title: Green armies

text: Aside from the Bolshevik response, a number of internal aspects of the Green movement led to its failure. Green activity often amounted to violence without an actual goal beyond killing communists and interrupting their economic and political activity. Thus, the armies rarely moved outside of their original geographic region. When Greens conquered towns or villages, they did not install themselves politically, leaving the territory to be retaken later by Bolsheviks. At the same time, many peasant militias were loosely organized and lacked greater military or political coordination among them, which made it difficult to take advantage of the widespread discontent, preventing "most or all of peasant Russia bustling with rebellion" to overthrow the new regime. Furthermore, there was a great deal of tension within the bands, which often included agrarian peasants, kulaks, workers and Whites, many with preexisting resentment towards each other. The Green armies were underfunded, low on supplies, and outmatched by the Red Army (which, despite its flaws, had better organization and morale as a result of greater, more frequent victories).


title: Green armies

text: The civil war caused more than ten million deaths from fighting, terror, plagues and mainly famine, which took about half, and another couple of million emigrated, affecting mainly adult men. Another ten million people were not born as a result of the fall in the birth rate according to demographic estimates. According to the American demographer Frank Lorimer, between 1914 and 1926, some two million military personnel and fourteen million civilians died, of which nine to ten million were direct or indirect victims of the revolution. His Soviet counterpart, Boris Tsezarévich Urlanis, spoke of eight million. More Red soldiers died from smallpox, cholera, typhoid and venereal diseases than in combat. According to Urlanis, 300,000 Reds, Whites and Poles died in combat, but more than 450,000 from disease. According to the historian Evan Mawdsley epidemics decimated the Russian population. In 1917, 63,000 deaths from typhus and typhoid fever were counted, in 1919 there were 890,000 and in 1920 another 1,044,000. To this is added the quota in lives that dysentery, cholera and "Spanish flu" took in 1918–1919, so the figure probably exceeded three million based on data on extremely high infant mortality. About seven million orphans were left roaming the streets, living off handouts, robberies and prostitution. Many were later recruited into the army to become the soldiers and repressors of Stalinism. Ironically, this is how they received education, clothing and food, and established child-parent relationships with their officers.


title: Green armies

text: Short of food and fuel, Petrograd was abandoned by most of its population. Of its two million inhabitants in 1918, barely five hundred thousand remained in 1920. Millions returned to the countryside to get food, crowding the railway stations. The fuel shortage, the economic crisis and the impossibility of repairing the cars caused these transports to collapse. The first to do so were those peasants who had arrived to the cities a few years ago or those who still had close ties with their native villages. For their part, the villagers received migrants with kinship ties or who knew some trade (carpenters or blacksmiths), but not the rest. Many were workers whose factories had closed, others only migrated to exchange manufactured objects for food and return to the cities, they went in armed brigades on stolen trains, becoming uncontrollable for the Bolshevik authorities. In addition, many railway officials were very corrupt; trains leaving the farms laden with food were looted by hungry crowds until they were emptied before reaching the cities. This only contributed to throwing transport into chaos and paralyzing industry, with the majority of workers spending most of their time making their own products and then going to exchange them for food on long trips.


title: Green armies

text: Thus, in 1920 most of rural Russia was in the power of rebellious peasant smallholders, while the Bolshevik authorities only controlled the cities with "volost". The following year, the communists locked up in the cities saw communications interrupted and industry was paralyzed because the workers went on strike due to the null supply of grain to the cities. Since they had no food to encourage them to work, the Bolsheviks responded by depriving them of the few rations they received, imprisoning them or even shooting them if they did not meet production quotas. Large worker protests broke out in Petrograd, Moscow and other cities, in "a last desperate attempt to bring it down", sparking the Kronstadt rebellion. Its subsequent submission led to the fierce repression of the SRs and Mensheviks, parties closely linked to the organization of the protests.


title: Green armies

text: In the end, this was the cause of the abandonment of war communism and the adoption of the New Economic Policy (NEP): "Having defeated the Whites, who were backed by no less than eight Western powers, the Bolsheviks surrendered to the peasantry.” War communism had brought massive desertions and the blocking of supplies by the peasantry, and it was clear that "the national question was also ipso facto the peasant question", after all, 85% of Russians lived in rural areas. This change was nothing more than a "temporary deviation" in everyone's mind, possibly more than a decade in Lenin's mind, and for the sole purpose of rebuilding Russia. The market would always be regulated and would be gradually socialized by the State.


title: Green armies

text: The Bolsheviks searched for a way to end popular support for the Greens. Salt and manufactured goods were offered to villages that passed a resolution declaring the rebels "bandits," knowing that the latter would attack them in retaliation. The guerrillas themselves helped them in their work. Many criminals joined them and dedicated themselves to looting and raping, earning the hatred of the people.


title: Green armies

text: At the end of the war, the large urban populations were disintegrated and the industry had almost disappeared, only the small rural owners remained. In 1921, with the civil war decided, the Soviet republics numbered 75 million ethnic Russians and 65 million other peoples, including 30 million speakers of Turkish or Iranian languages. Of these, 112 million were peasants, that is, it was a predominantly rural country.


title: Green armies

text: The year 1921 in the Russian countryside was characterized by droughts, extreme frosts, and strong spring winds that ripped off the topsoil and ruined fledgling crops. To make matters worse, plagues of locusts and mice followed and the harvest of the previous season had been terrible, so much so that they knew that if they delivered everything the "prodotriady" demanded they knew that they would starve, being forced to rebel. However, war communism had its part in the disaster. Faced with requisitions, the peasants preferred to cultivate less land, just enough to survive. Faced with the almost non-existence of surpluses, the Bolsheviks began to take away their vital reserves, arguing that they had more hidden. They were accustomed to poor harvests and they overcame them by keeping communal reserves, but to avoid requisitions they reduced their production to mere survival, leaving them extremely vulnerable to bad weather conditions. Thus, the regions most affected by the famine of 1921-1922 had suffered the most from the requisitions of 1918–1921. The regions most disputed in the war, with constant changes of the front, were even more ruined.


title: Green armies

text: Hunger made them eat grass, weeds, leaves, moss, tree bark, roof coverings, and flour made from acorns, sawdust, mud, and horse dung. They devoured their livestock, and hunted dogs, cats, and rodents. Many fell into cannibalism, eating the meat of people who had already died. Many even ate their dead children and relatives. As famine slowly exterminated the inhabitants of the Volga, Kama and Don river basins, of the Urals, Bashkortostan, Kazakhstan, Western Siberia and southern Ukraine, Bolshevik authorities ordered the thousands who tried to save themselves by fleeing to the cities be forced to return to the fields, claiming that they carried contagious diseases with them. They also ordered the export of a large quantity of grain from Ukraine to the Volga, feeding one affected region and further damaging another. The intention was to punish the Ukrainian peasantry for their resistance to the new regime, as Stalin did again in the 1930s.


title: Green armies

text: Out of shame, the Bolshevik government did not recognize the famine until July 1921. At the request of Maxim Gorky, one of the most respected Russian writers of his time, Herbert Hoover organized international aid through the American Relief Administration (ARA). Gorky organized the Pomgol (Помгол), short for Помощь голодающим, "Famine Relief." The conditions of the ARA were the release of all American citizens in Bolshevik prisons and the non-interference of the communist authorities in the delivery of aid. Moscow accepted. Once international aid was secured, Lenin ordered the arrest of all Pomgol members on August 27, with the exception of prominent members like Gorky, on charges of being counterrevolutionary. Many were exiled or banished to restricted access areas in the interior of Russia.


title: Green armies

text: In the summer of 1922 the ARA fed eleven million people a day and brought medicines, clothes, tools and seeds that were essential to achieve two large harvests of 1922 and 1923, bringing Russia out of the famine. In contrast, the corrupt and inefficient central commission created by Lenin helped less than three million. The gratitude of the Bolshevik government was translated into accusations to the ARA of attempting to discredit, spy on and shoot them down, interfering in their operations, searching their convoys, stopping their trains, stealing supplies and arresting members of assistance teams. However, the US aid was not canceled until it was made public that in full famine the communist government continued to export millions of tons of its own cereals abroad, excusing itself from buying industrial and agricultural equipment. The ARA ended its operations in June 1923. The Bolsheviks alone wrote a short formal note of thanks, Gorki was much more grateful in a long letter to Hoover.


title: Green armies

text: Unable to rule the countryside peacefully or to produce manufactured goods to trade with, the Bolsheviks resorted to terrorizing it and forcibly taking the fruits of their labor. This started a "hidden civil war" between the peasantry and the nascent Bolshevik state, characterized by thousands of large and small revolts and riots. After the conflict ended, there was a tense truce between the peasantry and the state, but the state later returned with collectivization.


title: Green armies

text: On March 10, 1923, Lenin suffered his third stroke. From then on, and especially after his death on the following January 24, the struggle to succeed him as unquestionable leader of the USSR intensified. This briefly prevented the regime from focusing on repressing and exploiting the peasantry. Thus, the peasants were able to redistribute their lands, be free to consume and trade with the fruit of their labor. They rebuilt the commercial networks that had been broken since 1914, and self-governed themselves according to the traditions of each village. The presence of the state was reduced to a minimum. However, this calm only masked the tension between the repressive state and the broader society. In those years, state terrorism tended to be concentrated in the peripheral areas of the USSR, such as the Caucasus and Central Asia, recently subdued areas of non-Russian culture and with a long tradition of resistance to Moscow.


title: Green armies

text: The first Soviet ethnographers who visited the villages around Moscow felt that they were going to the Amazon. There were people who "lived as if they were trapped in the Middle Ages." A society of archaic and patriarchal life, where witchcraft was believed, time was divided by seasons and religious festivals instead of months, with pagan rituals and superstitions, beatings of wives, tumultuous law, fistfights and days of drunkenness. Since before the revolution the urban elites saw the countryside as a "particularly obscurantist" environment where magic, religious rites and customs gave terror and comfort to people. Half a million soldiers joined the Communist Party after the war, bringing communist ideology to their villages during the 1920s. The Bolsheviks and the NEP modernized village life with power lines, hospitals, theaters, cinemas and libraries. They also brought chemical fertilizers, cross-seed and modern tools. Dairy production and exclusive crops for the market became generalized, which before the revolution were exclusive activities of the nobility. There was an increased exchange of products, tools and livestock with cities, in addition to credit. Cooperatives among peasants also grew: "with its smallholder instincts, superstitions and attachment to tradition, it would be abolished by these socialist farms." A literate youth was born among the peasantry that was much more ambitious than their parents, defiant before the authority of the elderly and religion, they were more individualistic. The Party based its influence in the countryside on them. Many young people sought in it the way to escape from the boring life in the countryside and helped organize Stalinist collectivization, all in order to break with the old ways of life. The villages were not divided between rich and poor, as the Bolsheviks believed, but between old and young.


title: Green armies

text: At the end of the decade the Bolsheviks tried to centralize power. They resorted to reducing the number of rural Soviets, but this left many villages without any authority in 1929, making it impossible to collect taxes or enforce laws. The small rural owners had been decisively strengthened by the revolution and as a consequence of the civil war, most of the villages were ruled by their own community. The state only reached the cities with "volost". Stalin realized that the longer the NPE lasted, the greater the distance grew between the regime's plans and its impotence before the peasantry, until they could do nothing against the "kulak," that is, small and medium-sized owners. It was better to go ahead and restart the civil war with an advantage. Only in 1927, after banishing, displacing or eliminating his main opponents and remaining safe as boss, did Stalin put an end to the "peasant utopia" based on the "eserovschina" or "revolutionary socialist mentality". That year, greater state intervention on agricultural production began with a strong political repression, despite the fear of some leaders of a new war. This brought down production, causing a "harvest crisis", which served as a pretext for Stalin to initiate collectivization.


title: Green armies

text: There was no resistance from the peasantry until the confrontations against Stalinist collectivization, the expropriation of cattle and church closings. This hit particularly hard in 1930, with two and a half million villagers taking part in 14,000 revolts, riots and mass demonstrations that year. These mainly affect Chernozem, the North Caucasus and Western Ukraine (especially border areas with Poland and Romania), regions that came to be outside government control. About five million fled from the Kolkhoz in the aforementioned regions and Kazakhstan. But this new movement could not federate or organize like the previous one, they had no capable leaders or political cadres (decimated during the civil war), had to fight with pitchforks and axes (firearms were progressively requisitioned during the 1920s) and the regime reacted too quickly.


title: Up Where We Belong

text: "Up Where We Belong" is a song written by Jack Nitzsche, Buffy Sainte-Marie and Will Jennings that was recorded by Joe Cocker and Jennifer Warnes for the 1982 film "An Officer and a Gentleman". Warnes was recommended to sing a song from the film because of her previous soundtrack successes, and she had the idea for the song to be a duet that she would perform with Cocker. Jennings selected various sections of the score by Nitzsche and Sainte-Marie in creating the structure of the song and added lyrics about the struggles of life and love and the obstacles that people attempt to dodge. It was released in July of that year to coincide with the release of the film.


title: Up Where We Belong

text: The song reached number one on the "Billboard" Hot 100 in the US and topped the charts in several other countries. It also sold more than one million copies in the US and was recognized by the Recording Industry Association of America as one of the Songs of the Century. Cocker and Warnes were awarded the Grammy for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals, and Nitzsche, Sainte-Marie, and Jennings won both the Academy Award and Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song.


title: Up Where We Belong

text: In 1984, the gospel duo BeBe & CeCe Winans recorded a religious variation of the song that received airplay on Christian radio stations, and their remake in 1996 earned them a GMA Dove Award. Various versions of the song have also been used to parody the final scene of the film on television shows such as "Family Guy", "The Simpsons", and "South Park". The fact that the song is a ballad was seen as a misstep in Cocker's career, which had been built on performing rock and soul.


title: Up Where We Belong

text: On February 24, 1982, Joe Cocker performed "I'm So Glad I'm Standing Here Today" with the jazz group the Crusaders at the Grammy Awards. Their collaboration on the song for a Crusaders album had earned a nomination that year in the category of Best Inspirational Performance. Singer-songwriter Jennifer Warnes saw the show from home. She had been a fan of Cocker's since her teens and at one time had a poster of him on her wall showing him performing at Woodstock, and her love for the singer was still evident on this night many years later. "I was so moved, I was hollering out loud with joy, jumping up and down ... After a difficult battle with drugs and alcohol, Joe was in total command once again. I knew at that moment that I would sing with Joe."


title: Up Where We Belong

text: Meanwhile, plans were being made for "An Officer and a Gentleman" to be distributed by Paramount Pictures, and studio executive Frank Mancuso was insistent upon having some kind of music to use to promote the film. The director of the film, Taylor Hackford, was also interested in producing an original title song to help market it, but there was no remaining budget for such a recording. He proceeded with the idea anyway, working with Joel Sill, who was head of music at Paramount at the time, without anyone else at the studio knowing that they were doing so. The director consulted his friend Gary George to select a recording artist for the song. George, the former head of publicity at Warner Bros. Records, had recently become a manager and suggested Warnes, who was a client of his.


title: Up Where We Belong

text: One of the six songs that Warnes had placed in the top half of the "Billboard" Hot 100 at that point was the number six hit "Right Time of the Night" from 1977. Her soundtrack credits included the Oscar-nominated "One More Hour" from "Ragtime" and the Oscar-winning "It Goes Like It Goes" from "Norma Rae", which, like the Hackford film, also had a lead female character who worked in a factory. Hackford initially rejected the idea of Warnes singing a song for "An Officer and a Gentleman" "because he felt she had too sweet a sound," but Warnes met with Sill and discussed the possibility of doing so: "I suggested to Joel that I sing on that film in a duet with Joe Cocker." Sill thought this was an interesting idea but needed to convince Hackford of that. He said, "I discussed with Taylor, since the film centered really around Richard [Gere] and Debra [Winger] primarily, that maybe we should have a duet" and that with Cocker and Warnes they would be "matching the characters to some degree. The dynamic between the two was the soft and the rough, that, to some degree, Debra Winger's character was very, very soft in the picture, even though she was in a rough environment. And Richard Gere's character, to some degree, was really a rough character until he was softened up by her." Hackford thought the idea had potential and now had another friend in the music industry to ask for a favor. Chris Blackwell was the owner of Island Records, and Cocker was now recording for Island. "I called Chris and said I want to do this, and he just, on the phone, said, 'OK, I'll make this happen. What would initially convince Cocker to work on the project, however, was a small portion of the lyrics. He described it as "the 'Up' part, which is what made me realize it had hit potential. It was so unusual – that 'Love, lift us up ...


title: Up Where We Belong

text: The last scene of the film brought the story to a happy ending, and Hackford wanted to have a song playing during the closing credits that would act as a reflection of the relationship portrayed and incorporate the theme music composed by Jack Nitzsche and Buffy Saint-Marie. Nitzsche wanted to have Sainte-Marie write the lyrics, but her background in folk music caused Sill and Hackford to look elsewhere. Sill invited a lyricist whom he'd worked with before, Will Jennings, to the studio to view a rough cut of the film, and that gave Jennings inspiration for the structure and lyrics of what became "Up Where We Belong". "And all through the film I was hearing these bits and pieces of music, and at the end of it I had it in my head, you know, how there was a song. I heard a chorus here and a verse here and a bridge there, and so when I finished, Joel was there, and I said, 'Joel, just give me all the music from it,' all of Nitzsche's music, '<nowiki> '</nowiki>cause I got an idea. When Jennings presented Hackford with his demo, the director felt it was the perfect fit.


title: Up Where We Belong

text: According to Musicnotes.com by Alfred Music Publishing, "Up Where We Belong" is written in common time. It is in the key of D major and sung in a vocal range from A to G. The lyrics "tell of the struggles of life and love and the obstacles in the way that we attempt to dodge."


title: Up Where We Belong

text: Sill described Stewart Levine as the "record producer who we felt would give us the right interpretation of the song, add some soulfulness to it and also make it a hit record at the same time," but Levine was hesitant about traveling from his home in upstate New York to California for the job. He felt it would be worthwhile, however, because Jennings was involved. When Jennings played the demo over the phone for him, Levine responded that it was "great", and Warnes was certain "Up Where We Belong" would be a hit. Cocker, on the other hand, described the demo as "dreadful", despite his appreciation of some of the lyrics and the fact that Jennings was the lyricist on "I'm So Glad I'm Standing Here Today" and his more recent single, "Talking Back to the Night".


title: Up Where We Belong

text: Cocker wanted to make the recording by himself, so Levine had Warnes record her vocals separately. Cocker had taken a break from touring to fly to Los Angeles for the session, but when it came time to record he, as Hackford described it, "was terrified. He didn't even want to go into the studio. Stewart Levine had to go and talk him out of the hotel to get him there." Cocker admitted, "I'd sat with the words in the afternoon but still hadn't remembered them, so we had to draw 'em up on big blocks of wood and stuff." A recording was made where the two voices were spliced together, but Warnes explained how persuasive their producer was in getting Cocker to agree to record the song alongside her: "Stewart Levine was gently insistent on the duet. Stewart understood that the contrast in our voices, the aural chemistry, would work. So Joe and I sang the song together. One or two takes, that was all." Cocker came around to seeing a hit song once it was complete, saying, "I knew it was a number one. Other people were saying, 'Well ... perhaps', but I could just feel it."


title: Up Where We Belong

text: Hackford said that "the final version was absolute magic—or at least Joel and I thought so." They now had to present this song that they weren't budgeted to make to the executives at Paramount. "When we played it for Michael Eisner and Don Simpson, they hated the record and said it would never be a hit." Simpson even bet Sill $100 that it wouldn't be. Hackford and Sill "called another prominent record executive, who said, 'Forget it. Jennifer Warnes has never had a hit song and Joe Cocker's a has-been. Eisner and Simpson made Hackford "meet with various recording artist friends of theirs who tried to write songs, but their title songs didn't fit the movie." Hackford said, "Finally, one of the famous artists who was involved looked at the movie and said, to his credit, 'Hey, I can write something, but it's not going to work as well as the song you've got. Because they were running out of time before the film's release, Eisner and Simpson finally gave in, and "Up Where We Belong" made the final cut of the film and was released as a single on July 22, 1982.


title: Up Where We Belong

text: Some radio stations refused to play "Up Where We Belong", even going so far as to send their copies back to Island Records. Cocker said, "I remember going into their offices in New York. I walked in and I said, 'How's the single doing?' And this guy Mike Abrahams, who worked there, he said, 'This is how well it's doing'—and the office was piled with returns." The single may have been recorded to promote the film, but Warnes pointed out that, in a sense, the success of the film was what sold the record.


title: Up Where We Belong

text: "Up Where We Belong" debuted on the "Billboard" Hot 100 in the issue dated August 21 of that year and spent 3 weeks at number one during its 23 weeks there. That same issue also marked its first appearance on the magazine's list of the 50 most popular Adult Contemporary songs in the US, where it stayed for 25 weeks, 6 of which were at its peak position at number three. It also reached number seven on the UK Singles Chart in 1983 and received Silver certification from the British Phonographic Industry on February 1 of that year for reaching sales of 250,000 copies. The Recording Industry Association of America awarded the song both Gold and Platinum certification for achieving sales of 500,000 and one million copies, respectively, on January 17, 1989.


title: Up Where We Belong

text: "Billboard" reviewed the single at the time of its release in their July 31 issue. "This unlikely vocal pairing could prove less of a long shot than it sounds, given the recent gains made by other soundtrack associations. Add radio's ongoing affection for strong duets and a restrained performance by Cocker that matches him more sympathetically with Warnes's gentler style, and this track should find friends at A/C and mainstream pop stations." Matthew Greenwald of AllMusic wrote, "A gospel-inspired piece of pop song craftsmanship, the song moves with an underlying grace and subtle beauty. Faith, virtue, and, yes, the power of love is at the lyrical core here, and [the songwriters] convey this with a literate and timeless style. Truly a modern-day pop standard."


title: Up Where We Belong

text: On January 29, 1983, Jennings, Nitzsche, and Sainte-Marie won the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song. Cocker and Warnes won the Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals on February 23 of that year. Two months later, on April 11, the songwriters won the Academy Award for Best Original Song. They also won the BAFTA film award for Best Original Song in 1984. On the Songs of the Century list compiled by the Recording Industry Association of America in 2001, the song was listed at number 323. In 2004, it finished at number 75 on AFI's 100 Years ... 100 Songs survey of top tunes in American cinema, and in 2016, one of the duo's live renditions of the song was listed at number 18 on "Rolling Stone" magazine's list of the 20 Greatest Best Song Oscar Performances. In 2020, it was included on "Billboard" magazine's list of the 25 Greatest Love Song Duets.


title: Up Where We Belong

text: Warnes and Cocker kept to an agreement that they would never lip-sync their performances of the song. One of their earliest live appearances was on the November 20, 1982, episode of "Solid Gold". "Saturday Night Live" followed on February 5, 1983, and their performance at the 25th Annual Grammy Awards came later that month, on February 23. Backstage at the Grammys Warnes said about working with Cocker, "I was told it was the weirdest pairing ever," and regarding their April 11 appearance at the 55th Academy Awards, she admitted, "Neither of us were comfortable in the Oscar world. Joe performing in a white tuxedo, me in pink taffeta—how absurd."


title: Up Where We Belong

text: In 2013, Cocker was honored in Berlin with a Goldene Kamera award, and Warnes joined him to sing the song at the ceremony. The day after Cocker's death in 2014, Warnes wrote, "I realized yesterday that we will never sing our song again. That thought makes me feel sick. We met last year in Berlin to sing together. I didn't know that would be our last time." Her visceral reaction to his death parallels the powerful chemistry they had in their many performances of the song, which she had summed up years earlier: "I always thought the pairing had a strong ring of truth to it. It was so unlikely, because Joe has this well-known, very raw, masculine energy. I was less well known and had this very vulnerable, quintessential female energy and we were very polarized, as men and women often are these days. But we met in the middle."


title: Up Where We Belong

text: The success of "Up Where We Belong" was not without its drawbacks for Cocker. He admitted that Island Records owner Chris Blackwell also hated the song and wasn't interested in releasing it. They had put out Cocker's first project for the label, "Sheffield Steel", in June 1982, just a month before the song needed to be on store shelves if it was to coincide with the opening of the film. Cocker said, "The song was recorded within a matter of hours. "Sheffield Steel" – I spent a year on that. And the single eclipsed it overnight." But even ignoring its success, Blackwell was bothered by the fact that the duet wasn't R&B, which is what he was aiming for on "Sheffield Steel".


title: Up Where We Belong

text: Stewart Levine produced Cocker's next LP, which was intended for Island, but, the singer revealed, as with the duet, Blackwell hated it, so Cocker left Island for Capitol. The new label also had reservations about the number of slow ballads included on the new project. Another producer was brought in to give the album a different tone, and the result was the 1984 release "Civilized Man". Peaking at number 133 on the "Billboard" 200, it was his lowest charting studio album in the US at that point.


title: Up Where We Belong

text: Capitol had been responsible for rejuvenating the careers of Tina Turner and Heart in the mid-80s, so a push was on to do so for their new client with his next project, the 1986 album "Cocker". Capitol's vice president of a&r, Don Grierson, explained, "After "Civilized Man" came out, Joe, Michael Lang [Cocker's manager], and I spent a lot of time zeroing in on just what the heck Joe Cocker was really all about. And it's my firm belief that Joe is a rocker." His feeling was that "Up Where We Belong" turned out to be a double-edged sword. "It helped Joe in one sense, but it was very, very detrimental to him in another. It gave him a hit record and brought his name back to the mass market again. However, because it was such a pop, middle-of-the-road record, it took away Joe's roots in the eyes of the public and certainly in the industry."


title: Up Where We Belong

text: Televangelist Tammy Faye Bakker suggested that BeBe & CeCe Winans, two of the singers from The PTL Club, record "Up Where We Belong" after she heard the original duet in a record store, and Larnelle Harris helped BeBe make the lyrics more appealing to a Christian audience. Their 1984 cover of the song from their album "Lord Lift Us Up" reached number 27 on the Christian Radio Hits chart issued by SoundScan. The duo rerecorded their gospel version in 1996 for their "Greatest Hits" album, and their new version won the 1998 GMA Dove Award for Contemporary Gospel Song of the Year.


title: Up Where We Belong

text: The part of the score of "An Officer and a Gentleman" that Jennings used in writing the chorus for "Up Where We Belong" can be heard in the final scene of the film in which Gere picks Winger up in his arms and carries her out of the factory past clapping co-workers. The last shot of the film freezes on their exit as the score comes to a big orchestral finish, and the credits start to roll as Cocker and Warnes begin singing the song at the chorus. Although the song itself is heard separately from the final scene, it has often taken the place of the score in send-ups of the grand finale over the years. Films and television shows that have used some variation of "Up Where We Belong" in doing so include "Bridget Jones's Baby", "The Cleveland Show",


title: Up Where We Belong

text: "Everybody Hates Chris", "Family Guy", "Friends", "The Goldbergs", "The Office", "Sabrina the Teenage Witch", "Scrubs", "The Simpsons", and "South Park".


title: Radiator Springs

text: Radiator Springs is a fictional small Arizona town and the principal setting of the Disney/Pixar franchise "Cars". A composite of multiple real-world locations on the historic U.S. Route 66 from Chicago to Los Angeles, it is most prominently featured in the 2006 film, and is home to a majority of the franchise's characters. Cars Land, a part of Disney California Adventure in Disneyland Resort, is based on the setting.


title: Radiator Springs

text: The in-film community is a composite of multiple locations; before making the film, Pixar sent a group of fifteen artists with Route 66 historian and the voice of Sheriff Michael Wallis as a guide to take photos, talk to denizens of Route 66 and learn the history of the tiny towns situated along more than of road through five states. In one restaurant, John Lasseter ordered one of every item on the menu for the Pixar group and spent four hours talking to the owner, absorbing information on the efforts to rebuild the historic byway to its neon-lit heyday.


title: Radiator Springs

text: Much of the story is based on the recollections of barber Angel Delgadillo in the Route 66 town of Seligman, Arizona, where business withered soon after the opening of I-40.


title: Radiator Springs

text: Flo's V8 café is designed to look like a V8 engine head on, with a circular air filter, tappet covers, spark plugs, pistons and connecting rods as the supports for the roof. The blinking neon lights on the spark plugs blink in the firing order of a Ford flathead V8.


title: Radiator Springs

text: There are a few sights of the front page of a newspaper named "The Daily Exhaust", which serves primarily as a vehicle to explain the NASCAR history behind the Fabulous Hudson Hornet of the early 1950s.


title: Radiator Springs

text: During the 2006 film's closing credits, the characters are at a drive-in watching clips of the Pixar films "Toy Car Story" ("Toy Story"), "Monster Trucks, Inc." ("Monsters, Inc.") and "Bug" as in Volkswagen Beetle ("A Bug's Life"), whose characters have been rendered as vehicles in the style of "Cars". Mack the red Mack Super-Liner comments that "they're just using the same actor over and over", an in-joke referring to John Ratzenberger, who voiced Mack and some of the characters featured in the clips. The cinema itself is similar in design to an NRHP-listed 66 Drive-In in Carthage, Missouri, but without the later addition of widescreen and FM radio.


title: Radiator Springs

text: The group of small birds from the 2000 Pixar short film "For the Birds" made a cameo appearance in Cars. As Mack is en route to California at 17:44 in the film, the group of small birds can briefly be seen (and heard) sitting on their familiar telephone wire. In addition, the Pizza Planet truck from "Toy Story" also makes a cameo outside of the race track, at the final race in the movie.


title: Radiator Springs

text: The rail grade crossing at which Lightning McQueen outruns a freight train on his way to Radiator Springs is protected by a pair of antique "upper-quadrant" wigwag crossing signals which accurately depict those once made by the Magnetic Signal Company in both appearance and start-up. Few are left in actual operation in the United States, and many have been replaced with modern crossing gates, red lights and bells. For decades Wig Wag signals were used in Point Richmond California where Pixar’s original headquarters was located.


title: Radiator Springs

text: "Ornament Valley" is a reference to Monument Valley. This is not on Route 66, but is a side trip in northern Arizona Spring Hills city.


title: Radiator Springs

text: Willy's Butte resembles the landmark of Mexican Hat, Utah, but also resembles a classic Pontiac hood ornament.


title: Radiator Springs

text: The track on which the opening race (Motor Speedway of the South) takes place is based on an enlarged version of Bristol Motor Speedway. The venue for the Piston Cup tiebreaker race (the Los Angeles International Speedway) is a conglomeration of the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, the Arroyo Seco in Pasadena where the Rose Bowl is located, as well as the Auto Club Speedway in Fontana.


title: Radiator Springs

text: The sign "City of Emeryville – Closed for the race" is a nod to Pixar's headquarters in Emeryville, California in the San Francisco Bay Area.


title: Leigh Janiak

text: Leigh Anne Janiak (born February 1, 1980) is an American director and screenwriter who is known for directing the 2014 horror film "Honeymoon" and the "Fear Street" Trilogy.


title: Leigh Janiak

text: Janiak was born on February 1, 1980 in Ohio to her parents Karen L. Janiak and Nestor K. Janiak. She married fellow filmmaker Ross Duffer in Palm Springs, California in December 2015. The couple met in 2006 at a production company in Los Angeles, where Janiak was an assistant to the producer and Duffer was an intern. She still lives in Los Angeles today.


title: Leigh Janiak

text: She is a huge sci-fi fan and prefers it to horror, though she loves and is inspired by the films "Rosemary's Baby" and "The Goonies."


title: Leigh Janiak

text: Janiak graduated from Mentor High School in Mentor, Ohio, where she was heavily involved in theater. She did an undergraduate course in comparative religion at New York University, before studying at the Gallatin School of Individualized Study and then at a graduate school at the University of Chicago, where she was studying for a PhD in Modern Jewish Literature but left without earning the degree.


title: Leigh Janiak

text: Janiak moved to Los Angeles in 2005, where she worked for two production companies. Her first industry job was at Leonardo DiCaprio's production company, Appian Way, as a producer's assistant. Prior to directing "Honeymoon (2014 film)", Janiak turned down an opportunity to direct a network television show as one of the conditions of the directing job required her to shadow a veteran director. Janiak was afraid that shadowing a veteran director would affect her career as a female filmmaker as she didn't want to be stigmatized. Janiak made her directorial debut with the horror film "Honeymoon", starring Rose Leslie and Harry Treadaway, debuting the film at the South by Southwest in 2014. The film's development started in 2010, and Janiak began writing the script together with Phil Graziadei in 2012. The film shot in 2013 in North Carolina on a limited budget. It received positive reviews from critics, with review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes' critics' consensus stating that it "packs more slow-building horror than many bigger-budget productions."


title: Leigh Janiak

text: In May 2015, Sony Pictures announced that Janiak would be writing and directing a remake of the 1996 horror film "The Craft". In 2017, "The Hollywood Reporter" reported that Janiak was no longer attached to the project. Janiak also directed some episodes of the horror TV shows "Scream" and "Outcast". She directed season 1, episode 7, "In the Trenches" and season 2, episode 9, "The Orphange" for "Scream". For "Outcast", she directed season 1, episode 7, "The Damage Done". She also directed season 1, episode 1 of Amazon Studios' 2021 teen drama series "Panic." All of her entries in television were received well by fans.


title: Leigh Janiak

text: In July 2017, a trilogy of films adapting R. L. Stine's "Fear Street" series of novels was announced by 20th Century Fox, with Janiak set to direct and rewrite the scripts with Graziadei. The first film began filming at Atlanta and East Point, Georgia in March 2019, and filming wrapped in September 2019. The three films were shot in succession throughout a 106 day shoot. The trilogy was released in July 2021 on Netflix. Natalia Winkelman described the trilogy as ""Scream" meets "Stranger Things" built on a supernatural premise sturdy enough to sustain interest and suspense over nearly six hours", in a review for "The New York Times". "Fear Street" includes three films, and Janiak plans to continue with the franchise and create a larger "Fear Street" Universe"."


title: Leigh Janiak

text: On July 19, 2021, it was announced that Janiak was set to direct two episodes of the upcoming crime drama miniseries "The Staircase". Antonio Campos began developing the project in 2008, and it was announced in 2019 that Annapurna Television was bringing it into development. The series shot in 2021 in Atlanta, GA, and Janiak was brought on to direct two episodes. She directed episode 5, "The Beating Heart", and episode 6, "Red in Tooth and Claw". On May 5, 2022, the series premiered on HBO Max. The series was well received by audiences and critics, earning nominations from the Hollywood Critics Association TV Awards, the Primetime Emmy Awards, and Television Critics Association Awards.


title: Leigh Janiak

text: Janiak's directing style differs from film to film. In "Honeymoon", the film is steeped in sepia tones and all colors are desaturated. The idea and tone for the film were inspired by "Invasion of the Body Snatchers". The film heavily relies on body horror and subverts traditional horror gender roles.


title: Leigh Janiak

text: "Fear Street: Part One - 1994" paid homage to 90s slasher films like "Scream" and "I Know What You Did Last Summer". The film mirrors the tone of these films with its sense of humor and cinematography as the film is shot in a studio style similar to 90s slasher films. The murder of Maya Hawke as the character of Heather in "Fear Street: Part One - 1994" is a nod to Drew Barrymore's death as Casey in the original "Scream" Film. There is also a recreation of a scene in "Scream" where students make jokes about the murder that in "Fear Street: Part One - 1994" where a student dons a skull-mask killer mask rather than a ghost-face killer mask. The film also employs some of the graphic violence that is portrayed in 90s slasher films. The film also adopts a 90s aesthetic in its settings through the use of the soft glow of neon lights in the Shadyside mall as well as in its soundtrack.


title: Leigh Janiak

text: Janiak used Kate's death in the first film as a way of lulling the audience into a false sense of safety as she dies late in the film and has the most violent death in the entire trilogy. Kate and Simon's death allow the audience to experience "real loss" that allows the series to propel forward.


title: Leigh Janiak

text: "Fear Street: Part Two - 1978" pays homage slashers of the 70s, such as "Friday the 13th (franchise)", changing the setting from a mall to summer camp. "Fear Street: Part Two - 1978" filmed the camp sections at Camp Rutlege, which was across from Camp Daniel Morgan, a shooting location for "Friday the 13th Part VI: Jason Lives." The camp setting is a direct homage to "Friday the 13th". "Fear Street: Part Two - 1978" takes on a voyeuristic tone similarly to 70s slashers in its cinematography as the viewer often watches how the events of the film unfold from outside of a window or hidden in the trees through a handheld camera.


title: Leigh Janiak

text: "Fear Street: Part Two - 1978" was the last movie to be filmed in the entire trilogy, which is why the tone varies so much from the first film and the second half of the last film. Because of this, Janiak decided to up the violence and blood.


title: Leigh Janiak

text: Unlike the first two installments, "Fear Street: Part Three - 1666" doesn't pay homage to horror icons, but to "The New World". The first half of the film shows the dissolution and decay of a settlement. The scenes are shot in a desaturated color palette and are shot on a handheld camera to emulate the time period. The film also uses a lot of natural lighting to help set the tone. The film then jumps back to 1994, assuming the 90s aesthetic once again.


title: Leigh Janiak

text: "Honeymoon" discusses the concept of identity throughout the film. It relates to human fears by focusing on themes of losing loved ones, breaking trust, isolation, and losing one's identity.


title: Leigh Janiak

text: The "Fear Street" Trilogy allowed Janiak to create a horror film that told the stories of outsiders. The film's main characters are a lesbian couple, allowing the film to discuss homophobia in a horror film as the queer characters are typically killed off early in horror films. With discussing homophobia, the "Fear Street" Trilogy also discusses things like police brutality and the planting of evidence through the interactions between Martin and Sheriff Goode. We also see Sheriff Goode abuse his power as police chief in order to achieve his goals. This end reveal is Janiak's commentary about oppression by the powerful to maintain their status, rather than taking accountability for their own shortcomings. The characters who prevail in the end symbolize uniqueness and greatness being triumphant.


title: Leigh Janiak

text: The divide of Shadyside and Sunnyvale allows the film to also discuss classism in how the townspeople interact with one another. There is a lot of commentary engrained into how townspeople describe the other town and how the towns are presented. Shadyside is considered lower-class and earns the moniker of "murder capital of the United States". Meanwhile, its sister but polar opposite town, Sunnyvale, is the safe home to the privileged upper-class. We also see themes of love struggling to overcome these divisions with two of the main characters, Dina and Sam, and again with Ziggy and Nick in "".


title: Ali Hassan Salameh

text: Ali Hassan Salameh (, ; 1 April 1941 – 22 January 1979) was a Palestinian militant who was the chief of operations (code name Abu Hassan) for Black September, the organization responsible for the 1972 Munich massacre and other terror attacks. He was also the founder of Force 17. He was assassinated by Mossad in January 1979 as part of Operation Wrath of God.


title: Ali Hassan Salameh

text: Salameh was born in the Palestinian town of Qula, near the city of Jaffa, to a wealthy family on 1 April 1941. He was the son of Shaykh Hassan Salameh, who was killed in action by the Israeli army during the 1948 Palestine war near Lydda. Ali Salameh was educated in Germany and is thought to have received his military training in Cairo and Moscow.


title: Ali Hassan Salameh

text: He was known for flaunting his wealth, being surrounded by women and driving sports cars, and having popular appeal among Palestinian young men; his nickname underlined his popularity—the "Red Prince". He served as the security chief of Fatah. After the Munich massacre during the 1972 Olympic Games, he was hunted by the Israeli Mossad during Operation Wrath of God. In 1973, Mossad agents killed an innocent Moroccan waiter, Ahmed Bouchiki, in what became known as the Lillehammer affair in Norway, mistaking Bouchiki for Salameh, and resulting in the arrest of some of the Israeli agents.


title: Ali Hassan Salameh

text: As a result of the failure in Lillehammer and his alleged CIA protection, Salameh felt relatively safe. Having lived under cover in various parts of the Middle East and Europe, in 1978 he married Georgina Rizk, a Lebanese celebrity who had been Miss Universe seven years earlier in 1971. The couple spent their honeymoon in Hawaii and then stayed at Disneyland in California. When Rizk became pregnant, she returned to her flat in Beirut where Salameh also rented a separate apartment. Rizk was six months pregnant at the time of his death. Their son Ali Salameh is a political science graduate who studied in Canada. By a prior marriage he was a grandson-in-law of Mohammad Amin al-Husayni. He had two sons from his first marriage to Um Hassan.


title: Ali Hassan Salameh

text: Salameh served as the key bridge between the Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) from 1970 until his death. The PLO, at the request of the US, had undertaken steps to help ensure the security of both the US Embassy—Salameh responded by posting a PLO guard unit there—and, more generally, American citizens resident in Lebanon. The contacts later developed more extensively as the PLO offered its intelligence assistance in regard to larger regional issues. The US had undertaken with Israel to avoid contacts with the PLO, but US security interests under Gerald Ford, on the advice of Henry Kissinger, enabled an unofficial relationship which, when discovered by Israel, deeply disturbed officials in Tel-Aviv. When asked by the Israelis, US officials denied the relationship. Israel decided to kill him in order to disrupt the channels between the US and the PLO.


title: Ali Hassan Salameh

text: It is believed a Mossad agent, pseudonymously known as "Erika Chambers", who had entered Britain via a British passport, took part in Salameh's assassination. She travelled to the Middle East with a charity supporting Palestinian refugees and arranged a meeting with Salameh in Beirut, where Salameh was being harboured by the Lebanese government. Chambers learned Salameh's daily routine.


title: Ali Hassan Salameh

text: On 22 January 1979, Salameh was in a convoy of two Chevrolet station wagons headed from Rizk's flat to his mother's for a birthday party. Chambers was on her balcony painting, with her red Volkswagen parked below on Rue Verdun (an upscale commercial and residential street in Beirut). As Salameh's convoy passed the Volkswagen at 3:35 pm and turned onto Rue Madame Curie, 100 kg of explosive attached to the car by a fellow Mossad agent was remotely exploded, either by Chambers or on her signal to another Mossad agent.


title: Ali Hassan Salameh

text: The detonation left Salameh conscious, but severely wounded and in great pain, having pieces of steel shrapnel embedded in his head and throughout his body. He was rushed to the American University of Beirut, where he died on the operating table at 4:03 p.m. Salameh's four bodyguards were also killed in the explosion. Four bystanders were also killed. In addition, at least 16 people were injured in the blast. Immediately following the operation, the three Mossad officers escaped as well as up to fourteen other Mossad agents believed to have been involved in the operation.


title: Ali Hassan Salameh

text: Salameh was buried in Beirut after a public funeral ceremony attended by Yasser Arafat and about 20,000 Palestinians on 24 January 1979.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: Automobili Lamborghini S.p.A. is an Italian brand and manufacturer of luxury automobiles. Lamborghini's production facility and headquarters are located in Sant'Agata Bolognese, Italy. Italian manufacturing magnate Ferruccio Lamborghini founded the company in 1963 with the objective of producing a refined grand touring car to compete with offerings from established marques such as Ferrari. The company's first models were introduced in the mid-1960s and were noted for their refinement, power and comfort. Lamborghini gained wide acclaim in 1966 for the Miura sports coupé, which established rear mid-engine, rear wheel drive as the standard layout for high-performance cars of the era.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: Lamborghini grew rapidly during its first decade, but sales plunged in the wake of the 1973 worldwide financial downturn and the oil crisis. Ferruccio Lamborghini sold ownership of the company to Georges-Henri Rossetti and René Leimer and retired in 1974. The company went bankrupt in 1978, and was placed in the receivership of brothers Jean-Claude and Patrick Mimran in 1980, who purchased the company for US$3 million, renaming it Nuova Automobili Lamborghini SpA. As CEO and President, Patrick Mimran invested heavily in the company's expansion, and was later credited as being the man who saved Lamborghini. Under his management, Lamborghini's model line was expanded from the Countach to include the Jalpa entry-level sports car and the LM002 high performance off-road vehicle.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: Patrick Mimran sold Lamborghini to the Chrysler Corporation in 1987 for US$25 million. After replacing the Countach with the Diablo and discontinuing the Jalpa and the LM002, Chrysler sold Lamborghini to Malaysian investment group Mycom Setdco and Indonesian group V'Power Corporation in 1994. In 1998, Mycom Setdco and V'Power sold Lamborghini to the Volkswagen Group where it was placed under the control of the group's Audi division. New products and model lines were introduced to the brand's portfolio and this increased productivity for the brand.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: Prior to founding his company, Lamborghini had commissioned the engineering firm Società Autostar to design a V12 engine for use in his new cars. Lamborghini wanted the engine to have a similar displacement to Ferrari's 3-litre V12; however, he wanted the engine to be designed purely for road use, in contrast to the modified racing engines used by Ferrari in its road cars. Autostar was led by Giotto Bizzarrini, a member of the "Gang of Five" of Ferrari engineers, who had been responsible for creating the famous Ferrari 250 GTO, but left the company in 1961 after founder Enzo Ferrari announced his intention to reorganise the engineering staff. The engine Bizzarrini designed, known today as the "Lamborghini V12", had a displacement of 3.5 litres, a 9.5:1 compression ratio, and a maximum output of at 9,800 rpm. Lamborghini was displeased with the engine's high revolutions and dry-sump lubrication system, both characteristic of the racing engines he specifically did not wish to use; when Bizzarrini refused to change the engine's design to make it more "well-mannered", Lamborghini refused to pay the agreed-upon fee of 4.5 million Italian lire (plus a bonus for every unit of brake horsepower the engine could produce over the equivalent Ferrari engine). Lamborghini did not fully compensate the designer until ordered to do so by the courts, a terrific irony considering variants of Bizzarrini's V12 design were used by Lamborghini automobiles for nearly "half a century", from 1963 to 2010.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: The first Lamborghini chassis design was penned by Italian Gian Paolo Dallara of Ferrari and Maserati fame, together with a team that included Paolo Stanzani, then a recent college graduate and Bob Wallace, a New Zealander who was known at Maserati for his keen sense of chassis handling and excellent feedback and developmental skills. The body was styled by the then-relatively unknown designer Franco Scaglione, who was selected by Ferruccio Lamborghini after passing over highly regarded names including Vignale, Ghia, Bertone, and Pininfarina.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: Lamborghini designed and built the 350GTV in only four months, in time for an October unveiling at the 1963 Turin Motor Show. Due to the ongoing disagreement with engine designer Giotto Bizzarrini, a working powerplant was not available for the prototype car in time for the show. The car went on display in Turin without an engine under its hood; according to lore, Ferruccio Lamborghini had the engine bay filled with bricks so that the car would sit at an appropriate height above the ground, and made sure that the bonnet stayed closed to hide the missing engine. The motoring press gave the 350GTV a warm response.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: Automobili Ferruccio Lamborghini S.p.A. was officially incorporated on 30 October 1963. Ferruccio Lamborghini purchased a property at Via Modena, 12, in the township of Sant'Agata Bolognese, less than from Cento. This location was close to the centre of Italy's automobile industry and provided easy access to skilled labour and facilities. The township was chosen as the location for the factory due to a favorable financial agreement with the city's communist leadership, who promised Lamborghini a 19% interest rate on the company's profits when deposited in the bank, in addition to charging zero tax on the profits. As part of the agreement, the factory would be required to unionise its workers.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: Despite the favorable press reviews of the 350GTV, Ferruccio Lamborghini decided to rework the car for production as the design did not receive a much greater response from the general public. The production model, which would be called the 350GT, was restyled by Carrozzeria Touring of Milan, and a new chassis was constructed in-house. Bizzarrini's V12 engine would be detuned for mass production, rated at rather than the designer's intended . The completed design debuted at the 1964 Geneva Motor Show, once again garnering positive reviews from the press. Production began shortly afterwards, and by the end of the year, cars had been built for 13 customers; Lamborghini sold each car at a loss in order to keep prices competitive with Ferrari's. The 350GT remained in production for a further two years, with a total of 120 cars sold.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: In 1965, Gian Paolo Dallara made improvements to the Bizzarrini V12, increasing its displacement to 3.9 litres, and its power output to at 6,500 rpm. The engine was first installed in the 400GT, essentially a 350GT with a larger engine. At the 1966 Geneva Auto Show, Lamborghini introduced the 400GT (2+2), a stretched revision of the 350GT/400GT that had 2+2 seating and other minor updates. The 400GT 2+2, like its predecessors, was well received by the motoring press. The revenue from sales of the 2+2 allowed Lamborghini to increase the labour force at his factory to 170 employees, and expand services offered to customers.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: During 1965, Dallara, Stanzani, and Wallace invested their personal time into the development of a prototype car that they envisioned as a road car with racing pedigree, capable of winning on the track as well as being driven on the road by enthusiasts. They hoped to sway Ferruccio Lamborghini away from the opinion that such a car would be too expensive and distract from the company's focus. When finally brought aboard, Lamborghini allowed his engineers to go ahead, deciding that the car, known internally as the P400, would be useful as a potential marketing tool, if nothing more.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: The car's rolling chassis, featuring an unusual transversely mounted mid-engine layout, was displayed at the Turin Salon in 1965, impressing showgoers. A version with bodywork styled by Bertone designer Marcello Gandini was finished only days before its debut at the 1966 Geneva motor show. As had happened three years earlier at the debut of the 350GTV, an ill-fitting engine meant the prototype's engine bay was filled with ballast, and the engine compartment was kept locked. The favorable reaction to the P400 at Geneva led Lamborghini to slate the car for production by 1967, under the name Miura. The Miura's layout and styling would become the standard for mid-engine two-seat high-performance sports cars, a trend that continues today.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: Lamborghini now had an offering that positioned the fledgling automaker as a leader in the world of sports cars, while the 400GT was the sophisticated road car that Ferruccio Lamborghini had long desired to build. By end of 1966, the workforce at the Sant'Agata factory had expanded to 300, and enough deposits were made by prospective buyers to begin the final development of the Miura in 1967. The first four cars produced were kept at the factory, where Bob Wallace continued to improve and refine the car. By December, 108 cars had been delivered.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: Production of the 400GT continued, with Ferruccio Lamborghini seeking to replace the four-year-old design. Lamborghini commissioned Touring, which had styled the 350GT and the 400GT, to design a possible replacement based on the same chassis. Touring's 400 GT Flying Star II did not win Lamborghini's approval. Giorgio Neri and Luciano Bonacini, of Neri and Bonacini coachbuilders in Modena, produced their own design, the 400GT Monza, which was rejected as well. Facing mounting financial difficulties, Touring would close its doors later that year.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: Ferruccio Lamborghini turned to Bertone designer Mario Marazzi, who had formerly worked at Touring. Together with Lamborghini's engineers, he developed a four-seater concept named the Marzal. The car rode on a stretched version of the P400 chassis and was powered by an in-line six-cylinder engine that was made from one-half of Lamborghini's V12 design. Despite an innovative design that featured gullwing doors and enormous glass windows, Lamborghini rejected the design. Eventually, a toned-down version became the Islero 400GT. While the car was not the full four-seater that he desired, Ferruccio Lamborghini thought the car represented a well-developed "gran turismo" product. It failed to attract buyers, with only 125 cars produced between 1968 and 1969.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: New versions of the Miura arrived in 1968; the Miura P400 S (more commonly known as the Miura S) had a stiffened chassis and more power, with the V12 engine now developing at 7,000 rpm. At the 1968 Brussels auto show, the automaker unveiled the Miura P400 Roadster (more commonly called the Miura Spider), an open-top version of the coupé. Gandini, by now effectively the head of design at Bertone, had paid great attention to the details, particularly the problems of wind buffeting and noise insulation inherent to a roadster. For all of Gandini's hard work, sales manager Ubaldo Sgarzi was forced to turn potential buyers away, as Lamborghini and Bertone were unable to reach a consensus on the size of a theoretical roadster production run. The one-off Miura Spider was sold off to an American metal alloy supplier, who wanted to use it as a marketing device. 1968 was a positive time for all of Ferruccio's businesses, and Automobili delivered 353 cars over the course of the year.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: In August 1968, Gian Paolo Dallara, frustrated with Ferruccio Lamborghini's refusal to participate in motorsport, was recruited away from Sant'Agata to head the Formula One programme at rival automaker De Tomaso in Modena. With profits on the rise, a racing programme would have been a possibility, but Lamborghini remained against even the construction of prototypes, stating his mission as: "I wish to build GT cars without defects – quite normal, conventional but perfect – not a technical bomb." With cars like the 400GT and the Islero, his aim to establish himself and his cars as equal or superior to the works of Enzo Ferrari had been satisfied. Dallara's assistant, Paolo Stanzani, replaced him as technical director.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: Bertone was able to persuade Lamborghini to allow them to design a brand-new four-seater. The shape was penned by Marcello Gandini, and a bodyshell was delivered to Ferruccio for inspection. The businessman was less than pleased with the enormous gullwing doors that Gandini had included, and insisted that the car should have conventional doors instead. The car that resulted from the collaboration was debuted at the 1969 Geneva show with the name Espada, powered by a 3.9-litre, front-mounted evolution of the factory's V12, generating a power output of . The Espada was a success, with a total production run of 1,217 cars over ten years of production.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: In 1969, Automobili Lamborghini encountered problems with its fully unionised work force, among which the machinists and fabricators had begun to take one-hour token stoppages as part of a national campaign due to strained relations between the metal workers' union and the Italian industry. Ferruccio Lamborghini, who often rolled up his sleeves and joined in the work on the factory floor, was able to motivate his staff to continue working towards their common goal despite the disruptions.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: Throughout that year, Lamborghini's product range, then consisting of the Islero, the Espada, and the Miura S, received upgrades across the board, with the Miura receiving a power boost, the Islero being upgraded to the "S" trim, and the Espada gaining comfort and performance upgrades, which allowed it to reach speeds of up to . The Islero was slated to be replaced by a shortened yet higher-performing version of the Espada, the Jarama 400GT. The 3.9-litre V12 was retained, its compression ratio increasing to 10.5:1.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: By the time the Jarama was unveiled at the 1970 Geneva Motor Show, Paolo Stanzani was at work on a new clean-sheet design, which would use no parts from previous Lamborghini cars. Changes in tax laws and a desire to make full use of the factory's manufacturing capacity meant that the Italian automaker would follow the direction taken by Ferrari, with its Dino 246 and Porsche, with its 911, and produce a smaller, V8-powered 2+2 car, the Urraco. The 2+2 body style was selected as a concession to practicality, with Ferruccio acknowledging that Urraco owners might have children. The single overhead cam V8 designed by Stanzani generated a power output of at 5,000 rpm. Bob Wallace immediately began road testing and development; the car was to be presented at the 1970 Turin motor show.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: In 1970, Lamborghini began development of a replacement for the Miura, which was a pioneering model, but had interior noise levels that Ferruccio Lamborghini found unacceptable and nonconforming to his brand philosophy. Engineers designed a new, longer chassis that placed the engine longitudinally, further away from the driver's seat. Designated the LP 500 for its 4.97-litre version of the company's V12, the prototype's body was styled by Marcello Gandini at Bertone. The car was presented at the 1971 Geneva Motor Show, alongside the final revision of the Miura, the P400 "SuperVeloce". Completing the Lamborghini range were the Espada 2, the Urraco P250, and the Jarama GT.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: As a world financial crisis began to take hold, Ferruccio Lamborghini's companies began to run into financial difficulties. In 1971, Lamborghini's tractor company, which exported around half of its production, ran into difficulties. Cento, Trattori's South African importer, cancelled all its orders. After staging a successful coup d'état, the new military government of Bolivia cancelled a large order of tractors that was partially ready to ship from Genoa. Trattori's employees, like Automobili's, were unionised and could not be laid off. In 1972, Lamborghini sold his entire holding in Trattori to SAME, another tractor builder.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: The entire Lamborghini group was now finding itself in financial troubles. Development at the automaker slowed; the production version of the LP 500 missed the 1972 Geneva Show, and only the P400 GTS version of the Jarama was on display. Faced with a need to cut costs, Paolo Stanzani set aside the LP 500's powerplant, slating a smaller, 4-litre engine for production. Ferruccio Lamborghini began courting buyers for Automobili; he entered negotiations with Georges-Henri Rossetti, a wealthy Swiss businessman and friend of Ferruccio's, as well as the owner of an Islero and an Espada. Ferruccio sold Rossetti 51% of the company for US$600,000, thereby relinquishing control of the automaker he had founded. He continued to work at the Sant'Agata factory; Rossetti rarely involved himself in Automobili's affairs.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: The 1973 oil crisis plagued the sales of high performance cars from manufacturers around the world; the rising price of oil caused governments to mandate new fuel economy laws, and consumers to seek smaller, more practical modes of transportation. Sales of Lamborghini's exotic sports cars, propelled by high-powered engines with high fuel consumption, suffered. The political unrest in late-seventies Italy was also a contributing factor, with the domestic market collapsing as well-heeled customers chose less ostentatious cars after a number of high-profile kidnappings and assassinations.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: In 1974, Ferruccio Lamborghini sold his remaining 49% stake in Lamborghini Automobili to René Leimer, a friend of Georges-Henri Rossetti.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: Having severed all connections with the cars and tractors that bore his name, Lamborghini retired to an estate on the shores of Lake Trasimeno, in the province of Perugia in central Italy, where he would remain until his death.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: The car shown as the LP 500 in 1971 entered production in 1974 as the Countach LP 400, powered by a smaller, 4.0-litre V12. The first production model was delivered in 1974. In 1976, the Urraco P300 was reworked into the Silhouette, featuring a targa top and a 3.0-litre V8. Its build quality, reliability, and ergonomics all worked against it, as did the fact that it could only be imported into the U.S. via the "grey market". Only 54 were produced. The Countach was also hampered by its lack of direct participation in the American market until the LP 500S version, introduced in 1982.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: At the 1977 Geneva Motor Show, Lamborghini unveiled its first prototype military vehicle, the "Cheetah", powered by a rear-mounted Chrysler V8 engine. However, the only prototype was not destroyed during testing as rumoured, but performed poorly and as such lost the contract. The resources used to develop the Cheetah were diverted from the BMW M1 which ultimately led to the cancellation of the contract from BMW.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: As the years passed, Lamborghini's situation worsened; the company entered bankruptcy in 1978, and the Italian courts took control. In 1980, the Swiss brothers Jean-Claude and Patrick Mimran, famed food entrepreneurs with a passion for sports cars, were appointed to administer the company during its receivership. During administration, the automaker reworked the failed Silhouette into the Jalpa, which was powered by a 3.5-litre V8 that had been modified by former Maserati great, Giulio Alfieri. More successful than the Silhouette, the Jalpa came closer to achieving the goal of a more affordable, livable version of the Countach. The Countach was also updated, finally allowing it to be sold in the U.S. with the introduction of the LP 500S model in 1982.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: By 1980, the company was officially in the hands of the Patrick Mimran as CEO. He began a comprehensive restructuring programme, injecting large amounts of capital into the floundering automaker. The Sant'Agata facilities were rehabilitated, and a worldwide hiring campaign to find new engineering and design talent began in earnest.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: The immediate results of the investment were good. The Countach LP 5000 Quattrovalvole, whose engine generated a power output of , was introduced in 1984; further work on the failed Cheetah project resulted in the introduction of the LM002 sport utility vehicle in 1986. The company, looking towards the foreseeable future, displayed the Countach Evoluzione, a prototype sports car almost completely made of carbon fibre, to the international press in 1987. The Evoluzione was shown during its testing schedule, which ended with its destruction in a crash test. In 1987, Patrick Mimran decided to sell the company to Chrysler Corporation.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: On 24 April 1987, in an acquisition spearheaded by Chrysler chairman Lee Iacocca, Chrysler Corporation took control of Nuova Automobili Ferruccio Lamborghini S.p.A., paying US$25.2 million to the Mimrans. The Mimran brothers were the only owners of Lamborghini to ever make money owning the company at the time, having sold it for many times the dollar amount they paid for it six years earlier.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: Iacocca, who had previously orchestrated a near-miraculous turnaround of Chrysler after the company nearly fell into bankruptcy, carried out his decision to purchase Lamborghini with no challenges from the board of directors. Chrysler executives were appointed to Lamborghini's board, but many of Lamborghini's key members remained in managing positions, including Alfieri, Marmiroli, Venturelli, Ceccarani and Ubaldo Sgarzi, who continued in his role as head of the sales department. To begin its revival, Lamborghini received a cash injection of US$50 million from its new owner. Chrysler was interested in entering the "extra premium" sports car market, which Chrysler estimated at about 5,000 cars per year, worldwide. Chrysler aimed to produce a car to compete with the Ferrari 328 by 1991, and also wanted the Italians to produce an engine that could be used in a Chrysler car for the American market.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: Chrysler made the decision to take the company into motorsport for the first time; the effort to develop engines for Grand Prix teams would be known as Lamborghini Engineering S.p.A. The new division was based in Modena, and was given an initial budget of US$5 million. Danielle Audetto was chosen to be the manager and Emile Novaro the president; their first recruit was Mauro Forghieri, a man with a stellar reputation in the world of motorsport, who had formerly managed Ferrari's Formula 1 team. Forghieri set about designing a 3.5-litre V12 engine, independent of road-car engine design undertaken at Sant'Agata.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: At the time, Lamborghini was working on a successor to the Countach, the Diablo. The Diablo's original design had been penned by Marcello Gandini, the veteran who had penned the exterior appearances of the Miura and the Countach while working for coachbuilder Bertone. However, Chrysler executives, unimpressed with Gandini's work, commissioned the American car-maker's own design team led by Tom Gale to execute a third extensive redesign of the car's body, smoothing out the trademark sharp edges and corners of Gandini's original design; Gandini was unimpressed with the finished product. The Diablo had been intended for introduction in time for September 1988, when Lamborghini would celebrate its 25th anniversary; once it was clear that mark would be missed, a final version of the Countach was rushed into production instead.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: By the end of 1987, Emile Novaro had returned from his long recovery, and used his authority to halt Chrysler's increasing interference in the development of the Diablo. Much to the chagrin of the Fighting Bull, Chrysler exhibited a four-door concept car at the Frankfurt Auto Show, badged as a 'Chrysler powered by Lamborghini'. The Portofino was poorly received by the motoring press and Lamborghini's employees alike, but it went on to become the inspiration for the Dodge Intrepid sedan.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: In April 1988, the Bertone Genesis, a "Quattrovalvole" V12-powered, Lamborghini-branded vehicle resembling a minivan was debuted at the Turin motor show. The unusual car, intended to gauge public reactions, was abandoned, a misfit in both Lamborghini's and Chrysler's product ranges. The Genesis had been commissioned alongside the new "baby Lambo" that would replace the Jalpa, occupying the then-empty space below the Diablo in Lamborghini's lineup. The project had been allocated a $25 million budget, with the prospect of selling more than 2,000 cars per year.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: The Diablo was unveiled to the public on 21 January 1990, at an event at the Hotel de Paris in Monte Carlo. The Diablo was the fastest car in production in the world at the time, and sales were so brisk that Lamborghini began to turn a profit. The company's U.S. presence had previously consisted of a loosely affiliated and disorganized private dealer network; Chrysler established an efficient franchise with full service and spare parts support. The company also began to develop its V12 engines for powerboat racing. Profits increased past the $1 million mark in 1991, and Lamborghini enjoyed a positive era.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: The uptick in fortunes was to be brief; in 1992, sales crashed, as the US$239,000 Diablo proved ultimately to be inaccessible to American enthusiasts. With Lamborghini bleeding money, Chrysler decided that the automaker was no longer producing enough cars to justify its investment.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: Chrysler began looking for someone to take Lamborghini off its hands, and found it in a holding company called MegaTech. The company was registered in Bermuda and wholly owned by Indonesian conglomerate SEDTCO Pty., headed by businessmen Setiawan Djody and Tommy Suharto, the youngest son of then-Indonesian President Suharto. By February 1994, after US$40 million had changed hands, Lamborghini had left American ownership, and MegaTech took over the automaker, its Modena racing engine factory, and the American dealer interest, Lamborghini USA. Djody, who also owned a 35% stake in troubled American sports car manufacturer Vector Motors, thought Vector and Lamborghini might be able to collaborate to improve their output. Michael J. Kimberly, formerly of Lotus, Jaguar and executive vice-president of General Motors, was appointed president and managing director. After reviewing the entire Lamborghini operation, Kimberly concluded that the company needed to expand its offerings from more than just one or two models, and provide a car accessible to American car enthusiasts. He implemented a marketing strategy to raise awareness of Lamborghini's heritage and mystique. In 1995, Lamborghini produced a hit, when the Diablo was updated to the top-end "SuperVeloce" model. But in 1995, even as sales were climbing, the company was restructured, with Tommy Suharto's V'Power Corporation holding a 60% interest, MyCom Bhd., a Malaysian company controlled by Jeff Yap, holding the other 40%.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: Never leaving the red despite its increase in sales, in November 1996 Lamborghini hired Vittorio di Capua as president and CEO, hoping that the veteran of more than 40 years at auto giant Fiat S.p.A. could finally make the sports car maker profitable again. Di Capua immediately launched cost-cutting measures, letting go of a number of company executives and consultants, and overhauling production in order to achieve a 50 percent gain in productivity. In 1997, Lamborghini finally passed its break-even point, selling 209 cars, thirteen more than it needed to be profitable. Di Capua also leveraged the Lamborghini name and identity, implementing aggressive merchandising and licensing deals. Development of the "baby Lambo" finally began, moving forward with a US$100 million budget.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: The financial crisis that gripped Asia in July of that year set the stage for another ownership change. The new chairman of Volkswagen AG, Ferdinand Piëch, grandson of Volkswagen's founder, Ferdinand Porsche, went on a buying spree through 1998, purchasing Bentley, Bugatti and Lamborghini. Volkswagen subsidiary Audi AG acquired Lamborghini in September 1998 for around US$110 million. Audi spokesman Juergen de Graeve told the "Wall Street Journal" that Lamborghini "could strengthen Audi's sporty profile, and on the other hand Lamborghini could benefit from <nowiki>[Audi's]</nowiki> technical expertise."


title: History of Lamborghini

text: The troubled Italian automaker was reorganised, becoming restructured into a holding company, Lamborghini Holding S.p.A., with Audi president Franz-Josef Paefgen as its chairman. Automobili Lamborghini S.p.A. became a subsidiary of the holding company, allowing it to focus specifically on designing and building cars while separate interests took care of the company's licensing deals and marine engine manufacturing. Vittorio Di Capua originally remained in charge, but eventually resigned in June 1999. He was replaced by Giuseppe Greco, another industry veteran with experience at Fiat, Alfa Romeo, and Ferrari. The Diablo's final evolution, the GT, was introduced in 1999 but not exported to the U.S. due to its low-volume production thus making it uneconomical to go through the process of gaining emissions and crashworthiness approval. During the Diablo's 11-year series production run, Lamborghini produced 2,900 examples.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: In much the same way that American ownership had influenced the design of the Diablo, Lamborghini's new German parent played a large role in the development of the Diablo's replacement. The first new Lamborghini in more than a decade, known internally as Project L147, represented the rebirth of Lamborghini, and was named, fittingly, for the bull that originally sired the Miura line and had inspired Ferruccio Lamborghini almost 40 years before: Murciélago. The new flagship car was styled by Belgian Luc Donckerwolke, Lamborghini's new head of design.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: The Murciélago was updated in 2005, now having a more powerful engine generating and being named the LP 640, thus marking the return of the "LP (Longitudinal Posteriore)" naming convention. The new model would also mark the debut of the new single-clutch transmission called "E Gear" which used pedals mounted on the steering column to change gears. This transmission would eventually replace the manual transmission in the coming years. The Murciélago was not meant to compete in racing events but privateer racing teams would develop their own racing variants which would prove successful in motorsports.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: Under German ownership, Lamborghini found stability that it had not seen in many years. In 2003, Lamborghini followed up the Murciélago with the smaller, V10-equipped Gallardo, intended to be more accessible and more livable than the Murciélago. The Gallardo would spawn several variants in the subsequent years of production which included the Spyder (convertible version), the Balboni (a low cost, rear-wheel-drive variant) and the Superleggera (a lighter and powerful track-focused version).


title: History of Lamborghini

text: In 2007, Wolfgang Egger was appointed as the new head of design of Audi and Lamborghini, replacing Walter de'Silva, who was responsible for the design of only one car during his appointment, the Miura Concept of 2006.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: Towards the end of the 2000s (decade), Lamborghini produced a number of revisions of the Murciélago and Gallardo. Lamborghini introduced the Reventón, a limited-edition derivative of the Murciélago featuring a newly designed body with more angular styling, and a roadster the following year. The final update to the Murciélago came in 2009 with the introduction of the LP 670–4 SV ("SuperVeloce").


title: History of Lamborghini

text: After ten years of Murciélago series production, Lamborghini produced the 4,000th example, an LP 670–4 SV destined for China, in February 2010. Lamborghini produced the last Murciélago, number 4,099 on 11 May 2010, but did not officially mark the end of production until six months later on 5 November 2010.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: The Gallardo received a facelift in 2008, now having a more aggressive design and new LED head lamps and tail lamps, inline with Lamborghini's new design language. The engine was also overhauled, now being a 5.2-litre uneven firing unit and generating in the base model, which was called the LP 560-4. The variants would follow up with the update as well and the Gallardo would now use the company's new single-clutch "E Gear" transmission debuted on the Murciélago LP 640.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: Lamborghini achieved its highest ever yearly sales figure in 2008, selling 2,430 vehicles. During this decade the Asia-Pacific market became more important to the company's sales performance, growing to represent 25 percent of Lamborghini's overall worldwide sales. Despite the strength of the Asia-Pacific market, the effects of the world financial crisis that began in 2007 caused Lamborghini's sales to drop almost 50% below their 2008 peak to 1,515 vehicles in 2009 and 1,302 vehicles in 2010. CEO Stephan Winkelmann predicted in 2009 that poor sales figures for sports cars would continue through 2011; history would prove him right.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: The Aventador, the replacement for the Murciélago, debuted on 1 March 2011 at the 2011 Geneva Motor Show. The Aventador was the first new Lamborghini Automobile in 10 years having an angular design language and an entirely new V12 engine thus signifying the retirement of the original Lamborghini V12 engine designed by Giotto Bizzarrini.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: The Aventador would continue to evolve in its production years, with a roadster version introduced in 2012 having two removable roof panels.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: In 2013, the Veneno was introduced which was Lamborghini's interpretation of a racing prototype meant for the road. The sharp, angular designed body was based around the Aventador's monocoque and mechanical components. A roadster variant would follow up in 2014, fewer than 10 units would be sold at US$4,500,000 each, making it one of the most expensive Lamborghini automobiles ever produced.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: In 2013, Lamborghini celebrated its 50th anniversary by introducing a special model of the Aventador, the Aventador LP 720-4 50° Anniversario. 200 units in total of coupé and roadster variants were produced. As the name signifies, the engine was upgraded to generate . The body work was also modified and the car had new front and rear bumpers along with special exterior colours.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: In 2015, a light weight, powerful and trackfocused iteration of the Aventador called the Aventador SV (Super Veloce) was introduced. The Aventador SV featured more aggressive bumpers and power was increased from 700PS[690 hp] to 750PS[740 hp]. The SV would also spawn a roadster variant introduced later that year. It would ultimately be discontinued in 2017.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: The Centenario introduced in 2016 was a celebration of Ferruccio Lamborghini's 100th birthday. It would follow up the principles set by the Veneno using an even aggressive design language in its own right. The car saw the use of the world's largest rear diffusers ever incorporated into a production automobile. The Centenario saw the debut of Lamborghini's four-wheel steering system and torque vectoring. A Roadster version would follow up later in the year, 40 units of the Centenario were produced in total.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: The Aventador was updated in 2017 and was now called the Aventador S LP 740-4. The engine was modified and now generated a power output of . The Roadster variant would also be updated as well. The four-wheel steering and torque vectoring system would also be used on the S version aside from exterior updates.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: The ultimate track focused iteration of the Aventador called the Aventador Super Veloce Jota (SVJ) was introduced in 2018 and used Lamborghini's Aerodynamica Lamborghini Attiva (ALA) system which uses active aerodynamics to increase downforce generated by the car. The SVJ generates 40 percent more downforce than the SV. It also reclaimed the Nurbürgring Nordschleife lap record form the Porsche 911 GT2 RS by setting a lap time of 6:44.97 with Lamborghini test driver Marco Mapelli behind the wheel achieved by using the Pirelli Trofeo R tyres available with the car as an option.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: Lamborghini introduced the Lamborghini Gallardo LP 570–4 Super Trofeo Stradale at the 2011 Frankfurt Motor Show.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: In 2012–2013, towards the end of its production, subsequent limited editions of the Gallardo would be unveiled, including the Sesto Elemento (Sixth Element), a limited edition car based on the Gallardo Superleggera with a newly designed body and aesthetics for track use only.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: Production of the Gallardo ended on 25 November 2013, after 14,022 examples had been produced. At the time of its discontinuation, the Gallardo was the highest selling Lamborghini model, with almost half of all Lamborghini automobiles ever produced being Gallardos.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: The Gallardo's replacement, the Huracán LP610-4, was announced in December 2013, and made its worldwide debut at the 2014 Geneva Motor Show. The Huracán presents significant improvements over the Gallardo, such as a power output increase to , a time of 3.2 seconds, a top speed of and the use of a dual-clutch transmission. The convertible version, called the Huracán Spyder would follow up at the 2015 Frankfurt Motor Show followed up by the low cost, rear wheel drive LP580-2 coupé and convertible models in 2016, having the V10 engines detuned to while remaining in par with performance as the "base" LP610-4 models. The most powerful iteration of the Huracán, the LP640-4 Performante, was unveiled at the 2017 Geneva Motor Show having the power increased to and using the forged carbon fibre body components from the Sesto Elemento in order to achieve a time of 2.9 seconds and a top speed as high as . along with achieving a lap time of 6:52.01 on the Nürburgring Nordschleife, with Marco Mapelli behind the wheel, making it one of the world's fastest production car around the track, only to be beaten by the Porsche 911 GT2 RS later that year which set a lap time of 6:47.03


title: History of Lamborghini

text: Introduced as a concept at the 2012 Pebble Beach Concours D'Elegance, the Urus would be unveiled in its production form in 2017. It would be the second off-road vehicle produced by the company since the LM002 which was introduced under the Mimran ownership. The Urus is based on a Volkswagen platform and shares its engine with the Porsche Cayenne but uses its own distinctive technologies such as using the biggest carbon ceramic brakes to ever be fitted on a vehicle. The Urus was first styled as a concept by Fillipo Perini, the company's former chief designer but would later be refined by Mitja Borkert, the current chief designer of Lamborghini. The design language of the Urus is heavily influenced by the Aventador.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: On 3 September 2019, Lamborghini would unveil its first hybrid automobile called the Sián FKP 37. The first half of the name meant "flash of lightning" in Italian, a name befitting to the new model due to the technology it used while the second half was a tribute to late Volkswagen Group Chairman Ferdinand Piëch with "FKP" being the initials of his name and "37" being the last two digits of his birth year. The Sián used the ultimate iteration of the V12 engine from the Aventador SVJ, but would combine it with an electric motor powered by a supercapacitor (in essence, an enlarged version of the supercapacitor used in the Aventador's starter motor) to store energy. The supercapacitor was used due to its ability to more efficiently store electrical energy than a conventional lithium ion battery. The capacitors would be charged by the car's regenerative braking system instead of a conventional power outlet. While the role of electric motor would be limited to only aid in parking the car and to counter the effects of deceleration, the Sián FKP 37 would be the brand's first entry in the more mainstream hybrid market and would proclaim itself to be the most powerful Lamborghini automobile.


title: History of Lamborghini

text: In July 2021, the company announced the end of the line of the Aventador. It announced that there will soon be a new electric car replacing it. The last Lamborghini Aventador is the 2022 Lamborghini Anventador Ultimae.


title: Civil forfeiture in the United States

text: Civil forfeiture in the United States, also called civil asset forfeiture or civil judicial forfeiture, is a process in which law enforcement officers take assets from people who are suspected of involvement with crime or illegal activity without necessarily charging the owners with wrongdoing. While civil procedure, as opposed to criminal procedure, generally involves a dispute between two private citizens, civil forfeiture involves a dispute between law enforcement and "property" such as a pile of cash or a house or a boat, such that the thing is suspected of being involved in a crime. To get back the seized property, owners must prove it was not involved in criminal activity. Sometimes it can mean a threat to seize property as well as the act of seizure itself. Civil forfeiture is not considered to be an example of a criminal justice financial obligation.


title: Civil forfeiture in the United States

text: Proponents see civil forfeiture as a powerful tool to thwart criminal organizations involved in the illegal drug trade, with $12 billion annual profits, since it allows authorities to seize cash and other assets from suspected narcotics traffickers. They also argue that it is an efficient method since it allows law enforcement agencies to use these seized proceeds to further battle illegal activity, that is, directly converting value obtained for law enforcement purposes by harming suspected criminals economically while helping law enforcement financially.


title: Civil forfeiture in the United States

text: Critics argue that innocent owners can become entangled in the process to the extent that their 4th Amendment and 5th Amendment rights are violated, in situations where they are presumed guilty instead of being presumed innocent. It has been ruled unconstitutional by a judge in South Carolina. Further, critics argue that the incentives lead to corruption and law enforcement misbehavior. There is consensus that abuses have happened but disagreement about their extent as well as whether the overall benefits to society are worth the cost of the instances of abuse.


title: Civil forfeiture in the United States

text: Civil forfeitures are subject to the "excessive fines" clause of the U.S. Constitution's 8th amendment, both at a federal level and, as determined by the 2019 Supreme Court case, "Timbs v. Indiana", at the state and local level.


title: Civil forfeiture in the United States

text: Civil forfeiture in the United States has a history dating back several hundred years, with roots in British maritime law. In the mid-1600s, when what would become the United States was a British colony, the British Navigation Acts were enacted. These laws required ships importing or exporting goods from British ports to fly the British flag; ships that failed to do this could be seized regardless of whether the ship's owner was guilty of any wrongdoing. It was easier to seize a vessel than try to apprehend the owner, who may be on the other side of the ocean.


title: Civil forfeiture in the United States

text: During the later Colonial years, forfeiture practices by Crown officials using writs of assistance were one of the many activities that angered colonists, who saw the writs as "unreasonable searches and seizures" that deprived persons of "life, liberty, or property, without due process".


title: Civil forfeiture in the United States

text: After the American Revolution, the early Congress wrote forfeiture laws based on British maritime law to help federal tax collectors collect customs duties, which financed most of the expenses of the federal government in the early days of the Republic. Seizures allowed government to confiscate property from citizens who failed to pay taxes or customs duties. The Supreme Court upheld these forfeiture statutes in situations where it was virtually impossible to get hold of guilty persons on the high seas while possible to get hold of their property. As explained by Supreme Court justice Joseph Story:


title: Civil forfeiture in the United States

text: The US Government used forfeiture during the Prohibition years (1920–1933). Police seized vehicles, equipment, cash and other property from bootleggers. When Prohibition ended in 1933, much of the forfeiture activity ended as well. Modern forfeiture was an "infrequent resort" until the last few decades.


title: Civil forfeiture in the United States

text: Since 1980, the War on Drugs has led to substantially increased civil forfeiture by federal, state, and local government. The market for illegal drugs in the United States is large: the Drug Enforcement Administration estimates the annual profit from selling illegal drugs is $12 billion. However, it has become harder for criminal organizations to launder drug money by means of the financial system; drug cartels have thus preferred bulk cash payments. The initial intent behind increased civil forfeiture was thus to use forfeitures as a weapon against drug kingpins, similarly to how forfeiture was used to fight alcohol trafficking during the Prohibition era.