title: Julian Huxley

text: Huxley's main co-respondents in the modern evolutionary synthesis are usually listed as Ernst Mayr, Theodosius Dobzhansky, George Gaylord Simpson, Bernhard Rensch, Ledyard Stebbins and the population geneticists J. B. S. Haldane, Ronald Fisher and Sewall Wright. However, at the time of Huxley's book several of these had yet to make their distinctive contribution. Certainly, for Huxley, E. B. Ford and his co-workers in ecological genetics were at least as important; and Cyril Darlington, the chromosome expert, was a notable source of facts and ideas.An analysis of the 'authorities cited' index of "Evolution the modern synthesis" shows indirectly those whom Huxley regarded as the most important contributors to the synthesis up to 1941 (the book was published in 1942, and references go up to 1941). The authorities cited 20 or more times are: Darlington, Darwin, Dobzhansky, Fisher, Ford, Goldschmidt, Haldane, J. S. Huxley, Muller, Rensch, Turrill, Wright.


title: Julian Huxley

text: Goldschmidt was an influential geneticist who advocated evolution by saltation, and was sometimes mentioned in disagreement. Turrill provided Huxley with botanical information. The list omits three key members of the synthesis who are listed above: Mayr, Stebbins the botanist and Simpson the palaeontologist. Mayr gets 16 citations and more in the two later editions; all three published outstanding and relevant books some years later, and their contribution to the synthesis is unquestionable. Their lesser weight in Huxley's citations was caused by the early publication date of his book. Huxley's book is not strong in palaeontology, which illustrates perfectly why Simpson's later works were such an important contribution.


title: Julian Huxley

text: Huxley coined the terms "the new synthesis" and "evolutionary synthesis"; he also invented the term "cline" in 1938 to refer to species whose members fall into a series of sub-species with continuous change in characters over a geographical area. The classic example of a cline is the circle of subspecies of the gull "Larus" round the Arctic zone. This cline is an example of a "ring species".Some of Huxley's last contributions to the evolutionary synthesis were on the subject of ecological genetics. He noted how widespread polymorphism is in nature, with visible morphism much more prevalent in some groups than others. The immense diversity of colour and pattern in small bivalve molluscs, brittlestars, sea-anemones, tubicular polychaetes and various grasshoppers is perhaps maintained by making recognition by predators more difficult.


title: Julian Huxley

text: Although Huxley believed that on a broad view evolution led to advances in organisation, he rejected classical Aristotelian teleology: "The ordinary man, or at least the ordinary poet, philosopher and theologian, always was anxious to find purpose in the evolutionary process. I believe this reasoning to be totally false.". Huxley coined the phrase "Progress without a goal" to summarise his case in "Evolution the modern synthesis" that evolutionary progress was "a raising of the upper level of biological efficiency, this being defined as increased control over and independence of the environment." In "Evolution in action" he wrote thatNatural selection plus time produces biological improvement… 'Improvement' is not yet a recognised technical term in biology … however, living things are improved during evolution… Darwin was not afraid to use the word for the results of natural selection in general… I believe that improvement can become one of the key concepts in evolutionary biology.Can it be scientifically defined? Improvements in biological machinery… the limbs and teeth of grazing horses… the increase in brain-power… The eyes of a dragon-fly, which can see all round [it] in every direction, are an improvement over the mere microscopic eye-spots of early forms of life. [Over] the whole range of evolutionary time we see general advance—improvement in all the main properties of life, including its general organization. 'Advance' is thus a useful term for long-term improvement in some general property of life. [But] improvement is not universal. Lower forms manage to survive alongside higher".Huxley's views on progressive evolution were similar to those of G. Ledyard Stebbins and Bernhard Rensch, and were challenged in the latter part of the twentieth century with objections from Cladists, among others, to any suggestion that one group could be scientifically described as 'advanced' and another as 'primitive'. Modern assessments of these views have been surveyed in Nitecki and Dawkins.


title: Julian Huxley

text: Huxley's humanism came from his appreciation that mankind was in charge of its own destiny (at least in principle), and this raised the need for a sense of direction and a system of ethics. His grandfather T. H. Huxley, when faced with similar problems, had promoted agnosticism, but Julian chose humanism as being more directed to supplying a basis for ethics. Julian's thinking went along these lines: "The critical point in the evolution of man… was when he acquired the use of [language]… Man's development is potentially open… He has developed a new method of evolution: the transmission of organized experience by way of tradition, which… largely overrides the automatic process of natural selection as the agent of change." Both Huxley and his grandfather gave Romanes Lectures on the possible connection between evolution and ethics (see evolutionary ethics). Huxley's views on God could be described as being that of an agnostic atheist.


title: Julian Huxley

text: Huxley had a close association with the British rationalist and secular humanist movements. He was an Honorary Associate of the Rationalist Press Association from 1927 until his death, and on the formation of the British Humanist Association in 1963 became its first President, to be succeeded by AJ Ayer in 1965. He was also closely involved with the International Humanist and Ethical Union. Many of Huxley's books address humanist themes. In 1962 Huxley accepted the American Humanist Association's annual "Humanist of the Year" award.


title: Julian Huxley

text: Huxley also presided over the founding Congress of the International Humanist and Ethical Union and served with John Dewey, Albert Einstein and Thomas Mann on the founding advisory board of the First Humanist Society of New York.


title: Julian Huxley

text: Huxley wrote that "There is no separate supernatural realm: all phenomena are part of one natural process of evolution. There is no basic cleavage between science and religion;… I believe that [a] drastic reorganization of our pattern of religious thought is now becoming necessary, from a god-centered to an evolutionary-centred pattern." Some believe the appropriate label for these views is religious naturalism.


title: Julian Huxley

text: Many people assert that this abandonment of the god hypothesis means the abandonment of all religion and all moral sanctions. This is simply not true. But it does mean, once our relief at jettisoning an outdated piece of ideological furniture is over, that we must construct something to take its place.


title: Julian Huxley

text: Huxley took interest in investigating the claims of parapsychology and spiritualism. He joined the Society for Psychical Research in 1928. After investigation he found the field to be unscientific and full of charlatans. In 1934, he joined the International Institute for Psychical Research but resigned after a few months due to its members' spiritualist bias and non-scientific approach to the subject.


title: Julian Huxley

text: After attending séances, Huxley concluded that the phenomena could be explained "either by natural causes, or, more usually by fraud". Huxley, Harold Dearden and others were judges for a group formed by the "Sunday Chronicle" to investigate the materialization medium Harold Evans. During a séance Evans was exposed as a fraud. He was caught masquerading as a spirit, in a white nightshirt.


title: Julian Huxley

text: Huxley was a prominent member of the British Eugenics Society, and was Vice-President (1937–1944) and President (1959–1962). He thought eugenics was important for removing undesirable variants from the human gene pool, though after World War II he believed race was a meaningless concept in biology, and its application to humans was highly inconsistent.


title: Julian Huxley

text: Huxley was an outspoken critic of the most extreme eugenicism in the 1920s and 1930s (the stimulus for which was the greater fertility of the 'feckless' poor compared to the 'responsible' prosperous classes). He was, nevertheless, a leading figure in the eugenics movement (see, for example, Eugenics manifesto). He gave the Galton memorial lecture twice, in 1936 and 1962. In his writing he used this argument several times: ""no one doubts the wisdom of managing the germ plasm of agricultural stocks, so why not apply the same concept to human stocks?"" The agricultural analogy appears over and over again as it did in the writings of many American eugenicists.


title: Julian Huxley

text: Huxley was one of many intellectuals at the time who believed that the lowest class in society was genetically inferior. In this passage, from 1941, he investigates a hypothetical scenario where Social Darwinism, capitalism, nationalism and the class society is taken for granted:


title: Julian Huxley

text: If so, then we must plan our eugenic policy along some such lines as the following:... The lowest strata, allegedly less well-endowed genetically, are reproducing relatively too fast. Therefore birth-control methods must be taught them; they must not have too easy access to relief or hospital treatment lest the removal of the last check on natural selection should make it too easy for children to be produced or to survive; long unemployment should be a ground for sterilization, or at least relief should be contingent upon no further children being brought into the world; and so on. That is to say, much of our eugenic programme will be curative and remedial merely, instead of preventive and constructive.


title: Julian Huxley

text: Here, he does not demean the working class in general, but aims for ""the virtual elimination of the few lowest and most degenerate types"". The sentiment is not at all atypical of the time, and similar views were held by many geneticists (William E. Castle, C. B. Davenport, H. J. Muller are examples), and by other prominent intellectuals.


title: Julian Huxley

text: Huxley advocated ensuring the lower classes have a nutritious diet, education and facilities for recreation:


title: Julian Huxley

text: We must therefore concentrate on producing a single equalized environment; and this clearly should be one as favourable as possible to the expression of the genetic qualities that we think desirable. Equally clearly, this should include the following items. A marked raising of the standard of diet for the great majority of the population, until all should be provided both with adequate calories and adequate accessory factors; provision of facilities for healthy exercise and recreation; and upward equalization of educational opportunity. ... we know from various sources that raising the standard of life among the poorest classes almost invariably results in a lowering of their fertility. In so far, therefore, as differential class-fertility exists, raising the environmental level will reduce any dysgenic effects which it may now have.


title: Julian Huxley

text: Concerning a public health and racial policy in general, Huxley wrote that "…unless [civilised societies] invent and enforce adequate measures for regulating human reproduction, for controlling the quantity of population, and "at least preventing the deterioration of quality of racial stock", they are doomed to decay …" and remarked how biology should be the chief tool for rendering social politics scientific.


title: Julian Huxley

text: In the opinion of Duvall, "His views fell well within the spectrum of opinion acceptable to the English liberal intellectual elite. He shared "Nature"s enthusiasm for birth control, and 'voluntary' sterilization." However, the word 'English' in this passage is unnecessary: such views were widespread. Duvall comments that Huxley's enthusiasm for centralised social and economic planning and anti-industrial values was common to leftist ideologists during the inter-war years. Towards the end of his life, Huxley himself must have recognised how unpopular these views became after the end of World War II. In the two volumes of his autobiography, there is no mention of eugenics in the index, nor is Galton mentioned; and the subject has also been omitted from many of the obituaries and biographies. An exception is the proceedings of a conference organised by the British Eugenics Society.


title: Julian Huxley

text: In response to the rise of European fascism in the 1930s, he was asked to write "We Europeans" with the ethnologist A. C. Haddon, the zoologist Alexander Carr-Saunders and the historian of science Charles Singer. Huxley suggested the word 'race' be replaced with ethnic group. After the Second World War, he was instrumental in producing the UNESCO statement "The Race Question", which asserted that:


title: Julian Huxley

text: A race, from the biological standpoint, may therefore be defined as one of the group of populations constituting the species "Homo sapiens""… "National, religious, geographic, linguistic and cult groups do not necessary coincide with racial groups: the cultural traits of such groups have no demonstrated genetic connexion with racial traits. Because serious errors of this kind are habitually committed when the term 'race' is used in popular parlance, it would be better when speaking of human races to drop the term 'race' altogether and speak of "ethnic groups""… "Now what has the scientist to say about the groups of mankind which may be recognized at the present time? Human races can be and have been differently classified by different anthropologists, but at the present time most anthropologists agree on classifying the greater part of present-day mankind into three major divisions, as follows: The Mongoloid Division; The Negroid Division; The Caucasoid Division." … "Catholics, Protestants, Moslems and Jews are not races … The biological fact of race and the myth of 'race' should be distinguished. For all practical social purposes 'race' is not so much a biological phenomenon as a social myth. The myth 'race' has created an enormous amount of human and social damage. In recent years it has taken a heavy toll in human lives and caused untold suffering. It still prevents the normal development of millions of human beings and deprives civilization of the effective co-operation of productive minds. The biological differences between ethnic groups should be disregarded from the standpoint of social acceptance and social action. The unity of mankind from both the biological and social viewpoint is the main thing. To recognize this and to act accordingly is the first requirement of modern man ...


title: Julian Huxley

text: In 1951, Huxley coined the term "transhumanism" for the view that humans should better themselves through science and technology, possibly including eugenics, but also, importantly, the improvement of the social environment.


title: Julian Huxley

text: Huxley was a capable and willing popularizer of science. Well over half his books are addressed to an educated general audience, and he wrote often in periodicals and newspapers. The most extensive bibliography of Huxley lists some of these ephemeral articles, though there are others unrecorded.


title: Julian Huxley

text: These articles, some reissued as "Essays of a Biologist" (1923), probably led to the invitation from H. G. Wells to help write a comprehensive work on biology for a general readership, "The Science of Life". This work was published in stages in 1929–30, and in one volume in 1931. Of this Robert Olby said "Book IV "The essence of the controversies about evolution" offers perhaps the clearest, most readable, succinct and informative popular account of the subject ever penned. It was here that he first expounded his own version of what later developed into the evolutionary synthesis". In his memoirs, Huxley says that he made almost £10,000 from the book.


title: Julian Huxley

text: In 1934 Huxley collaborated with the naturalist Ronald Lockley to create for Alexander Korda the world's first natural history documentary "The Private Life of the Gannets". For the film, shot with the support of the Royal Navy around Grassholm off the Pembrokeshire coast, they won an Oscar for best documentary.


title: Julian Huxley

text: Huxley had given talks on the radio since the 1920s, followed by written versions in "The Listener". In later life, he became known to an even wider audience through television. In 1939 the BBC asked him to be a regular panelist on a Home Service general knowledge show, "The Brains Trust", in which he and other panelists were asked to discuss questions submitted by listeners. The show was commissioned to keep up war time morale, by preventing the war from "disrupting the normal discussion of interesting ideas". The audience was not large for this somewhat elite programme; however, listener research ranked Huxley the most popular member of the Brains Trust from 1941 to 1944.


title: Julian Huxley

text: Later, he was a regular panelist on one of the BBC's first quiz shows (1955) "Animal, Vegetable, Mineral?" in which participants were asked to talk about objects chosen from museum and university collections.


title: Julian Huxley

text: In 1937 Huxley was invited to deliver the Royal Institution Christmas Lecture on "Rare Animals and the Disappearance of Wild Life".


title: Julian Huxley

text: In his essay "The Crowded World" Huxley was openly critical of Communist and Catholic attitudes to birth control, population control and overpopulation. Based on variable rates of compound interest, Huxley predicted a probable world population of 6 billion by 2000. The United Nations Population Fund marked 12 October 1999 as The Day of Six Billion.


title: Julian Huxley

text: There is a public house named after Sir Julian in Selsdon, London Borough of Croydon, close to the Selsdon Wood Nature Reserve which he helped establish.


title: Karen Pittman

text: Karen Pittman is an American actress. Born in Mississippi and raised in Nashville, Tennessee, Pittman received a Bachelor of Arts in Voice and Opera at Northwestern University and a Masters of Fine Arts from NYU's Graduate Acting Program. Pittman has portrayed the character of Jory in the 2012 Lincoln Center production of "Disgraced" and has performed in FX Network's "The Americans" and Netflix's "Luke Cage", as Lisa and Inspector Priscilla Ridley, respectively.


title: Karen Pittman

text: Since 2019, she has starred as Mia Jordan in the Apple TV+ drama series "The Morning Show" for which she was nominated for a SAG award, along with the cast in 2022.


title: Dallon Weekes

text: Dallon James Weekes (born May 4, 1981) is an American singer, songwriter, musician, and record producer. He is best known as a member of Panic! at the Disco from 2009 to 2017, performing in the band as a bassist, keyboardist, backing vocalist, and songwriter. He was also the frontman of the power pop band and later solo musical project The Brobecks. Weekes currently performs as the frontman for the rock duo I Dont Know How But They Found Me.


title: Dallon Weekes

text: Weekes was born in the small town of Verona, Missouri, near a large Amish community. He is the second of four children and was raised in a Mormon family in Clearfield, Utah, where his parents moved shortly after he was born. Weekes attended Clearfield High School, where he met most of his former Brobecks bandmates. After graduating with honors in 1999, Weekes served as a full-time Mormon Missionary in Oklahoma for two years. After returning home he shortly attended Weber State University before dropping out to pursue music full-time.


title: Dallon Weekes

text: The band began as a weekend hobby for Weekes shortly after he returned to Utah after living in Oklahoma for two years. The group's name was inspired by a person from Dallon's school days. The original line-up consisted of Weekes, photographer/producer Matt Glass and another friend from high school. After a few years of recording basement demos, touring and line-up changes, the band was offered a contract from an imprint of Drive-Thru Records, and Weekes was offered solo record contracts by Sony BMG, Interscope Records, and a smaller indie label if he would drop his bandmates. Weekes declined.


title: Dallon Weekes

text: The Brobecks opened for bands such as Fall Out Boy, Phantom Planet, Ben Kweller, and The Bravery. Despite all the label interest and album success for an indie band, the band remained independent and unsigned.


title: Dallon Weekes

text: In late 2012, Weekes released the "Quiet Title EP" for download on his Bandcamp page for The Brobecks, as well as an option to purchase a physical copy of the Violent Things Reissue CD. The "Quiet Title EP" consists of two songs, "Anyone I Know" and "Cluster Hug", featuring Ian Crawford on guitar and recorded/edited with help from former Brobecks drummer, Matt Glass. In November 2012, Weekes stated in an interview with Salt Lake City's X96 radio station that these songs were written during the songwriting and recording process for Panic's fourth studio album, but did not fit with their collective vision for the new record.


title: Dallon Weekes

text: After the departure of Ryan Ross and Jon Walker in 2009, Weekes and Ian Crawford were hired to replace Ross and Walker for Panic! at the Disco on a temporary, touring basis for their second studio album "Pretty. Odd." (2008). Weekes' 'touring only' status changed in mid-2010, while on tour with the band in China. It was then that he was asked by Brendon Urie and Spencer Smith to join them indefinitely. However, his permanent status within the band remained publicly unknown until Weekes confirmed in mid-2012 via Twitter his involvement with the band as a full-time member.


title: Dallon Weekes

text: During his tenure as an official member of Panic! at the Disco, Weekes was responsible for the conceptualization of the cover art for the band's third studio album, "Vices & Virtues" (2011), and was also featured on the album cover, masked and standing in the background behind Smith and Urie. He was credited with writing all but two songs on the band's fourth studio album, "Too Weird To Live, Too Rare To Die!" (2013). Weekes was also nominated for Best Bassist at the 2015 Alternative Press Music Awards. During the promotion of the band's fifth studio album "Death of a Bachelor", it was rumored that Weekes' status has changed to that of a touring member once again. In October 2015, Weekes confirmed his departure from the official line-up of the band via Twitter, stating that he was "not contributing creatively anymore". Dallon announced he was leaving Panic! at the Disco on December 27, 2017. He made this announcement via Instagram.


title: Dallon Weekes

text: Initially a solo effort, Weekes had been writing and recording songs while on the road with Panic! at the Disco for several years. Former Brobecks bandmate Ryan Seaman performed drums on the record, which led to Weekes proposing the idea to present it as a duo under the name I Dont Know How But They Found Me.


title: Dallon Weekes

text: Weekes and Seaman started playing small shows in late 2016, but kept it secret. They debuted at Emo Nite Los Angeles' 2-year anniversary event on December 6, 2016. After the show, different sources wrote about a "new side project" by Weekes and Seaman, and confirmed the band name. Even when confronted with photos and videos taken at the shows, Weekes and Seaman denied the whole project for months. Weekes later stated that they did not want to exploit both his and Seaman's name recognition and association with the well-known bands they played in. They announced their signing to Fearless Records in August 2018. In November 2018, they released their debut EP, "1981 Extended Play". The band released a Christmas EP, "Christmas Drag", on November 15, 2019. The band's debut album, "Razzmatazz", was released on October 23, 2020.


title: Dallon Weekes

text: In September 2010, Weekes posted a free online download of "Skid Row", a song from the film/play Little Shop of Horrors, featuring Brendon Urie of Panic! at the Disco, Matt Glass and Ian Crawford, the touring guitarist of Panic! at the Disco from 2009 to 2012, and former member of such bands as The Cab and Stamps.


title: Dallon Weekes

text: In November 2014, Weekes released a Christmas song titled "Sickly Sweet Holidays", featuring former Brobecks and Falling In Reverse drummer Ryan Seaman, and backing vocals performed by Twenty One Pilots vocalist Tyler Joseph. The song initially featured an entire verse by Joseph, but it was excluded due to Joseph's label.


title: Dallon Weekes

text: In October 2015, Weekes started a cover series titled "TWOMINCVRS", where he self-releases covers of "lesser-known" songs, with a length of two minutes or less, through his personal YouTube channel. In 2016, Weekes released his second Christmas single titled "Please Don't Jump (It's Christmas)" on November 25, again featuring Seaman performing drums.


title: Dallon Weekes

text: On March 18, 2006, Weekes married his girlfriend of over a year, Breezy Douglas. They have two children; daughter, Amelie Olivia Weekes, born June 1, 2008 (named after the 2001 French film "Amélie"); and son, Knox Oliver Weekes, born June 23, 2010 (Named after Knox Overstreet, a character from the 1989 film "Dead Poets Society"). Weekes is a member of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. He has ADHD and is neurodivergent.


title: Control flow

text: In [[computer science]], control flow (or flow of control) is the order in which individual [[Statement (computer science)|statements]], [[Instruction (computer science)|instructions]] or [[function call]]s of an [[imperative programming|imperative]] [[computer program|program]] are [[Execution (computing)|executed]] or evaluated. The emphasis on explicit control flow distinguishes an "[[imperative programming]]" language from a "[[declarative programming]]" language.


title: Control flow

text: Within an imperative [[programming language]], a "control flow statement" is a statement that results in a choice being made as to which of two or more paths to follow. For [[Strict programming language|non-strict]] functional languages, functions and [[language construct]]s exist to achieve the same result, but they are usually not termed control flow statements.


title: Control flow

text: A set of statements is in turn generally structured as a [[Block (programming)|block]], which in addition to grouping, also defines a [[lexical scope]].


title: Control flow

text: [[Interrupt]]s and [[Signal (computing)|signals]] are low-level mechanisms that can alter the flow of control in a way similar to a [[subroutine]], but usually occur as a response to some external stimulus or event (that can occur [[Asynchronous systems|asynchronously]]), rather than execution of an "in-line" control flow statement.


title: Control flow

text: At the level of [[machine language]] or [[assembly language]], control flow instructions usually work by altering the [[program counter]]. For some [[central processing unit]]s (CPUs), the only control flow instructions available are conditional or unconditional [[Branch (computer science)|branch]] instructions, also termed jumps.


title: Control flow

text: The kinds of control flow statements supported by different languages vary, but can be categorized by their effect:


title: Control flow

text: A [[Label (programming language)|label]] is an explicit name or number assigned to a fixed position within the [[source code]], and which may be referenced by control flow statements appearing elsewhere in the source code. A label marks a position within source code and has no other effect.


title: Control flow

text: [[Line number]]s are an alternative to a named label used in some languages (such as [[BASIC]]). They are [[Natural number|whole numbers]] placed at the start of each line of text in the source code. Languages which use these often impose the constraint that the line numbers must increase in value in each following line, but may not require that they be consecutive. For example, in BASIC:


title: Control flow

text: In other languages such as [[C (programming language)|C]] and [[Ada (programming language)|Ada]], a label is an [[identifier]], usually appearing at the start of a line and immediately followed by a colon. For example, in C:


title: Control flow

text: The language [[ALGOL 60]] allowed both whole numbers and identifiers as labels (both linked by colons to the following statement), but few if any other [[ALGOL]] variants allowed whole numbers. Early [[Fortran]] compilers only allowed whole numbers as labels. Beginning with Fortran-90, alphanumeric labels have also been allowed.


title: Control flow

text: The "goto" statement (a combination of the English words "[[wiktionary:go|go]]" and "[[wiktionary:to|to]]", and pronounced accordingly) is the most basic form of unconditional transfer of control.


title: Control flow

text: Although the [[Keyword (computing)|keyword]] may either be in upper or lower case depending on the language, it is usually written as:


title: Control flow

text: The effect of a goto statement is to cause the next statement to be executed to be the statement appearing at (or immediately after) the indicated label.


title: Control flow

text: Goto statements have been [[considered harmful]] by many computer scientists, notably [[Edsger W. Dijkstra|Dijkstra]].


title: Control flow

text: The terminology for [[subroutine]]s varies; they may alternatively be known as routines, procedures, functions (especially if they return results) or methods (especially if they belong to [[Class (programming)|classes]] or [[type class]]es).


title: Control flow

text: In the 1950s, computer memories were very small by current standards so subroutines were used mainly to reduce program size. A piece of code was written once and then used many times from various other places in a program.


title: Control flow

text: Today, subroutines are more often used to help make a program more structured, e.g., by isolating some algorithm or hiding some data access method. If many programmers are working on one program, subroutines are one kind of [[Modularity (programming)|modularity]] that can help divide the work.


title: Control flow

text: In structured programming, the ordered sequencing of successive commands is considered one of the basic control structures, which is used as a building block for programs alongside iteration, recursion and choice.


title: Control flow

text: In May 1966, Böhm and Jacopini published an article in "Communications of the ACM" which showed that any program with gotos could be transformed into a goto-free form involving only choice (IF THEN ELSE) and loops (WHILE condition DO xxx), possibly with duplicated code and/or the addition of Boolean variables (true/false flags). Later authors showed that choice can be replaced by loops (and yet more Boolean variables).


title: Control flow

text: That such minimalism is possible does not mean that it is necessarily desirable; after all, computers theoretically need only [[One instruction set computer|one machine instruction]] (subtract one number from another and branch if the result is negative), but practical computers have dozens or even hundreds of machine instructions.


title: Control flow

text: What Böhm and Jacopini's article showed was that all programs could be goto-free. Other research showed that control structures with one entry and one exit were much easier to understand than any other form, mainly because they could be used anywhere as a statement without disrupting the control flow. In other words, they were "composable". (Later developments, such as [[non-strict programming language]]s – and more recently, composable [[software transactional memory|software transactions]] – have continued this strategy, making components of programs even more freely composable.)


title: Control flow

text: Some academics took a purist approach to the Böhm–Jacopini result and argued that even instructions like codice_1 and codice_2 from the middle of loops are bad practice as they are not needed in the Böhm–Jacopini proof, and thus they advocated that all loops should have a single exit point. This purist approach is embodied in the language [[Pascal (programming language)|Pascal]] (designed in 1968–1969), which up to the mid-1990s was the preferred tool for teaching introductory programming in academia. The direct application of the Böhm–Jacopini theorem may result in additional local variables being introduced in the structured chart, and may also result in some [[code duplication]]. Pascal is affected by both of these problems and according to empirical studies cited by [[Eric S. Roberts]], student programmers had difficulty formulating correct solutions in Pascal for several simple problems, including writing a function for searching an element in an array. A 1980 study by Henry Shapiro cited by Roberts found that using only the Pascal-provided control structures, the correct solution was given by only 20% of the subjects, while no subject wrote incorrect code for this problem if allowed to write a return from the middle of a loop.


title: Control flow

text: Most programming languages with control structures have an initial keyword which indicates the type of control structure involved. Languages then divide as to whether or not control structures have a final keyword.


title: Control flow

text: Conditional expressions and conditional constructs are features of a [[programming language]] which perform different computations or actions depending on whether a programmer-specified [[boolean datatype|boolean]] "condition" evaluates to true or false.


title: Control flow

text: [[Switch statement]]s (or "case statements", or "multiway branches") compare a given value with specified constants and take action according to the first constant to match. There is usually a provision for a default action ("else", "otherwise") to be taken if no match succeeds. Switch statements can allow compiler optimizations, such as [[lookup table]]s. In [[dynamic language]]s, the cases may not be limited to constant expressions, and might extend to [[pattern matching]], as in the [[shell script]] example on the right, where the codice_50 implements the default case as a [[glob (programming)|glob]] matching any string. Case logic


title: Control flow

text: A loop is a sequence of statements which is specified once but which may be carried out several times in succession.


title: Control flow

text: The code "inside" the loop (the "body" of the loop, shown below as "xxx") is obeyed a specified number of times, or once for each of a collection of items, or until some condition is met, or [[infinite loop|indefinitely]].


title: Control flow

text: In [[functional programming]] languages, such as [[Haskell (programming language)|Haskell]] and [[Scheme (programming language)|Scheme]], both [[Recursion (computer science)|recursive]] and [[Fixed point combinator|iterative]] processes are expressed with [[Tail recursion | tail recursive]] procedures instead of looping constructs that are syntactic.


title: Control flow

text: In these examples, if N < 1 then the body of loop may execute once (with I having value 1) or not at all, depending on the programming language.


title: Control flow

text: In many programming languages, only integers can be reliably used in a count-controlled loop. Floating-point numbers are represented imprecisely due to hardware constraints, so a loop such as


title: Control flow

text: might be repeated 9 or 10 times, depending on rounding errors and/or the hardware and/or the compiler version. Furthermore, if the increment of X occurs by repeated addition, accumulated rounding errors may mean that the value of X in each iteration can differ quite significantly from the expected sequence 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, ..., 1.0.


title: Control flow

text: If the test is at the start, the body may be skipped completely; if it is at the end, the body is always executed at least once.


title: Control flow

text: A [[control break]] is a value change detection method used within ordinary loops to trigger processing for groups of values. Values are monitored within the loop and a change diverts program flow to the handling of the group event associated with them.


title: Control flow

text: Several programming languages (e.g., [[Ada (programming language)|Ada]], [[D (programming language)|D]], [[C++11]], [[Smalltalk]], [[PHP]], [[Perl]], [[Object Pascal]], [[Java (programming language)|Java]], [[C Sharp (programming language)|C#]], [[MATLAB]], [[Visual Basic]], [[Ruby (programming language)|Ruby]], [[Python (programming language)|Python]], [[JavaScript]], [[Fortran 95]] and later) have special constructs which allow implicit looping through all elements of an array, or all members of a set or collection.


title: Control flow

text: [[Scala (programming language)|Scala]] has [[Scala (programming language)#For-expressions|for-expressions]], which generalise collection-controlled loops, and also support other uses, such as [[asynchronous programming]]. [[Haskell (programming language)|Haskell]] has do-expressions and comprehensions, which together provide similar function to for-expressions in Scala.


title: Control flow

text: General iteration constructs such as C's codice_52 statement and [[Common Lisp]]'s codice_9 form can be used to express any of the above sorts of loops, and others, such as looping over some number of collections in parallel. Where a more specific looping construct can be used, it is usually preferred over the general iteration construct, since it often makes the purpose of the expression clearer.


title: Control flow

text: [[Infinite loop]]s are used to assure a program segment loops forever or until an exceptional condition arises, such as an error. For instance, an event-driven program (such as a [[Server (computing)|server]]) should loop forever, handling events as they occur, only stopping when the process is terminated by an operator.


title: Control flow

text: Infinite loops can be implemented using other control flow constructs. Most commonly, in unstructured programming this is jump back up (goto), while in structured programming this is an indefinite loop (while loop) set to never end, either by omitting the condition or explicitly setting it to true, as codice_54. Some languages have special constructs for infinite loops, typically by omitting the condition from an indefinite loop. Examples include Ada (codice_55), Fortran (codice_56), Go (codice_57), and Ruby (codice_58).


title: Control flow

text: Often, an infinite loop is unintentionally created by a programming error in a condition-controlled loop, wherein the loop condition uses variables that never change within the loop.


title: Control flow

text: Sometimes within the body of a loop there is a desire to skip the remainder of the loop body and continue with the next iteration of the loop. Some languages provide a statement such as codice_59 (most languages), codice_60, or codice_61 (Perl and Ruby), which will do this. The effect is to prematurely terminate the innermost loop body and then resume as normal with the next iteration. If the iteration is the last one in the loop, the effect is to terminate the entire loop early.


title: Control flow

text: Some languages, like Perl and Ruby, have a codice_62 statement that restarts the current iteration from the start.


title: Control flow

text: When using a count-controlled loop to search through a table, it might be desirable to stop searching as soon as the required item is found. Some programming languages provide a statement such as codice_1 (most languages), codice_65 (Visual Basic), or codice_66 (Perl), which effect is to terminate the current loop immediately, and transfer control to the statement immediately after that loop. Another term for early-exit loops is [[loop-and-a-half]].


title: Control flow

text: The following example is done in [[Ada (programming language)|Ada]] which supports both "early exit from loops" and "[[Control flow#Loop with test in the middle|loops with test in the middle]]". Both features are very similar and comparing both code snippets will show the difference: "early exit" must be combined with an if statement while a "condition in the middle" is a self-contained construct.


title: Control flow

text: [[Python (programming language)|Python]] supports conditional execution of code depending on whether a loop was exited early (with a codice_1 statement) or not by using an else-clause with the loop. For example,


title: Control flow

text: The codice_68 clause in the above example is linked to the codice_52 statement, and not the inner codice_12 statement. Both Python's codice_52 and codice_72 loops support such an else clause, which is executed only if early exit of the loop has not occurred.


title: Control flow

text: Some languages support breaking out of nested loops; in theory circles, these are called multi-level breaks. One common use example is searching a multi-dimensional table. This can be done either via multilevel breaks (break out of "N" levels), as in bash and PHP, or via labeled breaks (break out and continue at given label), as in Java and Perl. Alternatives to multilevel breaks include single breaks, together with a state variable which is tested to break out another level; exceptions, which are caught at the level being broken out to; placing the nested loops in a function and using return to effect termination of the entire nested loop; or using a label and a goto statement. C does not include a multilevel break, and the usual alternative is to use a goto to implement a labeled break. Python does not have a multilevel break or continue – this was proposed in PEP 3136, and rejected on the basis that the added complexity was not worth the rare legitimate use.


title: Control flow

text: The notion of multi-level breaks is of some interest in [[theoretical computer science]], because it gives rise to what is today called the "Kosaraju hierarchy". In 1973 [[S. Rao Kosaraju]] refined the [[structured program theorem]] by proving that it is possible to avoid adding additional variables in structured programming, as long as arbitrary-depth, multi-level breaks from loops are allowed. Furthermore, Kosaraju proved that a strict hierarchy of programs exists: for every integer "n", there exists a program containing a multi-level break of depth "n" that cannot be rewritten as a program with multi-level breaks of depth less than "n" without introducing added variables.


title: Control flow

text: One can also codice_2 out of a subroutine executing the looped statements, breaking out of both the nested loop and the subroutine. There are other [[#Proposed control structures|proposed control structures]] for multiple breaks, but these are generally implemented as exceptions instead.


title: Control flow

text: In his 2004 textbook, [[David Watt (computer scientist)|David Watt]] uses Tennent's notion of [[S-algol|sequencer]] to explain the similarity between multi-level breaks and return statements. Watt notes that a class of sequencers known as "escape sequencers", defined as "sequencer that terminates execution of a textually enclosing command or procedure", encompasses both breaks from loops (including multi-level breaks) and return statements. As commonly implemented, however, return sequencers may also carry a (return) value, whereas the break sequencer as implemented in contemporary languages usually cannot.


title: Control flow

text: In practical terms, a loop variant is an integer expression which has an initial non-negative value. The variant's value must decrease during each loop iteration but must never become negative during the correct execution of the loop. Loop variants are used to guarantee that loops will terminate.


title: Control flow

text: A loop invariant is an assertion which must be true before the first loop iteration and remain true after each iteration. This implies that when a loop terminates correctly, both the exit condition and the loop invariant are satisfied. Loop invariants are used to monitor specific properties of a loop during successive iterations.


title: Control flow

text: Some programming languages, such as [[Eiffel (programming language)|Eiffel]] contain native support for loop variants and invariants. In other cases, support is an add-on, such as the [[Java Modeling Language]]'s specification for loop statements in [[Java (programming language)|Java]].


title: Control flow

text: Some [[Lisp (programming language)|Lisp]] dialects provide an extensive sublanguage for describing Loops. An early example can be found in Conversional Lisp of [[Interlisp]]. [[Common Lisp]] provides a Loop macro which implements such a sublanguage.


title: Control flow

text: Many programming languages, especially those favoring more dynamic styles of programming, offer constructs for "non-local control flow". These cause the flow of execution to jump out of a given context and resume at some predeclared point. "[[Exception handling#Condition systems|Conditions]]", "[[Exception handling|exceptions]]" and "[[continuation]]s" are three common sorts of non-local control constructs; more exotic ones also exist, such as [[Generator (computer programming)|generators]], [[coroutine]]s and the [[Futures and promises|async]] keyword.


title: Control flow

text: [[PL/I]] has some 22 standard conditions (e.g., ZERODIVIDE SUBSCRIPTRANGE ENDFILE) which can be raised and which can be intercepted by: ON "condition" action; Programmers can also define and use their own named conditions.


title: Control flow

text: Like the "unstructured if", only one statement can be specified so in many cases a GOTO is needed to decide where flow of control should resume.


title: Control flow

text: Unfortunately, some implementations had a substantial overhead in both space and time (especially SUBSCRIPTRANGE), so many programmers tried to avoid using conditions.


title: Control flow

text: Modern languages have a specialized structured construct for exception handling which does not rely on the use of codice_81 or (multi-level) breaks or returns. For example, in C++ one can write:


title: Control flow

text: Any number and variety of codice_82 clauses can be used above. If there is no codice_82 matching a particular codice_84, control percolates back through subroutine calls and/or nested blocks until a matching codice_82 is found or until the end of the main program is reached, at which point the program is forcibly stopped with a suitable error message.


title: Control flow

text: Via C++'s influence, codice_82 is the keyword reserved for declaring a pattern-matching exception handler in other languages popular today, like Java or C#. Some other languages like Ada use the keyword codice_87 to introduce an exception handler and then may even employ a different keyword (codice_46 in Ada) for the pattern matching. A few languages like [[AppleScript]] incorporate placeholders in the exception handler syntax to automatically extract several pieces of information when the exception occurs. This approach is exemplified below by the codice_89 construct from AppleScript:


title: Control flow

text: David Watt's 2004 textbook also analyzes exception handling in the framework of sequencers (introduced in this article in the section on early exits from loops). Watt notes that an abnormal situation, generally exemplified with arithmetic overflows or [[input/output]] failures like file not found, is a kind of error that "is detected in some low-level program unit, but [for which] a handler is more naturally located in a high-level program unit". For example, a program might contain several calls to read files, but the action to perform when a file is not found depends on the meaning (purpose) of the file in question to the program and thus a handling routine for this abnormal situation cannot be located in low-level system code. Watts further notes that introducing status flags testing in the caller, as single-exit structured programming or even (multi-exit) return sequencers would entail, results in a situation where "the application code tends to get cluttered by tests of status flags" and that "the programmer might forgetfully or lazily omit to test a status flag. In fact, abnormal situations represented by status flags are by default ignored!" Watt notes that in contrast to status flags testing, exceptions have the opposite [[default (computer science)|default behavior]], causing the program to terminate unless the programmer explicitly deals with the exception in some way, possibly by adding explicit code to ignore it. Based on these arguments, Watt concludes that jump sequencers or escape sequencers aren't as suitable as a dedicated exception sequencer with the semantics discussed above.


title: Control flow

text: In Object Pascal, D, Java, C#, and Python a codice_90 clause can be added to the codice_91 construct. No matter how control leaves the codice_91 the code inside the codice_90 clause is guaranteed to execute. This is useful when writing code that must relinquish an expensive resource (such as an opened file or a database connection) when finished processing:


title: Control flow

text: Upon leaving the codice_94-block, the compiler guarantees that the codice_95 object is released, effectively [[Name binding|binding]] the variable to the file stream while abstracting from the side effects of initializing and releasing the file. Python's codice_96 statement and Ruby's block argument to codice_97 are used to similar effect.


title: Control flow

text: All the languages mentioned above define standard exceptions and the circumstances under which they are thrown.


title: Control flow

text: Users can throw exceptions of their own; in fact C++ allows users to throw and catch almost any type, including basic types like codice_98, whereas other languages like Java aren't as permissive.


title: Control flow

text: [[Generator (computer science)|Generators]], also known as semicoroutines, allow control to be yielded to a consumer method temporarily, typically using a keyword (yield description) . Like the async keyword, this supports programming in a "direct style".


title: Control flow

text: [[Coroutines]] are functions that can yield control to each other - a form of [[co-operative multitasking]] without threads.


title: Control flow

text: Coroutines can be implemented as a library if the programming language provides either continuations or generators - so the distinction between coroutines and generators in practice is a technical detail.


title: Control flow

text: In a spoof [[Datamation]] article in 1973, R. Lawrence Clark suggested that the GOTO statement could be replaced by the [[COMEFROM]] statement, and provides some entertaining examples. COMEFROM was implemented in one [[esoteric programming language]] named [[INTERCAL]].


title: Control flow

text: [[Donald Knuth]]'s 1974 article "Structured Programming with go to Statements", identifies two situations which were not covered by the control structures listed above, and gave examples of control structures which could handle these situations. Despite their utility, these constructs have not yet found their way into mainstream programming languages.


title: Control flow

text: If "xxx1" is omitted, we get a loop with the test at the top (a traditional while loop). If "xxx2" is omitted, we get a loop with the test at the bottom, equivalent to a do while loop in many languages. If while is omitted, we get an infinite loop. The construction here can be thought of as a do loop with the while check in the middle. Hence this single construction can replace several constructions in most programming languages.


title: Control flow

text: Languages lacking this construct generally emulate it using an equivalent infinite-loop-with-break idiom:


title: Control flow

text: A possible variant is to allow more than one while test; within the loop, but the use of exitwhen (see next section) appears to cover this case better.


title: Control flow

text: In [[Ada (programming language)|Ada]], the above loop construct (loop-while-repeat) can be represented using a standard infinite loop (loop - end loop) that has an exit when clause in the middle (not to be confused with the exitwhen statement in the following section).


title: Control flow

text: Naming a loop (like "Read_Data" in this example) is optional but permits leaving the outer loop of several nested loops.


title: Control flow

text: their occurrence is indicated by using the name of the event as a statement. When some event does occur, the relevant action is carried out, and then control passes just after endexit. This construction provides a very clear separation between determining that some situation applies, and the action to be taken for that situation.


title: Control flow

text: exitwhen is conceptually similar to [[exception handling]], and exceptions or similar constructs are used for this purpose in many languages.


title: Control flow

text: One way to attack a piece of software is to redirect the flow of execution of a program. A variety of [[control-flow integrity]] techniques, including [[Stack canary|stack canaries]], [[buffer overflow protection]], shadow stacks, and [[Virtual method table|vtable]] pointer verification, are used to defend against these attacks.


title: Flag of Bulgaria

text: The flag of Bulgaria () is a tricolour consisting of three equal-sized horizontal bands of (from top to bottom) white, green, and red. The flag was first adopted after the 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War, when Bulgaria gained de facto independence. The national flag at times was charged with the state emblem, especially during the communist era. The current flag was re-established with the 1991 Constitution of Bulgaria and was confirmed in a 1998 law.


title: Flag of Bulgaria

text: In 866, Pope Nicholas I advised Prince Boris who had recently Christianised his people to switch from the practice of using a horse tail as a banner to adopting the Holy Cross.


title: Flag of Bulgaria

text: Later illuminated versions of the chronicles of John Skylitzes and Constantine Manasses depict the army of Khan Krum carrying flags either in monotone red, or red with a black border. The army of Simeon the Great is also depicted carrying red banners of varying shape. The Radziwiłł Chronicle also depicts Tzar Simeon I's army under a red flag in the 921-922 campaign against Byzantium, but the depiction of the Hungarian invasion of 894 featured the Bulgarian fortress of Drastar under a white flag with a crescent and a six-pointed star. Any pictorial representations of flags in the manuscripts mentioned above, regardless of the faction or time depicted, conform strongly to the overall illustration style used in each manuscript. In addition, none of those manuscripts dates to the time of the First Bulgarian Empire. The historicity of those flags is thus impossible to verify.


title: Flag of Bulgaria

text: Depictions of Bulgarian flags can be seen on various portolan maps from the 14th and 15th centuries. On those maps, the flags commonly have a white or golden background and depict either the insignia of the ruling House of Shishman, or unknown symbols in red. Those drawings are markedly more diverse than the flags of the neighboring countries such as the Eastern Roman Empire, the Golden Horde or the Serbian Empire, which in the same maps are largely consistent.


title: Flag of Bulgaria

text: After the liberation of Bulgaria following the Russo-Turkish War in 1878, the flag was described in the Tarnovo Constitution of 1879 as follows:


title: Flag of Bulgaria

text: From 1947 to 1990 the emblem of the People's Republic of Bulgaria was placed on the left side of the white stripe. It contained a lion within a wreath of wheat ears below a red star and above a ribbon bearing the date 9 September 1944, the day of Bulgarian coup d'état of 1944 which led to the establishment of the People's Republic of Bulgaria. In 1971, it was changed so the ribbon bearing the years 681, the year of the establishment of the First Bulgarian Empire by Asparukh and 1944.


title: Flag of Bulgaria

text: After the fall of Communism in 1990, the then-enforced Zhivkov Constitution was amended so the flag could be reverted to the pre-Communist era. The new Constitution of Bulgaria, adopted in 1991, describes the Bulgarian flag as follows:


title: Flag of Bulgaria

text: A popular version of the flag, which has no official status, is also commonly known. It has the full coat of arms on the left of the flag, placed across the white and green fields only.


title: Flag of Bulgaria

text: According to the Law for the State Seal and National Flag of the Republic of Bulgaria, promulgated on 24 April 1998:


title: Flag of Bulgaria

text: According to the Standardisation and Metrology Committee, the following are the required colours for use in the national flag:


title: Bagshot Park

text: Bagshot Park is a royal residence located near Bagshot, a village south of Windsor. It is on Bagshot Heath, a tract of formerly open land in Surrey and Berkshire. Bagshot Park occupies within the designated area of Windsor Great Park.


title: Bagshot Park

text: The Mansion house was listed, Grade II, as a building of special architectural or historic interest in 1976. The present building was built on the site of an earlier mansion in 1879 with red brick and stone dressings in Tudor gothic style, for Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught. Side and rear extensions were added in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The landscaped grounds are also Grade II listed on the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens.


title: Bagshot Park

text: Prince Henry came to Bagshot Lodge on 4 September 1609 and gave £1 to the musicians who entertained him. The Lodge was rebuilt between 1631 and 1633 as one of a series of small lodges designed for Charles I by Inigo Jones. It was remodelled between 1766 and 1772 according to designs of James Paine for George Keppel, the 3rd Earl of Albemarle, and altered in 1798 by Sir John Soane for the Duke of Clarence (later King William IV), who lived there until 1816.


title: Bagshot Park

text: Bagshot Park was subsequently used by Prince William Frederick, Duke of Gloucester, nephew of King George III. The Duke added pieces of property between the estate and Sunningdale; his widow, Princess Mary, daughter of King George III, continued to live there after his death until she moved out in 1847. The original house was demolished in 1877–78.


title: Bagshot Park

text: A new building with 120 rooms was completed in 1879. The 1881 census records an equerry and 26 servants living in the main house: an under butler, a housekeeper, four valets, two lady's maids, two dressers, a cook, three kitchen maids, three housemaids, three footmen, a page, a porter, a scullery maid, two other junior posts and a soldier. A coachman and seven grooms lived in the stables. Two other domestic staff lived in one of the lodges, three agricultural workers lived in another, and one gardener is recorded as living on the estate. From 1880 this was the principal residence of Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn, a son of Queen Victoria. The Duke, who was Governor General of Canada from 1911 until 1916, died at Bagshot Park in 1942. The property had been in grace and favour occupation.


title: Bagshot Park

text: Following the Duke's death, Bagshot Park was requisitioned by the Army for the Auxiliary Territorial Service (later to become the WRAC) to use as their Staff College. This closed at the end of the war.


title: Bagshot Park

text: In 1946 George VI offered the house to the Royal Army Chaplains' Department to be used as a Church House and Chaplains' Depot. The Army Chaplains were in residence from 1947 but relocated to Andover, Hampshire, in April 1996, shortly before the Earl and Countess of Wessex took over the tenancy. The Army Chaplains famously placed a notice by the pond reading ""Please do not walk on the water"". The original sign was removed when the chaplains left, but a new one, made by J. M. J. Holland Chairmakers and given to the Earl of Wessex, has replaced it.


title: Bagshot Park

text: Although the house was criticised as ugly by the architectural historian Nikolaus Pevsner, it was said to be the most adventurous royal house to be created since the death of Albert, the Prince Consort of Queen Victoria, in 1861. It is also a remarkable monument in the history of Indian taste in Britain: an Indian billiard room wing, which inspired the more famous Durbar Room at Osborne House, was prefabricated in India and installed in the 1880s. This was a result of the Duke of Connaught's Indian tour, when the Duke met John Lockwood Kipling and asked him to design and oversee the installation of a billiard room in Indian taste. The Indian craftsmen who assembled and installed the room at Bagshot were housed in a tent in the grounds. The work took two years and was a wedding gift from Indian princes to the Duke and Duchess of Connaught.


title: Bagshot Park

text: In March 1998, the Mansion House at Bagshot Park, including a block of stables and Sunningdale Lodge, was leased by the Crown Estate to Prince Edward for 50 years. The Mansion House was renovated as a residence for the prince. The renovation was partly funded by the Crown Estate and partly funded by Prince Edward. The renovation was originally estimated to cost £2.18m, with £1.6m from the Crown Estate and the remainder being paid by the prince. The National Audit Office (NAO) report on the transaction states that the final cost of renovations was £2.98m; the Crown Estate paid £1.6m and the estimated excess of £1.38m was paid by Prince Edward.


title: Bagshot Park

text: The prince rented it from the Crown Estate initially for £5,000 a year then after renovation rising to £90,000 a year subject to 15-year rent reviews linked to RPI. According to the NAO report, the property leased by the prince does not include commercial farmland or woodland. The lease agreement permits subletting of the stable block.


title: Joy Philbin

text: Bette Joy Philbin (née Senese; born February 1, 1941) is an American television personality, and the widow of television personality Regis Philbin.


title: Joy Philbin

text: In the late 1960s, Senese worked as an assistant to comedian and talk show host Joey Bishop. Regis Philbin was Bishop's on-air sidekick.


title: Joy Philbin

text: Many years later, after raising children, Philbin hosted HGTV's "At Home With..." and the syndicated home show, "Haven". She occasionally co-hosted with her husband on his show, "Live with Regis and Kathie Lee" (1988–2001), and she also occasionally co-hosted with him on "Live with Regis and Kelly" in Kelly Ripa's absence, until he retired. She also guest-starred with her husband on Ripa's situation-comedy television series "Hope & Faith" (2003–2006).


title: Joy Philbin

text: Joy and Regis Philbin were married on March 1, 1970, and together the couple had two daughters, Joanna and J. J.


title: Joy Philbin

text: In August 2007, Regis and Joy Philbin announced that their daughter J. J. and her husband, television producer Michael Schur, were expecting their first child in 2008, a boy named William Xavier Schur. He was nicknamed "Mr. Trouble" by Regis, and was often referred to as such on "Live". In 2010, J. J. gave birth to another child, a girl named Ivy Elizabeth Schur.


title: Joy Philbin

text: The couple split their time between their apartment in New York City and condo in Beverly Hills, California.


title: Wallpaper Engine

text: Wallpaper Engine is an application for Windows with a companion app on Android which allows users to use and create animated and interactive wallpapers, similar to the defunct Windows DreamScene. Wallpapers are shared through the Steam Workshop functionality as user-created downloadable content. It features its own rendering engine and provides a wallpaper editor, allowing for the creation of 2D and 3D wallpapers, including a particle system editor and a fork of JavaScript called "SceneScript" for additional wallpaper logic. It also supports using video files, audio files, web-pages and some 3D applications as wallpapers.


title: Wallpaper Engine

text: A proposal outlining the general idea of the software was added to Steam Greenlight in December 2015. The application was subsequently released as a paid product on Steam in October 2016 as an early access title. After three years of development, the software left its early access stage in November 2018.


title: Wallpaper Engine

text: Despite not being a game, Wallpaper Engine is one of the most used apps of Steam, being located in Steam's Top 25 played games in July 2019 and Top 10 played games in November 2021.


title: Fuuto PI

text: Taking place after "Kamen Rider W Returns: Kamen Rider Accel", two years after the main TV series' finale, Fuuto PI sees the return of Shotaro Hidari, a private detective who works at Narumi Detective Agency, and his partner Raito "Philip" Sonozaki, the sole survivor of the Sonozaki family who can access the Gaia Library. Together they transform into Kamen Rider W, who protects the city of Fuuto from Dopants, monsters created by Gaia Memories. They solve cases alongside their boss Akiko Terui, who often joins their investigations with her husband Ryu (a member of the police force who is also Kamen Rider Accel).


title: Fuuto PI

text: One day, Shotaro encounters an amnesiac pink-haired girl named Tokime, who is being targeted by Dopants. After saving her, they decided to hire her at Narumi Detective Agency as their assistant. As Shotaro and Philip solve more cases, they gradually uncover Tokime's connection with the mysterious Aurora Dopant and her past life, along with the true potential of Gaia Memories' next stage used by Dopants in their human forms, dubbed High Dopes.


title: Fuuto PI

text: "Fuuto PI", written by Riku Sanjo and illustrated by Masaki Sato, began in Shogakukan's "seinen" manga magazine "Big Comic Spirits" on August 7, 2017. Shogakukan has collected its chapters into individual "tankōbon" volumes. The first volume was released on March 30, 2018. As of August 30, 2022, thirteen volumes have been released.


title: Fuuto PI

text: An anime television series adaptation was announced on April 3, 2021. The series was animated by Studio Kai. Yousuke Kabashima is directing the series, with Tatsuto Higuchi handling series' composition, Hidekazu Ebina designing the characters, and Kōtarō Nakagawa and Shuhei Naruse composing the series' music. The series debuted on the U-NEXT service on August 1, 2022, before premiering on Tokyo MX on August 8. The opening theme song is "Private Eye" by Big Gadgets ft. Aya Kamiki w TAKUYA while the ending theme song is by Mitsuru Matsuoka and Kōji Kikkawa, who previously portrayed Kamen Riders Eternal and Skull. The series was initially licensed by Funimation but was moved to Crunchyroll following Sony's acquisition of the platform. Muse Communication licensed the series in Southeast Asia.


title: Fuuto PI

text: As of May 2018, the manga had 300,000 copies in circulation. As of December 2018, the manga had 1.05 million copies in circulation.


title: Fuuto PI

text: The series ranked #15 on "Kono Manga ga Sugoi!" 2019 ranking of Top 20 manga for male readers. The series ranked #8 on Honya Club's "Nationwide Bookstore Employees' Recommended Comics of 2018".


The New York University Tisch School of the Arts (commonly referred to as Tisch) is the performing, cinematic and media arts school of New York University.


title: New York University Tisch School of the Arts

text: Founded on August 17, 1965, Tisch is a training ground for artists, scholars of the arts, and filmmakers. The school is divided into three Institutes: Performing Arts, Emerging Media, and Film & Television. Many undergraduate and graduate disciplines are available for students, including: acting, dance, drama, performance studies, design for stage and film, musical theatre writing, photography, record producing, game design and development, and film and television studies.


text: The school also offers an inter-disciplinary "collaborative arts" program, high school programs, continuing education in the arts for the general public, as well as the Clive Davis Institute of Recorded Music, which teaches entrepreneurial strategies in the music recording industry. A dual MFA/MBA graduate program is also offered, allowing students to take coursework at both Tisch and NYU's Stern School of Business. It is located at 721 Broadway (the intersection of Broadway St. and Waverly Place), adjacent to the university's Department of Philosophy building and the Gallatin School of Individualized Study, in the Greenwich Village neighborhood of Lower Manhattan, New York City. In 2013, NYU opened a new technology hub on its Brooklyn campus called the Media and Games Network (MAGNET). Located at 2 MetroTech Center and, beginning in 2019, 370 Jay Street, MAGNET houses three Tisch programs: the Clive Davis Institute of Recorded Music, the Interactive Telecommunications/Interactive Media Arts programs (ITP & IMA), and the Game Center; these programs work in collaboration with departments in media technology from NYU's Tandon School of Engineering and Steinhardt School of Culture, Education, and Human Development.


text: As of 2019, 22 Academy Award winners, 17 Emmy Award winners, 12 Tony Award winners, and four Grammy Award winners have been affiliated with Tisch alumni and faculty. , the school had more than 25,000 alumni working in the arts and related professions, and has more alumni in Broadway theatre than any other school for theater in the United States.


text: The Tisch School of the Arts was founded in order to provide conservatory training in theater and film in the context of a research university. The school created additional departments such as dance, theatre design, and cinema studies within a few years. Following the creation of the undergraduate Department of Drama in 1974, the school expanded into other artistic forms, including the Interactive Telecommunications Program, Department of Dramatic Writing, Department of Performance Studies, Graduate Musical Theatre Writing Program, Department of Photography and Imaging, and The Department of Art and Public Policy.


text: In 1982, the school's second dean, David Oppenheim, solicited a donation from Laurence A. and Preston Robert Tisch that made possible the acquisition and renovation of the location at 721 Broadway where most of the school's programs are housed. In recognition of the generosity of the Tisch family, the school was renamed Tisch School of the Arts in 1982.


text: Tisch School of the Arts has three institutes and 16 programs and offers the Bachelor of Fine Arts (BFA), Bachelor of Arts (BA), Master of Fine Arts (MFA), Master of Arts (MA), Master of Professional Studies (MPS), and Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) degrees. Tisch also offers a selection of classes to NYU students not enrolled in any of its programs through the Open Arts curriculum.


text: The school also offers an inter-disciplinary "collaborative arts" program, as well as the Clive Davis Institute of Recorded Music (founded by Sony Music CEO Clive Davis), one of the few programs in the US to combine musical arts and business strategies in the recording industry. A dual MFA/MBA graduate program is also offered, allowing students to take coursework at both Tisch and NYU's Stern School of Business. It also offers high school programs (the "Tisch Summer High School Program" and "Spring Future Artists Programs") as an outgrowth of the undergraduate classes, and professional courses for the general public as part of a commitment to continuing education in the arts.


text: NYU's first branch campus abroad was the result of a partnership with Singapore Government agencies under Singapore's "Global Schoolhouse" program. Tisch Asia was also Singapore's first graduate arts school and offered Master of Fine Arts degrees in animation and digital arts, dramatic writing, film, and international media producing. Summer programs included professional workshops and non-credit certificate courses. The campus opened in fall 2007 on the former Ministry of Education & Republic Polytechnic grounds at 3 Kay Siang Road, Singapore, with the intention to enroll approximately 250 students.


text: The anticipated enrollment figures were not achieved, financial losses and embezzlement were alleged and Tisch Asia President Pari Sara Shirazi was dismissed from her post by NYU in November 2011. She subsequently lost a lawsuit claiming defamation and breach of contract. The Tisch Asia campus closed in 2014, with polarised recollections, ranging from positive endorsement, to allegations that it had been "an educational scam" in a failed lawsuit brought by three former students.


text: During the COVID-19 pandemic of 2020, which forced NYU to move academic instruction online, many Tisch students demanded a tuition refund, believing that virtual classes did not adequately meet their academic needs as a school for performing, cinematic, and media arts. In one of many pandemic-related emails, the school's dean sent students a video of herself dancing to R.E.M.'s "Losing My Religion", intended to raise community spirit. After hearing from students, the dean further clarified that individual schools have no control over tuition and that it was "challenging" for the university to give students their money back at the time.


title: Bad Guys (TV series)

text: Bad Guys () is a 2014 South Korean television series starring Kim Sang-joong, Park Hae-jin, Ma Dong-seok, Jo Dong-hyuk and Kang Ye-won. It aired on OCN from October 4 to December 13, 2014, on Saturdays at 22:00 for 11 episodes.


title: Bad Guys (TV series)

text: Detective Oh Gu-tak will use any means necessary to catch criminals, and his ambiguous moral line often results in him getting suspended for excessive force. Gu-tak comes up with a plan to form a team of "bad guys" to work on cases and hunt down other criminals, and with the rising number of violent crimes in their district, ambitious police inspector Yoo Mi-young signs off on the arrangement.


title: Bad Guys (TV series)

text: Gu-tak releases three convicts from jail to form his team: Lee Jung-moon is the youngest member of Mensa with a genius IQ of 165 and doctorate degrees in math and philosophy, but behind his boyish facade is a psychopath serial killer; Park Woong-Cheol is a mob boss who crushed his way to the top of the gangster chain in 25 days, and still remains top dog in prison; and Jung Tae-soo was once a hired hit man who never made a single mistake, but suddenly confessed and turned himself in one day.


title: Bad Guys (TV series)

text: The drama is available to stream on Netflix with a variety of subtitles in North America, Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, the Philippines and Sri Lanka.


title: Cokie Roberts

text: Mary Martha Corinne Morrison Claiborne "Cokie" Roberts (née Boggs; December 27, 1943 – September 17, 2019) was an American journalist and author. Her career included decades as a political reporter and analyst for National Public Radio, PBS, and ABC News, with prominent positions on "Morning Edition", "The MacNeil/Lehrer NewsHour", "World News Tonight", and "This Week". She was considered one of NPR's "Founding Mothers" along with Susan Stamberg, Linda Wertheimer and Nina Totenberg.


title: Cokie Roberts

text: Roberts, along with her husband, Steve, wrote a weekly column syndicated by United Media in newspapers around the United States. She served on the boards of several non-profit organizations such as the Kaiser Family Foundation and was appointed by President George W. Bush to his Council on Service and Civic Participation.


title: Cokie Roberts

text: Roberts was born in New Orleans. She received the nickname Cokie from her brother, Tommy, who as a child could not pronounce her given name, Corinne.


title: Cokie Roberts

text: Her parents were Lindy Boggs and Hale Boggs, each of whom served for decades as Democratic members of the House of Representatives from Louisiana; Lindy succeeded Hale after his plane disappeared over Alaska in 1972. Cokie was their third child. Her sister Barbara became mayor of Princeton, New Jersey and a candidate for the United States Senate. Her brother Tommy became a prominent attorney and lobbyist in Washington, D.C.


title: Cokie Roberts

text: She attended the Academy of the Sacred Heart, an all-girls Roman Catholic high school in New Orleans, and graduated from the Stone Ridge School, an all-girls school outside Washington, D.C., in 1960. She graduated from Wellesley College in 1964, where she received a Bachelor of Arts in political science.


title: Cokie Roberts

text: Roberts' first job in journalism was at WRC-TV in Washington, D.C., where she was host of its weekly public affairs program "Meeting of the Minds". After moving with her husband Steve, also a journalist, to New York City, she found work in 1967 as a reporter for Cowles Communications. She worked briefly as a producer for WNEW-TV before Steve's career had them relocating to Los Angeles. She worked for Altman Productions and then for KNBC-TV as producer of the children's program "Serendipity", which won a 1971 Los Angeles Area Emmy Award. She also moved with her husband to Greece, where she was a stringer for CBS News in Athens.


title: Cokie Roberts

text: Roberts began working for National Public Radio (NPR) in 1978, working as the congressional correspondent for more than 10 years. Because of her early involvement as a female journalist in the network at a time when women were not often involved in journalism at the highest levels, she has been called one of the "founding mothers of NPR." Roberts was a contributor to the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) on the evening television news program "The MacNeil/Lehrer NewsHour". Her coverage of the Iran-Contra Affair for that program won her the Edward Weintal Prize for Diplomatic Reporting in 1988. From 1981 to 1984, in addition to her work at NPR, she also cohosted "The Lawmakers", a weekly public television program on Congress. Starting in 1992, Roberts served as a senior news analyst and commentator for NPR, primarily on the daily news program "Morning Edition". In 1994, "The New York Times" credited her, along with NPR's Linda Wertheimer and Nina Totenberg, with transforming male-dominated Washington, D.C., political journalism.


title: Cokie Roberts

text: Roberts went to work for ABC News in 1988 as a political correspondent for ABC's "World News Tonight" with Peter Jennings, continuing to serve part-time as a political commentator at NPR.


title: Cokie Roberts

text: She appeared as a panelist for many years on ABC News' Sunday morning broadcast "This Week with David Brinkley". After Brinkley's retirement, she co-anchored the program with Sam Donaldson (renamed "This Week with Sam Donaldson & Cokie Roberts") from 1996 to 2002, while serving as the chief congressional analyst for ABC News. The two were replaced as anchors in September 2002 by George Stephanopoulos. She also covered politics, Congress, and public policy while reporting for "World News Tonight" and other ABC News broadcasts. Roberts continued to serve occasionally as a panelist on "This Week" and work on NPR. Her final assignment with NPR was a series of segments on "Morning Edition" titled "Ask Cokie," in which she answered questions submitted by listeners about subjects usually related to U.S. politics.


title: Cokie Roberts

text: In 1989, Sister Dianna Ortiz, a Catholic sister from New Mexico, was abducted, raped, and tortured while working in Guatemala by members of a Guatemalan government-backed death squad. Her abductors believed Ortiz was a subversive. During a subsequent interview, Roberts contested Ortiz's claim that an American was among her captors. (The United States provided significant military aid to Guatemala at the time.) Roberts implied that Ortiz was lying about the entire episode, although Ortiz later won a lawsuit against a Guatemalan general she accused in the case. It was later revealed that Patton Boggs, the law firm of Roberts' brother Tommy, was paid by the Guatemalan government to promote a more positive image of the regime, which was widely criticized internationally for human rights abuses.


title: Cokie Roberts

text: Roberts won the Edward R. Murrow Award, the Everett McKinley Dirksen Award for coverage of Congress, and a 1991 Emmy Award for her contribution to "Who Is Ross Perot?" In 1997, she received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement presented by Awards Council member Sam Donaldson. In 2000, she won the Walter Cronkite Award for Excellence in Journalism.


title: Cokie Roberts

text: Roberts and her mother, Lindy Boggs, won the Foremother Award from the National Center for Health Research in 2013.


title: Cokie Roberts

text: She was made an honoris causa initiate of Omicron Delta Kappa in 1995 from the University of Akron and later received the organization's highest honor, the Laurel Crowned Circle. Roberts was also inducted into the Broadcasting & Cable Hall of Fame in 2000. She was also cited as one of the 50 greatest women in the history of broadcasting by the American Women in Radio and Television.


title: Cokie Roberts

text: From 1966 until her death, Roberts was married to Steven V. Roberts, a professor and fellow journalist. They met in summer 1962, when she was 18 and he was 19. They resided in Bethesda, Maryland. They had two children: a son, Lee, and a daughter, Rebecca. Roberts was a Roman Catholic.


title: Cokie Roberts

text: In 2002, Roberts was diagnosed with metastatic breast cancer. She was successfully treated at the time but died from complications of the disease in Washington, D.C., on September 17, 2019.


title: Olympic Airways Flight 411

text: Olympic Airways Flight 411 was a flight from Ellinikon International Airport bound for John F. Kennedy International Airport and operated by Olympic Airways using a Boeing 747-200 that on 9 August 1978, came close to crashing in downtown Athens. Despite maneuvers near the edge of the flight envelope, none of the 418 passengers and crew suffered serious injury.


title: Olympic Airways Flight 411

text: Based upon review of the flight data recorder, Boeing concluded that nine seconds after liftoff, the flight crew had turned off the water injection pumps in response to warnings, which reduced thrust. Turning off the pumps when the plane was in takeoff climb limited the plane's ability to climb. Boeing states that thrust was increased manually after 325 seconds and then the plane climbed normally.


title: Olympic Airways Flight 411

text: Captain Sifis Migadis managed to keep the aircraft in the air at an extremely low altitude below minimal speed. All Boeing simulations of the flight resulted in crashes.


title: Olympic Airways Flight 411

text: The Boeing 747 was the first "jumbo jet". It was a prestige aircraft in the 1970s and purchased by many airlines as a fleet flagship. Olympic Airways received its first 747 in 1973. Olympic Airways was the flag carrier for Greece and had purchased 747s for some of its prime routes, including a nonstop between Athens and New York. This meant that large numbers of American tourists could be accommodated in one flight at lower per-seat costs to the airlines.


title: Olympic Airways Flight 411

text: Athens lies in the center of four large mountains: Mount Aigaleo to the west, Mount Parnitha to the north, Mount Pentelicus to the northeast and Mount Hymettus to the east. The geographical area is called Athens Basin or the Attica Basin (). The meteorology of Athens is deemed to be one of the most complex in the world because its mountains cause a temperature inversion phenomenon. The temperature that day was .


title: Olympic Airways Flight 411

text: The captain of the flight was Sifis Migadis, who had 32 years of experience with Olympic. The first officer, Kostas Fikardos, was also considered experienced and was a close friend of Migadis'.


title: Olympic Airways Flight 411

text: SX-OAA, named "Olympic Zeus", was an Olympic Boeing 747-200. The 747-200 model featured more powerful engines and a higher maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) than the previous 747-100 model. One of the principal technologies that enabled an aircraft as large as the 747 to lift off was the high-bypass turbofan engine. In the late 1960s, Pratt & Whitney developed a new such engine, and designated the JT9D to power the 747; with water injection, it delivered more thrust for the heavy jumbo jet.


title: Olympic Airways Flight 411

text: On 9 August 1978, 418 passengers and crew were scheduled to take off from Athens at 2:00 pm on a direct flight to New York. The plane was heavy with the 160 tons of fuel required for the transatlantic flight. The plane, which weighed on the day of the flight, was takeoff climb limited at using the JT9D-7A wet thrust engine.


title: Olympic Airways Flight 411

text: According to Boeing, engines 3 and 4 idled lower than usual as the aircraft taxied. The plane initially lifted off and climbed normally. Boeing states that around nine seconds after engine shutdown, the water pump switch was turned off, when the flight crew misinterpreted the "water flow" warning as "water run-out". Speed decreased and altitude was lost. The Boeing report does not mention that engine number three exploded and other engines lost power, as was reported in the Greek newspapers.


title: Olympic Airways Flight 411

text: The captain, contrary to the aircraft flight manual, immediately ordered the landing gear retracted when the plane was above the runway. Migadis used his knowledge of aerodynamics to prevent the plane from stalling. The minimum speed for a 747 is . He needed to fly level and avoid turning as much as possible. He also focused on getting the plane away from the city and to an unpopulated area, like Mount Aigaleo, to reduce the loss of lives if the plane crashed. While Migadis and Fikardos flew the plane, the engineer focused on the problems with the engines.


title: Olympic Airways Flight 411

text: The plane climbed sluggishly to an altitude of just as it approached the Pani Hill in Alimos, after which the plane lost altitude. As it passed over Kallithea, Nea Smyrni, and Syggrou, its altitude was only and its speed was . The plane flew just above apartment rooftops and took down some television antennas. The aircraft passed close to the Interamerican Tower. At some point, Migadis lowered the nose of the plane to gain speed and the engineer was able to increase the engines' power. When the speed reached , Migadis worked on increasing altitude and heading towards the sea.


title: Olympic Airways Flight 411

text: The larger obstacle of Mount Aigaleo at was of great concern because the low airspeed and minimal altitude did not leave the flight crew enough room to execute a normal banked turn. At 2:05 pm, a light headwind gave the plane some altitude, which allowed Migadis to make a gradual turn to avoid crashing into the mountain. After flying over the sea to dump fuel, the aircraft returned to Ellinikon International Airport safely.


title: Olympic Airways Flight 411

text: The Air Accident Investigation and Aviation Safety Board, the Greek national air safety board that investigates aviation accidents and incidents, was not established until 2004. Brien S. Wygle, the vice president of Customer Support at Boeing, issued a report entitled "Performance Analysis of the Olympic Airways Takeoff at Athens on August 9, 1978 with an Engine Failure at Rotation" to Alex Fissher, Director of Flight Standards at the Greek Civilian Aviation Authority. Boeing concluded that,


title: Olympic Airways Flight 411

text: Newspapers reported that engine three exploded during takeoff due to overheating of the turbine cooling pipes. From the flight recorder, the lowest speed during the flight was . The dangerous period of the flight lasted 93 seconds. Migadis managed to keep the aircraft in the air at an extremely low altitude and with below-minimum speed. All Boeing simulations of the flight resulted in crashes. Olympic Airlines changed some of its procedures based upon the lessons learned from this flight. Boeing's training curriculum includes review of this case. Boeing is reported to have considered the aircraft unrepairable and a write-off.


title: Olympic Airways Flight 411

text: In the late 1960s, Pratt & Whitney developed the JT9D engine on an accelerated timetable, which resulted in engine flaws. In the 1970s, the JT9D engine had a number of mechanical issues and proper maintenance was required to ensure the engine's safety. For instance, high-pressure turbine core fan blades could become damaged and require replacement after 500 hours. The JT9 engines were also sensitive to tailwind airflow conditions at start. The early JT9D engines could flame out if the thrust levers were slammed forward. The jarring movement could put pressure on the engine and ultimately result in a flame out.


title: Olympic Airways Flight 411

text: In 1971, American Airlines Flight 14 took off from San Francisco for New York. Sixteen seconds after the Boeing 747 lifted off, the Pratt & Whitney JT9D number 1 engine exploded after its turbine blades disintegrated. It was at an altitude of . The National Transportation Safety Board said in its incident report that this was likely due to an ongoing pattern of the engine become overheated during starting procedures. The plane returned to the airport and landed safely.


title: Wolof people

text: The Wolof people () are a West African ethnic group found in northwestern Senegal, the Gambia, and southwestern coastal Mauritania. In Senegal, the Wolof are the largest ethnic group (~43.3%), while elsewhere they are a minority. They refer to themselves as "Wolof" and speak the Wolof language, in the West Atlantic branch of the Niger–Congo family of languages.


title: Wolof people

text: Their early history is unclear. The earliest documented mention of the Wolof is found in the records of 15th-century, Portuguese-financed Italian traveller Alvise Cadamosto, who mentioned well-established Islamic Wolof chiefs advised by Muslim counselors. The Wolof belonged to the medieval-era Wolof Empire of the Senegambia region.


title: Wolof people

text: Details of the pre-Islamic religious traditions of the Wolof are unknown, and their oral traditions state them to have been adherents of Islam since the founding king of Jolof. However, historical evidence left by Islamic scholars and European travelers suggest that Wolof warriors and rulers did not initially convert to Islam, although accepting and relying on Muslim clerics as counselors and administrators. In and after the 18th century, the Wolofs were impacted by the violent jihads in West Africa, which triggered internal disagreements about Islam among the Wolof. In the 19th century, as the colonial French forces launched a war against the Wolof kingdoms, the Wolof people resisted the French and converted to Islam. Contemporary Wolofs are predominantly Sufi Muslims belonging to Mouride and Tijaniyyah Islamic brotherhoods.


title: Wolof people

text: The Wolof people, like other West African ethnic groups, historically maintained a rigid, endogamous social stratification that included nobility, clerics, castes, and slaves. The Wolof were close to the French colonial rulers, became integrated into the colonial administration, and have dominated the culture and economy of Senegal since the country's independence.


title: Wolof people

text: They are also referred to as the Wollof, Jolof, Iolof, Whalof, Ialof, Olof, and Volof, among other spellings.


title: Wolof people

text: The term "Wolof" also refers to the Wolof language and to their states, cultures, and traditions. Older French publications frequently employ the spelling ; up to the 19th century, the spellings "Wolluf", "Volof", and "Olof" are also encountered, among rarer variants like "Yolof", "Dylof", "Chelof", "Galof", "Lolof", and others. In English, "Wollof" and "Woloff" are found, particularly in reference to the Gambian Wolof; for English-speakers, the spelling "Wollof" is closer to the native pronunciation of the name.) The spelling "Jolof" is also often used, but in particular reference to the Jolof Empire and Jolof Kingdom that existed in central Senegal from the 14th to the 19th centuries. Similarly, a West African rice dish is known in English as Jollof rice.


title: Wolof people

text: The origins of the Wolof people are obscure, states David Gamble, a professor of anthropology and African studies specializing in Senegambia. Archeological artifacts have been discovered in Senegal and the Gambia, such as pre-historic pottery, the 8th-century stones, and 14th-century burial mounds, but, states Gamble, these provide no evidence that links them exclusively to the Wolof ethnic group. Their name as the Wolof first appears in the records of 15th-century Portuguese travelers.


title: Wolof people

text: With the Arab conquests of West Africa in last centuries of the 1st millennium CE, one theory states that the Wolof people were forced to move into north and east Senegal where over time villages developed into autonomous states such as Baol, Kayor, Saloum, Dimar, Walo, and Sine the overall ruling state being that of Jolof who came together voluntarily to form the Jolof Empire. According to Gamble, this migration likely occurred at the end of 11th century when the Ghana Empire fell to the Muslim armies from Sudan.


title: Wolof people

text: Another oral tradition tells of a legend in Walo, which starts with two villages near a lake in a dispute. A mysterious person arose from the lake to settle the dispute. The villagers detained him; he settled among them and became the one who settled disputes and sovereign authority. He was called "Ndyadyane Ndyaye", and his descendants were called "Ndiayes" or "Njie", and these led to ruling families of Wolof, Mali according to this mythical legend. The documented history, from 15th-century onwards, is a complex story of the rivalry between powerful families, wars, coups and conquests in Wolof society.


title: Wolof people

text: The Jolof or Wolof Empire was a medieval West African state that ruled parts of Senegal and the Gambia from approximately 1350 to 1890. While only ever consolidated into a single state structure for part of this time, the tradition of governance, caste, and culture of the Wolof dominate the history of north-central Senegal for much of the last 800 years. Its final demise at the hands of French colonial forces in the 1870s–1890s also marks the beginning of the formation of Senegal as a unified state.


title: Wolof people

text: By the end of the 15th century, the Wolof states of Jolof, Kayor, Baol, and Walo had become united in a federation with Jolof as the metropolitan power. The position of king was held by the Burba Wolof, and the rulers of the other component states owed loyalty and tribute payments to him. Before the Wolof people became involved in goods and slave trading with the Portuguese merchants on the coast, they had a long tradition of established trading of goods and slaves with the Western Sudanese empires and with Imamate of Futa Toro and other ethnic groups in North Africa.


title: Wolof people

text: Slavery had been a part of the Wolof culture since their earliest recorded history. Prior to the arrival of Europeans to regions inhabited by the Wolof, slaves there were either born into slavery or enslaved via purchase or capture in warfare. Beginning in the 16th century, Portuguese slave traders started to purchase slaves from Senegambian ports to transport to their American colonies; these slaves frequently passed through Wolof lands before arriving at the coast. As the European demand for slaves increased during the 17th and 18th centuries, the era saw a corresponding increase in Wolof slave raids with the purpose of acquiring captives to transport to the coast.


title: Wolof people

text: The transatlantic slave trade also led to the Wolof acquiring European firearms, which were commonly bartered for slaves at the West African coast. With these firearms, the intensity and violence of Wolof slave raids (and conflicts with other ethnic groups in general) increased. However, these slave raids eventually began to subside as European and American governments progressively outlawed their nations' involvement in the slave trade. During the New Imperialism era, the Scramble for Africa saw the majority of African territory, including lands inhabited by the Wolof, fall under European colonial rule. These new colonial regimes moved to outlaw slavery, and by the 1890's the French authorities in West Africa had largely abolished the institution. However, the social distinctions between free-born Wolof and slaves remained present during the period of colonial rule, continuing even after the decolonization of Africa in the mid-20th century, which saw the Wolof become independent from European colonial rule.


title: Wolof people

text: The Wolof people are the largest ethnic group in Senegal, particularly concentrated in its northwestern region near the Senegal River and the Gambia River. In the Gambia, about 16% of the population are Wolof. In the Gambia, they are a minority. However, Wolof language and culture have a disproportionate influence because of their prevalence in Banjul, the Gambian capital, where a majority of the population is Wolof. In Mauritania, about 8% of the population are Wolof. Their total population exceeds 6 million in the three countries.


title: Wolof people

text: The vast majority of Wolof people are Sunni Muslims. However, religious practice often contains local elements. The complicated relationship had led to the emergence of Sufi traditions from a historic and dominant Sunni Islam environment.


title: Wolof people

text: The pre-Islamic religious traditions of Wolof are unknown, and neither written nor oral traditions about their traditional religion are available. The oral traditions of the Wolof have legends that state them to have been adherents of Islam since the founding of their Kingdom of Jolof. However, historical evidence left by Islamic scholars and European travelers suggest that Wolof kings and warriors did not convert to Islam in the beginning and for many centuries while accepting and relying on Muslim clerics as counselors and administrators.