title: Málaga Airport

text: The airport has an underground station for Cercanías Málaga commuter trains, connecting with Málaga, providing enhanced communications with the city center. The station opened on 10 September 2010 and is located at the arrivals area of Terminal 3. Trains run every 20 minutes between Málaga City and Fuengirola via Málaga Airport.


title: Málaga Airport

text: The line is to be extended to Marbella, but this will not be complete until 2020 at the earliest. Work is currently halted, while awaiting financial assistance from the European Investment Bank. The line may be extended to Algeciras, but this has yet to be confirmed.


title: Málaga Airport

text: There is a bus station located underground at the airport. It can be reached from the arrivals level of the transportation hub or from arrivals in terminal 3, which can be accessed from all terminals. There is also a bus stop outside the cargo terminal.


title: Málaga Airport

text: Following a collaborative agreement between the Málaga Metropolitan Transport Consortium, the Málaga Transport Company (EMTSAM) and the Portillo Avanza bus company, a new public information and bus ticket sale point is now in operation at Málaga Airport.


title: Málaga Airport

text: Before the new terminal opened the airport had only one large car park, called P2. The airport now has two, with 3,700 spaces (1,200 in P2, 2,500 in the new P1). All outdoor spaces now have covers over them. They can also be reached by the transportation hub.


title: Dhana Nanda

text: Dhana Nanda (died c. 321 BCE), according to the Buddhist text "Mahabodhivamsa", was the last ruler of the Nanda dynasty of ancient India. He was the youngest son of Mahapadma Nanda.


title: Dhana Nanda

text: Chandragupta Maurya raised an army that eventually conquered the Nanda capital Pataliputra and defeated him. This defeat marked the fall of the Nanda Empire and the birth of the Maurya Empire.


title: Dhana Nanda

text: The Jain tradition presents a similar legend about the last Nanda emperor, although it simply calls the emperor "Nanda", and states that the emperor was allowed to leave his capital alive after being defeated. The Puranas give a different account, describing the last Nanda emperor as one of eight sons of the dynasty's founder, whom they call Mahapadma. The Greco-Roman accounts name Alexander's contemporary ruler in India as Agrammes or Xandrames, whom modern historians identify as the last Nanda emperor. According to these accounts, Alexander's soldiers mutinied when faced with the prospect of a war with this emperor's powerful army.


title: Dhana Nanda

text: The Buddhist text "Mahāvaṃsa" names 9 Nanda kings, who were all brothers, and ruled in succession for a total of 22 years. The first of these kings was Ugrasena, and the last was Dhana Nanda:


title: Dhana Nanda

text: The Buddhist tradition states that Dhana Nanda insulted the Chanakya for his ugly appearance during an alms-giving ceremony at Pupphapura (Pushpapura), ordering him to be thrown out of the assembly. Chanakya then cursed the king, who ordered his arrest. Chanakya escaped and befriended the king's son Pabbata, instigating the prince to seize the throne. With help of a signet ring given by the prince, Chanakya fled the Nanda palace. Determined to overthrow Dhana Nanda, he acquired wealth to raise an army by using a secret technique that allowed him to turn 1 coin into 8 coins.


title: Dhana Nanda

text: Chanakya narrowed down two candidates to replace Dhana Nanda: Pabbata, and Chandragupta, who belonged to a former royal family. To test them, he gave each of them an amulet to be worn around the neck with a woolen thread. One day, while Chandragupta was asleep, he asked Pabbata to remove Chandragupta's woolen thread without breaking it and without waking up Chandragupta. Pabbata failed to accomplish this task. Some time later, when Pabbata was sleeping, Chanakya challenged Chandragupta to complete the same task. Chandragupta retrieved the woolen thread by cutting off Pabbata's head. Over next seven years, Chanakya trained and mentored Chandragupta. When Chandragupta became an adult, Chanakya assembled an army using his wealth.


title: Dhana Nanda

text: The army invaded Dhana Nanda's capital, but was decisively defeated and disbanded. Subsequently, Chandragupta and Chanakya raised a new army, and started capturing the border villages. Gradually, they advanced to the Nanda capital Pataliputta (Pataliputra), and killed Dhana Nanda. Chanakya found the treasure of Dhana Nanda through a fisherman, and appointed Chandragupta as the new king.


title: Dhana Nanda

text: The Jain tradition contains a legend that has several similarities with the Buddhist legend, but does not mention the name "Dhana Nanda": the Jain texts simply call Chanakya's rival king "Nanda". According to the Jain tradition, Chanakya visited the Nanda capital Pataliputra to seek donations from the king, but felt insulted by a servant of the king. He then vowed to overthrow the Nanda dynasty. He discovered and mentored Chandragupta, and raised an army that defeated the Nanda forces after an initial debacle. However, unlike the Buddhist tradition, the Jain tradition states that the Nanda king was allowed to leave his capital alive after being defeated. The king's daughter fell in love with Chandragupta and married him. This daughter is not named, although later, the mother of Chandragupta's son Bindusara is named Durdhara.


title: Dhana Nanda

text: Nanda's chief minister was Sakadala who had two sons, Sthulabhadra (297-198 BCE) and Srikaya. Srikaya became the king's personal bodyguard. Sthulabhadra loved the royal dancer Rupakosa and lived for 12 years with her. Sakadala was killed in a plot of his political opponent Varichi, after which, his son Srikaya was made the chief minister.


title: Dhana Nanda

text: Like the Buddhist tradition, the Puranas also state that there were 9 Nanda kings. However, they name the first of these kings as Mahapadma, and state that the next 8 kings were his sons. The Puranas name only one of these sons: Sukalpa. Dhundiraja, a commentator on the "Vishnu Purana", claims that Chandragupta Maurya was the grandson of a Nanda king called Sarvatha-siddhi, although this claim does not occur in the Puranas themselves.


title: Dhana Nanda

text: The Greek accounts name Alexander's contemporary ruler in India as Agrammes or Xandrames, whom modern historians identify as the last Nanda king. "Agrammes" may be a Greek transcription of the Sanskrit word "Augrasainya" (literally "son or descendant of Ugrasena", Ugrasena being the name of the dynasty's founder according to the Buddhist tradition). The Greco-Roman tradition suggests that this dynasty had only two kings: according to Curtius, the dynasty's founder was a barber-turned-king; his son was overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya.


title: Dhana Nanda

text: Indian kings Porus and Phegeles (Bhagala) are said to have informed Alexander III of Macedon of the unpopularity of Agrammes among his subjects. According to the Roman historian Quintus Curtius Rufus, his army had as 200,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalry, 2,000 four-horsed chariots and 3,000 elephants. The Greek accounts describe Agrammes as the ruler of the Gangaridai (the Ganges valley) and the Prasii (probably a transcription of the Sanskrit word "prachya"s, literally "easterners"). When faced with the prospect of facing the powerful army of Nanda, Alexander's soldiers mutinied, forcing him to retreat from India.


title: Dhana Nanda

text: All historical accounts agree that the last Nanda king was unpopular among his subjects. According to Diodorus, Porus told Alexander that the contemporary Nanda king was a man of "worthless character", and was not respected by his subjects as he was thought to be of low origin. Curtius also states that according to Porus, the Nanda king was despised by his subjects. According to Plutarch, who claims that Androkottos (identified as Chandragupta) met Alexander, Androkottos later declared that Alexander could have easily conquered the Nanda territory (Gangaridai and Prasii) because the Nanda king was hated and despised by his subjects, as he was wicked and of low origin. The Sri Lankan Buddhist tradition blames the Nandas for being greedy and for imposing oppressive taxation. The Puranas of India label the Nandas as "adharmika", indicating that they did not follow the norms of "dharma" or righteous conduct.


title: Dhana Nanda

text: Dhana Nanda appears as the primary antagonist in almost every series on Indian television portraying the life of Chanakya or Chandragupta Maurya.


title: Ministry of Communications (India)

text: Ministry of Communications is a Central ministry under the Government of India responsible for telecommunications and postal service. It was carved out of Ministry of Communications and Information Technology on 19 July 2016. It consists of two departments viz. Department of Telecommunications and the Department of Posts.


title: Ministry of Communications (India)

text: Ministry of Communication and Information Technology was bifurcated into Ministry of Communications and Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology.


title: Ministry of Communications (India)

text: Also known as the "Door Sanchar Vibhag", this department concerns itself with policy, licensing and coordination matters relating to telegraphs, telephones, wireless, data, facsimile and telematic services and other like forms of communications. It also looks into the administration of laws with respect to any of the matters specified, namely:


title: Ministry of Communications (India)

text: A need was felt in the year 2007 to distinctly address the issues of Communication Network Security at DOT (HQ) level, consequent to enhancement of FDI limit in Telecom sector from 49% to 74% and therefore a new wing, named Security was created in DOT (HQ).


title: Ministry of Communications (India)

text: The Department of Post (DoP) which wholly owns the India Post operates one of the oldest and most extensive mail services in the world. , the Indian Postal Service has 154,965 post offices, of which 139,067 (89.74%) are in rural areas and 15,898 (10.26%) are in urban areas. It has 25,585 departmental PO s and 129,380 ED BPOs. At the time of independence, there were 23,344 post offices, which were primarily in urban areas. Thus the network has registered a sevenfold growth since independence, with the focus of the expansion primarily in rural areas. On average, a post office serves an area of 21.56 sq; km and a population of 7,753 people. This is the most widely distributed post office system in the world. The large numbers are a result of a long tradition of many disparate postal systems which were unified in the Indian Union post-Independence. Owing to this far-flung reach and its presence in remote areas, the Indian postal service is also involved in other services such as small savings banking and financial services., with about 25,464 full-time and 139,040 part-time post offices. It offers a whole range of products under posts, remittance, savings, insurance, and philately. While the Director-General is the head of operations, the Secretary is an adviser to the Minister. Both responsibilities are undertaken by one officer.


title: Ministry of Communications (India)

text: The DG is assisted by the Postal Services Board with six members: The six members of the Board hold portfolios of Personnel, Operations, Technology, Postal Life Insurance, Banking, Planning respectively. Shri Ananta Narayan Nanda is the Secretary (Posts) also the Chairman of the Postal Services Board and Ms.Meera Handa is Director General (DG) Posts. Shri.Vineet Pandey(Additional Charge) Additional Director General(Coordination) (ADG), Ms. Arundhaty Ghosh, Member (Operations), Shri. Biswanath Tripathy, Member (Planning), Shri Pradipta Kumar Bisoi, Member (Personnel), Shri Udai Krishna, Member (Banking), Shri Salim Haque, Member (Technology) and Shri. Vineet Pandey, Member (PLI) & Chairman, Investment Board. The national headquarters are at Delhi and functions from Dak Bhavan located at the junction of Parliament Street and Ashoka Road.


title: Ministry of Communications (India)

text: The total revenue earned including remuneration for Savings Bank & Savings Certificate work during the year 2016-17 was 11,511.00  crores and the amount received from other Ministries/ Departments as Agency charges (recoveries) was 730.90 crores and expenditure is 24,211.85  crores during 2016–2017 against the previous year expenditure of 19,654.67  crores. The increase was mainly due to payment of increased pay & allowances consequent upon implementation of 7th pay commission recommendations, leave encashment during LTC, cost of materials, oil, diesel, revision of service tax on government buildings etc.


title: Ministry of Communications (India)

text: Lack of proper investment in infrastructure and technology is the reason for such low revenue. The present top management has already started investing in the latest technology to improve the infrastructure. Quality of service is being improved and new products are being offered to meet the competition.


title: Ministry of Communications (India)

text: The field services are managed by Postal Circles—generally conforming to each State—except for the North Eastern States, India has been divided into 22 postal circles, each circle headed by a Chief Postmaster General. Each Circle is further divided into Regions comprising field units, called Divisions, headed by a Postmaster General. Further divided into divisions headed by SSPOs & SPOs. further divisions are divided into Sub Divisions Headed by ASPs & IPS. Other functional units like Circle Stamp Depots, Postal Stores Depots, and Mail Motor Service may exist in the Circles and Regions.


title: Ministry of Communications (India)

text: Besides the 23 circles, there is a special Circle called the Base Circle to cater to the postal services of the Armed Forces of India. Army Postal Services (APS) is a unique arrangement to take care of the postal requirement of soldiers posted across the country. Department of Posts personnel is commissioned into the army to take care of APS. The Base Circle is headed by an Additional Director General, Army Postal Service, holding a Major general.<ref>Cheap Eggs Over Animal Welfare


title: Ministry of Communications (India)

text: Other than the traditional postage service to keep up with the age, many new services have been introduced by the department:


title: Peugeot 504

text: The Peugeot 504 is a mid-size, front-engine, rear-wheel-drive automobile manufactured and marketed by Peugeot from 1968 to 1983 over a single generation, primarily in four-door sedan and wagon configurations – but also as twin two-door coupé and cabriolet configurations as well as pickup truck variants.


title: Peugeot 504

text: The sedan/berline was styled by Aldo Brovarone of Pininfarina, and the coupé and cabriolet twins were styled by Franco Martinengo at Pininfarina, with sketches produced in-house at Peugeot.


title: Peugeot 504

text: The 504 was noted for its robust body structure, long suspension travel, high ground clearance and torque tube drive shaft – enclosed in a rigid tube attached at each end to the gearbox housing and differential casing, relieving drive train torque reactions. The 504 ultimately achieved widespread popularity in far-flung rough-terrain countries – including Brazil, Argentina, Australia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Cameroon, Benin, Kenya and Nigeria.


title: Peugeot 504

text: More than three million 504s were manufactured in its European production, with production continuing globally under various licensing arrangements – including 27,000 assembled in Kenya and 425,000 assembled in Nigeria, using knock-down kits – with production extending into 2006.


title: Peugeot 504

text: Having debuted as Peugeot's flagship at the 1968 Paris Salon, the 504 received the 1969 European Car of the Year. In 2013, the "Los Angeles Times" called it "Africa's workhorse."


title: Peugeot 504

text: Marketed as Peugeot's flagship saloon car, the 504 made its public debut on 12 September 1968 at the Paris Salon. The press launch which had been scheduled for June 1968 was at the last minute deferred by three months, and production got off to a similarly delayed start because of the political and industrial disruption which exploded across France in May 1968.


title: Peugeot 504

text: The 504 was a sunroof-equipped four-door saloon, introduced with a carbureted 1,796 cc four-cylinder petrol engine DIN with on tap with the optional fuel injection. At the time of introduction, Peugeot still used the SAE rating, with claimed power numbers of 87 and 103 cv respectively. A column-mounted four-speed manual transmission was standard; a three-speed ZF 3HP12 automatic became available with the carburetted engine beginning in February 1969. In September 1969 the automatic's shifter location was moved from the steering column to the floor.


title: Peugeot 504

text: The 504 was elected European Car of the Year in 1969, praised for its styling, quality, chassis, ride, visibility, strong engine and refinement. 1969 was also when the 504 reached the Australian market.


title: Peugeot 504

text: The 504 Injection two-door coupé and two-door cabriolet were introduced at the Salon de Geneva in March 1969. The engine produced the same of output as in the fuel-injected saloon, but the final drive ratio was slightly revised to give a slightly higher road speed of at 1,000 rpm. Unlike the saloons, the coupé and cabriolet received a floor shifter.


title: Peugeot 504

text: The 504 received a new four-cylinder 1971 cc engine, rated at (carburated) and (fuel-injected). At the 1970 Paris Salon a four-cylinder 2112 cc diesel engine rated at . The 1796 cc petrol engine was no longer available in 504 saloons.


title: Peugeot 504

text: In September 1970 an estate ("Break") was presented, featuring a higher rear roof, lengthened wheelbase, and solid rear axle with four coil springs. It was joined by the 7-seat "Familiale", which had all its occupants facing forward in three rows of seats. The Break/Familiale/Commerciale did not actually go on sale until April the following year. The Break and Familiale both received the 2-liter petrol engine or 2.1 diesel as per the saloon, but the utilitarian "Commerciale" brought back the 1.8-litre four, now tuned down to . There was also a Commerciale diesel, using the , 1.95-liter XD88 from the 404 Diesel, enough for a top speed of . The Commerciale had a stripped down interior, with a different dashboard, no carpeting in the cargo area, and seats without headrests. It also received lightly reinforced suspension, single round headlights (seen again on pickups from 1979 on), missing chrome around the side windows, and some trim parts such as the rear view mirrors were painted rather than chromed.


title: Peugeot 504

text: In late 1970 an automatic option was added to the coupé and cabriolet - this was never a large seller and was not always available to the cabriolet but continued to be offered until 1983; in total about 2,500 of the two-door 504s received this transmission option.


title: Peugeot 504

text: During 1971 the Break SL ("Super Luxe") was introduced, a better equipped version using the carburetted 2.0-liter engine. Unlike the regular wagons, the SL received metallic paint, plusher upholstery, and various other additional equipment.


title: Peugeot 504

text: During the year, fuel injected 504 saloons changed to a floor-mounted shifter on cars equipped with the manual transmission as well. The 504 Commerciale dropped the round headlights in favor of the standard units.


title: Peugeot 504

text: In April 1973, because of the oil crisis Peugeot presented the 504 L. It featured a coil sprung live rear axle and reintroduced the smaller 1796 cc engine, now rated at or for the L Automatique. The different rear axle required somewhat more space; this required some alterations to the floor pan which meant marginally less boot space and rear headroom. At around the same time, the lineup was revamped as listed below. Also new was the 504 LD saloon, matching the Commerciale diesel although producing . The L saloons can be recognized by the missing bumper overriders. Also during 1973, the column shifters were replaced by floor mounted ones on all 504 saloons.


title: Peugeot 504

text: In August 1974 the second series 504 was introduced. The most noticeable change was the new, more flush fitting doorhandles, and new wheels with rectangular rather than oval openings on the GL and TI models. The GL and TI also received a new, more padded steering wheel. Additionally, the 2.0's double carburettor was changed from the Solex SEIA to a Zenith INAT (with no change in power), while the liftgate on the estates changed from steel springs to gas struts.


title: Peugeot 504

text: At the 1974 October Motor Show Peugeot presented a more powerful engine for the 504 coupé and cabriolet, now fitted with a "PRV" 2664 cc V6 unit developed in collaboration with Renault and Volvo. This was the same engine that would be used for the 604 berline, to be introduced at Geneva five months later, in March 1975. The engine incorporated various innovative features such as an aluminium cylinder block, and a fuel-feed system that employed carburetors of differing type, one (type 34 TBIA) featuring a single chamber controlled directly according to the movement of the accelerator pedal, and the second being a twin chamber carburetor (type 35 CEEI) designed to operate simultaneously with the first, using a pneumatic linkage. Maximum output for the 504 coupé and cabriolet fitted with this new V6 engine was given as , supporting a top speed of . During 1975, the first full year of production, 2643 of these six-cylinder 504 coupés and cabriolet were produced, which was considered a respectable number although dwarfed by the 236,733 four-cylinder 504 "berlines" (saloons/sedans) and "breaks" (estates/station wagons) produced by Peugeot in France in the same year. Following the launch of the six-cylinder cars, the four-cylinder versions of the coupé and cabriolet 504s were delisted: they returned to the showrooms in 1978 in response, it was reported, to customer demand.


title: Peugeot 504

text: At the Paris Motor Show of October 1976 an enlarged diesel engine was introduced for the 504 GLD saloon. The stroke of remained the same as that of the existing 2112 cc diesel motor, but for the larger engine the bore was increased to , giving an overall 2304 cc along with an increase in claimed power output from . Briefly, the 2.1 diesel was not offered on any 504 saloons. The 2112 cc diesel engine would also find its way into the Ford Granada since Ford did not at the time produce a sufficient volume of diesel sedans in this class to justify the development of their own diesel engine. From August 1976 on, the power of the 2-liter petrol engines increased marginally, to for the carburetted and fuel injected engines respectively. The grille on the 504 L models was changed from the original chromed metal piece to a black, plastic unit. The 504 TI gained power steering.


title: Peugeot 504

text: In September 1977, the 2.3-liter diesel found its way into the new GLD Break and the Familiale Diesel, while the Break L now received a downtuned version of the old 2.1-liter unit, producing . Also new was the option of an automatic transmission for the 2.3 diesel (saloons only). The old 1.9-liter diesel was discontinued, and the basic 504 saloons dropped the "L" designation, gaining a black plastic dash and the steering wheel from the GL/TI in the process. The new 504 diesel saloon was fitted with the erstwhile, 2.1-liter diesel engine that had graced the GLD until the introduction of the 2.3.


title: Peugeot 504

text: The coupé and cabriolet saw the reintroduction of the fuel injected 2.0-liter engine, a response to slow sales of the thirsty V6. The V6 coupé gained a five-speed manual transmission and fuel injection for , while the V6 cabriolet was discontinued after only 970 examples had been built in three years.


title: Peugeot 504

text: Peugeot 504 production in Europe was pruned back in 1979 with the launch of the Peugeot 505, although the 504 Pickup was introduced as a replacement for the 404 Pickup for the 1980 model year. The last European-made example rolled off the production line in 1983, although the pick up version continued in production, and was available in Europe until 1993. More than three million 504 passenger cars were produced in Europe. The 505 shared most of the Peugeot 504 mechanical parts, similarly to the Peugeot 604 and Talbot Tagora.


title: Peugeot 504

text: For several years, the 504 was Peugeot's only model offered in North America. Originally very similar to European specified models, the 504 had to be gradually modified to meet the federal emissions and safety standards. The 2-litre petrol engine was offered alongside the 2.1 diesel, later replaced by the 2.3.


title: Peugeot 504

text: In 1974, the US-spec carburetted 2-litre engine produced at 5200 rpm with a low 7.6:1 compression ratio. The 2.1 diesel was unchanged vis-à-vis the global model, producing at 4500 rpm.


title: Peugeot 504

text: Manufacturing continued in Kenya until 2004, and Nigeria until 2006, using the Peugeot knock down kits, which meant that versions of the 504 had been in production in various parts of the world for a total of 38 years. Kenyan production was 27,000 units and the car remained on sale to 2007, being described as "King of the African road". Egypt also had its own production facilities. In South Africa it was built by PACSA (Peugeot and Citroën South Africa) alongside the 404 until late 1978. Sigma Motor Corporation took over from PACSA in early 1979 and moved 504 production to their "Sigma Park" plant east of Pretoria. South Africa received the two-liter and TI versions until mid-1976 when the lower priced 1800 L version was added. The L has a matt black grille and window surrounds, and did not receive bumper overriders. A similarly equipped L Wagon had arrived earlier in the year, to replace the discontinued 404 Wagon. The Peugeot 504 is also one of the most common vehicles employed as a bush taxi in Africa.


title: Peugeot 504

text: The car was assembled in various countries, under license of Peugeot. In Australia it was first released in 1969 and was assembled by Peugeot's rival Renault, and sold through Renault Australia's dealer network. In 1981 the 504 GL retailed for AUD $11,000. Only the saloon was assembled in Australia, while the Break and Familiale models were imported fully built-up from France.


title: Peugeot 504

text: In China, the 504 was produced in pickup form, with a four-door crew cab, a live rear axle, on an extended estate platform. These were built by Guangzhou Peugeot Automobile Company. Chinese production of the 504 pickup ceased in 1997, when the joint venture folded.


title: Peugeot 504

text: The Peugeot 504 was also produced by SAFRAR in Argentina, beginning in 1969. In 1980 Sevel took over production in El Palomar near Buenos Aires, in sedan, estate (1980 and 1981 only) and pickup forms. The sedan was built until 1999, with the last new cars sold in 2000. The pickup was manufactured in single and double cab with payload of over 1 tonne (1300 kg ) from 1983 to 1997, and exported mainly to bordering countries. In 1991 the later models were restyled at the front and rear, with the lamps and bumpers changing design. These cars were also given a new interior. Argentinian 504s offered the 1971 cc petrol four-cylinder, or the 2304 cc diesel.


title: Peugeot 504

text: SAFRAR also produced between 1977 and 1978 a sports version of the sedan called "504 TN", which was intended to adapt in local categories such Turismo Nacional hence the name of the version. This version had a XN1 2.0 litres engine but with a new intake and exhaust manifold with four individual outlets, a double-mouth Solex carburetor and a camshaft with greater elevation (7.5 mm against 6.7 mm of the previous one) among other changes with the engine reaching .


title: Peugeot 504

text: The French company Dangel also produced Peugeot approved four-wheel drive Break (estate/station wagon) and pickup models.


title: Peugeot 504

text: Its engines and suspension were used in later models of the Paykan, the Iranian version of the Hillman Hunter.


title: Peugeot 504

text: In September 1979, for the 1980 model year, the 504 Pickup was introduced. The considerable work involved in converting the 504's monocoque body into a load-carrying version had taken a full decade. The pickup used the longer wheelbase and live rear axle of the 504 Break. On introduction, it was available with very basic spec and single round headlights, fitted in plastic frames shaped like the 504's "cat's eyes." The engine options were the 404's 1618 cc petrol (U01) and 1948 cc diesel (U20); outputs are respectively. This was the only 504 sold with the 1.6-litre XC5 engine. As with most of Peugeot's commercial vehicles, the 504 Pickup was assembled by Chausson. Cargo capacity was for both versions; models exported to Africa were rated at (V01/V20). A chassis cab model was also offered, and manufacturers such as Heuliez offered a number of different applications for the 504 chassis. Germany's Bimobil even offered a demountable camper for the 504, weighing about . Around 300 of these were built, following an initial order of twenty made by Peugeot themselves.


title: Peugeot 504

text: As with the regular 504, the pickup has rear-wheel-drive and a floor-shifted four-speed manual transmission. A locking differential was also standard. Late-model pickups were also available with a five-speed transmission. In July 1981, Dangel added a four-wheel-drive version of the Pickup. These were mainly purchased by French governmental agencies, as their procurement rules required them to purchase French when possible. About 5500 Dangel 4x4 Pickups were built until the model's discontinuation in 1994.


title: Peugeot 504

text: For 1982 the better equipped 504 Pickup GR was added, these received some chrome touches and luxuries such as a clock and door-mounted armrests. Externally, the GR was set apart by black rubber bumper overriders, different hubcaps and a modicum of chrome ornamentation (the standard version received a grille and bumpers painted light gray). By 1984, the chrome parts were dropped in favor of a cleaner, more modern appearance. The GR was renamed "Confort" in 1987, at least in the French domestic market. This is also when the 1.6 petrol option was discontinued. The GR received an version of the 504's 1.8-liter petrol engine, while the GRD had the 2.3-liter diesel. The French models were then renamed "Entrepreneur" in 1988 (by now with a 2.1 Diesel) and was upgraded to the 2.3-liter diesel for 1990. Trim levels received differing names in various markets; in Britain, most later 504 Pickups received "GL" badging. For 1995 and 1996, subsequent to the end of pickup production in France, Argentinian 504 Pickups were exported to France. These can be recognized by the large modernized front bumper and redesigned dashboard.


title: Peugeot 504

text: The car was rear-wheel drive, with longitudinally mounted engines, canted over to bring a lower bonnet line to the styling. Manual and automatic transmissions were offered. The suspension system consisted of MacPherson struts at the front and mainly coil springs at the rear. Sedan, coupé, and cabriolet models additionally had rear semi-trailing arms whereas wagons and pickups had a simpler live rear axle with coils or heavy-duty leaf springs respectively. Most 504 models used a torque tube driveline. With long suspension travel and great strength, the 504 was suited to rough road conditions, and the car proved extremely reliable in conditions found in Africa, Asia, Australia and the like.


title: Peugeot 504

text: The car used disc brakes at the front, and either disc brakes or drum brakes at the rear, depending on the model. Brake pad wear warning via an instrument panel indicator light was a notable innovation. The steering was a rack and pinion system. The Peugeot 504 was widely available with diesel engines and an automatic transmission option, which was a rare combination at the time. Engines were of the design and included 1948 cc, 2112 cc, and a 2304 cc. The Indenor engine was also used in dozens of other automobiles and light commercials as well as for marine applications.


title: Peugeot 504

text: There were three petrol engines available in Europe, 1796 cc and 1971 cc four cylinder and a 2664 cc V6. The two-litre engine was also available with Kugelfischer mechanical fuel injection, first available on the earlier Peugeot 404. Gearboxes were either the BA7, four-speed manual or ZF three-speed automatic. Later pickup trucks in Europe gained a fifth gear. Export market vehicles had different variations available.


title: Peugeot 504

text: In 1976, the Government of Sri Lanka purchased a large number of Peugeot 504s for use of dignitaries attending the Fifth Non-Aligned Movement summit in Colombo.


title: Peugeot 504

text: In November 2010. Iranian state television announced Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad was to auction off his 1977 Peugeot 504 to raise money for charity. The car is white with a sky-blue interior, and has covered only 37,000 km since new. The political significance of the car being a 504 is that it was used as a working-class status symbol to draw electoral support from the less well-off during the 2005 presidential campaign. The money earned from the sale at international auction is to be donated to the Mehr housing project, a network of cooperatives that provides affordable housing for low-income families. Soon after being put on auction in January 2011, a bid of $1 million was received from "an Arab country". When the auction closed in March 2011, the final bid was $2.5 million.


title: Ted Bundy: American Boogeyman

text: Ted Bundy: American Boogeyman is a 2021 American crime film written and directed by Daniel Farrands. The film stars Chad Michael Murray as serial killer Ted Bundy.


title: Ted Bundy: American Boogeyman

text: The film concerns the murders committed by Ted Bundy in the 1970s and the subsequent manhunt to apprehend him, led by FBI agents Kathleen McChesney and Robert Ressler.


title: Ted Bundy: American Boogeyman

text: Much like Farrands' previous directorial efforts, "Ted Bundy: American Boogeyman" was universally panned by critics and audiences. On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, "Ted Bundy: American Boogeyman" holds a rating of 0%, based on 9 reviews, with an average rating of 3/10.


title: Names of the American Civil War

text: The most common name for the American Civil War in modern American usage is simply "The Civil War". Although rarely used during the war, the term "War Between the States" became widespread afterward in the Southern United States. During and immediately after the war, Northern historians often used the terms "War of the Rebellion" and "Great Rebellion", and the Confederate term was "War for Southern Independence", which regained some currency in the 20th century but has again fallen out of use. The name "Slaveholders' Rebellion" was used by Frederick Douglass and appears in newspaper articles. "Freedom War" is used to celebrate the war's effect of ending slavery.


title: Names of the American Civil War

text: During the Jim Crow era of the 1950s, the term "War of Northern Aggression" developed under the Lost Cause of the Confederacy movement by Southern historical revisionists or negationists. This label was coined by segregationists in an effort to equate contemporary efforts to end segregation with 19th-century efforts to abolish slavery.


title: Names of the American Civil War

text: Several names also exist for the forces on each side; the opposing forces named battles differently as well. The Union forces frequently named battles for bodies of water that were prominent on or near the battlefield, but Confederates most often used the name of the nearest town. As a result, many battles have two or more names that have had varying use, but with some notable exceptions, one name has eventually tended to take precedence.


title: Names of the American Civil War

text: In the United States, "Civil War" is the most common term for the conflict and has been used by the overwhelming majority of reference books, scholarly journals, dictionaries, encyclopedias, popular histories, and mass media in the United States since the early 20th century. The National Park Service, the government organization entrusted by the US Congress to preserve the battlefields of the war, uses this term. Writings of prominent men such as Jefferson Davis, Robert E. Lee, Ulysses S. Grant, William Tecumseh Sherman, P. G. T. Beauregard, Nathan Bedford Forrest, and Judah P. Benjamin used the term "Civil War" during the conflict. Abraham Lincoln used it on multiple occasions. In 1862, the US Supreme Court used the terms "the present civil war between the United States and the so called Confederate States" and "the civil war such as that now waged between the Northern and Southern States."


title: Names of the American Civil War

text: English-language historians outside the United States usually refer to the conflict as the "American Civil War". Such variations are also used in the United States if the war might otherwise be confused with another civil war such as the English Civil War, the Russian Civil War, or the Spanish Civil War.


title: Names of the American Civil War

text: The term "War Between the States" was rarely used during the war but became prevalent afterward among proponents of the "Lost Cause" interpretation of the war.


title: Names of the American Civil War

text: The Confederate government avoided the term "civil war," which assumes both combatants to be part of a single country, and so referred to it in official documents as the "War between the Confederate States of America and the United States of America." European diplomacy produced a similar formula for avoiding the phrase "civil war." Queen Victoria's proclamation of British neutrality referred to "hostilities... between the Government of the United States of America and certain States styling themselves the Confederate States of America."


title: Names of the American Civil War

text: After the war, the memoirs of former Confederate officials and veterans (Joseph E. Johnston, Raphael Semmes, and especially Alexander Stephens) commonly used the term "War Between the States." In 1898, the United Confederate Veterans formally endorsed the name. In the early 20th century, the United Daughters of the Confederacy (UDC) led a campaign to promote the term "War Between the States" in the media and public schools. UDC efforts to convince the US Congress to adopt the term began in 1913 but were unsuccessful. Congress has never adopted an official name for the war. The name "War Between the States" is inscribed on the USMC War Memorial at Arlington National Cemetery. The name was personally ordered by Lemuel C. Shepherd Jr., the 20th Commandant of the Marine Corps.


title: Names of the American Civil War

text: Franklin D. Roosevelt referred to the Civil War as "the four-year War Between the States." References to the "War Between the States" appear occasionally in federal and state court documents, including in Justice Harry Blackmun's landmark opinion in "Roe v. Wade". Their usage demonstrates the generality of the term's use. Roosevelt was born and raised in New York State, and Blackmun was born in southern Illinois but grew up in St. Paul, Minnesota.


title: Names of the American Civil War

text: The names "Civil War" and "War Between the States" have been used jointly in some formal contexts. For example, to mark the war's centenary in the 1960s, the State of Georgia created the "Georgia Civil War Centennial Commission Commemorating the War Between the States." In 1994, the US Postal Service issued a series of commemorative stamps, "The Civil War: The War Between the States".


title: Names of the American Civil War

text: During and immediately after the war, US officials, Southern Unionists, and pro-Union writers often referred to Confederates as "Rebels." The earliest histories published in the northern states commonly refer to the war as "the Great Rebellion" or "the War of the Rebellion," as do many war monuments, hence the nicknames Johnny Reb (and Billy Yank) for the participants.


title: Names of the American Civil War

text: Frederick Douglass delivered a speech entitled "The Slaveholders' Rebellion" on 4 July 1862 in Himrod, New York, and John Harvey wrote "The slaveholders' rebellion, and the downfall of slavery in America" in 1865.


title: Names of the American Civil War

text: The official US war records refer to the war as the "War of the Rebellion." The records were compiled by the US War Department in a 127-volume collection, "The War of the Rebellion: a Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies", which was published from 1881 to 1901. Historians commonly refer to the collection as the "Official Records".


title: Names of the American Civil War

text: "War of Separation" was occasionally used by people in the Confederacy during the war. In most Romance languages, the words used to refer to the war translate literally to "War of Secession" (, , , , ), a name that is also used in


title: Names of the American Civil War

text: Central and Eastern Europe: is commonly used in German language, and is used in Polish (Walt Whitman calls it the "War of Secession" or the "Secession War" in his prose.)


title: Names of the American Civil War

text: The "War for Southern Independence," the "Second American Revolution," and their variations are names used by some Southerners to refer to the war. That terminology aims to parallel usage of the American Revolutionary War. While popular on the Confederate side during the war (Stonewall Jackson regularly referred to the war as the "second war for independence"), the term lost popularity in the immediate aftermath of the Confederacy's defeat and its failure to gain independence. The term resurfaced slightly in the late 20th century.


title: Names of the American Civil War

text: A popular poem published in the early stages of hostilities was "South Carolina". Its prologue referred to the war as the "Third War for Independence" since it named the War of 1812 as the second such war. On November 8, 1860, the "Charleston Mercury", a contemporary southern newspaper, stated, "The tea has been thrown overboard. The Revolution of 1860 has been initiated."


title: Names of the American Civil War

text: In the 1920s, the historian Charles A. Beard used the term "Second American Revolution" to emphasize the changes brought on by the Union's victory. The term is still used by the Sons of Confederate Veterans organization but with the intent to represent the Confederacy's cause positively.


title: Names of the American Civil War

text: Some Southern Unionists and northerners used "The War for the Union," the title of a December 1861 lecture by the abolitionist leader Wendell Phillips.


title: Names of the American Civil War

text: "Ordeal of the Union", a major eight-volume history published from 1947 to 1971 by the historian and journalist (Joseph) Allan Nevins, emphasizes the Union in the first volume's title, which also came to name the series. Because Nevins earned the Bancroft, Scribner, and National Book Award Prizes for books in his "Ordeal of the Union" series, his title may have been influential. However, the fourth volume is titled "Prologue to Civil War, 1859-1861", and the next four volumes use "War" in their titles. The sixth volume, "War Becomes Revolution, 1862–1863", picks up on that earlier thread in naming the conflict, but Nevins neither viewed Southern secession as revolutionary nor supported Southern apologist attempts to link the war with the American Revolution of 1775–1783. If anything, his choice of the term in regard to the Civil War has more to do with the Industrial Revolution and its profound effects.


title: Names of the American Civil War

text: The name "War of Northern Aggression" has been used to indicate the Union as the belligerent party in the war. The name arose during the Jim Crow era of the 1950s when it was coined by segregationists who tried to equate contemporary efforts to end segregation with 19th-century efforts to abolish slavery. The name has been criticized by historians such as James M. McPherson, as the Confederacy "took the initiative by seceding in defiance of an election of a president by a constitutional majority" and "started the war by firing on the American flag."


title: Names of the American Civil War

text: Since the free states and most non-Yankee groups (Germans, Dutch-Americans, New York Irish and southern-leaning settlers in Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois) showed opposition to waging the Civil War, other Confederate sympathizers have used the name "War of Yankee Aggression" to indicate the Civil War as a Yankee war, not a Northern war "per se".


title: Names of the American Civil War

text: Conversely, the "War of Southern Aggression" has been used by those who assert that the Confederacy was the belligerent party. They maintain that the Confederacy started the war by initiating combat at Fort Sumter.


title: Names of the American Civil War

text: Other names for the conflict include "The Confederate War," "Buchanan's War," "Mr. Lincoln's War," and "Mr. Davis's War." In 1892, a D.C. society of war-era nurses took on the name "National Association of Army Nurses of the Late War", with "late" meaning simply "recent". More euphemistic terms are "The Late Unpleasantness" and "The Recent Unpleasantness." Other postwar names in the South included "The War of the Sections" and "The Brothers' War," especially in the border states.


title: Names of the American Civil War

text: There is a disparity between the sides in naming some of the battles of the war. The Union forces frequently named battles for bodies of water or other natural features that were prominent on or near the battlefield, but Confederates most often used the name of the nearest town or artificial landmark. The historian Shelby Foote explained that many Northerners were urban and regarded bodies of water as noteworthy, but many Southerners were rural and regarded towns as noteworthy. That caused many battles to have two widely-used names.


title: Names of the American Civil War

text: However, not all of the disparities are based on those naming conventions. Many modern accounts of Civil War battles use the names established by the North. However, for some battles, the Southern name has become the standard. The National Park Service occasionally uses the Southern names for its battlefield parks located in the South, such as Manassas and Shiloh. In general, naming conventions were determined by the victor of the battle. Examples of battles with dual names are shown in the table.


title: Names of the American Civil War

text: Civil War armies were also named in a manner reminiscent of the battlefields since Northern armies were frequently named for major rivers (Army of the Potomac, Army of the Tennessee, Army of the Mississippi), and Southern armies for states or geographic regions (Army of Northern Virginia, Army of Tennessee, Army of Mississippi).


title: Names of the American Civil War

text: Units smaller than armies were named differently in many cases. Corps were usually written out (First Army Corps or simply First Corps), but a postwar convention developed to designate Union corps by using Roman numerals (XI Corps). Often, particularly with Southern armies, corps were more commonly known by the name of the leader (Hardee's Corps, Polk's Corps).


title: Names of the American Civil War

text: Union brigades were given numeric designations (1st, 2nd, etc.), but Confederate brigades were frequently named after their commanding general (Hood's Brigade, Gordon's Brigade). Confederate brigades so named retained the name of the original commander even when they were commanded temporarily by another man; for example, at the Battle of Gettysburg, Hoke's Brigade was commanded by Isaac Avery and Nicholl's Brigade by Jesse Williams. Nicknames were common in both armies, such as the Iron Brigade and the Stonewall Brigade.


title: Names of the American Civil War

text: Union artillery batteries were generally named numerically and Confederate batteries by the name of the town or county in which they were recruited (Fluvanna Artillery). Again, they were often simply referred to by their commander's name (Moody's Battery, Parker's Battery).


title: Law of excluded middle

text: In logic, the law of excluded middle (or the principle of excluded middle) states that for every proposition, either this proposition or its negation is true. It is one of the so-called three laws of thought, along with the law of noncontradiction, and the law of identity. However, no system of logic is built on just these laws, and none of these laws provides inference rules, such as modus ponens or De Morgan's laws.


title: Law of excluded middle

text: The law is also known as the law (or principle) of the excluded third, in Latin principium tertii exclusi. Another Latin designation for this law is tertium non datur: "no third [possibility] is given". It is a tautology.


title: Law of excluded middle

text: The principle should not be confused with the semantical principle of bivalence, which states that every proposition is either true or false. The principle of bivalence always implies the law of excluded middle, while the converse is not always true. A commonly cited counterexample uses statements unprovable now, but provable in the future to show that the law of excluded middle may apply when the principle of bivalence fails.


title: Law of excluded middle

text: The earliest known formulation is in Aristotle's discussion of the principle of non-contradiction, first proposed in "On Interpretation," where he says that of two contradictory propositions (i.e. where one proposition is the negation of the other) one must be true, and the other false. He also states it as a principle in the "Metaphysics" book 3, saying that it is necessary in every case to affirm or deny, and that it is impossible that there should be anything between the two parts of a contradiction.


title: Law of excluded middle

text: Aristotle wrote that ambiguity can arise from the use of ambiguous names, but cannot exist in the facts themselves:


title: Law of excluded middle

text: Aristotle's assertion that "it will not be possible to be and not to be the same thing", which would be written in propositional logic as ~("P" ∧ ~"P"), is a statement modern logicians could call the law of excluded middle ("P" ∨ ~"P"), as distribution of the negation of Aristotle's assertion makes them equivalent, regardless that the former claims that no statement is "both" true and false, while the latter requires that any statement is "either" true or false.


title: Law of excluded middle

text: But Aristotle also writes, "since it is impossible that contradictories should be at the same time true of the same thing, obviously contraries also cannot belong at the same time to the same thing" (Book IV, CH 6, p. 531). He then proposes that "there cannot be an intermediate between contradictories, but of one subject we must either affirm or deny any one predicate" (Book IV, CH 7, p. 531). In the context of Aristotle's traditional logic, this is a remarkably precise statement of the law of excluded middle, "P" ∨ ~"P".


title: Law of excluded middle

text: Also in "On Interpretation", Aristotle seems to deny the law of excluded middle in the case of future contingents, in his discussion on the sea battle.


title: Law of excluded middle

text: The principle was stated as a theorem of propositional logic by Russell and Whitehead in "Principia Mathematica" as:


title: Law of excluded middle

text: This is not much help. But later, in a much deeper discussion ("Definition and systematic ambiguity of Truth and Falsehood" Chapter II part III, p. 41 ff), "PM" defines truth and falsehood in terms of a relationship between the "a" and the "b" and the "percipient". For example "This 'a' is 'b'" (e.g. "This 'object a' is 'red'") really means "'object a' is a sense-datum" and "'red' is a sense-datum", and they "stand in relation" to one another and in relation to "I". Thus what we really mean is: "I perceive that 'This object a is red'" and this is an undeniable-by-3rd-party "truth".


title: Law of excluded middle

text: Russell reiterated his distinction between "sense-datum" and "sensation" in his book "The Problems of Philosophy" (1912), published at the same time as "PM" (1910–1913):


title: Law of excluded middle

text: Russell further described his reasoning behind his definitions of "truth" and "falsehood" in the same book (Chapter XII, "Truth and Falsehood").


title: Law of excluded middle

text: From the law of excluded middle, formula ✸2.1 in "Principia Mathematica," Whitehead and Russell derive some of the most powerful tools in the logician's argumentation toolkit. (In "Principia Mathematica," formulas and propositions are identified by a leading asterisk and two numbers, such as "✸2.1".)


title: Law of excluded middle

text: The proof of ✸2.1 is roughly as follows: "primitive idea" 1.08 defines "p" → "q" = ~"p" ∨ "q". Substituting "p" for "q" in this rule yields "p" → "p" = ~"p" ∨ "p". Since "p" → "p" is true (this is Theorem 2.08, which is proved separately), then ~"p" ∨ "p" must be true.


title: Law of excluded middle

text: ✸2.12 "p" → ~(~"p") (Principle of double negation, part 1: if "this rose is red" is true then it's not true that "'this rose is not-red' is true".)


title: Law of excluded middle

text: ✸2.15 (~"p" → "q") → (~"q" → "p") (One of the four "Principles of transposition". Similar to 1.03, 1.16 and 1.17. A very long demonstration was required here.)


title: Law of excluded middle

text: ✸2.16 ("p" → "q") → (~"q" → ~"p") (If it's true that "If this rose is red then this pig flies" then it's true that "If this pig doesn't fly then this rose isn't red.")


title: Law of excluded middle

text: ✸2.18 (~"p" → "p") → "p" (Called "The complement of "reductio ad absurdum". It states that a proposition which follows from the hypothesis of its own falsehood is true" ("PM", pp. 103–104).)


title: Law of excluded middle

text: Most of these theorems—in particular ✸2.1, ✸2.11, and ✸2.14—are rejected by intuitionism. These tools are recast into another form that Kolmogorov cites as "Hilbert's four axioms of implication" and "Hilbert's two axioms of negation" (Kolmogorov in van Heijenoort, p. 335).


title: Law of excluded middle

text: The intuitionist writings of L. E. J. Brouwer refer to what he calls "the "principle of the reciprocity of the multiple species", that is, the principle that for every system the correctness of a property follows from the impossibility of the impossibility of this property" (Brouwer, ibid, p. 335).


title: Law of excluded middle

text: This principle is commonly called "the principle of double negation" ("PM", pp. 101–102). From the law of excluded middle (✸2.1 and ✸2.11), "PM" derives principle ✸2.12 immediately. We substitute ~"p" for "p" in 2.11 to yield ~"p" ∨ ~(~"p"), and by the definition of implication (i.e. 1.01 p → q = ~p ∨ q) then ~p ∨ ~(~p)= p → ~(~p). QED (The derivation of 2.14 is a bit more involved.)


title: Law of excluded middle

text: It is correct, at least for bivalent logic—i.e. it can be seen with a Karnaugh map—that this law removes "the middle" of the inclusive-or used in his law (3). And this is the point of Reichenbach's demonstration that some believe the "exclusive"-or should take the place of the "inclusive"-or.


title: Law of excluded middle

text: In line (30) the "(x)" means "for all" or "for every", a form used by Russell and Reichenbach; today the symbolism is usually formula_2 "x". Thus an example of the expression would look like this:


title: Law of excluded middle

text: From the late 1800s through the 1930s, a bitter, persistent debate raged between Hilbert and his followers versus Hermann Weyl and L. E. J. Brouwer. Brouwer's philosophy, called intuitionism, started in earnest with Leopold Kronecker in the late 1800s.


title: Law of excluded middle

text: The debate had a profound effect on Hilbert. Reid indicates that Hilbert's second problem (one of Hilbert's problems from the Second International Conference in Paris in 1900) evolved from this debate (italics in the original):


title: Law of excluded middle

text: Thus, Hilbert was saying: "If "p" and ~"p" are both shown to be true, then "p" does not exist", and was thereby invoking the law of excluded middle cast into the form of the law of contradiction.


title: Law of excluded middle

text: The rancorous debate continued through the early 1900s into the 1920s; in 1927 Brouwer complained about "polemicizing against it [intuitionism] in sneering tones" (Brouwer in van Heijenoort, p. 492). But the debate was fertile: it resulted in "Principia Mathematica" (1910–1913), and that work gave a precise definition to the law of excluded middle, and all this provided an intellectual setting and the tools necessary for the mathematicians of the early 20th century:


title: Law of excluded middle

text: Brouwer reduced the debate to the use of proofs designed from "negative" or "non-existence" versus "constructive" proof:


title: Law of excluded middle

text: In his lecture in 1941 at Yale and the subsequent paper, Gödel proposed a solution: "that the negation of a universal proposition was to be understood as asserting the existence … of a counterexample" (Dawson, p. 157)


title: Law of excluded middle

text: Gödel's approach to the law of excluded middle was to assert that objections against "the use of 'impredicative definitions'" had "carried more weight" than "the law of excluded middle and related theorems of the propositional calculus" (Dawson p. 156). He proposed his "system Σ … and he concluded by mentioning several applications of his interpretation. Among them were a proof of the consistency with intuitionistic logic of the principle ~ (∀A: (A ∨ ~A)) (despite the inconsistency of the assumption ∃ A: ~ (A ∨ ~A))" (Dawson, p. 157) (no closing parenthesis had been placed)


title: Law of excluded middle

text: The debate seemed to weaken: mathematicians, logicians and engineers continue to use the law of excluded middle (and double negation) in their daily work.


title: Law of excluded middle

text: The following highlights the deep mathematical and philosophic problem behind what it means to "know", and also helps elucidate what the "law" implies (i.e. what the law really means). Their difficulties with the law emerge: that they do not want to accept as true implications drawn from that which is unverifiable (untestable, unknowable) or from the impossible or the false. (All quotes are from van Heijenoort, italics added).


title: Law of excluded middle

text: "Brouwer" offers his definition of "principle of excluded middle"; we see here also the issue of "testability":


title: Law of excluded middle

text: is true by virtue of its form alone. That is, the "middle" position, that Socrates is neither mortal nor not-mortal, is excluded by logic, and therefore either the first possibility ("Socrates is mortal") or its negation ("it is not the case that Socrates is mortal") must be true.


title: Law of excluded middle

text: Clearly (excluded middle) this number is either rational or irrational. If it is rational, the proof is complete, and


title: Law of excluded middle

text: In the above argument, the assertion "this number is either rational or irrational" invokes the law of excluded middle. An intuitionist, for example, would not accept this argument without further support for that statement. This might come in the form of a proof that the number in question is in fact irrational (or rational, as the case may be); or a finite algorithm that could determine whether the number is rational.


title: Law of excluded middle

text: </math> is irrational but there is no known easy proof of that fact.) (Davis 2000:220)}} (Constructive proofs of the specific example above are not hard to produce; for example formula_8 and formula_15 are both easily shown to be irrational, and formula_16; a proof allowed by intuitionists).


title: Law of excluded middle

text: By "non-constructive" Davis means that "a proof that there actually are mathematic entities satisfying certain conditions would not have to provide a method to exhibit explicitly the entities in question." (p. 85). Such proofs presume the existence of a totality that is complete, a notion disallowed by intuitionists when extended to the "infinite"—for them the infinite can never be completed:


title: Law of excluded middle

text: David Hilbert and Luitzen E. J. Brouwer both give examples of the law of excluded middle extended to the infinite. Hilbert's example: "the assertion that either there are only finitely many prime numbers or there are infinitely many" (quoted in Davis 2000:97); and Brouwer's: "Every mathematical species is either finite or infinite." (Brouwer 1923 in van Heijenoort 1967:336). In general, intuitionists allow the use of the law of excluded middle when it is confined to discourse over finite collections (sets), but not when it is used in discourse over infinite sets (e.g. the natural numbers). Thus intuitionists absolutely disallow the blanket assertion: "For all propositions "P" concerning infinite sets "D": "P" or ~"P"" (Kleene 1952:48).


title: Law of excluded middle

text: Putative counterexamples to the law of excluded middle include the liar paradox or Quine's paradox. Certain resolutions of these paradoxes, particularly Graham Priest's dialetheism as formalised in LP, have the law of excluded middle as a theorem, but resolve out the Liar as both true and false. In this way, the law of excluded middle is true, but because truth itself, and therefore disjunction, is not exclusive, it says next to nothing if one of the disjuncts is paradoxical, or both true and false.


title: Law of excluded middle

text: Many modern logic systems replace the law of excluded middle with the concept of negation as failure. Instead of a proposition's being either true or false, a proposition is either true or not able to be proved true. These two dichotomies only differ in logical systems that are not complete. The principle of negation as failure is used as a foundation for autoepistemic logic, and is widely used in logic programming. In these systems, the programmer is free to assert the law of excluded middle as a true fact, but it is not built-in "a priori" into these systems.


title: Law of excluded middle

text: Mathematicians such as L. E. J. Brouwer and Arend Heyting have also contested the usefulness of the law of excluded middle in the context of modern mathematics.


title: Law of excluded middle

text: In modern mathematical logic, the excluded middle has been argued to result in possible self-contradiction. It is possible in logic to make well-constructed propositions that can be neither true nor false; a common example of this is the "Liar's paradox", the statement "this statement is false", which is argued to itself be neither true nor false. Arthur Prior has argued that The Paradox is not an example of a statement that cannot be true or false. The law of excluded middle still holds here as the negation of this statement "This statement is not false", can be assigned true. In set theory, such a self-referential paradox can be constructed by examining the set "the set of all sets that do not contain themselves". This set is unambiguously defined, but leads to a Russell's paradox: does the set contain, as one of its elements, itself? However, in the modern Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory, this type of contradiction is no longer admitted. Furthermore, paradoxes of self reference can be constructed without even invoking negation at all, as in Curry's paradox.


title: Law of excluded middle

text: Some systems of logic have different but analogous laws. For some finite "n"-valued logics, there is an analogous law called the "law of excluded "n"+1th". If negation is cyclic and "∨" is a "max operator", then the law can be expressed in the object language by (P ∨ ~P ∨ ~~P ∨ ... ∨ ~...~P), where "~...~" represents "n"−1 negation signs and "∨ ... ∨" "n"−1 disjunction signs. It is easy to check that the sentence must receive at least one of the "n" truth values (and not a value that is not one of the "n").


title: Middle Persian

text: Middle Persian or Pahlavi, also known by its endonym Pārsīk or Pārsīg () in its later form, is a Western Middle Iranian language which became the literary language of the Sasanian Empire. For some time after the Sasanian collapse, Middle Persian continued to function as a prestige language. It descended from Old Persian, the language of the Achaemenid Empire and is the linguistic ancestor of Modern Persian, an official language of Iran, Afghanistan (Dari) and Tajikistan (Tajik).


title: Middle Persian

text: "Middle Iranian" is the name given to the middle stage of development of the numerous Iranian languages and dialects. The middle stage of the Iranian languages begins around 450 BCE and ends around 650 CE. One of those Middle Iranian languages is Middle Persian, i.e. the middle stage of the language of the Persians, an Iranian people of Persia proper, which lies in the south-western highlands on the border with Babylonia. The Persians called their language "Parsik", meaning "Persian".


title: Middle Persian

text: Another Middle Iranian language was Parthian, i.e. the language of the northwestern Iranian peoples of Parthia proper, which lies along the southern/south-eastern edge of the Caspian sea and is adjacent to the boundary between western and eastern Iranian languages. The Parthians called their language "Parthawik", meaning "Parthian". Via regular sound changes "Parthawik" became "Pahlawik", from which the word 'Pahlavi' eventually evolved. The "-ik" in "parsik" and "parthawik" was a regular Middle Iranian appurtenant suffix for "pertaining to". The New Persian equivalent of "-ik" is "-i".


title: Middle Persian

text: When the Arsacids (who were Parthians) came to power in the 3rd-century BCE, they inherited the use of written Greek (from the successors of Alexander the Great) as the language of government. Under the cultural influence of the Greeks (Hellenization), some Middle Iranian languages, such as Bactrian, also had begun to be written in Greek script. But yet other Middle Iranian languages began to be written in a script derived from Aramaic. This occurred primarily because "written" Aramaic had previously been the written language of government of the former Achaemenids, and the government scribes had carried that practice all over the empire. This practice had led to others adopting Imperial Aramaic as the language of communications, both between Iranians and non-Iranians, as well as between Iranians. The transition from Imperial Aramaic to Middle Iranian took place very slowly, with a slow increase of more and more Iranian words so that Aramaic with Iranian elements gradually changed into Iranian with Aramaic elements. Under Arsacid hegemony, this Aramaic-derived writing system for Iranian languages came to be associated with the Parthians in particular (it may have originated in the Parthian chancellories), and thus the writing system came to be called "pahlavi" "Parthian" too.


title: Middle Persian

text: Aside from Parthian, Aramaic-derived writing was adopted for at least four other Middle Iranian languages, one of which was Middle Persian. In the 3rd-century CE, the Parthian Arsacids were overthrown by the Sassanids, who were natives of the south-west and thus spoke Middle Persian as their native language. Under Sassanid hegemony, the Middle Persian language became a prestige dialect and thus also came to be used by non-Persian Iranians. In the 7th-century, the Sassanids were overthrown by the Arabs. Under Arab influence, Iranian languages began to be written in Arabic script (adapted to Iranian phonology), while Middle Persian began to rapidly evolve into New Persian and the name "parsik" became Arabicized "farsi". Not all Iranians were comfortable with these Arabic-influenced developments, in particular, members of the literate elite, which in Sassanid times consisted primarily of Zoroastrian priests. Those former elites vigorously rejected what they perceived as 'Un-Iranian', and continued to use the "old" language (i.e. Middle Persian) and Aramaic-derived writing system. In time, the name of the writing system, "pahlavi" "Parthian", began to be applied to the "old" Middle Persian language as well, thus distinguishing it from the "new" language, "farsi". Consequently, 'pahlavi' came to denote the particularly Zoroastrian, exclusively written, late form of Middle Persian. Since almost all surviving Middle Persian literature is in this particular late form of exclusively written Zoroastrian Middle Persian, in popular imagination the term 'Pahlavi' became synonymous with Middle Persian itself.


title: Middle Persian

text: The ISO 639 language code for Middle Persian is "pal", which reflects the post-Sasanian era use of the term Pahlavi to refer to the language and not only the script.


title: Middle Persian

text: In the classification of the Iranian languages, the Middle Period includes those languages which were common in Iran from the fall of the Achaemenid Empire in the fourth century BCE up to the fall of the Sasanian Empire in the seventh century CE.


title: Middle Persian

text: The most important and distinct development in the structure of Iranian languages of this period is the transformation from the synthetic form of the Old Period (Old Persian and Avestan) to an analytic form:


title: Middle Persian

text: The modern-day descendants of Middle Persian are New Persian and Luri. The changes between late Middle and Early New Persian were very gradual, and in the 10th-11th centuries, Middle Persian texts were still intelligible to speakers of Early New Persian. However, there are definite differences that had taken place already by the 10th century:


title: Middle Persian

text: Texts in Middle Persian are found in remnants of Sasanian inscriptions and Egyptian papyri, coins and seals, fragments of Manichaean writings, and Zoroastrian literature, most of which was written down after the Sasanian era. The language of Zoroastrian literature (and of the Sasanian inscriptions) is sometimes referred to as Pahlavi - a name that originally referred to the Pahlavi scripts, which were also the preferred writing system for several other Middle Iranian languages. "Pahlavi Middle Persian" is the language of quite a large body of literature which details the traditions and prescriptions of Zoroastrianism, which was the state religion of Sasanian Iran (224 to c. 650) before the Muslim conquest of Persia. The earliest texts in Zoroastrian Middle Persian were probably written down in late Sasanian times (6th–7th centuries), although they represent the codification of earlier oral tradition. However, most texts date from the ninth to the 11th century, when Middle Persian had long ceased to be a spoken language, so they reflect the state of affairs in living Middle Persian only indirectly. The surviving manuscripts are usually 14th-century copies. Other, less abundantly attested varieties are "Manichaean Middle Persian", used for a sizable amount of Manichaean religious writings, including many theological texts, homilies and hymns (3rd–9th, possibly 13th century), and the Middle Persian of the Church of the East, evidenced in the Pahlavi Psalter (7th century); these were used until the beginning of the second millennium in many places in Central Asia, including Turpan and even localities in South India. All three differ minimally from one another and indeed the less ambiguous and archaizing scripts of the latter two have helped to elucidate some aspects of the Sasanian-era pronunciation of the former.


title: Middle Persian

text: It has been doubted whether the Middle Persian short mid vowels /e/ and /o/ were phonemic, since they do not appear to have a unique continuation in later forms of Persian and no minimal pairs have been found. The evidence for them is variation between spelling with and without the matres lectionis "y" and "w", as well as etymological considerations. They are thought to have arisen from earlier /a/ in certain conditions, including, for /e/, the presence of a following /n/, sibilant or front vowel in the next syllable, and for /o/, the presence of a following labial consonant or the vowel /u/ in the next syllable. Long /eː/ and /oː/ had appeared first in Middle Persian, since they had developed from the Old Persian diphthongs /ai/ and /aw/.


title: Middle Persian

text: A major distinction between the pronunciation of the early Middle Persian of the Arsacid period (until the 3rd century CE) and the Middle Persian of the Sassanid period (3rd – 7th century CE) is due to a process of consonant lenition after voiced sounds that took place during the transition between the two. Its effects were as follows:


title: Middle Persian

text: This process may have taken place very early, but it is nevertheless often the old pronunciation or a transitional one that is reflected in the Pahlavi spelling.


title: Middle Persian

text: 2. Voiceless stops and affricates, when occurring after vowels as well as other voiced sounds, became voiced:


title: Middle Persian

text: This process is thought not to have been taken place before Sassanid Pahlavi, and it generally isn't reflected in Pahlavi spelling.


title: Middle Persian

text: A further stage in this lenition process is expressed in a synchronic alternation: at least at some stage in late Middle Persian (later than the 3rd century), the consonants /b/, /d/, /g/ appear to have had, after vowels, the fricative allophones [β], [ð], [ɣ]. This is slightly more controversial for /g/, since there appears to have been a separate phoneme /ɣ/ as well. A parallel development seems to have affected /d͡ʒ/ in the same position, possibly earlier; not only was it weakened to a fricative [ʒ], but it was also depalatalised to [z]. In fact, old Persian [dʒ] and [ʒ] in any position also produced [z]. Unlike the case with the spirantisation of stops, this change is uncontroversially recognised for Sassanid times.


title: Middle Persian

text: The lenition of voiceless stops and affricates remained largely unexpressed in Pahlavi spelling, which continues to reflect the Arsacid sound values, but is known from the more phonetic Manichaean spelling of texts from Sassanid times.


title: Middle Persian

text: As a result of these changes, the voiceless stops and affricates /p/, /t/, /k/, /t͡ʃ/ rarely occurred after vowels – mostly when geminated, which has protected them from the lenition (e.g. "waččag", sp. "wck<nowiki>'</nowiki>" 'child'), and due to some other sound changes.


title: Middle Persian

text: Another difference between Arsacid and Sassanid-era pronunciation is that Arsacid word-initial /y/ produced Sassanid /d͡ʒ/ (another change that is not reflected in the Pahlavi spelling). The sound probably passed through the phase /ʒ/, which may have continued until very late Middle Persian, since Manichaean texts did not identify Indic /d͡ʒ/ with it and introduced a separate sign for the former instead of using the letter for their native sound. Nonetheless, word-initial /y/ was retained/reintroduced in learned borrowings from Avestan.


title: Middle Persian

text: Furthermore, some forms of Middle Persian appear to have preserved "ǰ" (from Proto-Iranian /d͡ʒ/ or /t͡ʃ/) after "n" due to Parthian influence, instead of the usual weakening to "z". This pronunciation is reflected in Book Pahlavi, but not in Manichaean texts:


title: Middle Persian

text: Judging from the spelling, the consonant /θ/ may have been pronounced before /r/ in certain borrowings from Parthian in Arsacid times (unlike native words, which had /h/ for earlier "*θ" in general and /s/ for the cluster "*θr" in particular), but it had been replaced by /h/ by the Sassanid period:


title: Middle Persian

text: The phoneme /ɣ/ (as opposed to the late allophone of /g/) is rare and occurs almost only in learned borrowings from Avestan and Parthian, e.g. "moγ" (Pahlavi "mgw" or "mwg" 'Magian'), "maγ" (Pahlavi "mγ") 'hole, pit'.


title: Middle Persian

text: The phoneme /l/ was still relatively rare as well, especially so in Manichaean texts, mostly resulting from Proto-Iranian *rd, *rz and, more rarely, *r. It also occurred in the combination /hl/, which was a reflex of Old Persian /rθ/ and /rs/ (cf. the words 'Pahlavi' and 'Parthian').


title: Middle Persian

text: Usually /x/, /xw/ and /ɣ/ are considered to have been velar; a less common view is that /x/ and /ɣ/ were uvular instead.


title: Middle Persian

text: Finally, it may be pointed out that most scholars consider the phoneme /w/ as being still a labial approximant, but a few regard it as a voiced labial fricative /v/.


title: Middle Persian

text: The initial clusters of /s/ and a stop (/sp-/, /st-/, /sk-/) had acquired a prosthetic vowel /i/ by the time of the Manichaean Middle Persian texts: "istāyišn" ("ՙst՚yšn") 'praise' vs Pahlavi "stāyišn" ("ՙst՚dšn<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'praise'.


title: Middle Persian

text: Stress was on the last syllable. That was due to the fact that any Old Persian post-stress syllables had been apocopated:


title: Middle Persian

text: It has been suggested that words such as "anīy" 'other' (Pahlavi spelling "AHRN", "AHRNyd", Manichaean "՚ny") and "mahīy" 'bigger' (Manichaean "mhy") may have been exceptionally stressed on the first syllable, since the last one was apocopated already in the course of the Middle Persian period: the later forms are "an" (Manichaean "՚n"), and "meh" (Pahlavi "ms" and Manichaean "myh"); indeed, some scholars have reconstructed them as monosyllabic "any", "mahy" even for Middle Persian.


title: Middle Persian

text: Middle Persian has been written in a number of different scripts. The corpora in different scripts also exhibit other linguistic differences that are partly due to their different ages, dialects and scribal traditions.


title: Middle Persian

text: The Pahlavi scripts are abjads derived from the imperial variety of the Aramaic alphabet used in the chancelleries of the Achaemenid Empire. As is typical of abjads, they express primarily the consonants in a word form. What sets them apart from other abjads, however, is the use of Heterograms, and more specifically Aramaeograms, i.e. words written in Aramaic (sometimes, in later periods, with distortions) but pronounced in Middle Persian: e.g. "LY" (Aramaic 'to me') for "man" 'me, I'. There were about a thousand of these in the Book Pahlavi variety. In addition, their spelling remained very conservative, expressing the pronunciation of the Arsacid period. The two most important subvarieties are:


title: Middle Persian

text: Other known Pahlavi varieties are the early Pahlavi found in inscriptions on coins issued in the province of Pars from the 2nd century BC to the 3rd century CE; the relatively conservative Psalter Pahlavi (6th-8th centuries CE), used in a Christian Psalter fragment, which still retains all the letter distinctions that Inscriptional Pahlavi had except the one between "t" and "ṭ"; and the Pahlavi found in papyri from the early 7th century CE, which displays even more letter coincidences than Book Pahlavi.


title: Middle Persian

text: The Manichaean script was an abjad introduced for the writing of Middle Persian by the prophet Mani (216-274 CE), who based it on his native variety of the Aramaic script of Palmyrene origin. Mani used this script to write the known book "Šābuhrāgān" and it continued to be used by Manichaeans until the 9th century to write in Middle Persian, and in various other Iranian languages for even longer. Specifically the Middle Persian Manichaean texts are numerous and thought to reflect mostly the period from the 3rd to the 7th centuries CE. In contrast to the Pahlavi scripts, it is a regular and unambiguous phonetic script that expresses clearly the pronunciation of 3rd century Middle Persian and distinguishes clearly between different letters and sounds, so it provides valuable evidence to modern linguists. Not only did not display any of the Pahlavi coalescences mentioned above, it also had special letters that enabled it to distinguish [p] and [f] (although it didn't always do so), as well as [y] and [d͡ʒ], unique designations for [β], [ð], and [ɣ], and consistent distinctions between the pairs [x] - [h] and [r] – [l].


title: Middle Persian

text: Since knowledge of Pahlavi decreased after the Muslim conquest of Iran, the Zoroastrians occasionally transcribed their religious texts into other, more accessible or unambiguous scripts. One approach was to use the Avestan alphabet, a practice known as Pazand; another was to resort to the same Perso-Arabic script that was already being used for New Persian, and that was referred to as Pārsī. Since these methods were used at a relatively late linguistic stage, these transcriptions often reflect a very late pronunciation close to New Persian.


title: Middle Persian

text: In general, Inscriptional Pahlavi texts have the most archaic linguistic features, Manichaean texts and the Psalter exhibit slightly later, but still relatively early language stages, and while the Pahlavi translations of the Avesta also retain some old features, most other Zoroastrian Book Pahlavi texts (which form the overwhelming majority of the Middle Persian corpus as a whole) are linguistically more innovative.


title: Middle Persian

text: In view of the many ambiguities of the Pahlavi script, even its transliteration does not usually limit itself to rendering merely the letters as written; rather, letters are usually transliterated in accordance with their origin regardless of the coinciding forms: thus, even though Book Pahlavi has the same letter shapes for original "n", "w" and "r", for original "ʾ" and "ḥ" and for original "d", "g" and "y", besides having some ligatures that coincide in shape with certain individual letters, these are all transliterated differently. For instance, the spelling of "gōspand" 'domestic animal' is transliterated "gwspnd" in spite of the fact that the "w" and "n" have the same graphic appearance.


title: Middle Persian

text: Furthermore, letters used as part of Aramaic heterograms and not intended to be interpreted phonetically are written in capitals: thus the heterogram for the word "ān" is rendered "ZK", whereas its phonetic spelling is transliterated as "ʾn<nowiki>'</nowiki>" (the final vertical line reflects the so-called 'otiose' stroke, see below). Finally, there is a convention of representing 'distorted/corrupt' letters, which 'should' have appeared in a different shape from a historical point of view, by under- or overlining them: e.g. the heterogram for "andar" 'in' is transliterated "BYN", since it corresponds to Aramaic "byn", but the sign that 'should' have been "b" actually looks like a "g".


title: Middle Persian

text: Within Arameograms, scholars have traditionally used the standard Semitological designations of the Aramaic (and generally Semitic) letters, and these include a large number of diacritics and special signs expressing the different Semitic phonemes, which were not distinguished in Middle Persian. In order to reduce the need for these, a different system was introduced by D. N. McKenzie, which dispenses with diacritics as much as possible, often replacing them with vowel letters: "A" for "ʾ", "O" for "ʿ", "E" for "H", "H" for "Ḥ", "C" for "Ṣ", for example "ORHYA" for "ʿRḤYʾ" ("bay" 'god, majesty, lord'). For <nowiki>"ṭ"</nowiki>, which still occurs in heterograms in Inscriptional Pahlavi, Θ may be used. Within Iranian words, however, both systems use "c" for original Aramaic "ṣ" and "h" for original Aramaic "ḥ", in accordance with their Iranian pronunciation (see below). The letter "l", when modified with a special horizontal stroke that shows that the pronunciation is /l/ and not /r/, is rendered in the McKenzie system as "ɫ". The traditional system continues to be used by many, especially European scholars. The MacKenzie system is the one used in this article.


title: Middle Persian

text: As for Pahlavi, "c" is used for the transliteration of original Aramaic "ṣ" and "h" for the transliteration of original "ḥ". Original Aramaic "h", on the other hand, is sometimes rendered as "ẖ". For original "ṭ", the sign "ṯ" is used. The special Manichaean letters for /x/, /f/, [β], /ɣ/ and [ð] are transcribed in accordance with their pronunciation as "x", "f", "β", "γ" and "δ".


title: Middle Persian

text: Unlike Pahlavi, the Manichaean script uses the letter Ayin also in Iranian words (see below) and it is transliterated in the usual Semitological way as "ՙ".


title: Middle Persian

text: Since, like most abjads, even the Manichaean script and a maximally disambiguated transliterated form of Pahlavi do not provide exhaustive information about the phonemic structure of Middle Persian words, a system of transcription is also necessary. There are two traditions of transcription of Pahlavi Middle Persian texts: one closer to the spelling and reflecting the Arsacid-era pronunciation, as used by Ch. Bartholomae and H. S. Nyberg (1964) and a currently more popular one reflecting the Sassanid era pronunciation, as used by C. Saleman, W. B. Henning and, in a somewhat revised form, by D. N. MacKenzie (1986).


title: Middle Persian

text: A common feature of Pahlavi as well as Manichaean spelling was that the Aramaic letters "ṣ" and "ḥ" were adapted to express the sounds /t͡ʃ/ and /h/, respectively. In addition, both could use the letter "p" to express /f/, and "ṣ" to express "z" after a vowel.


title: Middle Persian

text: The widespread use of Aramaeograms in Pahlavi, often existing in parallel with 'phonetic' spellings, has already been mentioned: thus, the same word "hašt" 'eight' can be spelt "hšt" or "TWMNYA". A curious feature of the system is that simple word stems sometimes have spellings derived from Aramaic inflected forms: the spellings of verb stems include Aramaic inflectional affixes such as "-WN", "-TWN" or "-N" and "Y-"; the spellings of pronouns are often derived from Aramaic prepositional phrases ("tо̄" 'you' is "LK", originally Aramaic "lk" 'to you', "о̄y" 'he' is "OLE", originally Aramaic "ʿlh" 'onto him'); and inalienable nouns are often noun phrases with pronominal modifiers ("pidar" 'father' is "ABYtl", originally Aramaic "ʾby" 'my father', "pāy" 'foot' is "LGLE", originally Aramaic "rglh" 'his foot'). Furthermore, the Aramaic distinctions between "ḥ" and "h" and between "k" and "q" were not always maintained, with the first often replacing the second, and the one between "t" and "ṭ" was lost in all but Inscriptional Pahlavi: thus "YKTLWN" (pronounced "о̄zadan") for Aramaic "yqṭlwn" 'kill', and "YHWWN" (pronounced "būdan") for Aramaic "yhwwn" 'be', even though Aramaic "h" is elsewhere rendered "E". In the rest of this article, the Pahlavi spellings will be indicated due to their unpredictability, and the Aramaeograms will be given priority over the 'phonetic' alternatives for the same reason.


title: Middle Persian

text: If a word expressed by an Arameogram has a grammatical ending or, in many cases, a word-formation suffix, these are generally expressed by phonetic elements: "LYLYAʾn for "šabʾn 'nights'. However, verbs in Inscriptional Pahlavi are sometimes written as 'bare ideograms', whose interpretation is a major difficulty for scholars.


title: Middle Persian

text: It has also been pointed out that the Pahlavi spelling does not express the 3rd century lenitions, so the letters "p", "t", "k" and "c" express /b/, /d/, /g/ and /z/ after vowels, e.g. "šp<nowiki>'</nowiki>" for "šab" 'night' and "hc" for "az" 'from'. The rare phoneme /ɣ/ was also expressed by the same letter shape as "k" (however, this sound value is usually expressed in the transliteration). Similarly, the letter "d" may stand for /y/ after a vowel, e.g. "pʾd" for "pāy" 'foot' – this is no longer apparent in Book Pahlavi due to the coincidence of the shapes of the original letters "y", "d" and "g", but is already clearly seen in Inscriptional and Psalter Pahlavi. Indeed, it even appears to have been the general rule word-finally, regardless of the word's origins, although modern transliterations of words like "xwadāy" ("xwtʾd") and "mēnōy" ("mynwd") do not always reflect this analogical / pseudo-historical spelling. Final "īy" was regularly written "yd". In the same way, "(w)b" may also correspond to a "w" in the pronunciation after a vowel. The fortition of initial /y/ to /d͡ʒ/ (or /ʒ/) is not reflected either, so "y" can express initial /d͡ʒ/, e.g. "yʾm" for "ǰām" 'glass' (while it still expresses /j/ in the learned word "yzdt<nowiki>'</nowiki>" for "yazd" 'god'.


title: Middle Persian

text: Some even earlier sound changes are not consistently reflected either, such as the transition of /θ/ to /h/ in some words (in front of /r/ this reflex is due to Parthian influence, since the Middle Persian reflex should have been /s/). In such words, the spelling may have "s" or, in front of "r" – "t". For example, "gāh" 'place, time' is spelt "gʾs" (cf. Old Persian "gāθu") and "nigāh" '(a) look' is spelt "nkʾs"; "šahr" 'country, town' is spelt "štr<nowiki>'</nowiki>" (cf. Avestan "xsaθra") and "mihr" 'Mithra, contract, friendship is spelt "mtr<nowiki>'</nowiki>". In contrast, the Manichaean spellings are "gʾh", "ngʾh", "šhr", "myhr". Some other words with earlier /θ/ are spelt phonetically in Pahlavi, too: e.g. "gēhān" "gyhʾn" 'material world', "čihr" "cyhl" 'face'. There are also some other cases where /h/ is spelt /t/ after "p": "ptwnd" for "paywand" 'connection', and /t/ may also stand for /y/ in that position: "ptkʾl" for "pahikār" 'strife'.


title: Middle Persian

text: There are some other phoneme pairs besides /y/ and /d͡ʒ/ that are not distinguished: "h" (the original Aramaic "ḥ") may stand either for /h/ or for /x/ ("hm" for "ham" 'also' as well as "hl" for "xar" 'donkey'), whereas the use of original Aramaic "h" is restricted to heterograms (transliterated "E" in McKenzie's system, e.g. "LGLE" for pāy 'foot'). Not only /p/, but also the frequent sound /f/ is expressed by the letter "p", e.g. "plhw<nowiki>'</nowiki>" for "farrox" 'fortunate'. While the original letter "r" is retained in some words as an expression of the sound /r/, especially in older frequent words and Aramaeograms (e.g. "štr<nowiki>'</nowiki>" for "šahr" 'country, town', "BRTE" for "duxt" 'daughter'), it is far more common for the letter "l" to have that function, as in the example "plhw<nowiki>'</nowiki>" for "farrox". In the relatively rare cases where "l" does express /l/, it can be marked as "ɫ".


title: Middle Persian

text: Like many abjads, the system may express not only consonants, but also some vowels by means of certain consonant signs, the so-called matres lectionis. This is usually limited to long vowels: thus, original "ʾ" can stand for the vowel /aː/ (e.g. in "pʾd" for "pād"), "y" can stand for /iː/ and /eː/ (e.g."pym" for "pīm" 'pain' and "nym" for "nēm" 'half'), and "w" can stand for /uː/ or /oː/ ("swt<nowiki>'</nowiki>" for "sūd" 'profit' and "swl" for "sōr" 'salty'). However, short /u/ is also typically expressed like long /uː/ (e.g. "swd" for "suy" 'hunger'), whereas short /i/ and the assumed /e/ and /o/ vary beween being expressed like their long counterparts or remaining unexpressed: "p(y)t" for "pid" 'father', "sl(y)šk" for "srešk" 'tear', "nhwm" for "nohom" 'ninth'. Due to elision of /w/, written "yw" can also correspond to /eː/: "nywk<nowiki>'</nowiki>" 'good'. Gemination of "consonants" was not expressed, e.g. "waččag", sp. "wck<nowiki>'</nowiki>" 'child').


title: Middle Persian

text: In Inscriptional and Psalter Pahlavi, a "-y" that was not pronounced appears word-finally, e.g. "šhpwhry" for "Šahpuhr". Its origin and function are disputed. In Book Pahlavi, it developed into a peculiar convention, the so-called 'otiose' stroke, which resembles "w"/"n"/"r" and is added to demarcate the end of the word after those letters that never connect to the left: "mān<nowiki>'</nowiki>" 'house'.


title: Middle Persian

text: Like many abjads, Pahlavi "ʾ" can express simply the fact that a word begins in a vowel, e.g. "ʾp̄ʾyt<nowiki>'</nowiki>" for "abāyēd" 'it is necessary' (though two alephs usually aren't written in a row to express an initial long vowel).


title: Middle Persian

text: In contrast to the historical and ideographic features of Pahlavi, Manichaean spelling is relatively straightforward. Like Pahlavi, the Manichaean script designates vowel-initial words with "ʾ", but a further spelling convention in it is that it is the letter "ՙ", rather than "ʾ", that is written before initial front vowels, e.g. "ՙym" for "im" 'this' (in contrast to Pahlavi "ʾm" (or "LZNE"). Vowels are marked by matres lectionis in the Manichaean script in the usual way, and long vowels are more likely to be marked.


title: Middle Persian

text: In spite of the availability of signs for each sound, Manichaean spelling did not always make perfectly phonetic use of them. In particular, not only in Pahlavi but even in Manichaean, the letter "p" was often used to express /f/, and /z/ after vowels was written etymologically as "c": thus, "frāz" 'forth' was spelt "prʾc", just as in Pahlavi. If the voiced fricatives really occurred as allopohones of /b/, /g/, /d/ in Middle Persian, the special Manichaean signs for fricatives "β", "γ" and "δ" usually were not used to express this either. Conversely, the Semitic letters for the consonants "q", "ṭ" and "h" (transliterated "ẖ" in Manichaean) were retained and used, occasionally, even though they only expressed the same Middle Persian sounds as "k" and "t", and "ḥ" (transliterated "h" in Manichaean). The Manichaean script also has abbreviation marking double dots for the forms "ʾwd" 'and', "ʾw-š" 'and he' and "ʾw-šʾn" 'and they', which may be transcribed as "ẅ", "š̈" and "š̈ʾn". Elisions and plural may also be marked with double dots.


title: Middle Persian

text: The elision of unstressed word-final syllables during the transition from Old to Middle Persian has eliminated many grammatical endings. As a result, compared to the synthetic grammar of Old Persian, Middle Persian belongs to a much more analytic language type, with relatively little inflection and widespread expression of grammatical meanings through syntactic means instead (specifically, use of prepositions and periphrases).


title: Middle Persian

text: Early Middle Persian inflection as found in the Sassanid rock inscriptions (3rd-4th centuries CE) still retained a minimal case system for the nominal parts of speech, i.e. nouns, adjectives, pronouns and numerals. It included a direct or subject case (originating from the old nominative) used for the subject and the predicative nominal and an oblique case used for other functions (indirect object, genitive possessor, complement of a preposition, subject/'agent' of the ergative construction). The case distinction was only present in the plural of nouns, in nouns of relationship (family terms) that end in "-tar" or "-dar" in the oblique, and in the first person singular pronoun "az"/"an" (ANE). The attested system is shown in the table below, using the words "mard" ("GBRA") 'man', "pid" ("AB<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'father' as examples.


title: Middle Persian

text: The endings "-īn" and "-ūn" occur in the place of "-ān" in a decreasing number of exceptions. In Inscriptional Pahlavi, forms such as "frazendīn ("przndyn<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'of the children' and "dušmenūn ("dwšm(y)nwn<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'of the enemies' are still found. In Manichaean Middle Persian, likewise, forms such as "zanīn (spelt "znyn"), 'women', "ruwānīn 'souls' and "dušmenūn ("dwšmynwn") are preserved. It also has the form "awīn as an equivalent of "awēšān 'they, those'. In Book Pahlavi, the generalisation of "-ān" has advanced to the point where only "-īn" is preserved, namely in the inflections of the words "harw" ("KRA") and "harwisp" ("hlwsp̄<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'every, all' – plural "harwīn and "harwisp-īn or "harwistīn, respectively, as well as optionally of "dō" ("2", "TLYN<nowiki>'</nowiki>"), 'two' – plural "dōwīn or "dōnīn.


title: Middle Persian

text: There is some disagreement and uncertainty about whether the case of the "direct" object in this early inflectional system was direct or oblique. Originally, it should have been direct in the ergative-absolutive constructions, but possibly oblique in the nominative-accusative ones. It has been claimed that 'the direct object could stand in both cases' or that it is unclear which case specifically the "plural" direct object took, with a suggested distinction between indefinite and definite direct object taking the direct and the oblique cases, respectively.


title: Middle Persian

text: For an even more archaic stage, some have claimed that the singular of regular nominals had its own oblique case form, too, and that it was marked by the ending "-ē" (spelt "-y"), which still occurs on nouns in Inscriptional and Psalter Pahlavi, albeit somewhat unsystematically. This would have been expected, assuming that both oblique forms continue the Old Iranian genitives in "*-ahya" and "*-ānam", respectively. However, this theory has been disputed and rejected by many scholars.


title: Middle Persian

text: The case system broke down in the course of the Middle Persian period, as the oblique case forms were gradually generalised and displaced the direct ones. First, the oblique plural form in "-ān" ("-īn" and "-ūn") was generalised as a general plural form; a few instances of this usage are found as early as in the 6th-8th century Pahlavi Psalter, and while the preserved parts of the 3rd century "Shābuhragān" may retain it, most other Manichaean texts use "-ān" as a general plural form and only retain the case distinction in the family terms and the 1st singular pronoun. Finally, even though the Middle Persian translations of the Avesta still retain the old system, most clearly so in the family terms, the other Book Pahlavi Zoroastrian texts display the new system with no case distinctions at all and solely a contrast between singular and plural. At this stage, the old direct and oblique cases of the nouns of relationship such as "pid" and "pidar" were preserved only as free variants. At the same time, even when morphologically unexpcressed, the 'underlying' case of a nominal phrase remains relevant throughout the Middle Persian period for the agreement on the verb and the use of the pronominal enclitics, to be described in the relevant sections.