers to microscopic changes ("cellular atypia") in the mucosa that indicate a risk of malignant transformation. When dysplasia is present, there is generally an inflammatory cell infiltration in the lamina propria. The following are commonly cited as being possible features of epithelial dysplasia in leukoplakia specimens:


title: Leukoplakia

text: Generally, dysplasia is subjectively graded by pathologists into mild, moderate or severe dysplasia. This requires experience as it is a difficult skill to learn. It has been shown that there is high degree of inter-observer variation and poor reproducibility in how dysplasia is graded. Severe dysplasia is synonymous with the term carcinoma in situ, denoting the presence of neoplastic cells which have not yet penetrated the basement membrane and invaded other tissues.


title: Leukoplakia

text: There are many known conditions that present with a white lesion of the oral mucosa, but the majority of oral white patches have no known cause. These are termed leukoplakia once other likely possibilities have been ruled out. There are also few recognized subtypes of leukoplakia, described according to the clinical appearance of the lesion.


title: Leukoplakia

text: Almost all oral white patches are usually the result of keratosis. For this reason, oral white patches are sometimes generally described as keratoses, although a minority of oral white lesions are not related to hyperkeratosis, e.g. epithelial necrosis and ulceration caused by a chemical burn (see: Oral ulceration#Chemical injury). In keratosis, the thickened keratin layer absorbs water from saliva in the mouth and appears white in comparison with normal mucosa. Normal oral mucosa is a red-pink color due to the underlying vasculature in the lamina propria showing through the thin layer of epithelium. Melanin produced in the oral mucosa also influences the color, with a darker appearance being created by higher levels of melanin in the tissues (associated with racial/physiologic pigmentation, or with disorders causing melanin overproduction such as Addison's disease). Other endogenous pigments can be overproduced to influence the color, e.g. bilirubin in hyperbilirubinemia or hemosiderin in hemochromatosis, or exogenous pigments such as heavy metals can be introduced into the mucosa, e.g. in an amalgam tattoo.


title: Leukoplakia

text: Almost all white patches are benign, i.e. non-malignant. The differential diagnosis of a white lesion in the mouth can be considered according to a surgical sieve (see table).


title: Leukoplakia

text: Leukoplakia cannot be rubbed off the mucosa, distinguishing it readily from white patches such as pseudomembraneous candidiasis, where a white layer can be removed to reveal an erythematous, sometimes bleeding surface underneath. The white color associated with leukoedema disappears when the mucosa is stretched. A frictional keratosis will generally be adjacent to a sharp surface such as a broken tooth or rough area on a denture and will disappear when the causative factor is removed. Some have a suggested as general rule that any lesion that does not show signs of healing within 2 weeks should be biopsied. Morsicatio buccarum and linea alba are located at the level of the occlusal plane (the level at which the teeth meet). A chemical burn has a clear history of placing an aspirin tablet (or other caustic substance such as eugenol) against the mucosa in an attempt to relieve toothache. Developmental white patches usually are present from birth or become apparent earlier in life, whilst leukoplakia generally affects middle aged or elderly people. Other causes of white patches generally require pathologic examination of a biopsy specimen to distinguish with certainty from leukoplakia.


title: Leukoplakia

text: A systematic review found that no treatments commonly used for leukoplakia have been shown to be effective in preventing malignant transformation. Some treatments may lead to healing of leukoplakia, but do not prevent relapse of the lesion or malignant change. Regardless of the treatment used, a diagnosis of leukoplakia almost always leads to a recommendation that possible causative factors such as smoking and alcohol consumption be stopped, and also involves long term review of the lesion, to detect any malignant change early and thereby improve the prognosis significantly.


title: Leukoplakia

text: Beyond advising smoking cessation, many clinicians will employ watchful waiting rather than intervene. Recommended recall intervals vary. One suggested program is every 3 months initially, and if there is no change in the lesion, then annual recall thereafter. Some clinicians use clinical photographs of the lesion to help demonstrate any changes between visits. Watchful waiting does not rule out the possibility of repeated biopsies. If the lesion changes in appearance repeat biopsies are especially indicated. Since smoking and alcohol consumption also places individuals at higher risk of tumors occurring in the respiratory tract and pharynx, "red flag" symptoms (e.g. hemoptysis - coughing blood) often trigger medical investigation by other specialties.


title: Leukoplakia

text: Surgical removal of the lesion is the first choice of treatment for many clinicians. However, the efficacy of this treatment modality cannot be assessed due to insufficient available evidence. This can be carried out by traditional surgical excision with a scalpel, with lasers, or with eletrocautery or cryotherapy. Often, if biopsy demonstrates moderate or severe dysplasia then the decision to excise them is taken more readily. Sometimes, white patches are too large to remove completely and instead they are monitored closely. Even if the lesion is completely removed, long term review is still usually indicated since leukoplakia can recur, especially if predisposing factors such as smoking are not stopped.


title: Leukoplakia

text: Many different topical and systemic medications have been studied, including anti-inflammatories, antimycotics (target Candida species), carotenoids (precursors to vitamin A, e.g. beta carotene), retinoids (drugs similar to vitamin A), and cytotoxics, but none have evidence that they prevent malignant transformation in an area of leukoplakia. Vitamins C and E have also been studied with regards a therapy for leukoplakia. Some of this research is carried out based upon the hypothesis that antioxidant nutrients, vitamins and cell growth suppressor proteins (e.g. p53) are antagonistic to oncogenesis. High doses of retinoids may cause toxic effects. Other treatments that have been studied include photodynamic therapy.


title: Leukoplakia

text: The annual malignant transformation rate of leukoplakia rarely exceeds 1%, i.e. the vast majority of oral leukoplakia lesions will remain benign. A number of clinical and histopathologic features are associated with varying degrees of increased risk of malignant transformation, although other sources argue that there are no universally accepted and validated factors which can reliably predict malignant change. It is also unpredictable to an extent if an area of leukoplakia will disappear, shrink or remain stable.


title: Leukoplakia

text: The prevalence of oral leukoplakia varies around the world, but generally speaking it is not an uncommon condition. Reported prevalence estimates range from less than 1% to more than 5% in the general population. Leukoplakia is, therefore, the most common premalignant lesion that occurs in the mouth. Leukoplakia is more common in middle-aged and elderly males. The prevalence increases with increasing age. In areas of the world where smokeless tobacco use is common, there is a higher prevalence. In the Middle East region, the prevalence of leukoplakia is less than 1% (0.48%).


title: Leukoplakia

text: The word leukoplakia means "white patch", and is derived from the Greek words λευκός - "white" and πλάξ - "plate".


title: Leukoplakia

text: The term "leukoplakia" was coined in 1861 by Karl Freiherr von Rokitansky, who used it to refer to white lesions of the urinary tract. In 1877, Schwimmer first used the term for an oral white lesion. It is now thought that this white lesion on the tongue represented syphilitic glossitis, a condition not included in the modern definitions of oral leukoplakia. Since then, the word "leukoplakia" has been incorporated into the names for several other oral lesions (e.g. "candidal leukoplakia", now more usually termed "hyperplastic candidiasis"). In 1930, it was shown experimentally that leukoplakia could be induced in rabbits that were subjected to tobacco smoke for 3 minutes per day. According to one source from 1961, leukoplakia can occur on multiple different mucous membranes of the body, including in the urinary tract, rectum, vagina, uterus, vulva, paranasal sinuses, gallbladder, esophagus, eardrums, and pharynx. Generally, oral leukoplakia is the only context where the term is in common usage in modern medicine. In 1988, a case report used the term "acquired dyskeratotic leukoplakia" to refer to an acquired condition in a female where dyskeratotic cells were present in the epithelia of the mouth and genitalia.


title: Smoke (Better Call Saul)

text: "Smoke" is the fourth season premiere of the AMC television series "Better Call Saul", a spin-off series of "Breaking Bad". The episode aired on August 6, 2018, on AMC in the United States. Outside of the United States, the episode premiered on streaming service Netflix in several countries.


title: Smoke (Better Call Saul)

text: In a flashforward, "Gene Takavic" has collapsed at the Omaha Cinnabon and is raced to the hospital, but is discharged after doctors confirm he did not suffer a heart attack. As Gene leaves, the receptionist stops him to obtain billing information. She has difficulty processing Gene’s identification, making him apprehensive, but she quickly realizes her mistake and corrects her error. Gene takes a taxi to the mall, where his car is parked, but becomes uneasy when he sees the driver making eye contact and he recognizes an Albuquerque Isotopes air freshener on the rearview mirror. He asks to be let out before reaching the mall, then walks quickly and anxiously around the corner and out of the driver's sight.


title: Smoke (Better Call Saul)

text: Howard Hamlin calls Jimmy McGill and Kim Wexler about the fire at Chuck McGill's, and they arrive as Chuck's body is taken away. Jimmy sees the appliances outside Chuck's home and realizes his electromagnetic hypersensitivity symptoms returned. He falls into a deep depression from which Kim tries to help him recover. Howard takes on the responsibility of arranging Chuck's funeral.


title: Smoke (Better Call Saul)

text: Mike Ehrmantraut receives his first payment from Madrigal Electromotive as a contracted security consultant, which Gus Fring arranged to launder the money Mike stole from the Salamancas. Though it was meant to be a paper transaction, Mike enters a Madrigal facility, performs a detailed audit, and turns the results over to the manager with instructions to let Lydia Rodarte-Quayle know he was there.


title: Smoke (Better Call Saul)

text: Following Mike's advice, after Hector Salamanca's stroke Nacho Varga takes the fake capsules containing ibuprofen from Hector and replaces them with Hector's real nitroglycerin. He tries to dispose of the fakes but is interrupted by Gus, who says they need to meet with Juan Bolsa. Juan puts Nacho and Arturo in charge of the Salamanca operation for the time being. Afterward, Nacho drives to a bridge and throws the fakes away, unaware Victor has followed him.


title: Smoke (Better Call Saul)

text: Several of Chuck's friends and associates attend his funeral and give Jimmy their condolences. After the service, Howard tells Jimmy and Kim he believes he is responsible for Chuck’s death because he forced Chuck out of HHM after their malpractice insurance premium increased. Jimmy conceals his role in causing the increase and immediately regains his happy-go-lucky demeanor.


title: Smoke (Better Call Saul)

text: In the opening scene, Saul is at his workplace, a Cinnabon mall store. Though set in Omaha, Nebraska, the flash-forward was filmed at the Cottonwood Mall in Albuquerque, New Mexico. The episode marks the first appearance of Jeff, played by Don Harvey.


title: Smoke (Better Call Saul)

text: "Smoke" received critical acclaim from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, it garnered a perfect 100% rating with an average score of 8.76/10 based on 17 reviews. The site consensus reads, "'Smoke' kicks off "Better Call Saul"s fourth season by finally shifting Jimmy's disturbing transition to Saul into full gear." Matt Fowler of IGN gave "Smoke" a positive review, with an 8.3/10.0 rating writing, "It's a heavy, reflective chapter that readily relies on silence to create both suspense and sorrow."


title: Smoke (Better Call Saul)

text: "Smoke" was watched by 1.77 million viewers in the United States on its original air date, fewer than the third-season finale which brought in 1.85 million American viewers.


title: Gecko (software)

text: Gecko is a browser engine developed by Mozilla. It is used in the Firefox browser, the Thunderbird email client, and many other projects.


title: Gecko (software)

text: Gecko is designed to support open Internet standards, and is used by different applications to display web pages and, in some cases, an application's user interface itself (by rendering XUL). Gecko offers a rich programming API that makes it suitable for a wide variety of roles in Internet-enabled applications, such as web browsers, content presentation, and client/server.


title: Gecko (software)

text: Gecko is written in C++ and JavaScript, and, since 2016, additionally in Rust. It is free and open-source software subject to the terms of the Mozilla Public License version 2. Mozilla officially supports its use on Android, Linux, macOS, and Windows.


title: Gecko (software)

text: Development of the layout engine now known as Gecko began at Netscape in 1997, following the company's purchase of DigitalStyle. The existing Netscape rendering engine, originally written for Netscape Navigator 1.0 and upgraded through the years, was slow, did not comply well with W3C standards, had limited support for dynamic HTML and lacked features such as incremental reflow (when the layout engine rearranges elements on the screen as new data is downloaded and added to the page). The new layout engine was developed in parallel with the old, with the intention being to integrate it into Netscape Communicator when it was mature and stable. At least one more major revision of Netscape was expected to be released with the old layout engine before the switch.


title: Gecko (software)

text: After the launch of the Mozilla project in early 1998, the new layout engine code was released under an open-source license. Originally unveiled as "Raptor", the name had to be changed to "NGLayout" (next generation layout) due to trademark problems. Netscape later rebranded NGLayout as "Gecko". While Mozilla Organization (the forerunner of the Mozilla Foundation) initially continued to use the NGLayout name (Gecko was a Netscape trademark), eventually the Gecko branding won out.


title: Gecko (software)

text: In October 1998, Netscape announced that its next browser would use Gecko (which was still called NGLayout at the time) rather than the old layout engine, requiring large parts of the application to be rewritten. While this decision was popular with web standards advocates, it was largely unpopular with Netscape developers, who were unhappy with the six months given for the rewrite. It also meant that most of the work done for Netscape Communicator 5.0 (including development on the Mariner improvements to the old layout engine) had to be abandoned. Netscape 6, the first Netscape release to incorporate Gecko, was released in November 2000 (the name Netscape 5 was never used).


title: Gecko (software)

text: As Gecko development continued, other applications and embedders began to make use of it. America Online, by this time Netscape's parent company, eventually adopted it for use in CompuServe 7.0 and AOL for Mac OS X (these products had previously embedded Internet Explorer). However, with the exception of a few betas, Gecko was never used in the main Microsoft Windows AOL client.


title: Gecko (software)

text: On July 15, 2003, AOL laid off the remaining Gecko developers and the Mozilla Foundation (formed on the same day) became the main steward of Gecko development. Today, Gecko is developed by employees of the Mozilla Corporation, employees of companies that contribute to the Mozilla project, and volunteers.


title: Gecko (software)

text: In October 2016, Mozilla announced Quantum, an ongoing project encompassing several software development efforts to "build the next-generation web engine for Firefox users". It includes numerous improvements to Gecko, taken from the experimental Servo project. Firefox 57, also known as "Firefox Quantum", first shipping in November 2017, is the initial version with major components from the Quantum/Servo projects enabled. These include increased performance in the CSS and GPU rendering components. Additional components will be merged from Servo to Gecko incrementally in future versions.


title: Gecko (software)

text: In September 2018, Mozilla announced GeckoView, the foundation of Mozilla's next generation of mobile products based on a software library that makes Gecko reusable for Android, encompassing newer software development efforts to "decouple the engine itself from its user interface, and made it easy to embed in other applications". Firefox Focus 7.0, shipped in the same month, is the initial version introduced GeckoView, with increased performance in median page loading. Firefox Reality was also built with GeckoView. In June 2019, Mozilla announced Firefox Preview as an ongoing project that focuses on building an Android web browser with GeckoView. Firefox for Android 79, also known as "Firefox Daylight", first shipping in August 2020, is the first stable release of that with major components powered by GeckoView engine.


title: Gecko (software)

text: From the outset, Gecko was designed to support open Internet standards. Some of the standards Gecko supports include:


title: Gecko (software)

text: In order to support web pages designed for legacy versions of Netscape and Internet Explorer, Gecko supports DOCTYPE switching. Documents with a modern DOCTYPE are rendered in standards compliance mode, which follows the W3C standards strictly. Documents that have no DOCTYPE or an older DOCTYPE are rendered in quirks mode, which emulates some of the non-standard oddities of Netscape Communicator 4.x; however, some of the 4.x features (such as layers) are not supported.


title: Gecko (software)

text: Gecko also has limited support for some non-standard Internet Explorer features, such as the marquee element and the codice_1 property (though pages explicitly testing for codice_1 will be told it is not supported).


title: Gecko (software)

text: Gecko is primarily used in web browsers, the earliest being Netscape 6 and Mozilla Suite (later renamed SeaMonkey). It is also used in other Mozilla web browser derivatives such as Firefox and Firefox for mobile and the implementation of the Internet Explorer-clone that is part of Wine. Mozilla also uses it in their Thunderbird email-client.


title: Gecko (software)

text: Other web browsers using Gecko include GNU IceCat, Waterfox, K-Meleon, Lunascape, Portable Firefox, Conkeror, Classilla, TenFourFox.


title: Gecko (software)

text: Gecko is also used by Sugar for the OLPC XO-1 computer. Gecko is used as a complete implementation of the XUL (XML User Interface Language). Gecko currently defines the XUL specification.


title: Gecko (software)

text: Products that formerly used Gecko include Pale Moon (now using Goanna), Epiphany (now known as GNOME Web and using WebKitGTK), and GNOME DevHelp (now using WebKitGTK.)


title: Gecko (software)

text: Discontinued products that used Gecko include Swiftfox, Flock, Galeon, Camino, Minimo, Beonex Communicator, Kazehakase, Songbird, Sunbird (calendar), MicroB, Nightingale, Instantbird, and Picasa for Linux.


title: Gecko (software)

text: On Windows and other platforms, Gecko depends on proprietary compilers. Thus, FOSS distributions of Linux cannot include the Gecko package used in the Windows compatibility layer Wine.


title: Gecko (software)

text: After Gecko 2.0, the version number was bumped to 5.0 to match Firefox 5, and from then on has been kept in sync with the major version number for both Firefox and Thunderbird, to reflect the fact that it is no longer a separate component.


title: Gecko (software)

text: In the Netscape era, a combination of poor technical and management decisions resulted in Gecko software bloat. Thus in 2001 Apple chose to fork KHTML, not Gecko, to create the WebKit engine for its Safari browser. However, by 2008 Mozilla had addressed some of the bloat problems, resulting in big performance improvements for Gecko.


title: Gecko (software)

text: Quantum is a Mozilla project encompassing several software development efforts to "build the next-generation web engine for Firefox users". It includes numerous improvements to Gecko, largely incorporated from the experimental Servo project. Quantum also includes refinements to the user interface and interactions.


title: Gecko (software)

text: Firefox 57, released in November 2017, is the initial version with a Servo component enabled. Mozilla dubs this and several planned future releases "Firefox Quantum".


title: Gecko (software)

text: In 2012, Mozilla began the experimental Servo project, which is an engine designed from scratch with the goals of improving concurrency and parallelism while also reducing memory safety vulnerabilities. Servo is written in the Rust programming language, also created by Mozilla, which is designed to generate compiled code with better memory safety, concurrency, and parallelism than compiled C++ code.


title: Gecko (software)

text: As of April 2016, Servo needed at least several years of development to become a full-featured browser engine, hence the decision to start the Quantum project to bring stable portions of Servo into Firefox. Mozilla laid off all Servo developers in August 2020.


title: Gecko (software)

text: The Mozilla Azure project is a stateless low-level graphics abstraction API used in Firefox. The project has several objectives including more accurate Direct2D compatibility, optimized state interoperability, and improved control over performance characteristics and bugs. Azure will provide 2D hardware acceleration on top of 3D graphics backends. Firefox began using Azure instead of Cairo in 2012. It is written in C++ and used by Servo. The Azure name is an ode to the early Netscape founder James H. Clark and his earlier work at Silicon Graphics where workstations were often named after colors.


title: The Bushwhackers

text: The Bushwhackers are a professional wrestling tag team who competed first as the New Zealand Kiwis and then as The Sheepherders during their 36-year career as a tag team. They wrestled in the World Wrestling Federation, Jim Crockett Promotions, and on the independent territorial wrestling circuits. The Bushwhackers consisted of Butch Miller and Luke Williams while the Sheepherders also included Jonathan Boyd and Rip Morgan as members at times. Williams and Miller were inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame class of 2015, and the Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame and Museum in 2020.


title: The Bushwhackers

text: Luke Williams and Butch Miller started wrestling as "The Kiwis" for NWA New Zealand (later known as All-Star Pro Wrestling) in 1966, where they achieved a great deal of regional success. After working Australasia and the Eastern Circuit (Singapore, Malaysia, Japan), the duo was booked in North America in "Grand Prix" (Quebec, The Maritimes, Ontario, Vermont), a promotion owned by the Vachon family and Edouard Carpentier, in 1972 by fellow New Zealander Steve Rickard.


title: The Bushwhackers

text: Williams and Miller worked in Canada for various promotions, most notably Stu Hart's Stampede Wrestling, billed as The Kiwis (Miller was known as "Nick Carter" and Williams was known as "Sweet William"). The Kiwis began their first recorded title reign by defeating Bob Pringle and Bill Cody for the Stampede International Tag Team Championship on 6 January 1974. The Kiwis lost the title to Tokyo Joe and the Great Saki, only to regain it a short time later. The Kiwis lost the title for good to Stan Kowalski and Duke Savage and were unsuccessful in subsequent rematches. In 1974, they worked in Japan for International Wrestling Enterprise (IWE). They returned to their home country of New Zealand in late 1975 for the first wrestling television tapings "On the Mat". In 1976, Williams returned to Japan for IWE. Both men were inactive from wrestling for a few years.


title: The Bushwhackers

text: They returned to wrestling and reunited in New Zealand in late 1978. They made a stop for All Japan Pro Wrestling in 1979. Returning to North America in late 1979, they worked for 50th State Big Time Wrestling. Later the same year, they moved to Oregon to work for Don Owen's Pacific Northwest Wrestling, working from Northern California to Vancouver, where they had a year-long feud with Roddy Piper and Rick Martel in 1980. This was when their name changed to "The New Zealand Sheepherders".


title: The Bushwhackers

text: Their next stop was NWA Crockett Promotions in Charlotte, North Carolina. They won the Mid-Atlantic Tag Team titles on their third weekend in the territory from Buzz Sawyer and Matt Borne. They later lost the belts to Rocky Johnson and Dewey Robertson.


title: The Bushwhackers

text: The Sheepherders then worked for the World Wrestling Council (WWC) in 1981 as "Los Pastores". A short time into their run with WWC, they defeated Carlos Colon and Invader I for the WWC North American Tag Team Championship, defending it for over a month until being defeated by Los Medicos. Los Pastores regained the belts on 22 May and held them until coming up short against Jack and Jerry Brisco on 8 August 1981.


title: The Bushwhackers

text: After the team left WWC, Miller decided he wanted to move closer to home to be with family and returned to Australia and New Zealand to wrestle. Williams remained in the United States, reforming the team with "Lord" Jonathan Boyd. The duo of Williams and Boyd quickly gained a reputation as one of the most violent, hard-hitting teams in the business. In late 1981 in South Eastern Championship Wrestling, the team of Robert Fuller and Jos LeDuc had split up after LeDuc turned on Fuller during a match. LeDuc brought in the Sheepherders to be a part of his Commonwealth Connection stable to fight against Fuller and his family. In December 1981, the Sheepherders won the NWA Southeast Tag Team Championship, which had been vacated when Fuller and LeDuc split and defended the title against Fuller and various partners. On 11 September 1982, the Sheepherders lost to Fuller and Jimmy Golden and were "run out" of the territory.


title: The Bushwhackers

text: Boyd and Williams next appeared in the Memphis, TN-based promotion Continental Wrestling Association run by Jerry Jarrett and Jerry Lawler. Making their debut in October 1982, the team quickly became involved in a feud with Jacques Rougeau and Terry Taylor, clashing weekly with them at the Mid-South Coliseum, with the Sheepherders brawling their way to victory. Taylor and Rougeau redeemed themselves in the end by defeating the Sheepherders in a "coal miner's glove" match. The Sheepherders returned to the ring later that same night and defeated the territory's main stars Jerry Lawler and Bill Dundee.


title: The Bushwhackers

text: The next feud of Boyd and Williams was with The Fabulous Ones (Stan Lane and Steve Keirn). The contrast between the "pretty boy"-styled, technically polished Fabulous Ones and the ugly, brawling savage Sheepherders made them effective opponents and repeatedly drew big crowds wherever they fought. The series of matches started out fairly evenly, with the Fabulous Ones and the Sheepherders splitting the wins. Later, bouts often ended without a definite winner. In late 1982, the Sheepherders won the AWA Southern Tag Team Championship from The Fabulous Ones. Between late December 1982 and mid-February 1983, the title switched hands between the teams four times, with The Fabulous Ones ending up champions in the end. On 28 March 1983, the Sheepherders wrestled their last match in the Mid-South Coliseum before leaving the CWA.


title: The Bushwhackers

text: Boyd and Williams resurfaced in Southwest Championship Wrestling (SWCW) only weeks later. Their first targets were the reigning Southwest Tag Team Champions The Grapplers (Len Denton and Tony Anthony). In May 1983, the Sheepherders captured the title when The Grapplers' manager Don Carson turned on them mid-match to ensure the Sheepherders' victory. The Sheepherders' run with the gold was short-lived; in June, Boyd legitimately broke his leg in a car accident, causing SWCW to name Bobby Jaggers as his replacement. After Williams and Jaggers lost a non-title match to Bob Sweetan and Sweet Brown Sugar, Williams turned on Jaggers and the title was vacated. While Boyd was out with the broken leg, Williams was reunited with his old tag-team partner Butch Miller.


title: The Bushwhackers

text: Williams and Miller stayed with SWCW through the rest of 1983, and into 1984, when the team came head to head with the Fabulous Ones once again, feuding over the SWCW World Tag Team Championship. The Fabulous Ones had supposedly won the title in Australia, though it is generally believed the tournament they won to be crowned was actually a fabrication made up by SWCW. The Sheepherders dethroned The Fabulous Ones on 4 March and held the titles until they were retired by SWCW in September 1984. Miller and Williams then returned to Puerto Rico and the WWC, this time competing as The Sheepherders (Los Pastores). On 6 January 1985 they defeated Invader I and Invader III for the WWC North American Tag Team Championship in Bayamon, PR. They lost and then regained the titles from Invaders I & III in March, and then held on to the gold until August, when the Invaders won it back.


title: The Bushwhackers

text: While the Sheepherders were in Puerto Rico, another Sheepherders team was spreading destruction all over the CWA in Memphis. For the first time, a Sheepherder team existed without Luke Williams as a member, as Jonathan Boyd teamed up with Rip Morgan (former flag bearer for the Sheepherders & nephew to Butch Miller) under the name "The Kiwi Sheepherders". Boyd and Morgan defeated their recurring nemeses, the Fabulous Ones, for the AWA Southern Tag Team Championship on 17 June 1985. In the storyline, the team was soon stripped of the titles due to their excessive cheating, but had the titles returned to them when they threatened to sue CWA management. The Fabulous Ones took them by beating them four times in a row between 5 September and 12 October.


title: The Bushwhackers

text: The Kiwi Sheepherders then began feuding with another team: The Fantastics (Bobby Fulton and Tommy Rogers). In the winter of 1985, the Kiwi Sheepherders and the Fantastics traded wins back and forth with no side gaining a clear advantage in the feud. In January 1986, the Kiwi Sheepherders defeated the team of Koko Ware and Rick Casey as well as team of Tojo Yamamoto and Dirty Rhodes to reach the finals of a tournament to crown new Southern Tag Team Champions, but they fell in the finals to the Fantastics. The feud culminated as the two teams clashed in a "No DQ Loser Leaves Town" match on 20 January 1986. The Kiwi Sheepherders lost and left Memphis, while the Fantastics rode a new wave of popularity gained from the feud.


title: The Bushwhackers

text: When Williams and Miller returned to mainland USA and Bill Watts' UWF, they defeated Ted DiBiase and Steve Williams for the UWF Tag Team Championship on 16 March 1986, but fell to The Fantastics on 30 March in Tulsa, OK. The Sheepherders continued for the UWF on and off over the next couple of years, taking time out to participate in the first-ever Jim Crockett Memorial Tag Team Cup, in which they beat Hector and Chavo Guerrero Sr. in the first round and The Rock 'n' Roll Express in the second round. In the third round, they clashed with the Fantastics in a match that ended in a double DQ. Back in the UWF for its big "Mid South Superdome Show", The Sheepherders clashed with The Fantastics once more; this time Williams and Miller lost in a "New Zealand Boot camp" match to the UWF Tag champions.


title: The Bushwhackers

text: After being unable to beat the Fantastics in several rematches, The Sheepherders returned to Puerto Rico during the summer of 1986 and beat the Rock’N’Roll RPMs (Mike Davis and Tommy Lane) for the WWC World Tag Team Championship on 3 August. They defended the titles for about six weeks before losing them to the RPMs on 21 September. When this short run with the WWC ended, Williams and Miller traveled to Florida where they worked for Championship Wrestling from Florida. On 7 October, The Sheepherders ended The Fabulous Ones' first reign with the NWA Florida United States Tag Team Championship, but Lane and Keirn got the better of them on 30 November, regaining the belts.


title: The Bushwhackers

text: The Sheepherders then returned to the CWA Memphis territory. On 10 January, they beat Badd Company (Pat Tanaka and Paul Diamond) for the CWA/AWA International Tag Team Championship but lost it to Badd Company as fast as they had won it. After the quick feud with Badd Company, The Sheepherders once again feuded with the Fabulous Ones. Keirn and Lane dominated the matches and once again "ran off" the Sheepherders.


title: The Bushwhackers

text: After leaving Memphis, The Sheepherders were invited to participate in New Japan Pro-Wrestling's "IWGP Tag Team Title League 1987". The round-robin tournament took place from 23 February to 20 March. They only had a brief stay with New Japan, opting to return to Puerto Rico and the WWC. Here they started a feud with Chris and Mark Youngblood. The feud saw Williams and Miller win the WWC World Tag Team Championship on 4 April, and then defend it until the Youngbloods regained the titles on 10 May in a steel cage match.


title: The Bushwhackers

text: After their spring run with the WWC, The Sheepherders returned to Florida and instantly became challengers for Mike Graham and Steve Keirn's NWA Florida Tag Team Championship. On 26 June 1987, they won the championship. A month later, The Sheepherders defended their Florida Tag Team title at The Great American Bash from the Miami Orange Bowl, brawling to a double disqualification with Jimmy and Ron Garvin. Their run with the title came to an end on 29 August at the hands of Graham and Keirn.


title: The Bushwhackers

text: After losing the Florida titles, Williams and Miller returned to the UWF and began a second run as the UWF World Tag Team Championship after defeating the Lightning Express (Brad Armstrong and Tim Horner) on 16 October. The Sheepherders held the belts until the UWF was purchased by Jim Crockett and merged into Jim Crockett Promotions (JCP), to form the forerunner of World Championship Wrestling (WCW). After this merger, The Sheepherders worked for JCP, participating in the third Jim Crockett, Sr. Memorial Tag Team Tournament Cup. At Clash of the Champions II, they faced off against the NWA United States Tag Team Champions, The Fantastics, in a losing effort. At Clash of the Champions III, they lost to Steve Williams and Nikita Koloff, despite the interference of Rip Morgan on their behalf. Just as it looked like the Sheepherders were about to face the Fantastics in the finals of a tournament to crown new United States Tag Team champions, Luke Williams and Butch Miller signed with Vince McMahon's World Wrestling Federation (WWF).


title: The Bushwhackers

text: In December 1988, Williams and Miller debuted with the WWF in the midst of its aggressive national expansion. The team's name was changed to "The Bushwhackers" and developed a more comedic style. The comedy act involved licking (each other, fans, and even their opponents), as well as using their existing distinctive march, swinging their flexed arms. The Bushwhackers made their debut on a matinee house show on December 26, 1988 facing The Bolsheviks.


title: The Bushwhackers

text: Only a few days into their run with the WWF, the Bushwhackers had their first match with The Bolsheviks (Boris Zhukov and Nikolai Volkoff). In February, the Bushwhackers began a feud with The Fabulous Rougeau Brothers, the first feud to really feature the Bushwhackers on WWF television. The two teams took their conflict to WrestleMania V where the Bushwhackers were victorious. The teams clashed again on the "Saturday Night's Main Event XXIII", and once again the Bushwhackers were victorious. The Bushwhackers defeated the Rougeaus twice more, first at the 1989 Survivor Series and again at the 1990 Royal Rumble.


title: The Bushwhackers

text: The Bushwhackers quickly became one of the most popular duos with children, chiefly due to the wildly comedic nature of their antics (including their trademark "Bushwhacker walk"), their pastoral musical theme, and their friendly interaction with the audience. This was a stark contrast to their long pre-WWF career as one of the most violent tag teams in wrestling. By 1990, the Bushwhackers were feuding with the newly established team Rhythm and Blues (The Honky Tonk Man and Greg Valentine). The Bushwhackers' WrestleMania VI appearance came at the expense of Rhythm and Blues as they showed up during a segment, attacking Honky Tonk Man and Valentine. Later on, the team would be used to help establish newcomers The Orient Express (Pat Tanaka and Akio Sato). The feud with the Orient Express culminated at Survivor Series 1990 where Williams and Miller teamed up with Nikolai Volkoff and Tito Santana to form "The Alliance" and take on Sgt. Slaughter, Boris Zhukov and the Orient Express team dubbed "The Mercenaries".


title: The Bushwhackers

text: The Bushwhackers received a shot at the WWF World Tag Team Title on the 27 April "Saturday Night's Main Event XXIX" against The Nasty Boys, but were defeated. In a televised 6-man tag-team match the Bushwhackers teamed with Tugboat against Earthquake and the Nasty Boys, Tugboat turned on his partners after a few minutes of action and joined Earthquake in attacking the two New Zealanders. After the heel turn Tugboat changed his name to Typhoon and together they became known as The Natural Disasters. The Bushwhackers were easily defeated at SummerSlam 1991 by the team.


title: The Bushwhackers

text: Their next feud was with the Beverly Brothers (Blake and Beau). The two teams first clashed at the 1991 Survivor Series where they were on opposite sides in a 4 on 4 elimination match. On the night the Beverly Brothers got the upper hand and eliminated both Williams and Miller. The Beverly Brothers' manager The Genius kept interfering in the matches so the Bushwhackers brought in a manager of their own, Jamison. Despite the addition of Jamison, the Beverly Brothers defeated the Bushwhackers at Royal Rumble 1992. The Bushwhackers did gain some small measure of revenge on the Beverly Brothers when they defeated the team in a "dark match" at WrestleMania VIII. Luke and Butch continued their feud with the Beverlys throughout the spring and summer of 1992, generally coming out victorious in these encounters.


title: The Bushwhackers

text: On the 23 August 1992 "SummerSlam Spectacular" show that preceded the PPV in the United Kingdom, the Bushwhackers received a title shot against WWF Tag-Tam Champions Money Incorporated. However, in this match, which aired on the USA Network, they fell short as Irwin R. Schyster pinned Butch following interference by Jimmy Hart. Their next PPV appearance came at SummerSlam '92, where they tag-teamed with Jim Duggan on the pre-show (in a match that was subsequently aired on Prime Time Wrestling) and defeated The Mountie and The Nasty Boys. They were slated to team with The Natural Disasters against Money Inc. and The Beverly Brothers at the 1992 Survivor Series; however on the 7 November edition of WWF Superstars they agreed to let former Jimmy Hart charges The Nasty Boys take their place after the duo turned on their manager. The Bushwhackers concluded the year by resuming their long-running feud with the Beverly Brothers on house shows, this time teaming with Tiger Jackson against Beau, Blake, and Little Mickey Moses in six-man matches.


title: The Bushwhackers

text: The Bushwhackers opened 1993 with another opportunity against WWF Tag-Team Champions Money Inc. Once again they were defeated, this time on a 25 January taping of "WWF Superstars" in San Jose, California. Beginning in February they began a new feud with the newly signed team the Headshrinkers (Fatu and Samu), and were used to "put over" the team. Following a winless stretch against Fatu and Samu, the Bushwhackers restarted their now over year old rivalry with the Beverly Brothers. As in late 1992, these were comedy matches alongside midget Tiger Jackson against the Beverly Brothers and Little Louie. On 22 March 1993 the Bushwhackers appeared on "Monday Night RAW", defeating Damien Demento and The Repo Man. This would be Luke and Butch's first "RAW" appearance; meanwhile, it would be the final WWF appearance for Repo Man (Barry Darsow).


title: The Bushwhackers

text: In August, the Bushwhackers made a quick trip to Puerto Rico to appear at the WWC 20th Anniversary show on 8 August where they defeated the team of Mr. Hughes and The Warlord. When the team returned to the US, Williams and Miller gave the new WWF duo The Quebecers their first defeat when Butch pinned Jacques Rougeau on the 23 August 1993 edition of All American Wrestling. In the fall of 1993 they transitioned to a feud with another new team, this time facing Well Dunn in a house show series. In November 1993 they helped Doink the Clown in the clown's feud with Bam Bam Bigelow. Williams and Miller, as well as Mo and Mabel, all appeared at Survivor Series 1993 wearing the trademark green wig and face paint associated with Doink the Clown. The Bushwhackers and Men on a Mission defeated Bigelow, Bastion Booger and the Headshrinkers.


title: The Bushwhackers

text: In March 1994, the Bushwhackers started feuding with SMW Tag-Team Champions The Heavenly Bodies (Tom Prichard and Jimmy Del Ray). Williams and Miller were undefeated against the Bodies until WrestleMania X, where they lost a dark match. In April they began a house show series with WWF Tag-Team Champions The Quebecers, but unlike the previous year the team was winless against Rougeau and Oullette. In the summer of 1994 they reversed fortunes and were undefeated against the preliminary tag-team The Executioners (Dwayne Gill and Barry Hardy). They finished the year defeating Well Dunn in numerous house show encounters, although at this point their opponents were little more than preliminary opposition. However, now five years into their tenure into the company, and their prospects for a world championship run had seemed to close.


title: The Bushwhackers

text: The WWF was entering a "New Generation" era in 1995, and the Bushwhackers were now one of the last legacy acts. Still quite popular with the fanbase, they began the year with a successful series of encounters on the house show circuit against The Heavenly Bodies. Both Luke and Butch appeared in the 1995 Royal Rumble as separate participants. They continued to wrestle throughout the spring, defeating the Bodies and Well Dunn and remaining undefeated against preliminary opposition on television. However, their appearances became far more sporadic in the second half of 1995 following WWF touring cutbacks. They would wrestle only five more times that year, losing to WWF Tag-Team Champions Owen Hart and Yokozuna and the newly arrived Blu Twins. They would worked for United States Wrestling Association in Memphis, Tennessee that fall.


title: The Bushwhackers

text: In March 1996, the Bushwhackers returned to the WWF after a six-month hiatus to participate in a tournament to crown new tag team champions. The Bushwhackers were beaten in the first round by eventual winners The Bodydonnas (Skip and Zip). When the Bushwhackers returned in 1996, they displayed traditional Australian stereotypes, including being accompanied to the ring by a giant kangaroo mascot. On 14 September, the Bushwhackers made their last appearance while under contract with the WWF, defeating Justin Bradshaw and Uncle Zebakiah at a house show.


title: The Bushwhackers

text: After leaving the WWF, the team made special appearances in the independent circuit, including a return to WWC for its 24th Anniversary show, where they were billed as the Sheepherders and took on old rivals, Invaders I & II. They also appeared at Terry Funk's WrestleFest in Amarillo to celebrate "50 years of Funk" where they lost to old rivals Mark and Chris Youngblood. In 1998, they made a couple of appearances in Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW) under the names Luke and Butch Dudley as "cousins" of The Dudley Brothers. In 1999, the Bushwhackers participated in Heroes of Wrestling, where Williams and Miller took on and defeated former WWF Tag Team Champions, The Iron Sheik and Nikolai Volkoff.


title: The Bushwhackers

text: Williams and Miller made one of their last appearances as active wrestlers on 1 April 2001 when they participated in the WrestleMania X-Seven "Gimmick Battle Royal" which The Iron Sheik won. Luke was eliminated by Jim Cornette and Butch eliminated The Goon then got eliminated by Doink the Clown. On June 15 the team returned to Memphis one last time, fighting The Moondogs to a double disqualification on a special "Mid-South Clash of the Legends" show. During this period, they toured the UK with All Star Wrestling, often appearing in six-man tag matches teamed with Frank Casey, who had been wrestling for several years as the "British Bushwhacker" – a 'tribute' to Williams and Miller.


title: The Bushwhackers

text: Their last match as a team was on September 8, 2001 in Farmville, Virginia losing to Carnage and Mr. Big Stuff. Miller would retired from wrestling in 2001 after a neck injury and Williams retired in 2002.


title: The Bushwhackers

text: Williams came out of retirement in 2007 where he worked for Ring Of Honor, appearances in New Zealand, Ultimate Championship Wrestling in Nova Scotia, Canada, and the independent circuit. As of 2022 he occasionally still wrestles for independent shows in the United States at 75 years old.


title: The Bushwhackers

text: On 23 February 2015, it was announced by WWE that The Bushwhackers would be 2015 inductees into the WWE Hall of Fame. On 28 March 2015, they both attended the event to accept their induction.


title: The Bushwhackers

text: The Bushwhackers appeared as themselves in a 1994 episode of the sitcom "Family Matters", wrestling against Carl Winslow and Steve Urkel, who are forced to fill in for and wrestle as The Psycho Twins. They also appeared in the 1998 "How Many Times" music video for the Insane Clown Posse. The Bushwhackers released their autobiography "The Bushwhackers: Blood, Sweat & Cheers", along with writer John E. Crowther, on September 27, 2022.


title: Isometric exercise

text: An isometric exercise is a form of exercise involving the static contraction of a muscle without any visible movement in the angle of the joint. The term "isometric" combines the Greek words "isos" (equal) and "-metria" (measuring), meaning that in these exercises the length of the muscle and the angle of the joint do not change, though contraction strength may be varied. This is in contrast to "isotonic contractions", in which the contraction strength does not change, though the muscle length and joint angle do.


title: Isometric exercise

text: The three main types of isometric exercise are isometric presses, pulls, and holds. They may be included in a strength training regime in order to improve the body’s ability to apply power from a static position or, in the case of isometric holds, improve the body’s ability to maintain a position for a period of time. Considered as an action, isometric presses are also of fundamental importance to the body’s ability to prepare itself to perform immediately subsequent power movements. Such preparation is also known as isometric preload.


title: Isometric exercise

text: An isometric action is one where the observable angle of the joints is maintained. While this definition always applies there are various sub-definitions which exist in order to emphasise how effort is being applied during specific isometric exercises.


title: Isometric exercise

text: In a yielding isometric exercise the ambition is to maintain a particular body position; this may also be called maintaining an isometric hold. In an overcoming isometric exercise the ambition is to push or pull against either another part of the self, which pushes or pulls back with equal force, or to move an immovable object. On this basis, an overcoming isometric may additionally be referred to as being an isometric press or an isometric pull.


title: Isometric exercise

text: In unweighted isometrics the exerciser uses only themselves for resistance. For example, holding a crouched position, or pressing the palms of the hands against each other. Where by the self presses against itself, this is also referred to as self-resistance or Dynamic Tension training.


title: Isometric exercise

text: Weighted isometrics involve the additional holding of a weight, and the pressing or pulling of an immovable weight or structure. For example, in a bench press set-up the barbell can be held in a fixed position and neither pushed upwards or allowed to descend. Alternatively, in a mid-thigh pull set-up, a person can attempt to pull a fixed, immovable bar upwards.


title: Isometric exercise

text: Isometric training is rarely used by itself and it is usually incorporated into a wider training regime. For instance, an isometric plank may be incorporated into a plyometrics regime. In addition, when a subject performs a dynamic movement, supportive muscle groups can work isometrically. For example, if a person squats while holding a dumbbell in front of their chest, then their arm action will be relatively isometric, whilst their leg action will be dynamic. Such a relationship between an isometric hold and a dynamic movement is often found in weightlifting: participants commonly hold a barbell overhead with straight arms whilst straightening their legs as they stand up from a squat position. This allows for the legs to be primarily responsible for the lifting of the weight.


title: Isometric exercise

text: In most sporting contexts, however, the use of a pure isometric action is rare. In skiing, for example, the skier consistently maintains a crouched position. Whilst this may be considered to be an isometric hold, there is also an amount of dynamic movement as the skier alters how deep the crouch is during their travel. Thus, isometrics can be said to be involved in and supportive of the overall skiing action, even though it is not solely isometric in nature.


title: Isometric exercise

text: In weight training and calisthenics, it is often the case that one phase of the exercise is more difficult to perform than others. If the exerciser tends to fail at this point then it is referred to as a sticking point. An isometric hold may be incorporated to strengthen the exerciser's action at this point. For instance, a sticking point in a heavy back squat is usually the lowest position reached. An isometric hold can be adopted in this position in order to strengthen the lifter's ability to hold the weight there. Over a period of training this can help them to lift the weight more easily from this position and thereby eliminate the sticking point.


title: Isometric exercise

text: The isometric preloading of muscles is instinctively performed in order to generate power to be used in subsequent dynamic movements: a fundamental element of this muscular preloading is the performance of an isometric press action. An everyday example is a person getting up off a chair. They first raise their posterior off the chair and then perform a pressing action downwards on their bent legs. As the bent legs resist the downward force upon them in equal measure, an isometric press is generated. From this point, the person then straightens and stands up. A more dynamic example is a vertical jump. Here, the jumper crouches down and adopts a similar isometric press before powering upwards into the jump.


title: Isometric exercise

text: The employment of isometric presses in order to aid explosive power movements is also found in sports such as boxing. Here, the boxer may bend their lead leg, while positioning their torso and its respective bodyweight over it, so there exists equal forces between the upwards force of the bent leg and the downward force of the torso. The boxer then throws a lead hook from this position and the forces from the isometric press are channelled into the punch and help to increase its overall power. Such a channelling of force fundamentally represents the purpose of an isometric preload: which is as a preparatory action to aid a subsequent power movement.


title: Isometric exercise

text: In the 1950s, German scientists Dr. Erich Albert Müller and Theodor Hettinger "observed that contractions involving less than about one third of maximum strength do not train the muscle. If the contraction of a muscle exceeds one third of its maximum strength, its mass grows and hence also its strength". The study at the Max Planck Institute consisted of over 200 experiments over a ten-year period. Theodor Hettinger published his book "Physiology of Strength". They both developed a training program based on isometrics exercise.


title: Isometric exercise

text: In the 1960s, professor James A. Baley put isometrics to the test with a class of 104 college students at the University of Connecticut to study the results on tests measuring increases in strength, endurance, coordination, and agility. The original article showed significant gains after a 4 week program of isometric exercises.


title: Isometric exercise

text: Isometric exercises were first brought to the modern American public's attention in the early days of physical culture, the precursor to bodybuilding. Many bodybuilders had incorporated isometric exercises into their training regimens.


title: Isometric exercise

text: Isometric exercises can also be used at the bedside to differentiate various heart murmurs; the murmur of mitral regurgitation gets louder as compared to the quieter murmur of aortic stenosis. They can also be used to prevent disuse syndrome in a limb that has been immobilized by a cast following a fracture.


title: Isometric exercise

text: Isometric exercises are recommended in case of injury. The exercises help maintain strength and promote recovery.


title: Isometric exercise

text: NASA has researched the use of isometrics in preventing muscle atrophy experienced by astronauts as a result of living in a zero gravity environment. Isometrics, muscle lengthening and muscle shortening exercises were studied and compared. The outcome showed that while all three exercise types promoted muscle growth, isometrics failed to prevent a decrease in the amount of contractile proteins found in the muscle tissue. The result was muscle degradation at a molecular level. As contractile proteins are what cause muscles to contract and give them their physical strength, NASA concluded that isometrics may not be the best way for astronauts to maintain muscle tissue.


title: Vicks

text: Vicks is an American brand of over-the-counter medications owned by the American companies Procter & Gamble and Helen of Troy Limited. Vicks manufactures NyQuil and its sister medication, DayQuil as well as other medications in the “Quil” line. The Vicks brand also produces formula 44 cough medicines, cough drops, Vicks VapoRub, and a number of inhaled breathing treatments. For much of its history, Vicks products were manufactured by the family-owned company Richardson-Vicks, Inc., based in Greensboro, North Carolina. Richardson-Vicks, Inc., was eventually sold to Procter & Gamble in 1985. Procter & Gamble divested the Vicks VapoSteam U.S. liquid inhalant business and sold it to Helen of Troy in 2015.


title: Vicks

text: In 1890, pharmacist Lunsford Richardson of Selma, North Carolina, took over the retail drug business of his brother-in-law Dr. John Vick, of Greensboro, North Carolina. After Dr. John Vick saw an ad for "Vick's Seeds", Lunsford Richardson began marketing "Vick’s Family Remedies". The basic ingredients of the range included castor oil, liniment, and 'dead shot' vermifuge. The most popular remedy was "Croup and Pneumonia Salve", which was first compounded in 1891, in Greensboro. It was introduced in 1905 with the name Vick's Magic Croup Salve and rebranded as VapoRub in 1912 at the instigation of H. Smith Richardson, Lunsford's oldest son; Smith had gained valuable sales and marketing experience while working for a period in New York and Massachusetts after attending college. Smith Richardson assumed the presidency of the company in 1919 upon his father's death.


title: Vicks

text: The flu epidemic of 1918 increased sales of VapoRub from $900,000 to $2.9 million in just one year. In 1931, the company began selling cough drops. In 1948, Edward Mabry became president of Vicks, then known as the Vick Chemical Company. In 1952, Vicks began selling cough syrup, and in 1959 they introduced Sinex Nasal Spray. The company began selling NyQuil in 1966. The parent company became Richardson-Merrell and then in 1982 divided into prescription drug company Merrell Dow (sold to Dow Chemical Company) and over-the-counter drug company Richardson-Vicks which retained the Vicks brand.


title: Vicks

text: The company archives (including related personal records of the Richardson family) from at least about 1920 or so, up to the 1985 sale to Procter & Gamble, are housed at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.


title: Vicks

text: In March 2015, Procter & Gamble sold the Vicks VapoSteam U.S. liquid inhalant business to Helen of Troy Ltd.


title: Carbonyl group

text: In organic chemistry, a carbonyl group is a functional group composed of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom: C=O. It is common to several classes of organic compounds, as part of many larger functional groups. A compound containing a carbonyl group is often referred to as a carbonyl compound.


title: Carbonyl group

text: The term carbonyl can also refer to carbon monoxide as a ligand in an inorganic or organometallic complex (a metal carbonyl, e.g. nickel carbonyl).


title: Carbonyl group

text: The remainder of this article concerns itself with the organic chemistry definition of carbonyl, where carbon and oxygen share a double bond.


title: Carbonyl group

text: Other organic carbonyls are urea and the carbamates, the derivatives of acyl chlorides chloroformates and phosgene, carbonate esters, thioesters, lactones, lactams, hydroxamates, and isocyanates. Examples of inorganic carbonyl compounds are carbon dioxide and carbonyl sulfide.


title: Carbonyl group

text: A special group of carbonyl compounds are dicarbonyl compounds, which can exhibit special properties.


title: Carbonyl group

text: For organic compounds, the length of the C-O bond does not vary widely from 120 picometers. Inorganic carbonyls have shorter C-O distances: CO, 113; CO, 116; and COCl, 116 pm.


title: Carbonyl group

text: The carbonyl carbon is typically electrophilic. A qualitative order of electrophilicity is RCHO (aldehydes) > RCO (ketones) > RCOR' (esters) > RCONH (amides). A variety of nucleophiles attack, breaking the carbon-oxygen double bond.


title: Carbonyl group

text: Interactions between carbonyl groups and other substituents were found in a study of a protein called collagen. Substituents can affect carbonyl groups by addition or subtraction of electron density by means of a sigma bond. Δ"H"σ values are much higher when the substituents on the carbonyl group are more electronegative than carbon.


title: Carbonyl group

text: The polarity of C=O bond also enhances the acidity of any adjacent C-H bonds. Due to the positive charge on carbon and the negative charge on oxygen, carbonyl groups are subject to additions and/or nucleophilic attacks. A variety of nucleophiles attack, breaking the carbon-oxygen double bond, and leading to addition-elimination reactions. Nucleophiliic reactivity is often proportional to the basicity of the nucleophile and as nucleophilicity increases, the stability within a carbonyl compound decreases. The pK values of acetaldehyde and acetone are 16.7 and 19 respectively,


title: Revolution 9

text: "Revolution 9" is a sound collage from the Beatles' 1968 self-titled double album (also known as the "White Album"). The composition, credited to Lennon–McCartney, was created primarily by John Lennon with assistance from Yoko Ono and George Harrison. Lennon said he was trying to paint a picture of a revolution using sound. The composition was influenced by the avant-garde style of Ono as well as the musique concrète works of composers such as Edgard Varèse and Karlheinz Stockhausen.


title: Revolution 9

text: The recording began as an extended ending to the album version of Lennon's song "Revolution". He, Harrison and Ono then combined the unused coda with numerous overdubbed vocals, speech, sound effects, and short tape loops of speech and musical performances, some of which were reversed. These were further manipulated with echo, distortion, stereo panning, and fading. At eight minutes and twenty-two seconds, it is the longest track that the Beatles officially released.


title: Revolution 9

text: "Revolution 9" was not the first venture by the Beatles into experimental recordings. The group had introduced avant-garde styling in their 1966 song "Tomorrow Never Knows" and, in January 1967, they recorded an unreleased piece called "Carnival of Light". McCartney said the work was inspired by composers Stockhausen and John Cage. Stockhausen was also a favourite of Lennon, and was one of the people included on the "Sgt. Pepper" album cover. Music critic Ian MacDonald wrote that "Revolution 9" may have been influenced by Stockhausen's "Hymnen" in particular.


title: Revolution 9

text: Another influence on Lennon was his relationship with Yoko Ono. Lennon and Ono had recently recorded their own avant-garde album, "". Lennon said: "Once I heard her stuff – not just the screeching and howling but her sort of word pieces and talking and breathing and all this strange stuff ... I got intrigued, so I wanted to do one." Ono attended the recording sessions and, according to Lennon, helped him select which tape loops to use.


title: Revolution 9

text: In a 1992 interview for "Musician" magazine, George Harrison said that it was he and Ringo Starr who selected the sounds, sourced from EMI's tape library, including the "Number nine, number nine" dialogue. Authors Chip Madinger and Mark Easter write that the content of Harrison's lesser-known experimental piece "Dream Scene", recorded between November 1967 and February 1968 for his "Wonderwall Music" album, suggests that Harrison had a greater influence on "Revolution 9" than has been acknowledged. In his book about the Beatles' White Album, titled "Revolution", David Quantick lists Lennon, Ono and Harrison as the "actual writers", despite the Lennon–McCartney composer's credit. In the 2011 documentary "", Ono says that "George, John and I made ['Revolution 9']" and that Harrison "sort of instigated it" and pushed them to create the piece.


title: Revolution 9

text: "Revolution 9" originated on 30 May 1968 during the first recording session for Lennon's composition "Revolution". Take 20 of that song lasted more than ten minutes and was given additional overdubs over the next two sessions. Mark Lewisohn describes the last six minutes as "pure chaos ... with discordant instrumental jamming, feedback, John repeatedly screaming 'RIGHT' and then, simply, repeatedly screaming ... with Yoko talking and saying such off-the-wall phrases as 'you become naked', and with the overlaying of miscellaneous, home-made sound effects tapes."


title: Revolution 9

text: Lennon soon decided to make the first part of the recording into a conventional Beatles song, "Revolution 1", and to use the last six minutes as the basis for a separate track, "Revolution 9". He began preparing additional sound effects and tape loops: some newly recorded in the studio, at home and from the studio archives. The work culminated on 20 June, with Lennon performing a live mix from tape loops running on machines in all three studios at EMI Studios, but during the live mix, the STEED system ran out and the sound of the tape machine rewinding can be heard at the 5:11 mark and additional prose was overdubbed by Lennon and Harrison.


title: Revolution 9

text: More overdubs were added on 21 June followed by final mixing in stereo. The stereo master was completed on 25 June when it was shortened by 53 seconds. Although other songs on the album were separately remixed for the mono version, the complexity of "Revolution 9" necessitated making the mono mix a direct reduction of the final stereo master. McCartney had been out of the country when "Revolution 9" was assembled and mixed; he was unimpressed when he first heard the finished track, and later tried to persuade Lennon to drop his insistence that it be included on the album. Lennon said that the final editing was done by himself and Ono alone.


title: Revolution 9

text: "Revolution 9" is a sound collage, which has been described as piece of experimental, avant-garde, musique concrète, surrealist, and psychedelic music. The piece begins with a slow piano theme in the key of B minor and the voice of an EMI engineer repeating the words "number nine", quickly panning across the stereo channels. Both the piano theme and the "number nine" loop recur many times during the piece, serving as a motif. Lennon later said of the track and its production:


title: Revolution 9

text: Much of the track consists of tape loops that are faded in and out, several of which are sampled from performances of classical music. Works that have been specifically identified include the Vaughan Williams motet "O Clap Your Hands", the final chord from Sibelius' "Symphony No. 7", and the reversed finale of Schumann's "Symphonic Studies". Other loops include violins from "A Day in the Life", and George Martin saying "Geoff, put the red light on". Part of the Arabic song "Awal Hamsa" by Farid al-Atrash is included shortly after the 7-minute mark. There are also loops of unidentified operatic performances, backwards mellotron, violins and sound effects, an oboe/French horn duet, a reversed electric guitar in the key of E major, loud cymbals and a reversed string quartet in the key of E-flat major.


title: Revolution 9

text: Portions of the unused coda of "Revolution 1" can be heard briefly several times during the track, particularly Lennon's screams of "right" and "all right", with a longer portion near the end featuring Ono's discourse about becoming naked. Segments of random prose read by Lennon and Harrison are heard prominently throughout, along with numerous sound effects such as laughter, a cooing baby, crowd noise, breaking glass, car horns, crackling fire and gunfire. Some of the sounds were taken from an Elektra Records album of stock sound effects. The piece ends with a recording of American football chants ("Hold that line! Block that kick!"). In all, the final mix includes at least 45 different sound sources.


title: Revolution 9

text: During compilation and sequencing of the master tape for the album "The Beatles", two unrelated segments were included between the previous song ("Cry Baby Cry") and "Revolution 9". The first was a fragment of a song based on the line "Can you take me back", an improvisation sung by McCartney that was recorded between takes of "I Will". The second was a bit of conversation from the studio control room where Alistair Taylor asked Martin for forgiveness for not bringing him a bottle of claret, and then calling him a "cheeky bitch".


title: Revolution 9

text: "Revolution 9" was released as the penultimate track on side four of the double LP. With no gaps in the sequence from "Cry Baby Cry" to "Revolution 9", the point of track division has varied among different reissues of the album. Some versions place the conversation at the end of "Cry Baby Cry", resulting in a length of 8:13 for "Revolution 9", while others start "Revolution 9" with the conversation, for a track length of 8:22. Later CD and digital releases have the conversation at the beginning of "Revolution 9".


title: Revolution 9

text: The unusual nature of "Revolution 9" engendered a wide range of opinions. Lewisohn summarised the public reaction upon its release as "most listeners loathing it outright, the dedicated fans "trying" to understand it". Music critics Robert Christgau and John Piccarella called it "an anti-masterpiece" and commented that, in effect, "for eight minutes of an album officially titled "The Beatles", there were no Beatles." In their respective reviews of the White Album, Alan Walsh of "Melody Maker" called the track "noisy, boring and meaningless", while the "NME"s Alan Smith derided it as "a pretentious piece of old codswallop ... a piece of idiot immaturity and a blotch on their own unquestioned talent as well as the album". Jann Wenner was more complimentary, writing in "Rolling Stone" that "Revolution 9" was "beautifully organized" and had more political impact than "Revolution 1". Ian MacDonald remarked that "Revolution 9" evoked the era's revolutionary disruptions and their repercussions, and thus was culturally "one of the most significant acts the Beatles ever perpetrated", as well as "the world's most widely distributed avant-garde artifact".


title: Revolution 9

text: Among more recent reviews, Rob Sheffield wrote in "The New Rolling Stone Album Guide" that it was "justly maligned", but "more fun than 'Honey Pie' or 'Yer Blues'". Mark Richardson of "Pitchfork" commented that "the biggest pop band in the world exposed millions of fans to a really great and certainly frightening piece of avant-garde art." David Quantick, writing in 2002, similarly described it as being "after nearly a quarter of a century, [still] the most radical and innovative track ever to bring a rock record to its climax". He added that, given the Beatles' popularity ensured that an avant-garde recording was found in millions of homes around the world: "No one in the history of recorded music has ever been so successful in introducing such extreme music to so many people, most of whom, admittedly, will try their best never to hear 'Revolution 9.' Those who do listen to it usually find that it not only rewards repeated playing ... but that it also knocks other tracks on the White Album into a cocked hat."


title: Revolution 9

text: Edward Sharp-Paul of FasterLouder wrote that "'Revolution #9' is the sound of an illusion shattering: Yes, the Beatles are human, and sometimes they drop almighty turds." The track was voted the worst Beatles song in one of the first such polls, conducted in 1971 by WPLJ and "The Village Voice". Writing for "Mojo" in 2003, Mark Paytress said that "Revolution 9" remained "the most unpopular piece of music the Beatles ever made", yet it was also their "most extraordinary [recording]".