title: Women in Nazi Germany

text: Fashion for women in Nazi Germany was problematic for Nazi officials. The Nazi government wanted to propagandize the "Aryan" woman. In various posters and other forms of media, this ideal Nazi woman was strong, fertile, and wore historically traditional German clothing. However, Nazi officials also did not want to hinder the German clothing or fashion industries from creating profit, as the government also sought to create a consumerist society based for the most part on German domestic products. These differences in goals often led to disparities in what was considered fashionable, nationalistic, and politically correct for women in Nazi Germany.


title: Women in Nazi Germany

text: However, although there was disagreement over how to ideally fashion German "Aryan" women, anti-Semitic, anti-American, and anti-French Nazi rhetoric played a key part in molding German women's fashion ideology. The Nazis severely criticized the Western fashions of the 1920s, claiming the Jazz Flapper fashion to be "French-Dominated" and "severely Jewish." Additionally, the Nazi Party was strictly against the Flapper style because they felt it masculinized women and created an immoral ideal. Since Nazi propaganda was reliant on shunning women to the private sphere as housewives and mother figures, the want to abolish 1920s fashion in Nazi Germany was logical.


title: Women in Nazi Germany

text: Yet, while the Nazi government sought to create a maternal ideal for the Aryan woman, they also sought financial gain from the textile industry. While Hitler urged women to consume, he concluded that women must only consume German products. The creation of a German Fashion Institute that sought to create a Western high fashion niche market created varying opinions on how fashion and Nazi politics should interact.


title: Women in Nazi Germany

text: The compulsory education for girls was not neglected and boys and girls were placed on the same footing at schools. Girls were encouraged to pursue secondary education but university courses were closed to them. Beginning in 1935 they were required to fulfill a work period of six months for the benefit of the service of women's work, the "Reichsarbeitsdienst" "Deutscher Frauenarbeitsdienst". Adolf Hitler declared, on April 12, 1942, that the schools of the Reich must gather "boys and girls from all classes" to meet "all the youth of the Reich". The education manual "Das kommende Deutschland" notes that: It was also required that they know the geography of Germany, its hymns as well as the clauses of the Treaty of Versailles.


title: Women in Nazi Germany

text: The BDM was particularly regarded as instructing females to avoid "Rassenschande" (racial defilement), which was treated with particular importance for young females in order to preserve the Aryan race. During the war, repeated efforts were made to propagate Volkstum ("racial consciousness"), to prevent sexual relations between Germans and any foreign workers. Nazi propaganda published pamphlets that enjoined all German women to avoid sexual relations with all foreign workers brought to Germany as a danger to their blood. German women accused of racial defilement were paraded through the streets with a shaved head and placard around her neck detailing her crime. Those convicted were sent to a concentration camp. When Himmler reportedly asked Hitler what the punishment should be for German girls and German women who have been found guilty of race defilement with prisoners of war (POWs) he ordered "every POW who has relations with a German girl or a German would be shot" and the German woman should be publicly humiliated by "having her hair shorn and being sent to a concentration camp".


title: Women in Nazi Germany

text: Robert Gellately in "The Gestapo and German Society. Enforcing Racial Policy 1933–1945" writes about such cases of German women being found guilty of sexual relations with prisoners of war and foreigner workers. One case in March 1941 was of a married woman who had an affair with a French prisoner of war had her head shaved and was marched through the town of in Lower Franconia carrying a sign which said, ""I have sullied the honour of the German woman."" Another case was Dora von Calbitz who in September 1940 was found guilty of having sexual relations with a Pole. She had her head shaved and was placed in the pillory of her town of Oschatz near Leipzig, with a sign that proclaimed, ""I have been a dishonourable German woman in that I sought and had relations with Poles. By doing that I excluded myself from the community of the people.""


title: Women in Nazi Germany

text: The education of girls also meant political education; there already existed elite schools of political studies, the Napola (), one for girls opened in 1939 in Vienna and another in 1942 in Luxembourg. These institutions did not have a purpose of enabling women to re-enter political life but of endowing the best with the cultural baggage required to occupy posts related to the management of women's affairs. This concerned a very small minority. However, on June 5, 1942, the Minister of Finance Lutz Schwerin von Krosigk, a conservative politician, threatened to cut grants to the second school, if it did not become a simple internship for adolescents, rejecting all political education for girls. Adolf Hitler decided otherwise on June 24, 1943, promising the construction of three new Napola.


title: Women in Nazi Germany

text: When the Hitler Youth was devoted to organizing the extra-curricular life of male adolescents, the (BDM), occupied female adolescents from 14 to 18 years. Founded in 1934, the movement was needed after the law of December 1, 1936. It was led from 1934 to 1937 by Trude Mohr, then from 1937 to 1945 by the psychologist Jutta Rüdiger. Young girls were trained for certain employment (social work, cleaning) or farming (, helping with harvest) and practised sports ; but shockingly, as the education manual "Das kommende Deutschland" shows, the physical performance demanded was sometimes the same as those of the boys (for example, to run 60 meters in less than 12 seconds). Every Wednesday evening, for girls from 15 to 20 years old, the "home parties" took place, for discussing art and culture. Vacation camps, held for one week during Summer, in Germany or abroad, were organized. There also existed a required six-month work service, the (National Young Women's Work Service), completed in 1941 with six extra months in the (for the war effort). For young women aged 18 to 25 years old wishing to find work, in 1938 the was instituted, one year of obligatory service in farming or domestic work.


title: Women in Nazi Germany

text: Women could be members of the Nazi Party, but newcomers to the party were only admitted if they were "useful" (nurses or cooks for example). They numbered 5% of women in 1933 and 17% in 1937. But since October 1931 the NS-Frauenschaft (NSF) existed, the political organization for Nazi women, that sought above all to promote the ideal of the model woman of Nazi Germany; at its foundation, it was responsible for training in housekeeping. Young women joined when they were 15 years old. On 31 December 1932, the NSF counted 109,320 members. In 1938, it had 2 million, corresponding to 40% of the total number of party members. The NSF was directed by Gertrud Scholtz-Klink, who had the title of Reichsführerin; she called the members "my daughters" and acquired a strong influence over them and a certain credibility. Her views on women were obviously in agreement with those of Adolf Hitler, but she still defended access to some positions of responsibility. She did not participate in major meetings of the party but was invited to the party congress.


title: Women in Nazi Germany

text: School textbooks were edited beginning in 1934, often under the supervision of the doctor , an author notably for "The German Mother and Her First Baby", which was widely published, and promoting the driving role of the German mother in building the regime, or "Mother, tell me about Adolf Hitler" ("Mutter, erzähl von Adolf Hitler"), to lead women to indoctrinate their children in Nazi values:


title: Women in Nazi Germany

text: Housekeeping training was promoted through Frauenwerk (German Women's Work), which opened thematic courses for "ethnically pure" women. It is notable, however, that although there were numerous courses for domestic training, gymnastics and music, they deserted those oriented towards antireligious teaching.


title: Women in Nazi Germany

text: The NS-Frauenschaft "played no political role and did not oppose the loss of hard-won women's rights. It defended the role of the mother of the family at home, conscious of their duties at the heart of the community. Provided, containing women within the private sphere does not hide their responsibilities under the Third Reich ; we know today that the Frauenbewegung (women's movement) thought the place of a woman in society was at the heart of a community that excluded Jews and performed a civilizing mission in occupied Eastern Europe to preserve the race".


title: Women in Nazi Germany

text: During the Second World War, temporarily contradicting their past claims, the Nazis changed policy and allowed women to join the German army. Adolf Hitler had already affirmed in a speech to activists of the National Socialist Women's League on September 13, 1936: "We possess a generation of healthy men - and we, National Socialists, are going to watch - Germany will not form any section of women grenade throwers or any corps of women elite snipers." Therefore, women were not assigned to combat units during the war, but were regarded as auxiliary military personnel, responsible for logistical and administrative duties in the areas understaffed due to the number of men sent into combat. Other women also worked in factories or in military education. Military members of the "Reichsbahn" (National Company of Railways) or the "Feuerwehr" (firefighters) wore uniforms appropriate to the era, especially with a skirt. Gertrud Scholtz-Klink, NSDAP member and leader of the National Socialist Women's League stated:


title: Women in Nazi Germany

text: Beginning in 1943, the Reich Minister of the Economy introduced the job training program called "Berufsausbildungsprogramm Ost" for farming duty in the East (not to be confused with the ethnic cleansing of Generalplan Ost). He extended the existing laws of the Reich, concerning the protection of minors and of employment standards for the "League of German Girls" ("Bund Deutscher Mädel") "Osteinsatz", for whom such work was compulsory. Adolescent girls were employed in the Brandebourg Market for the agricultural work program. They were active in the resettlement areas of occupied Poland as their assignment. Yet, referring to the decree of January 1943, calling for the mobilization of German women aged 17 to 45, Gertrud Scholtz-Klink from NSDAP said in September of that year at a conference in Bad Schlachen:


title: Women in Nazi Germany

text: The Minister of Propaganda Joseph Goebbels in his "Sportspalast" speech delivered on February 18, 1943 at the Berlin Sports Hall, called on German women to work, and to be sober in their commitment:


title: Women in Nazi Germany

text: The mobilisation of women in the war economy always remained limited: the number of women practising a professional activity in 1944 was virtually unchanged from 1939, being about 15 million women, in contrast to Great Britain, so that the use of women did not progress and only 1,200,000 of them worked in the arms industry in 1943, in working conditions that were difficult and often poorly treated by their bosses, who deplored their lack of qualification.


title: Women in Nazi Germany

text: In 1945, there numbered 500,000 women auxiliaries in the Wehrmacht (Wehrmachtshelferinnen), who were at the heart of the Heer, the Luftwaffe and the Kriegsmarine. About half of them were volunteers, the others performing obligatory service connected to the war effort (Kriegshilfsdienst). They took part, under the same authority as prisoners of war (Hiwis), as auxiliary personnel of the army (Behelfspersonal) and they were assigned to duties not only within the heart of the Reich, but also to the occupied territories, for example in the General government of occupied Poland, in France, and later in Yugoslavia, in Greece and in Romania.


title: Women in Nazi Germany

text: The SS-Gefolge was the women's wing of the men's SS, but in contrast it was only confined to voluntary work in Emergency Service (Notdienstverpflichtung). SS Women belonged either to the "" or the "SS-Kriegshelferinnen". They were in charge of auxiliary transmissions (telephone, radio operators, stenographers) in the SS and sometimes in camps (these were the Aufseherin, see next section). There was an internal hierarchy in the women's wing of the SS, which had no influence on the male troops, although the titles designated to the women sometimes had an influence upon the owners. However, whereas female camp guards were civilian employees of the SS, the SS-Helferinnen who completed training at the Reich-school in Obernai (Oberehnheim) were members of the Waffen-SS.


title: Women in Nazi Germany

text: The SS-Helferinnen were trained at the Reichsschule-SS at Oberehnheim in Alsace. The Reichsschule-SS (in full, the Reichsschule für SS Helferinnen Oberenheim) was the training centre for the SS, reserved for women, and opened in Obernai in May 1942 upon the order of Heinrich Himmler. The SS-Helferinnenkorps has also been termed by historians as the 'SS-Frauenkorps'. 7,900 women were employed in the clerical unit of the SS, the SS Frauenkorps, and 10,000 as SS auxiliaries or Helferinnen. The training was more difficult than that for women enrolled in the German Army. They had to meet certain physical criteria determined by the regime: they must be aged 17 to 30 years and measure more than tall, while over the long term, the enrollment criteria were relaxed (the age limit was raised to 40 years and minimum height dropped to 1.58 metres); they even accepted 15 Muslim students. Having been in a privileged status, war widows were favoured before the admissions were opened up to other social classes. Women enrolled at the Reichsschule-SS came from various economic, class and educational backgrounds and included a member of the aristocracy in the ranks, Princess Ingeborg Alix. The Reichsschule-SS appealed to female Nazi ideologues who foresaw the possibility of social ascent by becoming an SS-Helferin, and candidates were often from families with other SS and NSDAP members. It has been noted by historians that "some SS-Helferinnen knew about the persecution of those whom the Nazis deemed to be worthless; Hermine S., who worked as an administrator at Auschwitz, stated that she knew the word Sonderbehandlung meant the gassing of prisoners." In her review of Jutta Muhlenberg's book, "Das SS-Helferinnenkorps: Ausbildung, Einsatz und Entnazifizierung der weiblichen Angehörigen der Waffen-SS 1942–1949", Rachel Century writes: The school closed in 1944 due to the advance of the Allies.


title: Women in Nazi Germany

text: Women were within the ranks of the Nazis at the Nazi concentration camps : these were the Aufseherinnen and generally belonged to the SS. They were guards, secretaries or nurses. They arrived before the start of the war, some of them being trained from 1938 in Lichtenburg. This took place due to the need for personnel following the growing number of political prisoners after the Kristallnacht on 8 and 9 November 1938. After 1939, they were trained at Camp Ravensbrück near Berlin. Coming mostly from lower- or middle-class social origins, they previously worked in traditional professions (hairdresser, teacher, for example) but were, in contrast to men who were required to fulfill military serve, the women were driven by a sincere desire to reach the female wing of the SS, the SS-Gefolge. Of the 50,000 total number of guards at all the Nazi camps, there were 5,000 women (approximately 10% of the workforce).


title: Women in Nazi Germany

text: They worked at the Auschwitz and Majdanek camps beginning in 1942. The following year, the Nazis began the conscription of women because of the shortage of guards. Later, during the war, women were also assigned on a smaller scale in the camps Neuengamme Auschwitz (I, II and III), Plaszow Flossenbürg, Gross-Rosen Vught and Stutthof and in the death camps of Bełżec, Sobibór Treblinka and Chełmno. Seven Aufseherinnen served at Vught, 24 were at Buchenwald, 34 at Bergen-Belsen, 19 at Dachau, 20 at Mauthausen, three at Mittelbau-Dora, seven at Natzweiler-Struthof, twenty at Majdanek, 200 at Auschwitz and its sub-camps, 140 at Sachsenhausen, 158 at Neuengamme, 47 at Stutthof, compared with 958 who served at Ravensbrück, 561 at Flossenbürg and 541 at Gross-Rosen. Many supervisors worked in the sub-camps in Germany and some in France, Austria, Czechoslovakia and Poland.


title: Women in Nazi Germany

text: There was a hierarchy within the "Aufseherin" position, including the following higher ranks: the "Rapportaufseherin" (head Aufseherin), the "Erstaufseherin" (first guard), the "Lagerführerin" (head of the camp), and finally, the "Oberaufseherin" (senior inspector), a post only occupied by Anna Klein and Luise Brunner.


title: Women in Nazi Germany

text: Under the same threats as men who were Jews or Romani, women belonging to these communities were equally discriminated against, then deported and for some exterminated. In many concentration camps there were sections for female detainees (notably at Auschwitz and Bergen-Belsen) but the camp at Ravensbrück, opened in May 1939, distinguished itself as a camp solely for women, by 1945 numbering about 100,000 prisoners. The first women's concentration camp had been opened in 1933 in Moringen, before being transferred to Lichtenburg in 1938.


title: Women in Nazi Germany

text: In concentration camps, women were considered weaker than men, and they were generally sent to the gas chambers more quickly, whereas the strength of men was used to work the men to exhaustion. Some women were subjected to medical experiments.


title: Women in Nazi Germany

text: Some took the path of the Resistance, such as the Polish member Haika Grossman, who participated in the organization for aid for the ghetto of Białystok, during the night of August 15 to 16, 1943. On October 7, 1944, members of the Sonderkommando, 250 prisoners responsible for the bodies of persons after gassing, rose up ; they had procured explosives stolen by a Kommando of young Jewish women (Ala Gertner, Regina Safir, Estera Wajsblum and Roza Robota) who worked in the armament factories of the "Union Werke". They succeeded in partially destroying Crematorium IV.


title: Women in Nazi Germany

text: In addition to the resistors forced into their commitment because of their risk of being deported and exterminated because of their race, some were also committed against the German Nazi regime. Women represented approximately 15% of the Resistance. Monique Moser-Verrey notes however:


title: Women in Nazi Germany

text: The student Communist Liselotte Herrmann protested in 1933 against the appointment of Adolf Hitler as chancellor and managed to get information to foreign governments about the rearmament of Germany. In 1935 she was arrested, sentenced to death two years later and executed in 1938. She was the first German mother to suffer the death penalty since the beginning of the regime. Twenty women from Düsseldorf, who saw their fathers, brothers and son deported to the camp Börgermoor, managed to smuggle out the famous "The Song of the deportees" and make it known. Freya von Moltke, Mildred Harnack-Fish and Libertas Schulze-Boysen participated in the Resistance group Kreisau Circle and Red Orchestra; the last two were arrested and executed. The 20-year-old student Sophie Scholl, a member of The White Rose was executed February 22, 1943 with her brother Hans Scholl and Christoph Probst, for posting leaflets. The resistor Maria Terwiel helped to spread knowledge of the famous sermons condemning the Nazi movement given by Clemens von Galen, Bishop of Munster, as well as helping Jews escape to abroad. She was executed on 5 August 1943. The successful protests of women can also be noted, called the Rosenstraße, racially "Aryan" women married to Jews who, in February 1943, obtained the release of their husbands.


title: Women in Nazi Germany

text: Women also fought for the Resistance from abroad, like Dora Schaul, a Communist who had left Germany in 1934 and involved from July 1942 with clandestine networks, Deutsch Arbeit (German Labour) and Deutsche-Feldpost (My German countryside), from the School of Military Health in Lyon. Hilde Meisel attempted in 1933 to galvanize British public opinion against the Nazi regime. She returned to Germany during the war but was executed at the bend of a road.


title: Women in Nazi Germany

text: A little over half of the Righteous Among the Nations recognized by Yad Vashem are women. While many of them acted in cooperation with other family members, some of these courageous women were the initiators of the rescue and acted independently to save Jews.


title: Women in Nazi Germany

text: Although women did not have political power in Nazi Germany, a circle of influence did exist around Adolf Hitler. Within this circle, Hitler became acquainted with the British Unity Mitford and Magda Goebbels, wife of the Minister of Propaganda Joseph Goebbels. Magda Goebbels became known by the nickname "First Lady of the Third Reich": she represented the regime during State visits and official events. Her marriage to Goebbels on December 19, 1931 was considered a society event, where Leni Riefenstahl was a notable guest. She posed as the model German mother for Mothers Day. Eleonore Baur, a friend of Hitler since 1920 (she had participated in the Beer Hall putsch) was the only woman to receive the Blood Order; she also participated in official receptions and was close to Heinrich Himmler, who even named her a colonel of the SS and permitted her free access to the concentration camps, which she went to regularly, particularly Dachau. Hitler did not forget that he owed part of his political ascension to women integrated in the society world (aristocrats or industrialists), such as Elsa Bruckmann.


title: Women in Nazi Germany

text: Women were also able to distinguish themselves in certain domains, but they were the exceptions that proved the rule. Thus Leni Riefenstahl was the official film director of the regime and was given enormous funding for her cinematic productions ("Triumph of the Will", and "Olympia"). Winifred Wagner directed the highly publicized Bayreuth Festival, and soprano Elisabeth Schwarzkopf was promoted as the "Nazi diva", as noted by an American newspaper. Hanna Reitsch, an aviator, distinguished herself with her handling of test aircraft and military projects of the regime, notably the V1 flying bomb.


title: Women in Nazi Germany

text: After the collapse of Nazi Germany, many German women nicknamed "Trümmerfrauen" ("Rubble Women") participated in the rebuilding of Germany by clearing up the ruins resulting from the war. In the Soviet occupation zone, more than two million women were victims of rape. One of them would publish a memoir recalling this experience: "" ("A Woman In Berlin"). As the Soviets entered German territory, German women typically had no choice, save suicide, to comply. Age did not matter with victimization crossing the generational strata entirely. Famed Russian author Alexander Solzhenitsyn, outraged by finding the body of a small girl murdered following a gang rape, wrote a scathing poem to mark the moment for posterity "(right)".


title: Women in Nazi Germany

text: What Solzhenitsyn's poem also reveals is the penchant for revenge the Red Army exacted upon Germany, a recompense promulgated by Soviet leaders. Soviet troops were given a certain degree of license in the early victories in repulsing the Germans, as even Josef Stalin expressed outright indifference towards rape. An example is discernible in what Stalin once asked Yugoslav's communist leader Milovan Djilas, "Can’t he understand it if a soldier who has crossed thousands of kilometers through blood and fire and death has fun with a woman or takes some trifle?" Many German women died in the midst of such trifles, their husbands and families suffering immeasurable grief along with them, and some of them chose to take their own lives in lieu of being raped. Even when not raped, women hid in apartments, cellars, and closets for fear of being violated, experiencing hunger, fear, and loneliness which left psychological scars for years to come. For more background see: Rape during the occupation of Germany.


title: Women in Nazi Germany

text: The question of the culpability of the German people in their support of Nazism has long overshadowed the women, who had little political power under the regime. Thus, as explained by the German historian Gisela Bock, who was involved with the first historians to highlight this issue, by asking women during the Nazi era. In 1984, in "When Biology Became Destiny, Women in Weimar and Nazi Germany", she wrote that women who are enslaved economically and morally, cannot exercise their freedom by being confined in the home and placed under the rule of their husbands. Thus, we associate studies on the subject during the 1980s mainly with perceptions that women were victims of "machismo" and a "misogynist" fascism. In terms of voting patterns, a higher proportion of male voters supported the Nazi party compared to female voters.


title: Women in Nazi Germany

text: However, the simplicity of this analysis tends to disappear with recent studies. In 1987, historian Claudia Koonz, in "Mothers in Fatherland, Women, the Family and Nazi Politics" questioned this statement and acknowledged some guilt. She states as follows: "Far from being impressionable or innocent, women made possible State murder in the name of interests that they defined as maternal." For her, the containing of housewives just allowed them to assert themselves and grasp an identity, especially through women's associations led by Nazi Gertrud Scholtz-Klink. They therefore helped to stabilize the system. The women took pleasure in politics and eugenics of the state, which promised financial assistance if the birth rate was high, so they would help to stabilize the system "by preserving the illusion of love in an environment of hate." In addition, if Gisela Bock denounced the work of her colleague as "anti-feminist", others as refuse to stop at a strict choice between complicity and oppression and are more interested in how Nazism included women in their project for Germany.


title: Women in Nazi Germany

text: Kate Docking, in her book review of "Female Administrators of the Third Reich" writes that, "The key merit of this monograph is that it makes visible the women who ultimately allowed the Holocaust to occur: as the author notes, while these women did not execute orders for the persecution of Jews themselves, the genocide could not have been accomplished without those who typed the orders, answered the telephones, and sent the telegrams. Female administrators had the opportunity to question their orders and find out more about the Holocaust, but generally, they did not. They had some awareness of the Holocaust, and did nothing. Many recalled their time working for the Third Reich with fondness and nostalgia." Recent work from historian Wendy Lower (consultant to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum), demonstrates that a substantial number of women were accomplices to Nazi atrocities, and sometimes direct participants. Lower writes: Such realities make it abundantly clear that by the time the war ended, German women had traversed the full-circle of being once sheltered incubators for the Aryan future to effectual contributors in the Nazi concentration camp system.


title: Women in Nazi Germany

text: There are many militant neo-Nazis or defenders of former Nazis, such as the Germans or Gudrun Himmler (daughter of Heinrich Himmler), who are active through the organization Stille Hilfe, and the French citizens Françoise Dior and Savitri Devi.


title: The Razor's Edge

text: The Razor's Edge is a 1944 novel by W. Somerset Maugham. It tells the story of Larry Darrell, an American pilot traumatized by his experiences in World War I, who sets off in search of some transcendent meaning in his life. The story begins through the eyes of Larry's friends and acquaintances as they witness his personality change after the war. His rejection of conventional life and search for meaningful experience allows him to thrive while the more materialistic characters suffer reversals of fortune.


title: The Razor's Edge

text: The novel's title comes from a translation of a verse in the "Katha Upanishad", paraphrased in the book's epigraph as: "The sharp edge of a razor is difficult to pass over; thus the wise say the path to Salvation is hard."


title: The Razor's Edge

text: first in 1946 starring Tyrone Power and Gene Tierney, with Herbert Marshall as Maugham and Anne Baxter as Sophie, and then a 1984 adaptation starring Bill Murray.


title: The Razor's Edge

text: Maugham begins by characterising his story as not really a novel but a thinly veiled true account. He includes himself as a minor character, a writer who drifts in and out of the lives of the major players. Larry Darrell's lifestyle is contrasted throughout the book with that of his fiancée's uncle Elliott Templeton, an American expatriate living in Paris and an unrepentantly shallow yet generous snob. For example, while Templeton's Roman Catholicism embraces the hierarchical trappings of the church, Larry's proclivities tend towards the thirteenth-century Flemish mystic and saint John of Ruysbroeck.


title: The Razor's Edge

text: Wounded and traumatised by the death of a comrade in the War, Larry returns to Chicago and his fiancée Isabel Bradley, only to announce that he does not plan to seek paid employment and instead will "loaf" on his small inheritance. He wants to delay their marriage and refuses to take up a job as a stockbroker offered to him by Henry Maturin, the father of his friend Gray. Meanwhile, Sophie, Larry's childhood friend, settles into a happy marriage, only to later tragically lose her husband and baby in a car accident.


title: The Razor's Edge

text: Larry moves to Paris and immerses himself in study and bohemian life. After two years of this "loafing", Isabel visits and Larry asks her to join his life of wandering and searching, living in Paris and traveling with little money. She cannot accept his vision of life and breaks their engagement to go back to Chicago. There she marries the millionaire Gray, who provides her a rich family life. Meanwhile, Larry begins a sojourn through Europe, taking a job at a coal mine in Lens, France, where he befriends a former Polish army officer named Kosti. Kosti's influence encourages Larry to look toward things spiritual for his answers rather than in books. Larry and Kosti leave the coal mine and travel together for a time before parting ways. Larry then meets a Benedictine monk named Father Ensheim in Bonn, Germany, while Father Ensheim is on leave from his monastery doing academic research. After spending several months with the Benedictines and being unable to reconcile their conception of God with his own, Larry takes a job on an ocean liner and finds himself in Bombay.


title: The Razor's Edge

text: Larry has significant spiritual adventures in India and comes back to Paris. What he actually found in India and what he finally concluded are held back from the reader for a considerable time until, in a scene late in the book, Maugham discusses India and spirituality with Larry in a café long into the evening. He starts off the chapter by saying "I feel it right to warn the reader that he can very well skip this chapter without losing the thread of the story as I have to tell, since for most part it is nothing more than the account of a conversation that I had with Larry. However, I should add that except for this conversation, I would perhaps not have thought it worthwhile to write this book." Maugham then initiates the reader to Advaita philosophy and reveals how, through deep meditation and contact with Bhagawan Ramana Maharshi, disguised as Sri Ganesha in the novel, Larry goes on to realise God through the experience of samadhi—thus becoming a saint—and in the process gains liberation from the cycle of human suffering, birth, and death that the rest of the earthly mortals are subject to.


title: The Razor's Edge

text: The 1929 stock market crash has ruined Gray, and he and Isabel are invited to live in her uncle Elliott Templeton's grand Parisian house. Gray is often incapacitated with agonising migraines due to a general nervous collapse. Larry is able to help him using an Indian form of hypnotic suggestion. Sophie has also drifted to the French capital, where her friends find her reduced to alcohol, opium, and promiscuity – empty and dangerous liaisons that seem to help her to bury her pain. Larry first sets out to save her and then decides to marry her, a plan which displeases Isabel, who is still in love with him.


title: The Razor's Edge

text: Isabel tempts Sophie back into alcoholism with a bottle of "Pertsofka" and she disappears from Paris. Maugham deduces this after seeing Sophie in Toulon, where she has returned to smoking opium and promiscuity. He is drawn back into the tale when police interrogate him after Sophie has been found murdered with an inscribed book from him in her room, along with volumes by Baudelaire and Rimbaud.


title: The Razor's Edge

text: Meanwhile, in Antibes, Elliott Templeton is on his deathbed. Despite the fact that he has throughout his life compulsively sought out aristocratic society, none of his titled friends come to see him, which makes him alternately morose and irate. But his outlook on death is somewhat positive: "I have always moved in the best society in Europe, and I have no doubt that I shall move in the best society in heaven."


title: The Razor's Edge

text: Isabel inherits his fortune, but genuinely grieves for her uncle. Maugham confronts her about Sophie, having figured out Isabel's role in Sophie's downfall. Isabel's only punishment will be that she will never get Larry, who has decided to return to the United States of America and live as a common working man. He is uninterested in the rich and glamorous world that Isabel will move in. Maugham ends his narrative by suggesting that all the characters got what they wanted in the end: "Elliott social eminence; Isabel an assured position...Sophie death; and Larry happiness."


title: The Razor's Edge

text: Maugham, like Hermann Hesse, anticipated a fresh embrace of Eastern culture by Americans and Europeans almost a decade before the Beats were to popularise it. (Americans had explored Eastern philosophy before these authors, in the nineteenth century through the Transcendentalists, Theosophists, the visit of Vivekananda in 1893, and then Yogananda's move to the US in 1920.) Maugham visited Sri Ramana Ashram, where he had a direct interaction with Ramana Maharshi in Tamil Nadu, India in 1938. Maugham's suggestion that he "invented nothing" was a source of annoyance for Christopher Isherwood, who helped him translate the verse (1.3.14) from the Katha Upanishad for the novel's epigraph – उत्तिष्ठ जाग्रत प्राप्य वरान्निबोधत| क्षुरस्य धारा निशिता दुरत्यया दुर्गं पथस्तत्कवयो वदन्ति|| (uttiṣṭha jāgrata prāpya varān nibodhata| kṣurasya dhārā niśitā duratyayā durga pathas tat kavayo vadanti|| ) – which means "Rise, wake up, seek the wise and realize. The path is difficult to cross like the sharpened edge of the razor (knife), so say the wise."


title: The Razor's Edge

text: Many thought Isherwood, who had built his own literary reputation by then and was studying Indian philosophy, was the basis for the book's hero. Isherwood went so far as to write to "Time" denying this speculation. It has been suggested that Guy Hague was an important influence in the character of Darrell, although it now appears that he was not at Ramanasramam when Maugham visited. The English poet and translator Lewis Thompson is thought to be a more likely candidate. David Haberman has pointed out that Ronald Nixon, an Englishman who took monastic vows and became known as Krishna Prem, served as a fighter pilot in the First World War and experienced a crisis of meaninglessness that was "strikingly similar" to that experienced by Larry.


title: The Razor's Edge

text: Another distinct possibility for influence is raised by the anglicised American, British MP Chips Channon in his diaries. During a trip to New York in August 1944, Channon wrote "I saw much of Somerset Maugham, who never before was a friend. He has put me into a book, 'the Razor's Edge' and when I dined with him, I asked him why he had done it, and he explained, with some embarrassment, that he had split me into three characters, and then written a book about all three. So I am Elliott Templeton, Larry, himself the hero of the book, and another: however I am flattered, and the book is a masterpiece ...".


title: Aziz Akhannouch

text: Aziz Akhannouch (; ; born 1961) is a Moroccan politician, businessman, and billionaire who is currently the Prime Minister of Morocco since his government took office on 7 October 2021. He is the CEO of Akwa Group and also served as Minister of Agriculture from 2007 to 2021.


title: Aziz Akhannouch

text: Akhannouch was born in 1961 in Tafraout and raised in Casablanca. His mother and sister were survivors of the Agadir earthquake from a year earlier that killed ten of his family members: they were reported to have been left buried beneath rubble for several hours before being rescued.


title: Aziz Akhannouch

text: He is the CEO of Akwa Group, a Moroccan conglomerate particularly active in the oil and gas sector. Forbes estimated his net worth as $1.4 billion in November 2013. Akhannouch inherited Akwa from his father. In 2020, he was ranked 12th on "Forbes"s annual list of Africa's wealthiest billionaires, with an estimated net worth of $2 billion.


title: Aziz Akhannouch

text: From 2003 to 2007, Akhannouch was the president of the Souss-Massa-Drâa regional council. He was a member of the National Rally of Independents Party, before leaving it on 2 January 2012.


title: Aziz Akhannouch

text: On 23 August 2013 he was appointed by King Mohammed VI as Minister of Finance on an interim basis after Istiqlal ministers resigned from Benkirane's cabinet, a position he kept until 9 October 2013. On 29 October 2016, Akhannouch rejoined the RNI after being elected the president of the party. He took over Salaheddine Mezouar's position, who had resigned.


title: Aziz Akhannouch

text: On 27 July 2016, Akhannouch met with Jonathan Pershing, Special Envoy for Climate Change for the United States. They spoke about preparations for the 2016 United Nations Conference of the Parties.


title: Aziz Akhannouch

text: In March 2020, through his company Afriquia, a subsidiary of the Akwa group, Akhannouch donated roughly one billion dirhams ($103.5 million) to a COVID-19 pandemic management fund founded by King Mohammed VI.


title: Aziz Akhannouch

text: In the 2021 general election, his party placed first, winning 102 seats of the 395 seats. On 10 September 2021, he was appointed as Prime Minister by King Mohammed VI, succeeding Saadeddine Othmani, and was tasked by the King to form a new government. Akhannouch announced the formation of an official coalition government alongside the PAM and Istiqlal parties on 22 September 2021, thus officializing his status as Prime Minister of Morocco.


title: Aziz Akhannouch

text: In late October, Akhannouch represented King Mohammed VI at a Green Initiative event in Saudi Arabia, and was criticized by Moroccan citizens for wearing a pin of the MENA region that excluded Western Sahara.


title: Aziz Akhannouch

text: In September 2022, Akhannouch attended the 77th session of the United Nations General Assembly in New York.


title: Aziz Akhannouch

text: On 11 October 2022, Akhannouch met with Prince Guillaume, Hereditary Grand Duke of Luxembourg along with his business partners in Rabat, in order to boost economic trade between Morocco and Luxembourg.


title: Aziz Akhannouch

text: In 2015 and 2016, after the Moroccan government decided to liberalize fuel prices, the fuel companies decided to collude with each other and not reduce prices. Among those companies was the Akwa company, owned by Akhannouch.


title: Aziz Akhannouch

text: The profits of these companies amounted to about 17 billion dirhams (around US$1.75 billion), and several parties described them as immoral and illegal profits on the back of the Moroccan people. There were still several demands to restore them, whether in Parliament or in the media.


title: Aziz Akhannouch

text: During the period following the case, the president of the Competition Council, , prepared a report on Akhannouch's illegal profits, and submitted it to King Mohammed VI. In March 2021, Guerraoui was relieved of his position and replaced by Ahmed Rahhou.


title: Aziz Akhannouch

text: As of 2016, the Ministry of Agriculture spent several million dirhams annually in massive advertising in the country's print press. If a newspaper criticized Akhannouch or his Maroc Vert plan, it immediately saw the Ministry's advertisements cut off, along with those of the Akwa group.


title: Aziz Akhannouch

text: In 2017, Akhannouch sued three journalists from the Badil news site for having criticized him. He demanded that they pay him 1 million dirhams.


title: Aziz Akhannouch

text: In the spring of 2018, Morocco was shaken by a boycott movement launched against Centrale Danone, Sidi Ali (mineral water) and Akwa's subsidiary Afriquia. These three brands, leaders in three basic products – milk, water and fuel – were accused by the population of charging very high prices. The movement became extremely popular, leading to reactions from the government.


title: Aziz Akhannouch

text: According to the French think tank School of Thought on Economic Warfare (EPGE), which investigated the boycott movement, it would be a campaign of disinformation “hierarchized therefore orchestrated by a precise political agenda”. This destabilization initiative would even have benefited from a substantial budget, with for example between 100,000 and 500,000 euros for the purchase of online space to disseminate the ideas of the movement. To this must be added expensive donation campaigns to the poor to mobilize public opinion. According to the same study, the movement of Al Adl Wa Al Ihssan would be behind this boycott campaign with the aim of removing Akhanouch from the political scene.


title: Aziz Akhannouch

text: Akhannouch himself said he "ignored" the boycott campaign while speaking to "Jeune Afrique", accusing opponents of "exploiting Moroccans' hardship for political goals".


title: Aziz Akhannouch

text: On 17 November 2018, the King reacted by appointing Driss Guerraoui as president of the Competition Council. In 2020, the Council recognized that the three brands targeted by the 2018 boycott campaign had reached an agreement on prices.


title: Aziz Akhannouch

text: In December 2019, during a meeting in Milan with Moroccans living in Italy, Akhannouch declared, "Whoever believes that they can come and insult the institutions of the country has no place in Morocco. Whoever wants to [live] in Morocco must respect its motto and its democracy. Insults will not move us forward. And excuse me, but it is not justice that should do this job. […] We must re-educate Moroccans who lack education." The remarks triggered strong reactions from Moroccan politicians and netizens as well as a call for the resuming of the 2018 boycott of his companies. TelQuel attributed his comments in relation to the arrest & prosecution of a Moroccan YouTuber after he published a video criticizing King Mohammed VI's speeches.


title: Aziz Akhannouch

text: Throughout less than 200 days into Akhannouch's time in office, he became a target of Moroccans calling for his resignation, accusing him of corruption. The prices of fuel and several essential food products have skyrocketed in recent months, as the price of a 5-litre bottle of vegetable oil increased by 27 dirhams, while the price of 25 kg of semolina, widely used in Moroccan cuisine, increased by 50 dirhams. The inflation affected many vulnerable families, in which more than 430,000 Moroccans lost their jobs.


title: Aziz Akhannouch

text: In 2022, as fuel prices continued to rise, an online campaign emerged with tens of thousands of users on Twitter and Facebook using the three French hashtags #7dh_Gazoil, #8dh_Essence and #Degage_Akhannouch ("Get out Akhannouch") to call for an immediate decrease in gas prices, accusing Akhannouch and his company Afriquia of benefiting from the crisis. Abdelilah Benkirane, head of the Justice and Development Party (PJD) and former Prime Minister, said that he "didn't support" the online campaign, adding that "only Sidna (our lord) [King Mohammed VI] has the competence (…) to put an end to this cabinet and call for the organisation of early legislative elections". Nevertheless, several PJD members participated in the campaign.


title: Aziz Akhannouch

text: Akhannouch is married to Salwa Idrissi, a businesswoman who owns a company active in malls and holds the Moroccan franchises for brands such as Gap and Zara. They have three children.


title: Andrea Bowen

text: Andrea Bowen is an American actress and singer. She began her career appearing on Broadway musicals, including "Les Misérables" and "The Sound of Music". In 2004, she began playing the role of Julie Mayer on the ABC comedy-drama series "Desperate Housewives", a role she played on a regular basis until 2008. She later appeared on a recurring basis until the show ended in 2012. Bowen later went on to star in a number of Lifetime television movies.


title: Andrea Bowen

text: Bowen is of Welsh, English, and German descent. She is the younger sister of Graham Bowen, Alex Bowen, Cameron Bowen, Jessica Bowen, and Jillian Bowen (who are also actors). Bowen briefly attended the Professional Performing Arts School in New York alongside best friend Sarah Hyland.


title: Andrea Bowen

text: She made her Broadway debut in 1996 as Young Cosette/Young Éponine in "Les Misérables". At six, she was the youngest actress ever to play the role. From 1996 to 2001 Bowen was a consistent presence on Broadway. She appeared in the original company of the 1998 revival of "The Sound of Music" as Marta, and created the role of Adele in the musical version of "Jane Eyre" in 2000. She returned to "The Sound of Music" in 2006 for the Hollywood Bowl production, this time playing Liesl. Bowen was also a member of The Broadway Kids concert group. Several of Bowen's siblings have also been heavily involved in musical theatre, performing roles in various other Broadway shows.


title: Andrea Bowen

text: Bowen has also had recurring or guest starring roles on such shows as "One Tree Hill" (with friend Sophia Bush), "Boston Public" and "".


title: Andrea Bowen

text: From 2004 to 2012, Bowen portrayed Julie Mayer on "Desperate Housewives". Prior to being cast in the role, Bowen did not think she would get it, explaining "they were looking for a 12-year-old brunette ... and I was a 13-year-old blonde." As a result, Bowen was asked to dye her hair for the role. Bowen was initially attracted to the series because of the amount of attention paid to the younger characters. She stated, "If you watch a lot of other television shows, the kids don't have that much [of a] part in it. On this show, the writers give us each our own individual storylines that have a lot of layers to them." For season three, the character's storylines began revolving around themes of teenage rebellion and angst. Bowen commented: "She’s going to have, you know, primarily one love interest, and he’s a bit of a bad boy. We’re going to see if she has a positive effect on him, or if he has a negative effect on her. I’m definitely very excited about it ... because you kind of get to see a different side to her." Her character was written off the series after season four. Teri Hatcher expressed disappointment in the decision, but series creator Marc Cherry promised that Bowen would return to the series. Bowen returned to the series for one episode during season five and rejoined the main cast as a series regular for season six. She appeared once in season seven and returned for a string of episodes in the final season.


title: Andrea Bowen

text: In the 2006 film "Red Riding Hood", she appears as one of "The Three Ashleys". Also that year, she played the role of Candace in the esoteric adventure film "Eye of the Dolphin". She also starred in the Lifetime Original film "Girl, Positive", an experience that allowed her to help spread the message among youth that "HIV is something you can protect yourself from."


title: Andrea Bowen

text: After leaving "Desperate Housewives", Bowen guest starred on "The Closer", "Ghost Whisperer", "Hawaii Five-0" and "Scandal". She found work playing leading roles in a number of television movies for Lifetime and Hallmark. Her films include "After the Fall" (2010), "The Preacher's Daughter" (2013), "Zoe Gone" (2014), "Under Fire" (2016), "Pretty Little Addict" (2016) and "A Family for the Holidays" (2017). In 2013, she went to star in a teen comedy film "G.B.F.".


title: Tommy Tutone

text: Tommy Tutone is an American power pop band, known for its 1981 hit "867-5309/Jenny", which peaked at #4 on the "Billboard" Hot 100. Though some people consider the band to be a one-hit wonder, it did reach the Top 40 the year before with "Angel Say No".


title: Tommy Tutone

text: Tommy Heath and Jim Keller founded the band in 1978 along with bassist Terry Nails (Steve Jones, Ozzy Osbourne), with Heath acting as the lead vocalist and rhythm guitarist, also playing keyboards on occasion; Keller played lead guitar and Terry Nails playing bass and providing supporting vocals. Heath and Keller were the only constant members of Tommy Tutone during the band's heyday, and the lineup featured a rotating membership of bassists and drummers. Bassist Jon Lyons (original name Jonathan Lyons Terlep), who performed on "867-5309", replaced original bassist and founding member Terry Nails. However, Lyons was soon replaced by Greg Sutton, later Pete Costello, and more recently Jimmy James. Mona Gnader, the bassist in Sammy Hagar's Waborita band, played with the band as well. Original drummer Kenny Johnson of Chris Isaak's band was replaced by Mickey Shine (Clover and drummer on the first Elvis Costello album) was replaced by Victor Carberry for the band's second album. Carberry was in turn replaced with Jerry Angel. John Cowsill of The Cowsills played percussion (and sang) on "867-5309/Jenny". From 2001-2010, the band consisted of Heath, James, Greg Georgeson (guitar), Andy Gauthier (drums). Tommy Heath became a computer analyst and software engineer and moved to Portland, Oregon. In 2007, the band signed a recording contract with Spectra Records.


title: Tommy Tutone

text: In 2017, with the addition of Steve Fister (Steppenwolf, Lita Ford) on guitar, Jimmy James switched to drums and the band released the single "My Little Red Book".


title: Tommy Tutone

text: Jim Keller went on to become the director of Philip Glass's publishing company, Dunvagen Music Publishers. He still performs in New York City.


title: Shkodër

text: Shkodër ( , ; ) is the fifth-most-populous city of the Republic of Albania and the seat of Shkodër County and Shkodër Municipality. The city sprawls across the Plain of Mbishkodra between the southern part of Lake Shkodër and the foothills of the Albanian Alps on the banks of Buna, Drin and Kir. Due to its proximity to the Adriatic Sea, Shkodër is affected by a seasonal Mediterranean climate with continental influences.


title: Shkodër

text: One of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the Balkans, Shkodër was founded under the name "Scodra" upon the traditional lands of the Illyrian tribes of the Ardiaei and Labeates in the 4th century BCE. It has historically developed on a hill strategically located in the outflow of Lake Shkodër into the Buna River. The Romans annexed the city after the third Illyrian War in 168 BCE, when Gentius was defeated by the Roman force of Anicius Gallus. In the 3rd century CE, Shkodër became the capital of Praevalitana, due to the administrative reform of the Roman Emperor Diocletian. With the spread of Christianity in the 4th century CE, the Archdiocese of Scodra was founded and was assumed in 535 by Byzantine Emperor Justinian I.


title: Shkodër

text: Shkodër is regarded as the traditional capital of northern Albania, also referred to as Gegëria, and is noted for its arts, culture, religious diversity and turbulent history among the Albanians. The architecture of Shkodër is particularly dominated by mosques and churches reflecting the city's high degree of religious diversity and tolerance. Shkodër was home to many influential personalities, who among others, helped to shape the Albanian Renaissance.


title: Shkodër

text: The city was first attested in calassical sources as "Skodra" (Ancient Greek: "Σκόδρα"; genitive "of the Skodrians", appearing on 2nd c. BC coins) and "Scodra" (Latin form).


title: Shkodër

text: Although the ultimate origin of the toponym is uncertain, the name is certainly pre-Roman. A Paleo-Balkan origin has been suggested, relating it to the (definite form: ) 'hill', and '(wooded) mountain, forest', with the same root as the ancient toponym "Codrio/Kodrion".


title: Shkodër

text: The further development of the name has been a subject of discussion among linguists over the exact location of Albanian-speakers in classical antiquity. Linguists Eqrem Çabej and Shaban Demiraj treat the development from "Skodra" to modern "Shkodra/Shkodër" as evidence of regular development within the Albanian language. Other linguists have argued that "Shkodra/Shkodër" fails to display certain known phonological changes that would have to have happened if the name had been continually in use in Proto-Albanian since pre-Roman times.


title: Shkodër

text: In modern times, the term was adapted to Italian as "Scodra" () and "Scutari" (); in this form it was also in wide use in English until the 20th century. In Serbo-Croatian, Shkodër is known as "Skadar" (), and in Turkish as "İşkodra".


title: Shkodër

text: The earliest signs of human activity in the lands of Shkodër can be traced back to the Bronze Age. The favorable conditions on the fertile plain, around the lake, have brought people here from early antiquity. Artefacts and inscriptions, discovered in the Rozafa Castle, are assumed to be the earliest examples of symbolic behaviour in humans in the city. Although, it was known under the name Scodra and was inhabited by the Illyrian tribes of the Labeates and Ardiaei, which ruled over a large territory between modern Albania up to Croatia. King Agron, Queen Teuta and King Gentius, were among the most famous personalities of the Ardiaei.


title: Shkodër

text: The city was first mentioned during antiquity as the site of the Illyrian Labeates in which they minted coins and that of Queen Teuta. In 168 BCE, the city was captured by the Romans and became an important trade and military route. The Romans colonized the town. Scodra remained in the province of Illyricum and, later, Dalmatia. By it 395 CE, it was part of the Diocese of Dacia, within Praevalitana.


title: Shkodër

text: In the early 11th century, Jovan Vladimir ruled Duklja amidst the war between Basil II and Samuel. Vladimir allegedly retreated into Koplik when Samuel invaded Duklja and was subsequently forced to accept Bulgarian vassalage. He was later slain by the Bulgarians. Shingjon (feast of Jovan Vladimir) has since been celebrated by Albanian Orthodox Christians.


title: Shkodër

text: In the 1030s, Stefan Vojislav from Travunija expelled the last strategos and successfully defeated the Byzantines by 1042. Stefan Vojislav set up Shkodër, as his capital. Constantine Bodin accepted the crusaders of the Crusade of 1101 in Shkodër. After the dynastic struggles in the 12th century, Shkodër became an integral part of the Serbian Nemanjić Zeta province. In 1214 the city was briefly annexed to Despotate of Epirus under Michael I Komnenos Doukas. In 1330, Stefan Dečanski, King of Serbia, appointed his son Stefan Dušan as the governor of Zeta with its seat in Shkodër. In the same year Dušan and his father entered the conflict which resulted with campaign of Dečanski who destroyed Dušan's court on Drin River near Shkodër in January 1331. In April 1331, they made a truce, but in August 1331 Dušan went from Shkodër to Nerodimlje and overthrew his father.


title: Shkodër

text: During the disintegration of the Serbian Empire, Shkodër was taken by the Balšić family of Zeta, who surrendered the city to the Republic of Venice in 1396, in order to form a protection zone from the Ottoman Empire. During the Venetian rule the city adopted the Statutes of Scutari, a civic law written in Venetian. The Statutes of Scutari mention Albanian and Slavic presence in the city, but under Venetian rule many Dalmatians were brought to Shkodra and as such formed the majority there. After the Black Death killed most of the inhabitants Albanians and Slavs formed the majority in the city. Venetians built the "St. Stephen's Church" (later converted into the Fatih Sultan Mehmet Mosque by the Ottomans) and the Rozafa Castle. In 1478-79 Mehmed the conqueror laid siege on Shkodër. In 1479 the city fell to the Ottomans and the defenders of the citadel emigrated to Venice, while many Albanians from the region retreated into the mountains. The city then became a seat of a newly established Ottoman sanjak, the Sanjak of Scutari.


title: Shkodër

text: With two sieges, Shkodër became secure as an Ottoman territory. It became the centre of the sanjak and by 1485 there were 27 Muslim and 70 Christian hearths, although by the end of the next century there were more than 200 Muslim ones compared to the 27 Christian ones, respectively.


title: Shkodër

text: Military manoeuvres in 1478 by the Ottomans meant that the city was again entirely surrounded by Ottoman forces. Mehmed the Conqueror personally laid the siege. About ten heavy cannons were cast on site. Balls as heavy as were fired on the citadel (such balls are still on display on the castle museum). Nevertheless, the city resisted. Mehmed left the field and had his commanders continue the siege. By the winter the Ottomans had captured one after the other all adjacent castles: Lezhë, Drisht and Žabljak Crnojevića. This, together with famine and constant bombardment lowered the morale of defenders. On the other hand, the Ottomans were already frustrated by the stubborn resistance. The castle is situated on a naturally protected hill and every attempted assault resulted in considerable casualties for the attackers. A truce became an option for both parties. On January 25 an agreement between the Venetians and the Ottoman Empire ended the siege, permitting the citizens to leave unharmed, and the Ottomans to take over the deserted city.


title: Shkodër

text: After Ottoman domination was secure, much of the population fled. Around the 17th century, the city began to prosper as the centre of the Sanjak of Scutari (sanjak was an Ottoman administrative unit smaller than a vilayet). It became the economic centre of northern Albania, its craftsmen producing fabric, silk, arms and silver artifacts. Construction included two-storey stone houses, the bazaar, and the Central or Middle Bridge ("Ura e Mesit") over the Kir river, built during the second half of the 18th century, over long, with 13 arcs of stone, the largest one being wide and tall.


title: Shkodër

text: Shkodër was a major city under Ottoman rule in southeast Europe. It retained its importance up until the end of the empire's rule in the Balkans in the early 20th century. This is due to its geo-strategic position that connects it directly with the Adriatic and with the Italian ports, but also with land-routes to the other important Ottoman centre, namely Prizren. The city was an important meeting place of diverse cultures from other parts of the Empire, as well as influences coming westwards, by Italian merchants. It was a centre of Islam in the region, producing many ulema, poets and administrators, particularly from the Bushati family.


title: Shkodër

text: In the 18th century Shkodër became the centre of the (pashaluk) of Shkodër, under the rule of the Bushati family, which ruled from 1757 to 1831. Shkodër's importance as a trade centre in the second half of the 19th century was owed to the fact that it was the centre of the vilayet of Shkodër, and an important trading centre for the entire Balkan peninsula. It had over 3,500 shops, and clothing, leather, tobacco and gunpowder were some of the major products of Shkodër. A special administration was established to handle trade, a trade court, and a directorate of postage services with other countries. Other countries had opened consulates in Shkodër ever since 1718. Obot and Ulcinj served as ports for Shkodër, and, later on, Shëngjin ("San Giovanni di Medua"). The Jesuit seminary and the Franciscan committee were opened in the 19th century.


title: Shkodër

text: Following the rebellion of Mustafa Pasha Bushatlliu Shkodër was sieged by the Ottomans for more than 6 months who finally managed to break the Albanian resistance in 10 November 1831. In 1833 around 4,000 Albanian rebels seized the town again holding off the Ottoman forces between April and December and even sending a delegation to Istanbul until the Ottoman government finally gave in to their terms giving an end to the rebellion.


title: Shkodër

text: Before 1867 Shkodër (İşkodra) was a sanjak of Rumelia Eyalet in Ottoman Empire. In 1867, Shkodër sanjak merged with Skopje (Üsküp) sanjak and became Shkodër vilayet. Shkodër vilayet was split into Shkodër, Prizren and Dibra sanjaks. In 1877, Prizren passed to Kosovo vilayet and Debar passed to Monastir vilayet, while Durrës township became a sanjak. In 1878 Bar and Podgorica townships belonged to Montenegro. Ottoman-Albanian intellectual Sami Frashëri during the 1880s estimated the population of Shkodër as numbering 37,000 inhabitants that consisted of three quarters being Muslims and the rest Christians made up of mostly Catholics and a few hundred Orthodox. In 1900, Shkodër vilayet was split into Shkodër and Durrës sanjaks.


title: Shkodër

text: Shkodër played an important role during the League of Prizren, the Albanian liberation movement. The people of Shkodër participated in battles to protect Albanian land. The branch of the League of Prizren for Shkodër, which had its own armed unit, fought for the protection of Plav, Gusinje, Hoti and Gruda, and the war for the protection of Ulcinj. The Bushati Library, built during the 1840s, served as a centre for the League of Prizren's branch for Shkodër. Many books were collected in libraries of Catholic missionaries working in Shkodër. Literary, cultural and sports associations were formed, such as "Bashkimi" ("The Union") and "Agimi" ("The Dawn"). The first Albanian newspapers and publications printed in Albania came out of the printing press of Shkodër. The Marubi family of photographers began working in Shkodër, which left behind over 150,000 negatives from the period of the Albanian liberation movement, the rise of the Albanian flag in Vlorë, and life in Albanian towns during the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century.


title: Shkodër

text: During the Balkan Wars, Shkodër went from one occupation to another, when the Ottomans were defeated by the Kingdom of Montenegro. The Ottoman forces led by Hasan Riza Pasha and Esad Pasha had resisted for seven months the surrounding of the town by Montenegrin forces and their Serbian allies. Esad (Hasan had previously been mysteriously killed by Esad Pasha Toptani in an ambush inside the town) finally surrendered to Montenegro in April 1913, after Montenegro suffered a high death toll with more than 10,000 casualties. Edith Durham also notes the cruelties suffered at the hand of Montenegrins in the wake of October 1913: "Thousands of refugees arriving from Djakovo and neighbourhood. Victims of Montenegro. My position was indescribably painful, for I had no funds left, and women came to me crying: 'If you will not feed my child, throw it in the river. I cannot see it starve.'" Montenegro was compelled to leave the city to the new country of Albania in May 1913, in accordance with the London Conference of Ambassadors.


title: Shkodër

text: During World War I, Montenegrin forces again occupied Shkodër on 27 June 1915. In January 1916, Shkodër was taken over by Austria-Hungary and was the centre of the zone of their occupation. When the war ended on 11 November 1918, French forces occupied Shkodër as well as other regions with sizable Albanian populations. After World War I, the international military administration of Albania was temporarily located in Shkodër, and in March 1920, Shkodër was put under the administration of the national government of Tirana. In the second half of 1920, Shkodër resisted another threat, the military intervention of the forces of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes.


title: Shkodër

text: Shkodër was the centre of democratic movements of the years 1921–1924. The democratic opposition won the majority of votes for the Constitutional Assembly, and on 31 May 1924, the democratic forces took over the town and from Shkodër headed to Tirana. From 1924 to 1939, Shkodër had a slow industrial development, small factories that produced food, textile and cement were opened. From 43 of such in 1924, the number rose to 70 in 1938. In 1924, Shkodër had 20,000 inhabitants, the number grew to 29,000 in 1938. During September 1928, Albania was proclaimed a monarchy by King Zog I. He was a self-made Muslim monarch and the king of all Albanians until 1939. After 1939, Zog went into exile and Victor Emmanuel III became the king of the Albanians. Shortly after World War II, Emmanuel was formally abdicated in 1946. In 1945, Enver Hoxha established communism in Albania.


title: Shkodër

text: Shkodër was the seat of a Catholic archbishopric and had a number of religious schools. The first laic school was opened here in 1913, and the State Gymnasium was opened in 1922. It was the centre of many cultural associations. In sports Shkodër was the first city in Albania to constitute a sports association, the "Vllaznia" (brotherhood). Vllaznia Shkodër is the oldest sport club in Albania.


title: Shkodër

text: During the early 1990s, Shkodër was once again a major centre, this time of the democratic movement that finally brought to an end the communist regime established by Enver Hoxha. In the later 2000s (decade), the city experiences a rebirth as main streets are being paved, buildings painted and streets renamed. In December 2010, Shkodër and the surrounding region was hit by probably the worst flooding in the last 100 years. In 2011, a new swing bridge over the Buna River was constructed, thus replacing the old bridge nearby.


title: Shkodër

text: Shkodër extends strategically on the Mbishkodra Plain between the Lake of Shkodër and the foothills of the Albanian Alps, which forms the southern continuation of the Dinaric Alps. The northeast of the city is dominated by Mount Maranaj standing at above the Adriatic. Shkodër is trapped on three sides by Kir in the east, Drin in the south and Buna in the west. Rising from the Lake of Shkodër, Buna flows into the Adriatic Sea, forming the border with Montenegro. The river joins the Drin for approximately southwest of the city. In the east, Shkodër is bordered by Kir, which originates from the north flowing also into the Drin, that surrounds Shkodër in the south. The area of the municipality of Shkodër is ; the area of the municipal unit of Shkodër (the city proper) is .


title: Shkodër

text: Lake Shkodër lies in the west of the city and forms the frontier of Albania and Montenegro. The lake became the symbol of the stable and consistent economic and social divide of the city. Although, the lake is the largest lake in Southern Europe and an important habitat for various animal and plant species. Further, the Albanian section has been designated as a nature reserve. In 1996, it also has been recognised as a wetland of international importance by designation under the Ramsar Convention. River Buna connects the lake with the Adriatic Sea, while the Drin provides a link with Lake Ohrid in the southeast of Albania. It is a cryptodepression, filled by the river Morača and drained into the Adriatic by the Buna.


title: Shkodër

text: Shköder has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate ("Csa") under the Köppen climate classification, that is almost wet enough in July to be a humid subtropical climate with continental influences. The average yearly temperature varies from to . Although, mean monthly temperature ranges between to in January and to in August. The average yearly precipitation is about , which makes the area one of the wettest in Europe.


title: Shkodër

text: Shkodër is a municipality governed by a mayor–council system with the mayor of Shkodër and the members of Shkodër Municipal Council responsible for the administration of Shkodër Municipality. The municipality is encompassed in Shkodër County within the Northern Region of Albania and consists of the administrative units of Ana e Malit, Bërdicë, Dajç, Guri i Zi, Postribë, Pult, Rrethinat, Shalë, Shosh, Velipojë and Shkodër as its seat.


title: Shkodër

text: The main activities of the processing industry in Shkodra were the processing of tobacco and manufacture of cigarettes, production of preserved foods, sugar-based foods, soft and alcoholic drinks, and pasta, bread, rice and vegetable oil. The main activities of the textile industry were focused on garments and silk products. The city also had a wood-processing and paper-production plant. The most important mechanical engineering industries concerned wire manufacturing, elevator manufacturing, bus assembly and the Drini Plant.


title: Shkodër

text: According to the World Bank, Shkodër has had significant steps of improving the economy in recent years. In 2016, Shkodër ranked 8 among 22 cities in southeastern Europe.


title: Shkodër

text: As the largest city in northern Albania, the city is the main road connection between the Albanian capital, Tirana and Montenegrin capital Podgorica. The SH1 leads to the Albanian–Montenegrin border at Han i Hotit border crossing. From Tirana at the Kamza Bypass northward, it passes through Fushë-Kruja, Milot, Lezha, Shkodra and Koplik. The road segment between Hani i Hotit at the Montenegrin border and Shkodra was completed in 2013 as a single carriageway standard. Shkodër Bypass started after the 2010 Albania floods. It was planned to incorporate a defensive dam against Shkodër Lake but works were abandoned a few years later. The road continues as a single carriageway down to Milot and contains some uncontrolled and dangerous entry and exit points. The SH5 starts from Shkodër to Morinë.


title: Shkodër

text: Shkodër is the fourth-most-populous city and fifth-most-populous municipality in Albania. As of the 2011 census, the municipal unit of Shkodër had an estimated population of 77,075 of whom 37,630 were men and 39,445 women. The population of the municipality was 135,612 in 2011.


title: Shkodër

text: The 20th century found Shkodër with a population of around 30,000 to 40,000. After Albanian Independence in 1912 the city numbered 23,000 inhabitants. Surveys in 1926–27 showed the city not to have experienced any relative growth, a figure of 23,784 inhabitants being given, which was the same figure as confirmed for the data of the population census of 1918, according to which Shkodër in 1918 had a population of 23,099.


title: Shkodër

text: In 1918, the majority—two thirds—of the population was Muslim and one third was Catholic with a small community of Orthodox faith of Slavic and Vlah origin who immigrated to Shkodër during the 19th century. The city was divided into 12 mahallas, of which nine were inhabited by the Muslim and three by the Catholic population, and a separated bazaar. The Muslims were mostly to be found in the quarters on the west side of the city while the Catholics were living in the quarters on the east side of the city. The Orthodox population mostly lived within the Muslim quarters.


title: Shkodër

text: The city of Shkodër was one of the most important centres for Islamic scholars and cultural and literary activity in Albania. Here stands the site of the only institution in Albania which provides high-level education in Arabic, Turkish and Islamic Studies.


title: Shkodër

text: Shkodër is the centre of Roman Catholicism in Albania. The Roman Catholic Church is represented in Shkodër by the episcopal seat of the Metropolitan Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Shkodër-Pult (Scutari-Pulati) in Shkodër Cathedral, with the current seat of the prelacy.


title: Shkodër

text: Shkodër is referred to as the capital and cultural cradle of northern Albania, also known as Gegëria, for having been the birthplace and home of notable individuals, who among others contributed to the Albanian Renaissance. Most of the inhabitants of Shkodër speak a distinctive dialect of northwestern Gheg Albanian that differs from other Albanian dialects. Shkodër has also a long tradition in the development of the urban music of Albania, marked by a characteristic use of instrumentation and a style of composition.


title: Shkodër

text: Rozafa Castle has played an instrumental role in Shkodër's history as the residence of Illyrian monarchs and a military stronghold. Located in the south of Shkodër, its foundations are associated with a legend about a woman who sacrificed herself so the castle could be constructed. Historical Museum of Shkodër is the most important museum in Shkodër and was founded to protect artefacts from all over the region of Shkodër, thus displaying their cultural and historical value. It is housed inside a monumental mansion from the 19th century, collectively known as the house of Oso Kuka. The expanded Marubi National Museum of Photography located on the Kolë Idromeno Street displays an extensive visual collection of Albanian social, cultural and political life beginning from 1850 on its galleries.


title: Shkodër

text: Shkodër's architecture and urban development are historically and culturally significant for northern Albania. It was and is inhabited by many people of different cultures and religions with many of them leaving mark of their cultural heritage. The Ebu Beker Mosque, Fatih Sultan Mehmet Mosque, Franciscan Church, Lead Mosque, Nativity Cathedral and St. Stephen's Cathedral are the most eminent religious buildings of Shkodër. Other major monuments include the Drisht Castle, Mesi Bridge and ruins of Shurdhah Island.


title: Shkodër

text: The Vllaznia club is a professional Albanian soccer team dedicated to Shkoder. It one of the most well-known teams in Albania.


title: Delhi Technological University

text: Delhi Technological University (DTU), formerly known as the Delhi College of Engineering (DCE) is a state university in Rohini, Delhi, India. It was established in 1941 as Delhi Polytechnic. In 1952, it started giving degrees after being affiliated with the University of Delhi. The institute has been under the Government of Delhi since 1963 and was affiliated with the University of Delhi from 1952 to 2009. In 2009, the college was given university status, thus changing its name to Delhi Technological University.


title: Delhi Technological University

text: The Delhi Polytechnic was visioned as a follow-up of the Wood and Abbott Committee of 1938. It was established as Delhi Polytechnic in 1941. The technical school was created to cater to the demands of Indian industries. At that time, Delhi Polytechnic offered courses in Arts, Architecture, Commerce, Engineering, Applied Science and Textiles. Walter William Wood, became the founder and Principal of Delhi Polytechnic. It became Delhi's first engineering college and was amongst the few engineering institutions in India set up before independence.


title: Delhi Technological University

text: The National Diploma awarded by Delhi Polytechnic was considered an equivalent to the B.E. Degree by the then UPSC. The college was affiliated with the University of Delhi in 1952 and started formal degree-level programmes.


title: Delhi Technological University

text: Up till 1962, the college was under the direct control of the Ministry of Education, Government of India. In 1963, Delhi Polytechnic was taken over by the then Delhi Administration and Chief Commissioner Delhi was the ex-officio chairman of the college. It later became a college of the Union Territory of Delhi. In 1963, the Department of Arts became the College of Arts and the Department of Commerce & Business Administration was converted to several institutes of Commerce & Secretarial Practices. The fragmentation of Delhi Polytechnic ultimately left behind an engineering institute alone. In 1962, the college was affiliated with University of Delhi. In 1965, the Delhi Polytechnic was renamed as Delhi College of Engineering and became the first engineering college of Delhi, Now it is called Delhi technological university.


title: Delhi Technological University

text: B.E. degree course in Production & Industrial Engineering was started in 1988 while the B.E. degree course in Computer Engineering was started in 1989. B.E. degree-level courses were started in Polymer Science & Chemical Technology and Environment Engineering in 1998. Information technology played a vital role during this era and the beginning of the new millennium witnessed the introduction of a B.E. in Information Technology in 2002. B.E. in Bio-Technology was introduced from the academic session 2004–2005.


title: Delhi Technological University

text: The Department of Architecture of the Delhi College of Engineering became the School of Planning and Architecture, now a Deemed University and Institution of National importance. The Department of Arts and Sculpture became the College of Arts and the Departments of Chemical Technology and Textile Technology were shifted out en-block to mark the beginning of the IIT Delhi at its new campus at Hauz Khas. The Department of Commerce was later abolished and the Faculty of Management Studies of the University of Delhi was established by Prof. A. Das Gupta, of DCE. Delhi Administration established the Delhi Institute of Technology (Presently Netaji Subhas University of Technology) in 1985 and the new college was established under the patronage of the Delhi College of Engineering. DCE shared its campus with NSIT at Kashmiri Gate campus, although later, NSIT was shifted to Dwarka as a follow-up of the Wood and Abott Committee of 1938. Delhi College of Engineering is thus the mother institution of several national institutes including Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, Netaji Subhas Institute of Technology, School of Planning and Architecture, Delhi, College of Art, Delhi and Faculty of Management Studies.


title: Delhi Technological University

text: In July 2009, Delhi College of Engineering was upgraded to a state university from being a college under a central university and renamed Delhi Technological University (DTU), through the "Delhi Technological University Bill, 2009". P. B. Sharma was nominated as the university's first Vice-Chancellor. The move was met with student protests over the erosion of the DCE brand (due to being downgraded from being part of a central university to a state university) and the reduction in the supposed value of their degree. which culminated to a face-off in March 2010, with the students boycotting the mid-semester exams, and demanding reconsideration of the change and replacement of the VC. However, the Chief Minister of Delhi, Sheila Dikshit informed the students that the change will not be reconsidered, and by the end of March the protest dwindled down, with the students taking their exams. In April 2010 "Times City" reported that the government will be willing to change the name to "DCE Technological University" (DCE TU), however, the university name remains unchanged.


title: Delhi Technological University

text: Delhi Technological University (Delhi College of Engineering) operated from the Kashmiri Gate campus in the heart of Old Delhi until 1989, when construction began at the New Campus at Bawana Road in May. Moving operations from Kashmiri Gate to the new 164 acres at Bawana Road began in 1995, and the new campus formally started classes for all four years of study starting in 1999.


title: Delhi Technological University

text: The new DTU campus is well connected by road. Facilities include a library, a computer centre, a sports complex, eight boys' hostels, six girls' hostels, and a married couples' hostel. The campus has residential facilities for faculty and staff. The campus has an auditorium and two open-air theatres out of which one is called the OAT (Open-air Theatre) and the other is called the Mini OAT (Mini open-air theatre).


title: Delhi Technological University

text: In 2010, the DTU came up with a plan to make the campus environment friendly which included, barring entry of vehicles on the campus, generation of one-third of the energy from alternative sources and designing new buildings as per the "green architecture concept".


title: Delhi Technological University

text: DTU opened up a campus in Vivek Vihar, East Delhi named "University School of Management and Entrepreneurship (USME)" in 2017. The new campus offers management courses for graduation and post-graduation. Currently, the USME, east campus of DTU offers courses in MBA, MBA business analytics, BBA, and BA in Economics.


title: Delhi Technological University

text: Admission to MBA is decided by CAT score and further by rigorous group discussion and personal interviews. Moreover, there are 120 seats for BBA and BA (hons) Economics each. Admission to the courses is merit-based.


title: Delhi Technological University

text: DTU offers courses towards Bachelor of Technology (B.Tech), Bachelor of Technology (B.Tech Evening), Bachelor of Arts (Hons.), Bachelor of Design (B.Des), Master of Technology (MTech), Master of Science (MSc), Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), Master of Business Administration (M.B.A.) and Bachelor of Business Administration (B.B.A.).


title: Delhi Technological University

text: The admission towards a full-time Bachelor of Technology degree in DTU is through the Joint Admission Counselling Delhi (JAC-Delhi) process, based on All India Rank (AIR) secured in the Joint Entrance Examination – Main examination.


title: Delhi Technological University

text: Admission of foreign students to DTU is through the Direct Admission of Students Abroad (DASA) scheme. Admission to the BTech (Lateral Entry) programme at DTU is based on marks secured by the candidates in the State Diploma Examination. Admissions to the evening studies programme (part-time course) is based on a Common Entrance Examination.


title: Delhi Technological University

text: Admission towards a postgraduate degree at DTU is based on performance in the Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering (GATE) qualifying exam. If two or more candidates have the same GATE score, the hen percentage in qualifying undergraduate courses shall decide the merit. No separate test or interview is conducted by the university. However, for the NRIs, Foreign Nationals and Persons of Indian Origin (PIOs) the admission is made on the basis of merit/score in Graduate Record Examination (GRE). The medium of instruction for all the courses at the university is English.


title: Delhi Technological University

text: Admissionston MBA program at DTU is based on the Common Admission Test (CAT) exam, followed by a group discussion and an interview.


title: Delhi Technological University

text: Scholarships at DTU are available for students beginning their first year at the college, which are awarded based on their performance in subjects. Another award is given to two final year students based on merit, sponsoring their tuition to pursue MBA at the Raj Soin College of Business, Wright State University.


title: Delhi Technological University

text: Internationally, Delhi Technological University was ranked 800–1000 in the world and 201-250 in Asia by the "Times Higher Education World University Rankings" of 2021 and 301–350 among Emerging Economies University Rankings in 2020.


title: Delhi Technological University

text: Among engineering colleges, Delhi Technological University was ranked 1st by Times Engineering Rankings 2020, 9th by "Outlook India" in 2020. It was ranked 9th among colleges by "India Today" in 2020. The National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF) ranked it 36th in the engineering ranking of 2020.


title: Delhi Technological University

text: Students at DTU participate in projects such as design and development of a Formula SAE car, Unmanned Ground Vehicle (UGV DTU), SAE Mini Baja, ASME HPV, Hybrid Car, solar car, unmanned aerial vehicles, innovative embedded devices appreciated worldwide and setting up a plant for manufacturing Biodiesel.


title: Delhi Technological University

text: Pioneered by the Defianz Racing team participating in the Formula Student competition, many student teams collaborate with universities from other countries and actively participate in international and national competitions. The college also came up with the development of a Personalised Mover – Mitra. Delhi College of Engineering is one of the TIFAC COREs (Technology Information, Forecasting & Assessment Council's Centres Of Relevance & Excellence) in Fiber Optics and Optical Communication. Also, Students of Delhi College of Engineering have made it top-15 Worldwide slots in the Microsoft Imagine Cup 2007 and 2008


title: Delhi Technological University

text: The technical team UAS-DTU has been exceptionally successful, in designing and building a prototype UAV, the "Aarush X-1 " with funding and mentorship from Lockheed Martin, USA. It also stood "third" in the AUVSI Student Unmanned Air System (SUAS) Competition,2012. The team has developed several prototype UAVs and expands its UAV count each year.


title: Delhi Technological University

text: The solar car team, DTU Solaris was the first solar electric vehicle team in the country to have developed a two-seater passenger solar electric vehicle Arka " in 2012. Its previous design – Avenir won the Most Economical Car Award in WSC 2011.


title: Delhi Technological University

text: The campus at DTU has been proposed as one of the sites for the Delhi Government's plan of creating Delhi a Research and IT hub. A Knowledge Park at DTU has been set up as part of better infrastructure for Delhi.


title: Delhi Technological University

text: DTU had been selected by Intel Technology Pvt. Ltd. to join Planet Lab Consortium which has the world's top universities and industrial research labs like Princeton University, University of Washington and NEC Labs as its members.


title: Delhi Technological University

text: DTU organises various events/conferences/seminars throughout the year so that students from other Engineering institutes/organisations can also get benefited. Societies like ASME, SAE, IEEE, IET, MACS etc. frequently organise such events.


title: Delhi Technological University

text: The largest waste-to-energy plant in any educational institution in North India is operational in DTU. The University is now building a sewage treatment plant on its 164-acre campus in Rohini, Delhi.


title: Delhi Technological University

text: Team DTU Super mileage took part in Shell Eco-marathon, part of the inaugural Make the Future India festival in Chennai, held at the Madras Motor Race Track. In the Urban Concept internal combustion engine category, they clocked 154kpl in their vehicle. A total of 20 teams participated in the event, under two categories: Prototype (futuristic vehicles with incredible aerodynamics) and Urban Concept (conventional, roadworthy, energy-efficient vehicles aimed at meeting the ing real-life needs of drivers).


title: Delhi Technological University

text: UAS-DTU won the first spot fo the r ‘Flying Formation Challenge’ at the Drone Olympics the t biennial Aero India Show 2019. UAS-DTU also received prize money of Rs. 5 lakh including a developmental kit from Lockheed Martin and would further be trained for the AlphaPilot, an open innovation challenge in the US. They also exhibited a stall under the R&D Department of the Indian Air Force (IAF).


title: Delhi Technological University

text: DTU now has accommodation facilities for 1,105 girls and 1,600. Two new hostels were inaugurated in July 2022. The hostels have the facility of common rooms and gymnasium, The hostels subscribe to the latest magazines and newspapers for the residents. It is fully Wi-Fi and LAN-enabled.


title: Delhi Technological University

text: DTU organises its own cultural and academic festivals. While the cultural festivals are a break from studies and comprise events such as music concerts and fashion shows, the academic festivals form a common platform for students and academicians across the country to meet and showcase research.


title: Delhi Technological University

text: The cultural festival of DTU, Engifest is held every year in February. Engifest plays host to a variety of events like star night, rock shows, plays, dances, drag shows and others. In the past Engifest has been celebrated by likes of Euphoria, Lagori, Parikrama, and Indian Ocean, and through performances by renowned artistes like Amit Trivedi, Sidhu Moose Wala, Raftaar, Sunidhi Chauhan, Divine, Nucleya, Mohit Chauhan, Vishal, Shekhar etc.


title: Delhi Technological University

text: E-Summit is an event aimed to advocate entrepreneurship among students, with leadership lectures and panel discussions involving various stalwarts from the industry. It is conducted by the Entrepreneurship Development Cell of DTU, generally in February.


title: Delhi Technological University

text: Resonance is a collage of assorted literary and managerial events and serves as a stage for showcasing the talents of students in fields other than science and engineering. The arena is the annual Sports Meet of the Delhi College of Engineering, and Virasat is the name for a host of cultural events organised by SPIC MACAY. Pratibimb is the dramatics club of DTU.


title: Delhi Technological University

text: DTU also annually host TEDx talks since 2015 called "TEDxDTU". Since its conception, it has had a line-up of speakers which include Karan Wahi, Akasa Singh, Ankur Warikoo and Kaustubh Radkar.


title: Delhi Technological University

text: DTU saw online protests in June–July 2020 amid the decision of the administration to conduct AI-proctored online end-term examinations amidst the COVID-19 pandemic. The protests saw #cancelDTUexams trend on Twitter for over 2 weeks with articles in media outlets such as Education Times, Navbharat Times, Hindustan Times, India TV, and Careers 360. Students also came out with online petitions to voice their concerns.


title: Delhi Technological University

text: Students have cited that conducting exams of intermediate semesters is a clear violation of UGC guidelines. Other reasons cited by students are lack of resources, incomplete syllabus after lockdown, internships & skill development courses, mental stress (many haven't even stepped out of their house for months now due to COVID-19), online exams not being conducted by top engineering institutes like IITs, for cancellation of exams. Students also claim that when the university already has the result of past semesters, internal assessment, mid-term examination then why the provisional result should be declared on that basis and those who aren't satisfied can appear later. The credibility of online examinations is debatable, students claimed.


title: Delhi Technological University

text: As per an article in Navbharat Times, The Vice Chancellor of DTU Prof Yogesh Singh claimed that if students make up their theimindsnd for the exam they will provide with all resources. This claim was further disputed by the students who said that the university wasn't providing them with any resources upon being approached & was rather asking them to come to the Campus and appear for the exams which aren't at all feasible seeing the rising no. of COVID-19 cases in the capital.


title: Delhi Technological University

text: The Controller of Examination has claimed to the Education Times that the majority of students want to appear in the online examination, a claim which further fueled the protests as students claimed that it was completely baseless.


title: Delhi Technological University

text: The protests finally ended on 11 July 2020 with the press release of the Deputy CM cancelling all exams at the n State Universities of Delhi.


title: Delhi Technological University

text: On 14 July 2020, more than 3 days after the press release of the Govt of NCT of Delhi, the DTU administration finally released the official notification confirming the cancellation. Even this delay in the official notice lead to student outrage on social media for the mentioned period.


title: Delhi Technological University

text: The DTU administration released a notice dated 24 July 2020 via the official site on 30 July 2020 demanding hefty annual fees of INR 1,90,000 to be paid just within 5 days. The notice has a punitive clause that after 5 August students will have to bear hefty fines and after 27 August their names may be struck off from the university records.


title: Delhi Technological University

text: The move has seen massive student protests with widespread national media coverage. Students sighted that for the last 4 months they haven’t utilized any of the college infrastructure and other amenities and the next session being online will not utilize the same due to the ongoing pandemic of Covid-19. DTU is primarily an undergraduate institute with more than 80% of students pursuing UG courses like B.Tech and the majority of students coming from humble backgrounds, it is almost impossible for them to pay such a hefty fee right now within 5 days of which three are bank holidays, especially due to the adverse effects the pandemic has had on their economic condition.


title: Delhi Technological University

text: The fee structure of INR 1,90,000 for the B.Tech course has more than 40% charges on Miscellaneous Heads in the name of facilities and services which the students aren’t utilizing. Hence, the students are being asked to pay for something they haven’t availed of.


title: Delhi Technological University

text: The Govt of NCT of Delhi passed an order on 15 April 2020 asking schools govt or private in the capital to only charge tuition fees. Then why is the same not application higher education govt institutes like DTU?


title: Delhi Technological University

text: Anoop Lather, Public Relations Officer of DTU in a statement to The Indian Express on 1 August said that the expenses of the university remain the same as they were before the pandemic and students who have problems paying can submit an application which shall be considered on the case-to-case basis. The statement further received backlash from the students who said that the university administration wasn't responding to any of their emails and letters for concession and payment in instalments and further it would be insane to suggest that the expenses of the university functioning via free online platforms like Google Meet could remain the same as before. Students also claimed that many other government institutes like IIT Kharagpur and NIT Patna had already given concessions to students on miscellaneous heads, and none were demanding one-time annual fee payments.


title: Delhi Technological University

text: After getting no positive response from the Govt of NCT of Delhi and the university administration by the fee payment deadline of 5 August, the students wrote an open letter to LG of Delhi Anil Baijal who is also the Chancellor of the University on 6 August 2020 asking him to take action against the Vice Chancellor of DTU Prof Yogesh Singh for displaying yet again an apathetic attitude towards the concerns of students and their families who are already under severe economic and mental stress amid the pandemic. They also alleged that the university administration intimidated some Class Representatives via the Office of the Vice Chancellor to either pay the fee or face disciplinary action. NSUI also wrote to the LG asking him to take back the annual fee notice. On 7 August, some students organized a protest march in the DTU campus. Protesters claimed that no one from m DTU administration met them on the given day. TOI claimed that the university didn't respond to any of its calls on the same day.


title: Delhi Technological University

text: Students also claimed that the university was using the Training and Placement Department to intimidate them by asking them to pay their fees immediately, or else they wouldn't be allowed to sit for placements for the year 2020–2021


title: Delhi Technological University

text: On 8 August, some students met BJP Delhi president Adesh Kumar Gupta who then wrote to the CM Arvind Kejriwal asking him to intervene in the maturation at the request of the students.


title: Delhi Technological University

text: As of 8 August, st more than 50of % of students have still not paid the annual fee as per the PRO of DTU. Until 9 August, the DTU admin has refused to budge any concessions and relaxations to the student.


title: Delhi Technological University

text: As of now, the office of LG has forwarded the matter to the Directorate of Training and Technical Education for further action as per the complaint filed by DTU students.


title: S-200 (missile)

text: The NPO Almaz S 200 "Angara/Vega/Dubna (Russian С-200 Ангара/Вега/Дубна), NATO reporting name SA-5 "Gammon (initially Tallinn), is a long range, high altitude surface-to-air missile (SAM) system developed by the Soviet Union in the 1960s to defend large areas from high-altitude bombers or other targets. In Soviet service, these systems were deployed primarily on the battalion level, with six launchers and a fire control radar.


title: S-200 (missile)

text: The S-200 surface-to-air missile system was designed for the defense of the most important administrative, industrial and military installations from all types of air attack. The S-200 is an all-weather system that can be operated in various climatic conditions.