title: Genocidal rape

text: Genocidal rape, a form of wartime sexual violence, is the action of a group which has carried out acts of mass rape and gang rapes, against its enemy during wartime as part of a genocidal campaign. During the Armenian Genocide, the second Sino-Japanese war, the Holocaust, the Bangladesh Liberation War, the Bosnian War, the Rwandan genocide, the Congolese conflicts, the Iraqi Civil War, the South Sudanese Civil War, the Rohingya genocide, the mass rapes that had been an integral part of those conflicts brought the concept of genocidal rape to international prominence. Although war rape has been a recurrent feature in conflicts throughout human history, it has usually been looked upon as a by-product of conflict and not an integral part of military policy.


title: Genocidal rape

text: Some scholars argue that the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide should state that mass rape is a genocidal crime. Other scholars argue that genocidal rape is already included in the definition under article two of the convention. Catharine MacKinnon argues that the victims of genocidal rape are used as a substitute for the entire ethnic group, that rape is used as a tool, with the target being the destruction of the entire ethnic group.


title: Genocidal rape

text: Siobhan Fisher has argued that forced impregnation and not the rape itself constitutes genocide. She says, "Repeated rape alone is still 'just' rape, but rape with the intent to impregnate is something more." Lisa Sharlach argues that this definition is too narrow because these mass rapes should not be defined as genocide based solely on those raped having been forcibly impregnated.


title: Genocidal rape

text: Per the United Nations Security Council Resolution 1820 (declared on 2008) rape and other forms of sexual violence can constitute war crimes, crimes against humanity or a constitutive act with respect to genocide.


title: Genocidal rape

text: According to Amnesty International, the use of rape during times of war is not a by-product of conflicts but rather a pre-planned and deliberate military strategy. In the last quarter of a century, the majority of conflicts have shifted from wars between nation states to communal and intrastate civil wars. During these conflicts the use of rape as a weapon against the civilian population by state and non-state actors has become more frequent. Journalists and human rights organizations have documented campaigns of genocidal rape during conflicts in former Yugoslavia, Sierra Leone, Rwanda, Liberia, Sudan, Uganda, and during the civil war in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.


title: Genocidal rape

text: The strategic aims of these mass rapes are twofold. The first is to instill terror in the civilian population, with the intent to forcibly dislocate them from their land. The second is to degrade the chance of possible return and reconstitution by having inflicted humiliation and shame on the targeted population and to decrease social cohesion of a targeted group. These effects are strategically important for non-state actors, as it is necessary for them to remove the targeted population from the land. Rape as genocide is well suited for campaigns which involve ethnic cleansing and genocide, as the objective is to destroy, or forcefully remove the target population, and ensure they do not return.


title: Genocidal rape

text: One objective of genocidal rape is forced pregnancy, so that the aggressing actor not only invades the targeted population's land, but their bloodlines and families as well. However, those unable to bear children are also subject to sexual assault. Victims' ages can range from children to women in their eighties.


title: Genocidal rape

text: Rape was widespread during the Armenian Genocide which was committed by the Ottoman Turks. During the death marches of Armenian civilians through Anatolia in 1915, Turkish soldiers frequently raped and killed Armenian women and children. In many cases, Turkish civilians also participated in these crimes.


title: Genocidal rape

text: In the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) it is estimated that in 2011 alone there were 400,000 rapes. In the DRC, genocidal rape is focused on the destruction of family and communities. An interview with a survivor gave an account of gang rape, forced cannibalism of a fetus taken from an eviscerated woman, and child murder.


title: Genocidal rape

text: During the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War, members of the Pakistani military and supporting Bihari and Razaker militias raped between 200,000 and 400,000 Bangladeshi women in a systematic campaign of genocidal rape. Some women may have been raped as many as eighty times in a night.


title: Genocidal rape

text: In the ongoing War in Darfur the Janjaweed militias have carried out actions described as genocidal rape, with not just women, but children also being raped, as well as babies being bludgeoned to death and the sexual mutilation of victims being commonplace.


title: Genocidal rape

text: During the Second Sino-Japanese War the Imperial Japanese Army during the Battle of Nanking carried out what has come to be known as the Rape of Nanking, which has been described by political scientist, Adam Jones, as "one of the most savage instances of genocidal rape". The violence saw tens of thousands of women gang raped and killed. The International Military Tribunal for the Far East estimated that 20,000 women were raped, including infants and the elderly.


title: Genocidal rape

text: A large portion of these rapes were systematized in a process where soldiers would search door-to-door for young girls, with many women taken captive and gang raped. The women were often killed immediately after being raped, often through explicit mutilation or by stabbing a bayonet, long stick of bamboo, or other objects into the vagina. Young children were not exempt from these atrocities, and were cut open to allow Japanese soldiers to rape them.


title: Genocidal rape

text: I know not where to end. Never I have heard or read such brutality. Rape! Rape! Rape! We estimate at least 1,000 cases a night, and many by day. In case of resistance or anything that seems like disapproval, there is a bayonet stab or a bullet ... People are hysterical ... Women are being carried off every morning, afternoon and evening. The whole Japanese army seems to be free to go and come as it pleases, and to do whatever it pleases.During the Rwandan genocide the violence took a gender specific form, with women and girls being targeted in a systematic campaign of sexual assault. It is estimated that between 250,000 and 500,000 were victims of rape. Those who survived the genocidal rape found themselves stigmatised, and many also discovered that they were infected with HIV. This has resulted in these women being denied their rights to property and inheritance as well as their employment chances being restricted. The first woman charged and convicted for genocidal rape was Pauline Nyiramasuhuko.


title: Genocidal rape

text: In 1996 Beverly Allen wrote "Rape Warfare: The Hidden Genocide in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia" in which the term genocidal rape was first introduced, she used the term to describe the actions of the Serbian armed forces who had a policy of rape with the intention of genocide. In her book she compares genocidal rape to biological warfare. During the conflict in Bosnia Allen gave a definition of genocidal rape as "a military policy of rape for the purpose of genocide currently practiced in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia by the Yugoslav army the Bosnian Serb forces and the irregular Serb forces known as Chetniks".


title: Genocidal rape

text: Coverage of the mass rapes during the ethnic cleansing carried out by the Serbian forces in the 1990s began the analysis over the use of rape as a part of genocide. Catharine MacKinnon argues that the mass rapes during the conflict "were a simultaneous expression of misogyny and genocide", and argues that rape can be used as a form of extermination.


title: Genocidal rape

text: The acts of violence which were committed against women during the Partition of India have also been cited as examples of genocidal rape.


title: Genocidal rape

text: Dyan Mazurana et al argued that the "patterns of rape and sexual violence carried out [in the Tigray War] by the ENDF, the EDF and Amhara regional militia and special forces against Tigrayan civilians are consistent with acts of genocide, potentially conducted with the intent of destroying the Tigrayan people."


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: The Azerbaijani Armed Forces () were re-established according to the Law of the Republic of Azerbaijan on the Armed Forces from 9 October 1991. The Azerbaijan Democratic Republic (ADR) had originally formed its own armed forces from 26 June 1918 but were dissolved after Azerbaijan was absorbed into the Soviet Union as the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic from 28 April 1920. After the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991–92, the armed forces were reformed based on Soviet bases and equipment left on Azerbaijani soil.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: The armed forces have three branches: the Azerbaijani Land Forces, the Azerbaijani Air and Air Defence Force, and the Azerbaijani Navy. Associated forces include the Azerbaijani National Guard, the Internal Troops of Azerbaijan, and the State Border Service, which can be involved in state defense under certain circumstances.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: According to the Azerbaijani media sources the military expenditures of Azerbaijan for 2009 were set at US$2.46 billion, however according to Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, only $1.473 billion was spent in that year. IISS also suggests that the defence budget in 2009 was $1.5 billion. The Ministry of Defence Industry of Azerbaijan supervises the design, manufacturing, regulation and maintenance of military equipment. In the future, Azerbaijan hopes to start building tanks, armored vehicles, military planes and military helicopters.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: Since the fall of the Soviet Union, Azerbaijan has been trying to further develop its armed forces into a professional, well trained, and mobile military. Azerbaijan has been undergoing extensive modernization and capacity expanding programs, with the military budget increasing from around $300 million in 2005 to $2.46 billion in 2009. The total armed forces number 56,840 men in the land forces, 7,900 men in the air force and air defence force, and 2,200 men in the navy. There are also 19,500 personnel in the National Guard, State Border Service, and Internal Troops. In addition, there are 300,000 former service personnel who have had military service in the last 15 years. The military hardware of Azerbaijan consists of 220 main battle tanks, an additional 162 T-80's were acquired between 2005 and 2010, 595 armored combat vehicles and 270 artillery systems. The air force has about 106 aircraft and 35 helicopters.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: Azerbaijan has acceded to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty as a non-nuclear weapons state. Azerbaijan participates in NATO's Partnership for Peace. Azerbaijan joined the multi-national force in 2003. It sent 150 troops to Iraq, and later troops to Kosovo. Azerbaijani troops are still serving in Afghanistan.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: Despite the rise in Azerbaijan's defence budget, the armed forces were assessed in 2008 as not having a high state of battle readiness and being ill-prepared for wide scale combat operations.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: However, in 2017 Global Firepower ranked Azerbaijan 59th among 127 countries for its military strength. It was the best performance among the countries of South Caucasus.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: The history of the modern Azerbaijan army dates back to Azerbaijan Democratic Republic in 1918, when the Armed Forces of the Republic of Azerbaijan were created on 26 June 1918. First "de facto" Minister of Defense of ADR was Dr. Khosrov bey Sultanov. When the Ministry was formally established Gen. Samedbey Mehmandarov became the minister, and then Lt-Gen. Ali-Agha Shikhlinski his deputy. Chiefs of Staff of ADR Army were Lt-Gen. Maciej Sulkiewicz (March 1919 – 10 December 1919) and Maj-Gen. Abdulhamid bey Gaitabashi (10 December 1919 – April 1920).


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: The Red Army invaded Azerbaijan on 28 April 1920. Although the bulk of the newly formed Azerbaijani army was engaged in putting down an Armenian revolt that had just broken out in Karabakh, the Azerbaijanis did not surrender their brief independence of 1918–20 quickly or easily. As many as 20,000 of the total 30,000 soldiers died resisting what was effectively a Russian reconquest. The national Army of Azerbaijan was abolished by the Bolshevik government, 15 of the 21 army generals were executed by the Bolsheviks.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: After the Sovietisation of Azerbaijan, the newly formed Azerbaijani Red Army replaced the previous army, taking part in the Russian Civil War, and the invasion of Georgia.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: During World War II, Azerbaijan played a crucial role in the strategic energy policy of Soviet Union. Much of the Soviet Union's oil on the Eastern Front was supplied by Baku. By a decree of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR in February 1942, the commitment of more than 500 workers and employees of the oil industry of Azerbaijan was recognised with orders and medals.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: Operation Edelweiss carried out by the German Wehrmacht targeted Baku because of the importance of its oil fields to the USSR.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: Some 800,000 Azerbaijanis fought within the ranks of the Soviet Army of which 400,000 died. Azerbaijani national formations of the Red Army included the 223rd, 227th, 396th, 402nd, and 416th Rifle Divisions. Azerbaijani Major-General Hazi Aslanov was awarded a second Hero of the Soviet Union after a long post-war fight for recognition of his accomplishments.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: During the Cold War, Azerbaijan had been the deployment area of units of the Soviet 4th Army whose principle formations in 1988 included four motor rifle divisions (23rd Guards, 60th, 75th, and 295th). The 75th Motor Rifle Division was isolated in Nakhchivan. The 4th Army also included missile and air defense brigades and artillery and rocket regiments. The 75th Division's stores and equipment were apparently transferred to the Nakhchivan authorities. Azerbaijan also hosted the 49th Arsenal of the Soviet Main Agency of Missiles and Artillery, which contained over 7,000 train-car loads of ammunition to the excess of one billion units.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: The first president of Azerbaijan, Ayaz Mutallibov, did not wish to build an independent army, wanting to rely instead largely on Soviet troops. Even when the Parliament decided that an army should be formed in September 1991, disagreements between the government and the opposition Azerbaijani Popular Front Party impeded creation of a unified force. Around this time, the first unit of the new army was formed on the basis of the 18–110 military unit of mechanized infantry of the Soviet Ground Forces (probably part of the 4th Army) located in Shikhov, south of Baku. At the time of the parliamentary decision, Lieutenant-General Valeh Barshadli became the first Minister of Defense of Azerbaijan, from 5 September to 11 December 1991. Later from May to 4 September 1992 he served as Chief of General Staff of Azerbaijani Armed Forces.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: In summer 1992, the nascent Defense Ministry received a resolution by the Azerbaijani president on the takeover of units and formations in Azerbaijani territory. It then forwarded an ultimatum to Moscow demanding control over vehicles and armaments of the 135th and 139th Motor Rifle Regiments of the 295th Motor Rifle Division. In July 1992, Azerbaijan ratified the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE), which establishes comprehensive limits on key categories of conventional military equipment. Azerbaijan approved the CFE flank agreement in May 1997.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: The transfer of the property of the 4th Army (except for part of the property of the 366th Motor Rifle Regiment of the 23rd Guards Motor Rifle Division captured by Armenian armed formations in 1992 during the regiment's withdrawal from Stepanakert) and the 49th arsenal was completed in 1992. Thus, by the end of 1992, Azerbaijan received arms and military hardware sufficient for approximately four motor rifle divisions with prescribed army units. It also inherited naval ships. There are also reports that 50 combat aircraft from the disbanded 19th Army of the Soviet Air Defence Forces came under Azerbaijani control.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: The Azerbaijani armed forces took a series of devastating defeats by Armenian forces during the 1992–1994 Nagorno-Karabakh War, which resulted in the loss of control of Nagorno-Karabakh proper and seven surrounding rayons, comprising roughly 20% of the territory of Azerbaijan. Azerbaijani sources insist that Armenian victory was largely due to military help from Russia and the wealthy Armenian diaspora. Armenians partially deny the allegation, claiming that Russian side was equally supplying Armenian and Azerbaijani sides with weapons and mercenaries. During the war, the Azerbaijani armed forces were also aided by Turkish military advisers, and Russian, Ukrainian, Chechen and Afghan volunteers.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: A number of Azerbaijani human rights groups have been tracking non-combat deaths and have noted an upward trend in early 2010s. Based on Defense Ministry statistics that had not been released to the public, the Group of Monitoring Compliance with Human Rights in the Army (GMCHRA) has recorded the deaths of 76 soldiers to date in non-combat incidents for 2011, and the injury of 91 others. In comparison, there were 62 non-combat deaths and 71 cases of injury in 2010. The string of non-combat deaths raises questions about the reform progress of the military. Factors behind the deaths include bullying, hazing, and the systemic corruption within the Azerbaijani military.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: The Second Karabakh War (also known in Azerbaijan as "The Patriotic War" or "Operation Iron Fist") began on the morning of 27 September 2020 when Azerbaijan launched an offensive along the Line of Contact. On the seventh day of the war, a major offensive was launched by the ground forces, advancing in the north, making some territorial gains while the fighting gradually shifted to the south. Following the capture of Shusha, the second-largest settlement in Nagorno-Karabakh, by Azerbaijani forces, a ceasefire agreement was signed between Azerbaijan, and Armenia, ending all hostilities in the area. Under the agreement, Armenia returned the surrounding territories it occupied in 1994 to Azerbaijan while Azerbaijan gained land access to its Nakhchivan exclave. Total casualties were in the low thousands.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: During the war, the Azerbaijani army was widely accused of committing war crimes against Armenian soldiers and civilians. Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International both condemned Azerbaijan's “indiscriminate” shelling of Armenian civilians, including the use of cluster munitions. In addition, videos of Azerbaijani soldiers mistreating or executing captive Armenians were circulated online and received widespread condemnation.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: On 10 December, a victory parade was held in honor of the Azerbaijani Army on Azadliq Square, with 3,000 soldiers marching alongside military equipment, unmanned aerial vehicles and aircraft.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: In August 2022, the UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination expressed deep concern regarding "severe and grave human rights violations committed during 2020 hostilities and beyond by the Azerbaijani military forces against prisoners of war and other protected persons of Armenian ethnic or national origin, including extrajudicial killings, torture and other ill-treatment and arbitrary detention as well as the destruction of houses, schools, and other civilian facilities."


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: Since the fall of the Soviet Union, there have been attempts in the defence ministry to reform the military to be more in line with the Turkish/NATO model, resulting in Soviet-legacy officers such as Rovshan Akbarov and Najmeddin Sadikov being removed from power.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: Azerbaijan periodically holds drills to improve interaction and combat coordination between the servicemen during operations, its military personnel’s combat readiness, as well as to develop commanders' military decision-making and unit management skills.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: The Azerbaijani Land Forces number 85,000 strong, according to UK Advanced Research and Assessment Group estimates. The 2,500 men of the National Guard are also part of the ground forces. In addition, there are 300,000 former service personnel who have had military service in the last 15 years. Other paramilitary agencies consist of Interior Ministry Internal Troops of Azerbaijan, 12,000 strong, and the land component of the State Border Service, 5,000 strong.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: Azerbaijan has signed numerous contracts to strengthen its armed forces and to train its military with Turkey's assistance. Over the last 15 years, Azerbaijan has been preparing its military for possible action against Armenian forces in Nagorno-Karabakh.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: The Land Forces include 23 motor rifle brigades, an artillery brigade, a multiple rocket launcher brigade, and an anti-tank regiment. The IISS Military Balance reported in 2007 that the Land Forces had an estimated 40 SA-13 Gopher, SA-4 Ganef, and SA-8 Gecko air defence missile systems, with '80–240 eff.' to support the army in the battlefield. (IISS 2007, p. 157)


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: The peacekeeping forces of Azerbaijan are mostly supplied from the Land Forces, though the Internal Troops of Azerbaijan do also supply some. As of March 2011, 94 peacekeepers were deployed with the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) in Afghanistan. In the past, it also actively supported the peacekeeping operation in Kosovo and Iraq.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: The Azerbaijani peacekeeping unit deployed in Iraq consisted of 14 officers, 16 sergeants and 120 privates, a total of 150 troops. The unit secured the hydroelectric power station and reservoir in Al Haditha from August 2003. In December 2008, Azerbaijan withdrew the unit from Iraq.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: Reportedly in December 2014 Azerbaijan created the Separate Combined Arms Army in Nakhchivan. Karam Mustafayev became commander of the corps. The army was created based on the Nakhchivan 5th Army Corps to strengthen defense capability of Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic, increase of combat capability of military units and formations of the Armed Forces, improve central control, reports quoting the Defence Ministry said.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: The Azerbaijani Air and Air Defence Force is a single unified service branch. Some 8,000 men serve in the air force and air defence force. The Air and Air Defence Force has around 106 aircraft and 35 helicopters. The country has four major airbases. Nasosnaya (air base) has fighters, Kyurdamir Air Base a bomber regiment, Ganja Air Base transports, and Baku Kala Air Base the helicopter unit. There are also four other airbases which do not appear to have aircraft based there. These are Dollyar Air Base, Nakhchivan Airport, Sanqacal Air Base, and Sitalcay Air Base.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: The Azerbaijani Air Force using MiG-21, Su-24 and Su-25 aircraft, as well as the MiG-29 purchased from Ukraine in 2006 and Il-76 transport aircraft. The MiG-29 have been designated as the standard aircraft for the AzAF. Azerbaijan is holding talks with either the People's Republic of China or Pakistan to purchase JF-17 Thunder aircraft. MiG-25s previously in service have been retired seemingly in the 2007–09 period.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: Azerbaijan's helicopter force is concentrated at Baku Kala Air Base and according to the IISS consists of a single regiment with around 14–15 Mi-24, 12–13 Mi-8 and 7 Mi-2. Jane's Information Group and the IISS give figures which agree with only a single aircraft's difference. Recently, end of 2010 Russian Rosvertol announced that Azerbaijan armed forces signed a deal for 24 pieces of Mi-35M (Hind-E) gunships what would further enhance the Azerbaijani ground attack formations.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: The Air Force has L-39 advanced training aircraft in store. The Azerbaijan Border Guard and Voluntary Society of Defense, Patriotism and Sport have Yakovlev light training aircraft.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: Azerbaijan has missile and radar systems intended to defend Azerbaijani airspace. There are at least 2 divisions of S-300PMU2. Thereby the country has one of the most capable SAM surface-to-air missile system in the region. Azerbaijan also operates two S-200 (SA-5 GAMMON) batteries near Baku and Mingachevir; the S-300PMU-2 represents a logical replacement for these systems offering coverage of the majority of the nation. The country also has about 100 NATO designated SA-2 Guideline (original name S-75), SA-3 Goa (S-125 Pechora-2M), and the SA-5 Gammon (S-200) are in static installations. These may be around Baku and the central part to cover the whole Azerbaijani aerospace.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: However, August 2011 investigations shows that after purchase of S-300 surface-to-air missiles, the largest apparent gap in Azerbaijan's air defense system may have been filled.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: Also in Azerbaijan there was a former Soviet early warning radar. The Gabala Radar Station was a bistatic phased-array installation, operated by the Russian Space Forces. The contract was signed in 2002 and was due to expire in 2012 where it was to be given back to the Azerbaijani government. The contract costed Russia $7 million per year. The radar station had a range of up to , and was designed to detect intercontinental ballistic missile launches as far as from the Indian Ocean. In December 2012 Russia announced that negotiations had been unsuccessful and that they had stopped using the radar station. The site was given back to Azerbaijan and all the equipment dismantled and transported to Russia. Nowadays, Russia covers the area from the Armavir Radar Station.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: The main naval base of the Soviet Union in the Caspian Sea was based in Baku. When the Soviet Union collapsed, Azerbaijan inherited the naval base and parts of the Caspian Sea Flotilla. The Azerbaijan Navy has about 2,200 personnel. In 2010, the navy had a Petya class light frigate, "Qusar" (G 121), and a number of patrol craft, including one Turk class, "Araz," P 223, one Brya (Project 722) class, P 218, one Shelon (Project 1388M) class, P 212, one Poluchat class (Project 368), P 219, one Luga class (Project 888), T 710, and four Petrushka (Polish UK-3 class), P 213, P 214, P 215, and P 216. There are four minesweepers consisting of 2 Sonya class minesweeper and 2 Yevgenya class minesweepers. (Jane's Fighting Ships 2010)


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: The Navy is also attributed with 5 landing craft, 3 Polnochny and 2 Vydra (IISS 2007), plus three research ships, 1 Project 10470, A 671, ex Svyaga, 1 Balerian Uryvayev class survey vessel (AG) and one Vadim Popov class survey vessel (AG).


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: The U.S. Navy has helped train the Azerbaijani Navy. There is also an agreement to provide US support to refurbish Azerbaijani warships in the Caspian Sea. In 2006, the US Government donated 3 motorboats to the Azerbaijani Navy. In 2007, an agreement between the Azerbaijani Navy and a US military company was concluded, which stated that a part of the Azerbaijani Navy would be equipped with advanced laser marksmanship systems. The US company specialists were also to give training on the use of the new equipment. A number of separate U.S. programmes are underway under the Caspian Guard Initiative, focused mostly on enhancing Azerbaijani and Kazakh maritime border security.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: In May 2011, the president of the State Oil Company of Azerbaijan Republic Rovnag Abdullayev stated that Azerbaijan would start production of national warships after 2013.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: The Naval Intelligence of Azerbaijan maintains the 641st Special Warfare Naval Unit. The special forces were trained by the U.S. Navy SEALs Unit 641 has several midget submarines such as Triton-1M and Triton 2 at their disposal as well as underwater tool motion for individual divers. The special unit is composed of 3 reconnaissance groups, 2 groups for mountainous warfare, and one diving group. Obligatory training includes parachute jumping day and night, on land and on water.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: The Special Forces of Azerbaijan are part of the Ministry of Defence. It was established in April 1999 with officers and warrant officers who had participated in the First Nagorno-Karabakh War of 1991–1994. The Turkish Special Forces Command played a role in the formation of the unit. During the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh War, personnel of the Special Forces reclaimed the city of Jebrayil and nine surrounding villages from the Armenian Army. On November 8, Aliyev congratulated the commander of the Special Forces on their "liberation of Shusha". The war was considered to be first time Azerbaijan has actively used all of its special forces units.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: The Ministry of Defence Industry of Azerbaijan directs domestic military supplies for Azerbaijan. It was established in 2005. The Defence Industries Ministry subsumed the State Department for Military Industry and for Armaments and the Military Science Center, each of which was formerly a separate agency within the Azerbaijani Defense Ministry.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: The defense industry has emerged as an autonomous entity with a growing production capability. The ministry is cooperating with the defense sectors of Ukraine, Belarus and Pakistan. Along with other contracts, Azerbaijani defence industries and Turkish companies, Azerbaijan will produce 40mm revolver grenade launchers, 107mm and 122mm MLRS systems, Cobra 4×4 vehicles and joint modernization of BTR vehicles in Baku.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: In early 2008, reports indicated that an agreement with Turkey had been signed which would lead to Azerbaijan producing armoured personnel carriers, infantry fighting vehicles, and small calibre artillery pieces.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: Azerbaijan cooperates with about 60 countries in the military-technical sphere and has an agreement on military-technical cooperation with more than 30 countries.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: In December 2009, an agreement on military assistance was signed by Turkey and Azerbaijan. The agreement envisions Ankara supplying Azerbaijan with weapons, military equipment, and, if necessary, soldiers in case war with Armenia over Karabakh resumes.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: Turkey has provided Azerbaijan with infantry weapons, tactical vehicles (jeeps, trucks, etc.) professional training, military organization, technology transfer, licensed military hardware production, and other services. Due to help from Turkish specialists and instructors, thousands of Azerbaijani officers have been trained to western standards.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: The military position as international importance of Azerbaijan increased with an agreement between Azerbaijan and Turkey on the participation an Azerbaijani peacekeeping platoon in the staff of the Turkish battalion in Kosovo.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: Since 1992, Azerbaijan and Turkey have signed more than 100 military protocols, some of the major protocols include:


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: In May 2011, Azerbaijan had discussed the purchase of long-range rockets from two Chinese companies, the minister of the defence industry has said. Other arms deals were signed with Turkey. Turkish Defence Minister Vecdi Gonul and Yaver Jamalov signed a protocol of intent on future joint production of two types of output – 107-mm rockets and the national rifle, possibly the Mehmetçik-1. A protocol of intent was signed the same day with the Mechanical and Chemical Industry Corporation MKEK on the joint production of 120-mm mortar launchers. This project will come into force in a few months time. Agreement has also been reached with Turkish company Aselsan on the production of some types of defence output in Azerbaijan, specifically the latest types of weapons' sights. These projects will probably happen in the near future too. Recently, Turkish defense industries secretariat told that an export version of the T-155 Firtina self-propelled howitser is almost done and could start production. T-155 has been powered by a German MTU power pack, which restricts the sale to some countries like Azerbaijan. The Turkish manufacturer MKEK, has announced that they have found an alternate supplier for the power pack where Azerbaijan showed interest to buy the high tech, more capable 155mm 52 caliber from Turkish authorities.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: Section 907 of the United States Freedom Support Act bans any kind of direct United States aid to the Azerbaijani government. Since a waiver was made in 2001 there has been extensive U.S. military cooperation with Azerbaijan. This has included Special Forces and naval aid, consultations with United States European Command, and linkages through the U.S. National Guard State Partnership Program.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: On 19 May 2006, Azerbaijani Defense Minister Safar Abiyev and the then commander of United States Air Forces in Europe General Tom Hobbins met in Baku to discuss military cooperation. He said the objective of his visit was to become familiar with the state of Azerbaijani armed forces. Hobbins pointed to the progress made in the NATO-Azerbaijan relations, saying that the successful implementation of the NATO Partnership for Peace program in Azerbaijan has brought the country even closer to the alliance. He said that the two countries' air forces will expand cooperation.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: The U.S. state of Oklahoma is linked with Azerbaijan through the U.S. National Guard State Partnership Program (SPP). Oklahoma National Guard troops have been sent on training and humanitarian missions to Baku.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: Russia is one of Azerbaijan's main supplier of arms. "As of today, military and technical cooperation with Russia is measured at $4 billion and it tends to grow further," President Ilham Aliyev said after meeting with Russian President Vladimir Putin in Baku in 2013.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: Azerbaijan and Israel cooperate on numerous areas of the defense industry. Israel is Azerbaijan's largest weapon supplier with $4.85 billion in sales during 2016 alone. Azerbaijan has shown great interest in Israeli technology over the years. In particular, an agreement was reached over the construction of the factory of intelligence and combat drones in Azerbaijan.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: The Israeli defense company Elta Systems Ltd has had cooperation from Azerbaijan in building the TecSAR reconnaissance satellite system, which can take high-definition photos of ground surfaces in all weather conditions. According to Azerbaijani military experts, the TecSAR system will be indispensable for military operations in the mountainous terrains of Azerbaijan.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: As of June 2009, Israel and Azerbaijan had been negotiating on the production of Namer armoured infantry fighting vehicles in Azerbaijan. There is no further information as to whether any agreement has been made.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and Azerbaijan actively cooperate on defence institutional reforms and have developed practical cooperation in many other areas. Azerbaijan's Individual Partnership Action Plan (IPAP) and its Partnership for Peace (PfP) linkages lay out the programme of cooperation between Azerbaijan and NATO.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: The Azerbaijani government has however delayed implementing IPAP-recommended reforms, however, in part at least because no decision had been taken to seek NATO membership. This is because Azerbaijan's foreign policy 'seeks to balance interests with the U.S., EU, Russia and Iran.'


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: According to a NATO diplomatic source some key officials at NATO headquarters in Brussels were pushing hard for engaging Azerbaijan on the membership question. "Turkey, Romania, Italy, Poland, the United Kingdom and the Baltic states," are among the member-states also backing a fast track for Azerbaijan's NATO membership.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: However, Azerbaijan made its policy of not being aligned with a geopolitical/military structure official when it became a full member of the Non-Aligned Movement in 2011.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: There is also a limited amount of military cooperation with the other countries of GUAM: Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan, and Moldova.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: The purpose of Azerbaijani military education & training is to train soldiers, officers, and non-commissioned officers to have independent and creative thinking and commitment to the Azerbaijani people and the government. Military education in the Azerbaijani Armed Forces have been described as either being Secondary education, Further education, or Higher education.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: Azerbaijani pilots were formerly trained in the Azerbaijan Air Force School, where they would then develop their skills in operational units. Azerbaijan has an experience exchange with Turkey, Ukraine, the United States and a number of NATO countries. The Turkish Air Force School has a great role in the training of Azerbaijani military pilots. Azerbaijani pilots are also trained in Ukraine's Pilot Training School.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: Military Courts act as courts of first instance deals. The Military Court is composed of a President and judges. The following military courts exist in Azerbaijan:


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: During the first war, Russians, who were a large minority in Azerbaijan at the time, served in the units of the Azerbaijani Army, many of whom formerly served in the Soviet Army. According to the Russian Ministry of Defence more than 300 officers of the 7th Army, based in the capital of Baku, refused to leave Azerbaijan at the outset of the war. During the Second Karabakh War, the death of an ethnic Russian Azerbaijani soldier, Dmitry Solntsev, was reported. There was also Denis Aliyev (born as Denis Pronin) from the Xətai raion, who was killed in Jabrayil. He was later posthumously awarded the Medal "For the Liberation of Jabrayil" in December. Cossacks, associated with the Association of Cossacks of Azerbaijan, often join the Azerbaijani Armed Forces.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: Female military personnel in the military are generally involved in education, office work, medical care, and the development of international cooperation. They also serve in the rear, signal troops, and intelligence forces. Women are exempt from conscription, which means that female service is purely on a voluntary basis. There are currently 1,000 female personnel in the Azerbaijani military, accounting for 3% of the armed forces. During the Karabakh Conflict, 2,000 of the 74,000 Azerbaijani soldiers were women, and 600 of them directly took part in military operations, with a women's battalion being established in 1992. The enrollment of females in Azerbaijani higher military schools began in 1999. According to soldier Tehrana Bahruzi in her book, “Zakir Hasanov: the Ideal Minister", Defence Minister Zakir Hasanov was responsible for launching the first female unit in the Special Forces of Azerbaijan. In October 2020, the first female military casualty was reported, a combat medic who died while taking wounded soldiers from the battlefield.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: Today 'National Hero of Azerbaijan' is the highest national title in the country, awarded for outstanding services of national importance to Azerbaijan in defense, as well as other deeds in other spheres.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: The military oath () is taken by conscripts as a legal basis of the beginning of their military service. The oath is administered by the commanding officer of the unit. The following is the text for the current version of the oath:


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: A battle flag for a military unit is a symbol of honor which remains forever in the unit unless it is dissolved. By military law, if the battle flag is lost in battle, the commander of the military unit and the servicemen under its command are brought to court, and the unit is abolished. Battle flags have the color of the State Flag, with the slogan "For Azerbaijan" being embroidered with golden silk on a blue stripe along the upper edge of the fabric. Outside the battle flag, the Azerbaijani military also utilizes the Turkish military tradition of pennants as symbols.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: Azerbaijan Military History Museum is a structure under the Ministry of Defense. It was established on 10 December 1992 by the order of the Minister of Defense and in accordance with a decree signed on 29 October 1992 "On the transfer of the Museum of Combat Glory of the VI Army Garrison of the Commonwealth of Independent States". Today, the museum displays 5 tanks, 9 armored personnel carriers, 16 artillery pieces, 6 aircraft, 4 helicopters, 6 different military equipment of the Air Force. Currently, the number of exhibits totals 11,000.


title: Azerbaijani Armed Forces

text: After the Second World War, veterans movements were launched in Azerbaijan, with the Baku Veterans Committee being established on 10 June 1960. The activity of the committee was limited to Baku until the early 1970s. During the leadership of First Secretary Heydar Aliyev, there was a revival in the veteran movement, during which the committee gradually expanded to the republic. The establishment of the Republican Veterans Organization took place on 21 March 1987. Despite the official registration of the RVO with the Ministry of Justice, the activity of the organization was largely formal due to the tensions in the country with the Karabakh War, as well as the attitude of the government towards Red Army veterans in general. One of the first laws signed by the President Aliyev was the Law "On Veterans" (28 June 1994), which restored the mandate for the RVO.


title: Food porn

text: Food porn (or foodporn) is a glamourized visual presentation of cooking or eating in advertisements, infomercials, blogs, cooking shows, and other visual media. Its origins come from a restaurant review e-commerce platform called Foodporn. Food porn often takes the form of food photography with styling that presents food provocatively, in a similar way to glamour photography or pornographic photography.


title: Food porn

text: One of the earliest forms of the term can be found in an article by Alexander Cockburn, published in December 1977 in "The New York Review of Books", in which Cockburn wrote, "True gastro-porn heightens the excitement and also the sense of the unattainable by proffering colored photographs of various completed recipes". Michael F. Jacobson used the term "food porn" in a 1979 newsletter of the Center for Science in the Public Interest. The term "food porn" was also used by the feminist critic Rosalind Coward in her 1984 book "Female Desire", in which she wrote: Cooking food and presenting it beautifully is an act of servitude. It is a way of expressing affection through a gift [...] That we should aspire to produce perfectly finished and presented food is a symbol of a willing and enjoyable participation in servicing others. Food pornography exactly sustains these meanings relating to the preparation of food. The kinds of picture used always repress the process of production of a meal. They are always beautifully lit, often touched up.


title: Food porn

text: The term "food porn" does not strictly deal with the connection between food and sexuality. In the United States, "food porn" is a term applied when "food manufacturers are capitalising on a backlash against low-calorie and diet foods by marketing treats that boast a high fat content and good artery-clogging potential".


title: Food porn

text: In the United Kingdom, the term became popular in the 1990s due to the TV cookery programme "Two Fat Ladies", after the show's producer described the "pornographic joy" the pair took in using vast quantities of butter and cream.


title: Food porn

text: Taking a picture of food became one of the norms for the younger generation in the world as they tried to emulate Foodporn, a site that popularized the concept of posting visually appealing videos and photos of food and drink across social media. Study from YPulse shows 63% of people between thirteen years old to thirty two years old posted their food picture while they are eating on social networking services. Moreover, 57% of people in the same age range posted information of the food they were eating at that time. From the percentage, food and social media are starting to connect together as trend. People using the hashtag #foodporn helps the food industry to track audiences on social networking services.


title: Food porn

text: The term "food porn" has shifted throughout its first appearances. Articles mentioned food porn as early as the late 1970s. The phrase was used in a literal manner, describing food that was unhealthy for human consumption, directly comparing it to pornography. Its use took on a new meaning in the early 2000s, when the term "food porn" began being used to describe food that was presented and prepared in a manner that was aesthetically appealing. This desire for food has flooded the internet, having significant effects on social media sites that provide the ability to display such as Instagram, Flickr, Snapchat, Facebook, Reddit, and Twitter. The popularity of displaying food in a physically appealing manner is driven by the users that create these communities. The use of hashtags that the users of these sites have adapted to, allow food porn to connect people in a way that documents anything about the food such as, foods that reflect cultures, calories, presentation, preparation, delicious taste, and anything else that adds to the authenticity of the meal.


title: Food porn

text: The term "food porn" refers to images of food across various social media platforms such as TV, cooking magazines, online blogs, mobile apps, websites and social media platforms. The reason why food porn is strongly connecting with popular culture is due to the fact that people are exposed to food in their everyday lives. Food porn is not specific to social media platforms and could also be part of the category on newspaper and online blog. Moreover, food porn is experienced globally. Language barriers that exist culturally can be bypassed by the usage of #foodporn. Food porn is used collectively by the online users and does not exclude or privilege one food over another.


title: Food porn

text: Contemporary literature and cinema consistently connect food and sexuality. Scholars note historical links between eating and sex, such as male and female humans coming together throughout evolution around food and creating offspring—two essential needs for survival. Today, a more obvious connection exists between the physical acts of eating and having sex in popular culture. In his book "Food: The Key Concepts", Warren Belasco examines this particular resonance between kitchen and bedroom in modern-day vocabulary: "these intensely sexualized associations between eating and loving make it difficult to adopt the asceticism implied in eating responsibly. If pastry, sugar, fat, meat, and salt are so closely tied to life's most intimately pleasurable experiences, who would ever want to cut back on them?" When Alexander Cockburn defined the term "gastro porn", he used the words "excitement" and "unattainable", implying an element of fantasy that can be seen in both food porn and "traditional" pornography. With the rise of fad diets and exercise programs in the 1980s came a similar upward trend in food-related media and development of eating disorders. As people continued to restrict calories, food-related media increased in popularity due to its ability to provide the consumer with a voyeuristic indulgence of their food fantasies, similar to the voyeuristic indulgence that traditional pornography provides.


title: National Assembly of South Africa

text: The National Assembly is the directly elected house of the Parliament of South Africa, located in Cape Town, Western Cape. It consists of four hundred members who are elected every five years using a party-list proportional representation system where half of the members are elected proportionally from nine provincial lists and the remaining half from national lists so as to restore proportionality.


title: National Assembly of South Africa

text: The National Assembly is presided over by a Speaker, assisted by a Deputy Speaker. The current Speaker is Nosiviwe Mapisa-Nqakula who previously served as the Minister of Defence and Military Veterans. She was elected on 19 August 2021. The Deputy Speaker is Solomon Lechesa Tsenoli who has served in the post since his election on 21 May 2014.


title: National Assembly of South Africa

text: The National Assembly chamber was destroyed in a fire in January 2022. National Assembly sittings will now be held in the old Good Hope Chamber, which is within the precincts of parliament.


title: National Assembly of South Africa

text: The National Assembly seats are allocated using a proportional representation system with closed lists. Seats are first allocated according to the (integer part of the) Droop quota. Thereafter at most five seats are allocated using the largest remainder method (using the Droop quota). Any additional seats are allocated amongst the parties who then already have seats using the highest averages method.


title: National Assembly of South Africa

text: Voters have one vote at elections to the National Assembly. Seats are allocated in ten multi-member constituencies via party lists. One constituency is a national or 'at large' constituency and nine others represent each of the nine provinces. The lists were called the national lists and regional lists in the 2009 election. 'Regional' was used to avoid confusion with the provincial legislature elections held at the same time. Previously they were called 'National to National' and 'Provincial to National'.


title: National Assembly of South Africa

text: Of the 400 members of the National Assembly, half are assigned to be elected from national lists and the remaining half are assigned to be elected from regional lists. Every election, the Independent Electoral Commission (IEC) determines the allocation of the 200 regional list seats to each province by population.


title: National Assembly of South Africa

text: Parties decide whether they want to set up both national and regional lists or only regional lists. In the 2009 election, the Democratic Alliance (DA) chose not to use a national list. The nationwide votes entitled the DA to 67 seats, but the provincial votes amounted to only 35 seats. While normally the remaining 32 members would be drawn from the party's national list, in this case the remaining seats were distributed among the other DA regional list candidates. This resulted in the National Assembly being made up of 168 members elected on national lists and 232 members elected on regional lists.


title: National Assembly of South Africa

text: The National Assembly was first elected in South Africa's first non-racial election in 1994 with the African National Congress (ANC) winning 252 of the 400 seats. The National Party (NP), the previous governing party, won 82 seats, and the Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP) won 43. Under the terms of the Interim Constitution this result entitled the NP and the IFP to take part in the Government of National Unity alongside the ANC, and gave the ANC and NP the right to each nominate one Deputy President. The other parties represented in the assembly were the Freedom Front (9 seats), the Democratic Party (7 seats), the Pan Africanist Congress (5 seats), and the African Christian Democratic Party (2 seats).


title: National Assembly of South Africa

text: In the election of 1999, the ANC won 266 seats, one short of the two-thirds majority needed to unilaterally amend the constitution. The DP expanded its representation to become the official opposition with 38 seats, while the IFP won 34. The NP, now renamed the New National Party (NNP), dropped to 28 seats, and the newly formed United Democratic Movement (UDM) won 14. Eight smaller parties also obtained seats in the assembly.


title: National Assembly of South Africa

text: In the election of 2004 the ANC obtained 279 seats, gaining a two-thirds majority and the ability to change the constitution. The DP became the Democratic Alliance (DA) and remained the official opposition with 50 seats, while the IFP won 28 seats. The NNP was severely weakened, obtaining only 7 seats; the party was formally disbanded in 2005 with the majority of the party joining the ANC.


title: National Assembly of South Africa

text: In the election of 2009 the ANC lost its two-thirds majority but remained the majority party with 264 seats. The DA increased its support to 67 seats, and the new Congress of the People (COPE) party, a breakaway from the ANC, obtained 30 seats. The IFP was reduced to 18 seats.


title: National Assembly of South Africa

text: In the election of 2014 the ANC lost further seats, but remained the majority party with 249 seats. The DA increased its support to 89 seats, while the Economic Freedom Fighters (EFF), a far-left breakaway from the ANC, obtained 25 seats. The IFP further reduced to 10 seats while COPE's influence was strongly reduced, only electing three MPs.


title: National Assembly of South Africa

text: In the election of 2019 the ANC lost even more seats, but remained the majority party with a seat total of 230 seats. The Official Opposition DA declined from 89 seats to 84 seats. The EFF increased its seat total to 44 seats. The IFP managed to arrest the decline in its support and obtained 14 seats. The Freedom Front Plus (FF+) grew to 10 seats, a gain of 6 seats. Nine other parties obtained seats.


title: National Assembly of South Africa

text: As of 2019, the highest earning members of the National Assembly are the Speaker of the National Assembly and the deputy president of the Republic of South Africa, who is the head of the executive government's representatives in the National Assembly. They each earn an annual salary of R2,825,470.


title: National Assembly of South Africa

text: The second highest earning members of the National Assembly are Members of Parliament (MP) who are also cabinet ministers. They earn an annual salary of R2,401,633


title: National Assembly of South Africa

text: The Deputy Speaker earns an annual salary of R1,977,795. This is also the salary of deputy cabinet ministers.


title: National Assembly of South Africa

text: Senior MPs, such as the leader of the opposition and chief whips of each party, earn an annual salary of R1,600,467.


title: National Assembly of South Africa

text: According to "Business Insider South Africa", SA MPs are in the top 1% earning bracket in the nation. The lowest earning MP earns a monthly salary of around R92,245. This salary comes while the average South African earned a monthly salary of around R21,432, as of September 2019 and the minimum wage was just R20 per hour.


title: Bronisław Malinowski

text: Bronisław Kasper Malinowski (; 7 April 1884 – 16 May 1942) was a Polish-British anthropologist and ethnologist whose writings on ethnography, social theory, and field research have exerted a lasting influence on the discipline of anthropology.


title: Bronisław Malinowski

text: Malinowski was born in what was part of the Austrian partition of Poland, and completed his initial studies at Jagiellonian University in his birth city of Kraków. From 1910, at the London School of Economics (LSE), he studied exchange and economics, analysing Aboriginal Australia through ethnographic documents. In 1914 he traveled to Australia. He conducted research in the Trobriand Islands and other regions in New Guinea and Melanesia where he stayed for several years, studying indigenous cultures.


title: Bronisław Malinowski

text: Returning to England after World War I, he published his principal work, "Argonauts of the Western Pacific" (1922), which established him as one of Europe's most important anthropologists. He took posts as lecturer and later as chair in anthropology at the LSE, attracting large numbers of students and exerting great influence on the development of British social anthropology. Over the years, he guest-lectured at several American universities; when World War II broke out, he remained in the United States, taking an appointment at Yale University. He died in 1942 and was interred in the United States. In 1967 his widow, Valetta Swann, published his personal diary kept during his fieldwork in Melanesia and New Guinea. It has since been a source of controversy, because of its ethnocentric and egocentric nature.


title: Bronisław Malinowski

text: Malinowski's ethnography of the Trobriand Islands described the complex institution of the Kula ring and became foundational for subsequent theories of reciprocity and exchange. He was also widely regarded as an eminent fieldworker, and his texts regarding anthropological field methods were foundational to early anthropology, popularizing the concept of participatory observation. His approach to social theory was a form of psychological functionalism that emphasised how social and cultural institutions serve basic human needs—a perspective opposed to A. R. Radcliffe-Brown's structural functionalism, which emphasised ways in which social institutions function in relation to society as a whole.


title: Bronisław Malinowski

text: Malinowski, scion of Polish "szlachta" (nobility), was born on 7 April 1884 in Kraków, in the Austrian partition of the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth—then part of the Austro-Hungarian province known as the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria. His father, Lucjan Malinowski, was a professor of Slavic philology at the Jagiellonian University, and his mother was the daughter of a landowning family. As a child he was frail, often suffering from ill health, but excelled academically. On 30 May 1902 he passed his "matura" examinations (with distinction) at the Jan III Sobieski Secondary School, and later that year began studying at the College of Philosophy of Kraków's Jagiellonian University, where he initially focused on mathematics and the physical sciences.


title: Bronisław Malinowski

text: While attending the university he became severely ill (possibly with tuberculosis) and, while he recuperated, his interest turned more toward the social sciences as he took courses in philosophy and education. In 1908 he received a doctorate in philosophy from the Jagiellonian University; his thesis was titled "On the Principle of the Economy of Thought".


title: Bronisław Malinowski

text: During his student years he became interested in travel abroad, and visited Finland, Italy, the Canary Islands, western Asia, and North Africa; some of those travels were at least partly motivated by health concerns. He also spent three semesters at the University of Leipzig (ca. 1909-1910), where he studied under economist Karl Bücher and psychologist Wilhelm Wundt. After reading James Frazer's "The Golden Bough", he decided to become an anthropologist.


title: Bronisław Malinowski

text: In 1910 he went to England, becoming a postgraduate student at the London School of Economics, where his mentors included C. G. Seligman and Edvard Westermarck.


title: Bronisław Malinowski

text: In 1911 Malinowski published, in Polish, his first academic paper, ""Totemizm i egzogamia"" ("Totemism and Exogamy"), in "". The following year he published his first English-language academic paper, and in 1913 his first book, "The Family among the Australian Aborigines", and gave his first lectures at the LSE, on topics related to psychology of religion and social psychology.


title: Bronisław Malinowski

text: In June 1914 he departed London, travelling to Australia, as the first step in his expedition to Papua (in what would later become Papua New Guinea). The expedition was organized under the aegis of the British Association for the Advancement of Science (BAAS). In fact, initially Malinowski's journey to Australia was supposed to last only about half a year, as he was mainly planning on attending a conference there, and travelled there in a capacity of a secretary to Robert Ranulph Marett. Shortly afterward, his situation became complicated due to the outbreak of World War I as although Polish by ethnicity, he was a subject of Austria-Hungary, which was at the state of war with the United Kingdom. Malinowski, at risk of internment, nonetheless decided not to return to Europe from the British-controlled region and after intervention by a number of his colleagues, including Marett as well as Alfred Cort Haddon, British authorities allowed him to stay in the Australian region and even provided him with new funding.


title: Bronisław Malinowski

text: His first field trip, lasting from August 1914 to March 1915, took him to the Toulon Island (Mailu Island) and the Woodlark Island. This field trip was described in his 1915 monograph "The natives of Mailu". Subsequently, he conducted research in the Trobriand Islands in the Melanesia region. He organized two larger expeditions during that time; from May 1915 to May 1916, and October 1917 to October 1918, in addition to several shorter excursions. It was during this period that he conducted his fieldwork on the Kula ring and advanced the practice of participant observation, which remains the hallmark of ethnographic research today. The ethnographic collection of artifacts from his expeditions is mostly held by the British Museum and the Melbourne Museum. During the breaks in between his expeditions he stayed in Melbourne, writing up his research, and publishing new articles, such as "Baloma; the Spirits of the Dead in the Trobriand Islands". In 1916 he received the title of Doctor of Sciences.


title: Bronisław Malinowski

text: In 1919, he returned to Europe, staying at Tenerife for over a year before coming back to London on 1921. He resumed teaching at the London School of Economics, accepting a position as a lecturer, declining a job offer from the Polish Jagiellonian University. The following year, his book "Argonauts of the Western Pacific", often described as his masterpiece, was published. For the next two decades, he would establish the London School of Economics as Europe's main centre of anthropology. In 1924 he was promoted to a reader, and in 1927, a full professor. In 1930 he became a corresponding foreign member of the Polish Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 1933, he became a foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 1934 he travelled to Southern Africa, carrying out research among several tribes such as the Bemba, Kikuyu, Maragoli, Maasai and the Swazi people. The period 1926-1935 was the most productive time of his career, seeing the publications of many articles and several more books.


title: Bronisław Malinowski

text: Malinowski taught intermittently in the United States, which he first visited in 1926. When World War II broke out during one of his American visits, he stayed there. In 1941 he carried out field research among the Mexican peasants in Oaxaca. He took up a position at Yale University as a visiting professor, where he remained until his death. In 1942, he co-founded the Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences of America of which he became its first president.


title: Bronisław Malinowski

text: Malinowski died in New Haven, Connecticut on 16 May 1942, aged 58, of a stroke while preparing to resume his fieldwork in Oaxaca. He was interred at Evergreen Cemetery in New Haven.


title: Bronisław Malinowski

text: Except a few works from the early 1910s, all of Malinowski's research was published in English. His first book, "The Family among the Australian Aborigines", published in 1913, was based on materials he collected and wrote in the years 1909-1911. It was well-received not just by contemporary reviewers, but also by scholars generations later. In 1963, in his foreword to its new edition, John Arundel Barnes called it an epochal work, and noted how it discredited the previously held theory that Australian Aborigines have no institution of family.


title: Bronisław Malinowski

text: Published in 1922, "Argonauts of the Western Pacific", about the Trobriand people who live on the small Kiriwana island chain northeast of the island of New Guinea, was widely regarded as a masterpiece and significantly boosted Malinowski's reputation in the world of academia. His later books included the "Crime and Custom in Savage Society" (1926), "Myth in Primitive Psychology" (1926), "Sex and Repression in Savage Society" (1927), "The Father in Primitive Psychology" (1927), "The Sexual Life of Savages in North-Western Melanesia" (1929) and "Coral Gardens and Their Magic" (1935).


title: Bronisław Malinowski

text: A number of his works were published posthumously, or collected in anthologies: "A Scientific Theory of Culture and Others Essays" (1944), "Freedom & Civilization" (1944), "The Dynamics of Culture Change" (1945), "Magic, Science and Religion and Other Essays" (1948), "Sex, Culture, and Myth" (1962) the controversial "A Diary in the Strict Sense of the Term" (1967) and "The Early Writings of Bronislaw Malinowski" (1993).


title: Bronisław Malinowski

text: The personal diary of Malinowski, along with several others, written in Polish, was discovered in his Yale University office after his death. First published in 1967, covering the period of his fieldwork in 1914–1915 and 1917–1918 in New Guinea and the Trobriand Islands, it set off a storm of controversy. The year it was published Clifford Geertz called it "gross" and "tiresome", and wrote that it portrayed Malinowski as "a crabbed, self-preoccupied, hypochondriacal narcissist, whose fellow-feeling for the people he lived with was limited in the extreme." Two decades later, however, he praised it as "backstage masterpiece of anthropology, our "The Double Helix"". Writing in 1987, James Clifford called it "a crucial document for the history of anthropology".


title: Bronisław Malinowski

text: Already a year after his death Clyde Kluckhohn described his influence in the field as significant if somewhat controversial, noting that to some he "was a major prophet", and that "no anthropologist has ever had so wide a popular audience". In 1974 described many of his works as "classics".


title: Bronisław Malinowski

text: Malinowski is often considered one of anthropology's most skilled ethnographers, especially because of his highly methodical and well-theorised approach to the study of social systems. He is often referred to as the first researcher to bring anthropology "off the verandah" (a phrase that is also the name of a André Singer's 1986 documentary about his work), that is, stressing the need for fieldwork enabling the researcher to experience the everyday life of his subjects along with them. Malinowski emphasised the importance of detailed participant observation and argued that anthropologists must have daily contact with their informants if they are to adequately record the "imponderabilia of everyday life" that are so important to understanding a different culture. He stated that the goal of the anthropologist, or ethnographer, is "to grasp the native's point of view, his relation to life, to realize "his" vision of "his" world". Because of the impact of his argument, he is sometimes credited with inventing the field of ethnography.


title: Bronisław Malinowski

text: Malinowski in his pioneering research literally set up a tent in the middle of villages he studied, in which he lived for extended periods of times, weeks or months. His argument was shaped by his initial experiences as an anthropologist in the mid-1910s in Australia and Oceania, where during his first field trip he found himself grossly unprepared for it, due to not knowing the language of the people he set to study, nor being able to observe their daily customs sufficiently (during that initial trip, he was lodged with a local missionary and just made daily trips to the village, and endeavour which became increasingly difficult once he lost his translator). His pioneering decision to subsequently immerse himself in the life of the natives represents his solution to this problem, and was the message he addressed to new, young anthropologists, aiming to both improve their experience and allow them to produce better data.


title: Bronisław Malinowski

text: He advocated that stance from his very first publications, which were often harshly critical of those of his elders in the field of anthropology, who did most of their writing based on second-handed accounts. This could be seen in the relation between Frazer - an influential early anthropologist, nonetheless described as the classic armchair scholar - and Malinowski was complex; Frazer was one of Malinowski's mentors and supporters, and his work is credited with inspiring young Malinowski to become an anthropologist. At the same time, Malinowski was critical of Frazer from his early days, and it has been suggested that what he learned from Frazer was not "how to be an anthropologist" but "how not to do anthropology". Ian Jarvie wrote that many of Malinowski's writing represented an "attack" on Frazer's school of fieldwork, although James A. Boon suggested this conflict has been exaggerated.


title: Bronisław Malinowski

text: Malinowski has been credited with originating, or being one of the main originators, of the school of social anthropology known as functionalism. It has been suggested that here he has been inspired by the views of William James. In contrast to Radcliffe-Brown's structural functionalism, Malinowski's psychological functionalism argued that culture functioned to meet the needs of individuals rather than the needs of society as a whole. He reasoned that when the needs of individuals, who comprise society, are met, then the needs of society are met. To Malinowski, the feelings of people and their motives were crucial to understanding the way their society functioned:


title: Bronisław Malinowski

text: Apart from fieldwork, Malinowski also challenged the claim to universality of Freud's theory of the Oedipus complex. He initiated a cross-cultural approach in "Sex and Repression in Savage Society" (1927) where he demonstrated that specific psychological complexes are not universal.


title: Bronisław Malinowski

text: In 1920, he published his first scientific article on the Kula ring. In reference to the Kula ring, Malinowski also stated:


title: Bronisław Malinowski

text: In these two passages, Malinowski anticipated the distinction between description and analysis, and between the views of actors and analysts. This distinction continues to inform anthropological method and theory. His research from that period on the Trobriand traditional economy, with its particular focus on magic and magicians, has also been described as a significant addition to the economic anthropology.


title: Bronisław Malinowski

text: Malinowski likewise influenced the course of African history, serving as an academic mentor to Jomo Kenyatta, the father and first president of modern-day Kenya. Malinowski also wrote the introduction to "Facing Mount Kenya", Kenyatta's ethnographic study of the Gikuyu tribe.


title: Bronisław Malinowski

text: In a brief passage in his 1979 book "Broca's Brain", the late science populariser Carl Sagan criticised Malinowski for thinking that "he had discovered a people in the Trobriand Islands who had not worked out the connection between sexual intercourse and childbirth", arguing that it was more likely that the islanders were simply making fun of Malinowski. Mark Mosko wrote in 2014 that further research on Trobriand people affirmed some of Malinowski's claims about their beliefs on procreation, adding that the dogmas are tied to a complicated system of belief encapsulating magic into beliefs about human and plant procreation, but he also stated that "the preponderance of ethnographic evidence ... refutes Malinowski’s notorious claims of Islanders’ supposed “ignorance of physiological paternity”".


title: Bronisław Malinowski

text: As a teacher, he preferred lectures to discussions. He has been praised for his friendly and egalitarian attitude towards women students. Among his students were such future prominent social scientists as Hilda Beemer Kuper, Edith Clarke, , Raymond Firth, Meyer Fortes, Feliks Gross, Francis L. K. Hsu, Jomo Kenyatta, Edmund Leach, Lucy Mair, Z. K. Matthews, , Maria Ossowska, Stanisław Ossowski, Ralph Piddington, Hortense Powdermaker, E. E. Evans-Pritchard, Margaret Read, Audrey Richards, Isaac Schapera, , Camilla Wedgwood, Monica Wilson and Fei Xiaotong.He is considered to have raised the next generation of anthropologists, particularly British.


title: Bronisław Malinowski

text: The Malinowski Memorial Lecture, an annual anthropology lecture series at London School of Economics, inaugurated in 1959, is named after him. A student-led anthropology magazine at the LSE, "The Argonaut", took its name from Malinowski's "Argonauts of the Western Pacific".


title: Bronisław Malinowski

text: The Society for Applied Anthropology established the Bronislaw Malinowski Award in his honor in 1950. The award was awarded only until 1952, then went on hiatus until being re-established in 1973; it has been awarded annually since.


title: Bronisław Malinowski

text: Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz based a character, Duke of Nevermore, from his novel "" (written in the 1910s but not published until 1972) on Malinowski.


title: Bronisław Malinowski

text: The life and work of Malinowski is the subject of a documentary film "Tales From The Jungle: Malinowski" aired by BBC Four channel in 2007.


title: Bronisław Malinowski

text: In 1919 Malinowski married Elsie Rosaline Masson, an Australian photographer, writer, and traveler (daughter of David Orme Masson), with whom he had three daughters: Józefa (born 1920), Wanda (born 1922), and Helena (born 1925). Elsie died in 1935, and in 1940 Malinowski married the English painter Valetta Swann. Malinowski's daughter Helena Malinowska Wayne wrote several articles and a book about her father's life.


title: Bronisław Malinowski

text: While Malinowski was brought up in the Roman Catholic faith, after his mother's death he described himself as agnostic.


title: Auto-brewery syndrome

text: Auto-brewery syndrome (ABS) (also known as gut fermentation syndrome, endogenous ethanol fermentation or drunkenness disease) is a condition characterized by the fermentation of ingested carbohydrates in the gastrointestinal tract of the body caused by bacteria or fungi. ABS is a rare medical condition in which intoxicating quantities of ethanol are produced through endogenous fermentation within the digestive system. The organisms responsible for ABS include various yeasts and bacteria, including "Saccharomyces cerevisiae", "S. boulardii", "Candida albicans", "C. tropicalis", "C. krusei", "C. glabrata", "C. kefyr", "C. parapsilosis", "Klebsiella pneumoniae", and "Enterococcus faecium". These organisms use lactic acid fermentation or mixed acid fermentation pathways to produce an ethanol end product. The ethanol generated from these pathways is absorbed in the small intestine, causing an increase in blood alcohol concentrations that produce the effects of intoxication without the consumption of alcohol.


title: Auto-brewery syndrome

text: Researchers speculate the underlying causes of ABS are related to prolonged antibiotic use, poor nutrition and/or diets high in carbohydrates, and to pre-existing conditions such as diabetes and genetic variations that result in improper liver enzyme activity. In the latter case, decreased activity of aldehyde dehydrogenase can result in accumulation of ethanol in the gut, leading to fermentation. Any of these conditions, alone or in combination, could cause ABS, and result in dysbiosis of the microbiome.


title: Auto-brewery syndrome

text: Another variant, urinary auto-brewery syndrome, is when the fermentation occurs in the urinary bladder rather than the gut.


title: Auto-brewery syndrome

text: Claims of endogenous fermentation have been attempted as a defense against drunk driving charges, some of which have been successful, but the condition is so rare and under-researched they are currently not substantiated by available studies.


title: Auto-brewery syndrome

text: This disease can have profound effects on everyday life. Symptoms that usually accompany ABS include elevated blood alcohol levels as well as symptoms consistent with alcohol intoxication—such as slurred speech, stumbling, loss of motor functions, dizziness, and belching. Mood changes and other neurological problems have also been reported. Several cases in the United States have argued endogenous fermentation as a defense against drunk driving.


title: Auto-brewery syndrome

text: There are certain clinical conditions such as type 2 diabetes mellitus and liver cirrhosis that have been identified to produce higher levels of endogenous ethanol. Research has also shown that "Klebsiella" bacteria can similarly ferment carbohydrates to alcohol in the gut, which can accelerate non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Gut fermentation can occur in patients with short bowel syndrome after surgical resection because of fermentation of malabsorbed carbohydrates.


title: Auto-brewery syndrome

text: Kaji et al. noticed a correlation between this syndrome and previous abdominal surgeries and disturbances, such as a dilation of the duodenum. Stagnation of the contents ensues, which favors proliferation of the causative organisms.


title: Auto-brewery syndrome

text: Gut fermentation syndrome was previously investigated, but eliminated, as a possible cause of sudden infant death syndrome.


title: Auto-brewery syndrome

text: Fermentation is a biochemical process during which yeast and certain bacteria convert sugars to ethanol, carbon dioxide, as well as other metabolic byproducts. The fermentation pathway involves pyruvate formed from yeast in the EMP pathway, while some bacteria obtain pyruvate through the ED pathway. Pyruvate is then decarboxylated to acetaldehyde in a reaction involving the enzyme pyruvate decarboxylase. Reduction of acetaldehyde to ethanol produces NAD+, which is catalyzed by alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH). ADH rids the body of alcohol through a process called first pass metabolism. However, if the rate of ethanol breakdown is less than the rate of production, intoxication ensues.


title: Auto-brewery syndrome

text: Alcohol levels within the body are usually detected through blood or breath. The best way to identify endogenous ethanol in the bloodstream is through gas chromatography. Gas chromatography is where the breath or blood is heated so that the different components of the vapor or blood separate. The volatiles then pass through a chromatograph that isolates ethanol from the smaller volatiles so that it can be quantified.


title: Auto-brewery syndrome

text: More convenient methods include serum measurements and breathalyzers, especially during an acute attack at home. Different countries have different baselines for blood alcohol levels when identifying intoxication through breathalyzers. In the United States, it is 0.08 g/dL.


title: Auto-brewery syndrome

text: In diagnosing ABS through serum measurement methods, patients are made to fast in order to establish baseline blood alcohol and blood glucose levels. They are then administered a dose of IG glucose to see if there is an increase in blood alcohol as well as blood sugar. Blood glucose level can be measured with enzyme-amperometric biosensors, as well as with urine test strips. Many of these tests are performed in combination to rule out lab mistakes and alcohol ingestion so that the syndrome is not misdiagnosed.


title: Auto-brewery syndrome

text: First, patients diagnosed with ABS are treated for the immediate symptoms of alcohol intoxication. Next, patients can take medications if they test positive for the types of fungi or bacteria that cause gut fermentation. For example, antifungals such as fluconazole or micafungin can be prescribed by a physician. Often, probiotics are given concurrently to ensure that the proper bacteria recolonize the gut, and to prevent recolonization by the microorganisms that caused the syndrome. Patients also typically undergo a diet therapy where they are placed on a high protein, low carbohydrate diet to avoid the symptoms of ABS. The treatments listed above can be used individually or in combination to reduce the effects of the syndrome.


title: Bones (season 5)

text: The fifth season of the American television series "Bones" premiered on September 17, 2009, and concluded on May 20, 2010, on Fox. The show maintained its previous time slot, airing on Thursdays at 8:00 pm ET for the entire season. The season consisted of 22 episodes and averaged 10 million viewers.


title: Bones (season 5)

text: Key plotlines in the fifth season include the 100th episode (directed by David Boreanaz), which flashes back to Booth and Brennan's first assignment that showcases their original relationship, which leads Booth to confess his true feelings to Brennan. The 100th episode also features the return of Eric Millegan as Zack Addy. Angela and Hodgins rekindle their love after spending some quality time together in a jail cell, and decide to get married. Heather Taffet aka the Gravedigger is put on trial for her crimes, and the team's strong case against her leads to a conviction where she is finally put away, but warns Brennan "that it's not over". In the season finale, many of the characters begin to embark on trips that will take them out of the country for one year, intending to return and pick things up where they left off one year from that day. Temperance, along with Daisy Wick, go to the Maluku Islands to study a full set of interspecies hominid remains that could be a crucial link in the evolutionary chain. Booth returns to the Army as a Sergeant Major to train soldiers in apprehending insurgents. Meanwhile, newlywed Angela and Hodgins decide to travel.


title: Bones (season 5)

text: The season was originally supposed to include a black-and-white noir-inspired episode, but the idea was dropped after another Fox series, "Fringe", did a similar episode. The episode "The Gamer in the Grease" features promotion of the film "Avatar". The cross promotion was suggested by "Avatar" producer Jon Landau and the episode features recurring actor Joel David Moore, who also appears in "Avatar" as one of the secondary protagonists.


title: Bones (season 5)

text: The fifth season of "Bones" was released on DVD and Blu-ray (subtitled "Beyond the Grave Edition") in region 1 on October 5, 2010, in region 2 on October 18, 2010 and in region 4 on October 27, 2010. The set includes all 22 episodes of season five on a 6-disc DVD set and 4-disc Blu-ray set presented in anamorphic widescreen. Special features include two audio commentaries—"The Proof in the Pudding" by actors Tamara Taylor, John Francis Daley and Michaela Conlin and "The Beginning in the End" by executive producers Hart Hanson, Stephen Nathan and Ian Toynton. Featurettes include "The 100th Episode with Director David Boreanaz", "The Bodies of "Bones"" and "The Nunchuck Way". Also included are extended versions of "The Tough Man in the Tender Chicken" and "The X in the File", as well as deleted scenes and a gag reel.


title: Tennis Court Oath

text: On 20 June 1789, the members of the French Third Estate took the Tennis Court Oath () in the tennis court which had been built in 1686 for the use of the Versailles palace. Their vow "not to separate and to reassemble wherever necessary until the Constitution of the kingdom is established" became a pivotal event in the French Revolution.


title: Tennis Court Oath

text: The Estates-General had been called to address the country's fiscal and agricultural crisis, but they had become bogged down in issues of representation immediately after convening in May 1789, particularly whether they would vote by order or by head (which would increase the power of the Third Estate, as they outnumbered the other two estates by a large margin). On 17 June, the Third Estate began to call themselves the National Assembly, led by Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, Comte de Mirabeau.


title: Tennis Court Oath

text: On the morning of 20 June, the deputies were shocked to discover that the chamber door was locked and guarded by soldiers. They immediately feared the worst and were anxious that a royal attack was imminent from King Louis XVI, so upon the suggestion of one of their members Joseph-Ignace Guillotin, the deputies congregated in a nearby indoor royal tennis court near the Palace of Versailles. There 576 of the 577 members from the Third Estate took the oath — the only person who did not join was Joseph Martin-Dauch from Castelnaudary, who would only execute decisions that were made by the monarch.


title: Tennis Court Oath

text: Before the Revolution, French society—aside from royalty—was divided into three estates. The First Estate comprised the clergy; the Second Estate was the nobility. The rest of France—some 97 per cent of the population—was the Third Estate, which ranged from very wealthy city merchants to impoverished rural farmers. The three estates had historically met in the Estates General, a legislative assembly, but this had not happened since 1614.


title: Tennis Court Oath

text: The Estates General of 1789 was a general assembly representing the French estates of the realm: the clergy (First Estate), the Nobility (Second Estate), and the commoners (Third Estate). It was the last of the Estates General of the Kingdom of France. Summoned by King Louis XVI, the Estates General of 1789 ended when the Third Estate formed the National Assembly and, against the wishes of the King, invited the other two estates to join. This signaled the outbreak of the French Revolution.


title: Tennis Court Oath

text: The Third Estate comprised the overwhelming majority of the French population but the structure of the Estates-General was such that the Third Estate comprised a bare majority of the delegates. A simple majority was sufficient—as long as delegate votes were cast together. The First and Second Estates preferred to divide the vote; a proposal might need to receive approval from each Estate or there might be two "houses" of the Estates-General (one for the first two Estates, and one for the Third) and a bill would need to be passed by both houses. Either way, the First and Second Estates could exercise a veto over proposals enjoying widespread support among the Third Estate, such as reforms that threatened the privileges of the nobility and clergy.


title: Tennis Court Oath

text: The deputies' fears, even if wrong, were reasonable and the importance of the oath goes above and beyond its context. The oath was a revolutionary act and an assertion that political authority derived from the people and their representatives rather than from the monarchy. Their solidarity forced Louis XVI to order the clergy and the nobility to join the Third Estate in the National Assembly to give the illusion that he controlled the National Assembly. This oath was vital to the Third Estate as a protest that led to more power in the Estates General, every governing body thereafter.


title: Tennis Court Oath

text: Considering that it has been called to establish the constitution of the realm, to bring about the regeneration of public order, and to maintain the true principles of monarchy; nothing may prevent it from continuing its deliberations in any place it is forced to establish itself; and, finally, the National Assembly exists wherever its members are gathered.


title: Tennis Court Oath

text: Decrees that all members of this Assembly immediately take a solemn oath never to separate, and to reassemble wherever circumstances require until the constitution of the realm is established and fixed upon solid foundations; and that said oath having been sworn, all members and each one individually confirms this unwavering resolution with his signature.


title: Tennis Court Oath

text: We swear never to separate ourselves from the National Assembly, and to reassemble wherever circumstances require until the constitution of the realm is drawn up and fixed upon solid foundations.


title: Tennis Court Oath

text: The Oath signified for the first time that French citizens formally stood in opposition to Louis XVI. The National Assembly's refusal to back down forced the king to make concessions. It was foreshadowed by and drew considerably from the 1776 United States Declaration of Independence, especially the preamble. The Oath also inspired a wide variety of revolutionary activities in the months afterwards, ranging from rioting in the French countryside to renewed calls for a written constitution. It reinforced the Assembly's strength, and although the King attempted to thwart its effect, Louis was forced to relent and on 27 June 1789 he formally requested that voting occur based on head counts, not on each estates' power.


title: Tennis Court Oath

text: The Tennis Court Oath (20 June 1789) preceded the abolition of feudalism (4 August 1789) and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (26 August 1789) as the National Assembly became increasingly radical.


title: Tennis Court Oath

text: Following the 100 year celebration of the oath in 1889, what had been the Royal Tennis Court was again forgotten and deteriorated. Prior to World War II, there was a plan to convert it into a table tennis room for Senate administrators at the Palace. In 1989 the bicentenary of the French Revolution was an opportunity to restore the tennis court.


title: Not Me (TV series)

text: Not Me (; , "He... Is Not Me") is a Thai action television drama series, starring Jumpol Adulkittiporn (Off) and Atthaphan Phunsawat (Gun). The plot revolves around White disguising himself as his twin Black in order to discover who betrayed him, and who attacked him and put him in a coma.


title: Not Me (TV series)

text: Directed by Anucha Boonyawatana (Nuchie) and produced by the Thai production company GMMTV, this series is one of sixteen television series of the corporation for 2021 during their "GMMTV 2021: The New Decade Begins" event on 3 December 2020. It will air every Sunday at 20:30 (8:30 pm) on GMM25 (replacing the Sunday rerun of "Our Skyy") and the streaming platform AIS PLAY simultaneously. The official trailer was released on 29 November 2021, along with its official casts and characters.


title: Not Me (TV series)

text: Identical twins Black (Gun) and White (also Gun) share an emotional bond that is so strong that they feel each other’s pain. To lessen their bond, their parents divide them from each other in their early teenage years. After graduating from university abroad, White returns to Bangkok to follow in his father’s footsteps by preparing to become a diplomat. However, shortly after his arrival in Thailand, the bond to his twin makes itself known once more as White suffers excruciating pain when Black gets beaten into a coma. In order to find out who hurt his brother, White takes on his identity and infiltrates Black’s gang made up of political activists - a group of university students turned vigilantes, who put their life on the line for a fairer Thai society.


title: Not Me (TV series)

text: Increasingly, White finds himself questioning his own complicity in the conservative and unjust dynamics surrounding him. Along the way, his teammate, and Black’s rival, Sean (Off) goes from suspecting “Black’s""" sudden empathy and level-headedness to falling in love with this new version of him. With imprisonment and death a constant threat on their lives, White finds himself sparking a wide-spread uprising against capitalistic greed, corruption and civil rights infringements.


title: Jim O'Heir

text: Jim O'Heir (born February 4, 1962) is an American actor and comedian, perhaps best known for portraying Jerry Gergich on the NBC sitcom "Parks and Recreation".


title: Jim O'Heir

text: O'Heir first became active in Chicago theater and improv during the late 1980s and early 1990s as part of the comedic theater troupe "White Noise", and appeared in such plays as "The Book of Blanche", "Stumpy's Gang" and "Ad-Nauseam" with the group. O'Heir has appeared in several films and made guest appearances on such shows as "Friends", "Boston Legal", "Malcolm in the Middle", "", "3rd Rock from the Sun", "ER", "Parenthood", "Brooklyn Nine-Nine", and "Better Call Saul".


title: Jim O'Heir

text: In 2000, he starred in the Comedy Central series "Strip Mall" as Harvey Krudup, the husband of protagonist Tammi Tyler, who was played by Julie Brown.


title: Jim O'Heir

text: O'Heir was born in Chicago, and is a graduate of the Thornton Fractional South High School in Lansing, Illinois, and of Loyola University Chicago.


title: Jim O'Heir

text: O'Heir was active in the Chicago theater during the late 1980s and early 1990s, training and performing improvisational comedy at Chicago's Second City and as a member of the six-person sketch comedy troupe "White Noise", which formed in 1987. The group wrote and produced comedic plays that often employed bizarre humor or black comedy. Starting in November 1988, O'Heir appeared in White Noise's production of "The Book of Blanche", about a woman who falls through a television screen and ends up in a fantasy world influenced by various television show genres. In July 1989, O'Heir appeared in the Chicago premiere of the Tom Griffin play "The Boys Next Door" at the Edgewater Theatre Center. O'Heir played Norman Bulansky, a childlike middle-aged mentally handicapped man who works at a doughnut shop.


title: Jim O'Heir

text: Starting in 1990, O'Heir appeared in White Noise's "Stumpy's Gang", a one-act black comedy play by Patrick Cannon. The show played at Stage Left and Strawdog Theatres in Chicago, where it developed a cult following. O'Heir played Frank Bubman, the janitor for a genetics laboratory whose job is to destroy the unsuccessful experiments, which are portrayed by puppets. Frank secretly uses the experiments to stage private shows reminiscent of early television programs. Mary Shen Barnidge of the "Chicago Reader" said of his performance, "The grotesquely ursine Jim O'Heir adds a new dimension to the role of the enfant terrible with his uninhibited and enthusiastic portrayal of Frank, who will break your heart even as he turns your stomach." Ernest Tucker of the "Chicago Sun-Times" described O'Heir's performance as very funny and "unforgettable", and said he "held together this funny yet sick apocalyptic fantasy". "Stumpy's Gang" closed in the fall of 1991. Also with White Noise, O'Heir appeared in the play "Ad-Nauseam", about a pair of writers who create an ad campaign about a character named Rim Shot, played by O'Heir. Rim Shot, dressed as a gladiator costume made up of bristle brushes and toilet detritus.


title: Jim O'Heir

text: O'Heir played the inmate Dale Harding in Dale Wasserman's stage adaption of "One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest" at The Theatre District in Hollywood, California. "Backstage" writer Terri Roberts said O'Heir stood out among the show's cast.


title: Jim O'Heir

text: O'Heir appeared in the 1996 baseball comedy film "Ed" and 1998 fantasy television film "Harvey". He also appeared in the 2007 family drama film "Welcome to Paradise!!!". O'Heir played Hathaway in the 2016 film, "Range 15".


title: Jim O'Heir

text: In 2020, Variety announced O'Heir was joining the cast of the Chris Blake quarantine comedy, Distancing Socially. The film was shot at the height of the Covid-19 pandemic in 2020, using remote technologies and the iPhone 11. The film was acquired and released by Cinedigm in October 2021.


title: Jim O'Heir

text: O'Heir has appeared in several television shows since the 1990s and 2000s, including "3rd Rock from the Sun", "Malcolm in the Middle", "Just Shoot Me", "", "Suite Life of Zack and Cody" and "ER".


title: Jim O'Heir

text: Starting in 2000, O'Heir starred in a regular role in the Comedy Central series "Strip Mall" as Harvey Krudup, the unattractive husband of protagonist Tammi Tyler, who was played by Julie Brown. The character is the owner of the Starbrite Cleaners business, and Tammi marries him under the false assumption that he is rich. After learning Harvey is not wealthy, Tammi makes numerous attempts to have him murdered.


title: Jim O'Heir

text: In November 2003, he made a guest appearance in the tenth season episode of "Friends", "The One With the Birth Mother", where he played the manager of an adoption agency. On November 28, 2004, he appeared in the "Boston Legal" episode "Loose Lips", where he played a man fired from being a department store Santa Claus because he is a cross dresser.