title: Muncie, Indiana

text: The Lynds were only the first to conduct a series of studies in Muncie. The National Science Foundation funded a third major study that resulted in two books by Theodore Caplow, "Middletown Families" (1982) and "All Faithful People" (1983). Caplow returned to Muncie in 1998 to begin another study, Middletown IV, which became part of a Public Broadcasting Service documentary titled "The First Measured Century", released in December 2000. The Ball State Center for Middletown Studies continues to survey and analyze social change in Muncie. A database of Middletown surveys conducted between 1978 and 1997 is available online from the Association of Religion Data Archives (ARDA). Due to the extensive information collected from the Middletown studies during the twentieth century, Muncie is said to be one of the most studied cities of its size in the United States.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: In addition to being called a "typical American city", as the result of the Middletown studies, Muncie is known as Magic City or Magic Muncie, as well as the Friendly City.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: During World War II the city's manufacturers once again turned their efforts to wartime production. Ball State and Muncie's airport also trained pilots for the U.S. Navy. The postwar era was another period of expansion for Muncie, with continued growth and development of industries, construction of new homes, schools, and businesses. A population boom brought further development, especially from 1946 to 1965.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: Since the 1950s and 1960s Muncie has continued as an education center in the state and emerged as a regional health center. As enrollment at Ball State increased, new buildings were erected on the college's campus. Ball Memorial Hospital also expanded its facilities. However, by the 1960s, industrial trends had shifted. Beginning in the 1970s several manufacturing plants closed or moved elsewhere, while others adapted to industrial changes and remained in Muncie. Ball Corporation, for example, closed its Muncie glass manufacturing facilities in 1962 and its corporate headquarters relocated to Broomfield, Colorado in 1998. Muncie was also home to other manufacturing operations, including Warner Gear (a division of BorgWarner), Delco Remy, General Motors, Ontario Corporation, A. E. Boyce Company, and Westinghouse Electric, among others.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: In 2017, the Muncie Community Schools system was declared a "distressed political subdivision", and put in direct control of the state government. In 2018, the school district was reformed and a new board was appointed by Ball State's Board of Trustees.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: In 2021, following the Fall of Kabul and the U.S. withdrawal from the War in Afghanistan, several Afghan refugees arrived in Camp Atterbury, near Edinburgh, Indiana. Munsonian members of the nationwide organization, Afghan Women's and Kids' Education and Necessities (AWAKEN) formed the Muncie Afghan Refugee Resettlement Committee (MARRC) to help Afghan refugees resettle in Muncie. Afghan refugees began arriving in Muncie soon after.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: The black population in Muncie grew from 3.7% in 1890, to 5.6% in 1920, and to 13.2% in 2013. In 1920, the city had the fifth-largest black population in Indiana with 2,054 black residents. Two major parades were held by the Ku Klux Klan in 1922 and 1924, with the mayor and police chief attending the 1924 parade. The first black police officer in Muncie was hired in 1899, and the city's first black police chief took his position in 1995. The first black teacher in the city was hired in 1952, and the first black principal was appointed in 1956.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: According to Hurley Goodall, the first serious black political candidate in Muncie was Wayne Brooks, who ran for the Republican nomination for mayor in 1934. Ray Armstrong was elected as the first black member of the city council in 1951 and Alice McIntosh was elected as the first black female member of the city council in 1983. Goodall was the first black person elected to the city's school board and later to represent the area in the state house. No other black person served Muncie's school board after Goodall's election to the state house until Carl Kizer Jr.'s appointment to the board in 1993. The school board became majority black for the first time after the 2008 election.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: The county government is a constitutional body and is granted specific powers by the Constitution of Indiana, and by the Indiana Code.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: As a second class city in Indiana (pop. 35,000 to 599,999), Muncie is governed by a Mayor and a nine-member city council as well as a city clerk and city judge. City elections for Mayor, city council, city judge, and city clerk are held in odd years immediately preceding presidential elections (2015, 2019, etc.). The current mayor is Dan Ridenour, a Republican first elected in 2019. The current city clerk is Belinda Munson and the current city judge is Amanda Dunnuck. The nine-members of the city council are divided into six members elected from districts and three members elected at-large. The current members of the city council are:


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: According to the 2010 census, Muncie has a total area of , of which (or 99.3%) is land and (or 0.7%) is water.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: Muncie has a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification "Dfa") experiencing four distinct seasons.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: As of the census of 2020, there were 65,194 people, 26,692 households and 6,179 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 31,183 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 78.0% White, 11.6% African American, 0.3% Native American or Alaskan Native, 1.5% Asian, 0.1% Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander, 2.1% from other races and 6.5% were from two or more races. Hispanic and Latino of any race were 4.2% of the population.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: There were 26,692 households, of which 16.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 29.6% were married couples living together, 35.7% had a female householder with no husband present, 26.2% had a male householder with no wife present, and 8.5% were non-families. 61.9% of all households were made up of individuals. The average household size was 2.44 and the average family size was 3.09.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: 50.1% of the population had never been married, 29.6% were married and not separated, 5.7% were widowed, 13.1% were divorced, and 1.6% were separated.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: The median age of the city was 28.8. 4.4% of residents were under the age of 5, 16.2% were under 18 years, 83.8% were age 18 or older, and 14.0% were age 65 or older. 5.8% of the population were veterans.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: The most common language spoken at home was English with 95.5% speaking it at home, 1.7% spoke Spanish at home, 1.4% spoke an Asian or Pacific Islander language at home, 1.3% spoke another Indo-European language at home, and 0.1% spoke some other language. 2.6% of the population were foreign born.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: The median household income in Muncie was $34,602, 38.4% less than the median average for the state of Indiana. 30.2% of the population were in poverty, including 32.6% of residents under the age of 18. The poverty rate for the town was 17.3% higher than that of the state. 18.6% of the population was disabled and 8.7% had no healthcare coverage. 34.3% of the population had attained a high school or equivalent degree, 19.7% had attended college but received no degree, 8.9% had attained an Associate's degree or higher, 14.0% had attained a Bachelor's degree or higher, and 11.6% had a graduate or professional degree. 20.4% had no degree. 53.2% of Muncie residents were employed, working a mean of 34.0 hours per week. The median gross rent in Muncie was $714 and the homeownership rate was 50.0%. 4,491 housing units were vacant at an average density of .


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: As of the census of 2010, there were 70,085 people, 27,722 households, and 13,928 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 31,958 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 84.0% White, 10.9% African American, 0.3% Native American, 1.2% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 0.8% from other races, and 2.8% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.3% of the population.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: There were 27,722 households, of which 23.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 31.5% were married couples living together, 14.1% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.6% had a male householder with no wife present, and 49.8% were non-families. 35.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.22 and the average family size was 2.85.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: The median age in the city was 28.1 years. 17.8% of residents were under the age of 18; 27.5% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 21.4% were from 25 to 44; 20.2% were from 45 to 64; and 13% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47.5% male and 52.5% female.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 67,430 people, 27,322 households, and 14,589 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 30,205 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 83.72% White, 12.97% African American, 0.27% Native American, 0.79% Asian, 0.09% Pacific Islander, 0.67% from other races, and 1.49% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.44% of the population.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: There were 27,322 households, out of which 23.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 36.4% were married couples living together, 13.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 46.6% were non-families. 34.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.24 and the average family size was 2.86.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: In the city, the age distribution of the population shows 19.8% under the age of 18, 24.6% from 18 to 24, 24.2% from 25 to 44, 18.3% from 45 to 64, and 13.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 29 years. For every 100 females, there were 89.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.5 males.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: The median income for a household in the city was $26,613, and the median income for a family was $36,398. Males had a median income of $30,445 versus $21,872 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,814. About 14.3% of families and 23.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 24.2% of those under age 18 and 9.7% of those age 65 or over.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: From its early days as a regional trading center for the surrounding agricultural community to its first wave of industrial development brought on by the Indiana gas boom in the mid-1880s, Muncie has retained its ties to an industrial economy, and to a lesser extent its agricultural roots. In addition, the arrival of the forerunner to Ball State in the early twentieth century contributed to Muncie's development as an educational center, while Ball Memorial Hospital, established in 1929, led to the city's reputation as a healthcare center for east-central Indiana.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: Muncie's major industrial development included glass manufacturing, iron and steel mills, and automobile manufacturing and auto parts factories. Among its early major employers was the Ball Corporation, established by the Ball brothers of Buffalo, New York, who opened a glass factory in Muncie in 1888. Other notable manufacturers in addition to the Ball Corporation with operations in Muncie have included BorgWarner, The Broderick Company (aformer division of Harsco), Dayton-Walther Corporation, Delco Remy, General Motors, New Venture Gear, Hemingray Glass Company, Ontario Corporation, A. E. Boyce Company, Indiana Steel and Wire, and Westinghouse Electric.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: Changing industrial trends caused shifts in the city's economic development. As in many mid-sized cities in the Rust Belt, deindustrialization, which began in the 1960s, impacted Muncie's economy. Several manufacturing plants closed or moved elsewhere. From 2001 to 2011, Muncie lost thousands of jobs as the city continued transitioning from a blue-collar workforce to a white-collar service economy primarily based on health care, education, and retail.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: Muncie has attracted some new manufacturers, while older factories have been converted to other industrial uses. In 2009, Muncie became the U.S. headquarters for Brevini Wind, an Italian-based company that manufactures gearboxes for wind turbines. In 2011, locomotive maker Progress Rail (a subsidiary of Caterpillar Inc) opened in a former Westinghouse facility that had been vacant since 1998.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: The local economy is a controversial topic among Munsonians. While many older unemployed or underemployed residents strongly identify with the manufacturing identity of the city, newer residents identify with the city's shift towards educational and health services. Contention is greatest among residents living in the once-industrialized sections of the city's south side, as much of the economic growth over that last few decades has taken place on Muncie's north side. The city also struggles to retain college graduates. Despite Ball State's presence, only 32.2 percent of Delaware County's working-age adults (ages 25–64) hold a two-year or four-year college degree, which is below the national average.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: The first decade of the 21st century saw a cultural shift toward local businesses and economic empowerment, boosted by the Muncie Downtown Development Partnership and the residents, patrons, and business owners of the downtown community. In 2007, Muncie was rated the most affordable college town in America by real estate company Coldwell Banker. In 2015, "Forbes" ranked Muncie 27th among small places for business and careers and 18th for cost of doing business. First Merchants Corporation is based in Muncie, and the first Scotty's Brewhouse location opened in the city in 1996.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: The David Owsley Museum of Art collection, which includes over 11,000 works, has been in the Fine Arts Building on the Ball State University campus since 1935. The Horizon Convention Center, located downtown, offers of exhibition space and houses the Muncie Children's Museum. The city also has a large group of independent art galleries.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: Three of the city's largest performing arts centers belong to Ball State University: the 3,581-seat Emens Auditorium, the 600-seat Sursa Performance Hall, and the 410-seat University Theatre. Downtown performing arts spaces include the Muncie Civic Theatre and Canan Commons, an outdoor amphitheater and greenspace that opened in 2011. In addition, the Muncie Ballet and the Muncie Symphony Orchestra are prominent in the city's arts community.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: Minnetrista Cultural Center, just north of downtown along the White River, is a cultural heritage museum featuring exhibits and programs focusing on nature, east-central Indiana history, and art. The campus includes historic homes that were once owned by the Ball family, themed gardens, outdoor sculptures, and a portion of the White River Greenway. The Cardinal Greenway, Indiana's longest rail trail project, stretches from Richmond to Marion, Indiana. Designated a National Recreation Trail in 2003, it is part of the American Discovery Trail. The Ball State campus is home to Christy Woods, an arboretum, three greenhouses, and the Wheeler Orchid Collection and Species Bank.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: Muncie's music scene has been home to such acts as Brazil, Everything, Now!, and Archer Avenue (ex-Margot & the Nuclear So and So's). Muncie MusicFest. Muncie also has a network of craft beer enthusiasts.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: Muncie is home to the NCAA Division I Ball State Cardinals which is a member of the Mid-American Conference. Notable sports include football (played at Scheumann Stadium), men's basketball (played at John E. Worthen Arena), and baseball (played at Ball Diamond).


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: Muncie was once home to the Muncie Flyers, also known as the Congerville Flyers, the city's professional football team from 1905 to 1925. The Muncie team was one of the eleven charter members of National Football League (NFL). It played in the league in 1920 and 1921.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: Muncie was also home to the Muncie Flyers, a minor league hockey team. The team played in the International Hockey League for a single season in 1948–1949.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: As part of the Indianapolis market, Muncie receives Indianapolis' network affiliates. East Central Indiana's PBS member station, WIPB, is located in Muncie. The Joy of Painting was filmed at WIPB.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: Until 1986 Muncie's Wysor Street Depot at 700 East Wysor Street was a passenger train stop on the Chicago-Cincinnati service of Amtrak's "Cardinal." Until 1971, Muncie Union Station was a stop on the Penn Central's Indianapolis-Cleveland on the route of the New York Central's former "Southwestern Limited" (St. Louis-New York City) and "Cleveland Special" (Indianapolis-Cleveland).


title: Amr Diab

text: Amr Diab (, ; born on 11 October 1961) is an Egyptian singer, composer and actor. He has established himself as a globally acclaimed recording artist and author. He is a Guinness World Record holder, the best selling Middle Eastern artist, a seven-times winner of World Music Awards and five-times winner of Platinum Records.


title: Amr Diab

text: Diab was born as Amr Abdel Basset Abdel Azeez Diab (Arabic: عمرو عبد الباسط عبد العزيز دياب) on 11 October 1961 in Port Said to a middle-class Muslim family from the Egyptian countryside of Menia Elamh, in Sharqia Governorate, Egypt. Diab graduated with a bachelor's degree in music from the Cairo Academy of Arts in 1986.


title: Amr Diab

text: Diab released his first album entitled ' in 1983. Diab's second album, ' (1984), was the first of a series of records he released with Delta Sound; including ' (1986), ' (1987), and ' (1988), with the title track becoming one of the top 10 songs in the world at the time. His later releases include ' (1989), ' (1990), ' (1991), ' (1992), ' (1993), ' (1994), and ' (1995).


title: Amr Diab

text: By 1992, he became the first Egyptian and Middle Eastern artist to start making high-tech music videos.


title: Amr Diab

text: In 1996, Diab released his first album with Alam El Phan entitled ', and he won the World Music Award for the first time, which proved an international success and gained Diab recognition beyond the Arabic-speaking world. Diab recorded four more albums with Alam El Phan, including ' (1999). Diab also collaborated with Khaled (on the song "") and with Angela Dimitriou (on the song "Bahebak Aktar").


title: Amr Diab

text: According to research by Michael Frishkopf, he has created a style in the song "", termed as "Mediterranean music", a blend of Western and Egyptian rhythms.


title: Amr Diab

text: In the summer of 2004, Diab, having left Alam El Phan, released his first album with Rotana Records, "," which he followed up with the hugely successful ' (2005), and ' (2007).


title: Amr Diab

text: On 18 October 2009, Diab won four 2009 African Music Awards in the categories of best artist, album, vocalist and song for ""; Diab had been nominated by the Big Apple Music Awards.


title: Amr Diab

text: In February 2011, Diab released his hit single ' ("Egypt spoke"), followed by the release of his album ' in September, produced by Rotana. In 2012, Diab hosted the first Google Hangout in the Middle East during his performance in Dubai. In October 2014, Diab released his album ', which topped his last album ' and again became the best-selling album in Egypt on iTunes. In July 2015, Diab released a music video for his song "" from his album '. In March 2016, he released ', his first album since he left Rotana Music. The album was produced by the record label Nay For Media. His new album " was released in July 2017 with Nay Records.


title: Amr Diab

text: His 2014 album " peaked at No. 1 on the "Billboard" World Albums Charts, making him the first Egyptian and Middle Eastern performer to accomplish such a feat.


title: Amr Diab

text: In October 2018, he released a new album called '. In 2019, he released a mini-album, ', and in February 2020 he released his 35th album, "", which included 16 songs.


title: Amr Diab

text: In February 2022, Anghami announced an exclusive partnership that will see the Diab's entire Nay Label audio and video catalogue and future releases available only on Anghami.


title: Amr Diab

text: Diab is known as the "father of Mediterranean music". David Cooper and Kevin Dawe refer to his music as "the new breed of Mediterranean music". According to author Michael Frishkopf, Diab has produced a new concept of Mediterranean music, especially with his international hit, "". Moreover, Diab is known as a composer, having composed more than 97 of his own songs.


title: Amr Diab

text: Diab is one of the first singers to popularize music videos in the whole MENA region and is the first Egyptian singer to appear in music videos.


title: Amr Diab

text: Diab's fame in the music industry has led him to experiment with other forms of media, such as film. Diab played himself in his first film, ', which was released in 1989. It also starred Madiha Kamel. His second film was Hussein El-Imam's production "Ice Cream in Gleam" ('), in which Diab starred in 1992, was chosen as one of the best five Egyptian musical films by the University of California, Los Angeles (ULCA) School of Theater, Film and Television. The film was featured in the UCLA Film and Television Archive's new program "Music on the Nile: Fifty Years of Egyptian Musical Films" at James Bridges Theater at UCLA on 6, 8 and 10 April 1999. David Chute of the "LA Weekly" termed it "observant" and "a big leap". His third movie was released in 1993, and was named "" ("Laughter and Fun"). The film premiered in the Egyptian Film Festival in 1993. Diab played alongside international Egyptian movie star Omar Sharif ("Lawrence of Arabia", "Doctor Zhivago") and Yousra. Overall, Diab did not experience the same level of success in film that he had with his music career. Since 1993, Diab has focused on his singing career.


title: Amr Diab

text: During the 2011 uprising, some protesters criticized Diab for staying silent, and for fleeing Egypt for London. A few days after former President Hosni Mubarak stepped down, Diab composed and sang a memorial song, "" (Egypt Said), and released it in conjunction with a music video showing pictures of the martyrs who died in the uprising. He initiated a charity campaign "" ("Truly Egyptian"). His online radio station Diab FM often presents talks and discussions about what the Diab FM team can offer to the community as well as applying it practically by being present in different sites across Egypt with a new humanitarian project each week.


title: Amr Diab

text: Diab has an elder daughter from his first marriage to Egyptian actress Shereen Reda. In 1994, he was married to Saudi businesswoman Zeina Ashour. They have three children. In 2018, he went on to marry Egyptian actress, Dina El Sherbiny, after his relationship with Ashour ended. It is unknown whether they were separated or divorced. However, Diab and El Sherbiny separated in late 2020.


title: Amr Diab

text: He has been awarded the World Music Award for Best Selling Middle Eastern Artist four times: 1996 for album ', 2001 for album "Akter Wahed", 2007 for album "El Lillady" and 2013 for ' album. He has also won (Best Egyptian Artist, Best Male Arab Artist and World's Best Arab Male Artist Voted Online) at the World Music Awards 2014. Amr Diab is the only Middle Eastern artist to have received 7 World Music Awards. Five of his albums reached the top 10 of "Billboard"'s World Albums chart, with reaching No. 1 in 2014, the first for an Arabic performer. Alongside that accomplishment, two of his albums (2014's and 2016's ) both peaked at 29 and 14 respectively on Billboard's Heatseekers charts.


title: Amr Diab

text: On 28 September 2016, Diab announced that he achieved a Guinness World Records title for "Most World Music Awards for Best Selling Middle Eastern Artist".


title: Amr Diab

text: A program produced by Amr Afifi, consisting of 12 parts aired on Rotana Music, Rotana Cinema and Egyptian Channel 1 station. The program detailed the biography of Diab and was scheduled to be launched simultaneously with the release of Amr Diab's new album, but the album's release was postponed to a later date.


title: Arirang

text: "Arirang" (; ) is a Korean folk song. There are about 3,600 variations of 60 different versions of the song, all of which include a refrain similar to ""Arirang, arirang, arariyo" ()". It is estimated the song is more than 600 years old.


title: Arirang

text: "Arirang" is included twice on the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage list. South Korea successfully submitted the song for inclusion on the UNESCO list in 2012. North Korea also successfully submitted the song for inclusion in 2014. In 2015, the South Korean Cultural Heritage Administration added the song to its list of important intangible cultural assets.


title: Arirang

text: The song is sung today in both North and South Korea, and represents the symbol of unity in the region that is divided by the Korean War.


title: Arirang

text: It is believed that "Arirang" originated from Jeongseon, Gangwon Province. "Arirang" as a term today is ambiguous in meaning, but some linguists have hypothesized that "Ari" (아리) meant "beautiful" and "rang" (랑) referred to a "beloved one" or "bridegroom" in the ancient native Korean language. With the two words together, the term Arirang meant "My beloved one". This theory, supported by the scholars such as , bears the song's legend. According to the legend, the name is derived from the story of a bachelor and a maiden who fell in love while picking Camellia blossoms near the wharf at Auraji () — a body of water which derives its name from the Korean word "eoureojida" (어우러지다) that is closely translated to "be in harmony" or "to meet". For example, the body of water that connects the waters of Pyeongchang and Samcheok to the Han River is called Auraji. Two versions of this story exist:


title: Arirang

text: According to , Arirang originated in the mountainous regions of Jeongseon, Gangwon, and the first mention of the song was found in a 1756 manuscript. The Academy of Korean Studies also shares the same view that Arirang was originally the folk song of Jeongseon. Some locals of Jeongseon trace their folk song further back to the era of Goryeo.


title: Arirang

text: Some believe that such song from Jeongseon spread to Seoul and other regions of Korea when the workers from Gangwon were sent to Seoul to rebuild the Gyeongbok Palace under the order of the Prince Regent Heungseon of the Joseon dynasty. Others especially theorize that the words "Arirang" and "Arari" in the song's lyrics originated from the families of the workers during this period who said "Arirang (아리랑, 我離郞)" or "Ananri (아난리, 我亂離)" to the officials taking the workers from their Gangwon homes to the palace construction in Seoul, the phrases which meant they cannot be separated from their lovers or families respectively. According to "Maecheonyarok" (매천야록, 梅泉野錄) recorded by the Joseon scholar (1855-1910), it seemed the song was widespread in the country by this time.


title: Arirang

text: The South Korean literary scholar (1903-1977) theorized that the term "Arirang" came from the combination of "Ari" (아리), the old Korean indigenous word that also meant "long", and "ryeong" (領), the hanja character that meant "hill".


title: Arirang

text: Some trace the term "Arirang" to the name of Lady Aryeong, the wife of the first king of Silla, as the song could have evolved from the poem praising her virtues. Others even speculate that the term is linked to the Jurchen word "Arin" meaning "hometown", or the name of the Indian god with similar name.


title: Arirang

text: The first known recording of "Arirang" was made in 1896 by American ethnologist Alice C. Fletcher. At her home in Washington, D.C., Fletcher recorded three Korean students singing a song she called "Love Song: Ar-ra-rang". One source suggests that the students belonged to noble Korean families and were studying abroad at Howard University during the period in which the recording was made. Another source suggests that the singers were Korean workers who happened to be living in America during that time. The recordings are currently housed in the U.S. Library of Congress.


title: Arirang

text: During the Japanese occupation of Korea from 1910 to 1945, when singing was censored heavily and it became a criminal offense for anyone to be singing any patriotic song including the national anthem of Korea, Arirang became an unofficial anthem. "Arirang" became a resistance anthem against Imperial Japanese rule. Korean protesters sang "Arirang" during the March 1 Movement, a Korean demonstration against the Japanese Empire in 1919. Many of the variations of "Arirang" that were written during the occupation contain themes of injustice, the plight of labourers, and guerrilla warfare. It was also sung by the mountain guerrillas who were fighting against the fascists.


title: Arirang

text: The most well-known lyrics to "Arirang" first appeared in the 1926 silent film "Arirang," directed by Na Woon-gyu. "Arirang" is now considered a lost film but various accounts say the film was about a Korean student who became mentally ill after being imprisoned and tortured by the Japanese. The film was a hit upon its release and is considered the first Korean nationalist film.


title: Arirang

text: During the Japanese occupation of Korea, Japan experienced a craze for Korean culture and for "Arirang", in particular. Over 50 Japanese versions of "Arirang" were released between 1931 and 1943, in genres including pop, jazz, and mambo. Some Japanese soldiers were familiar with "Arirang" from their service in Japanese Korea, or from their interactions with forcibly conscripted Korean comfort women, labourers and soldiers.


title: Arirang

text: c4. ~ c4 d8 c4 ( d8 ) | f4. ~ f4 g8 f4 ( g8 ) | a4. g8( a g) f4 ( d8 ) | c4. ~ ( c4 d8 c d ) r8 |\break


title: Arirang

text: All versions of "Arirang" include a refrain similar to, "Arirang, arirang, arariyo ()." The word "arirang" itself is nonsensical and does not have a precise meaning in Korean. While the other lyrics vary from version to version, the themes of sorrow, separation, reunion, and love appear in most versions.


title: Arirang

text: The table below includes the lyrics of "Standard Arirang" from Seoul. The first two lines are the refrain. The refrain is followed by three verses.


title: Arirang

text: There are an estimated 3,600 variations of 60 different versions of "Arirang". Titles of different versions of "Arirang" are usually prefixed by their place of origin.


title: Arirang

text: While "Jeongseon Arirang" is generally considered to be the original version of the song, "Bonjo Arirang" (literally: Standard Arirang) from Seoul is one of the most famous versions. This version was first made popular when it was used as the theme song of the influential 1926 film "Arirang".


title: Arirang

text: Other famous variations include "Jindo Arirang" from South Jeolla Province, a region known for being the birthplace of Korean folk music genres pansori and sinawi; and "Miryang Arirang" from South Gyeongsang Province.


title: Arirang

text: Both South Korea and North Korea submitted "Arirang" to be included on the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage list. South Korea successfully submitted the song for inclusion in 2012. North Korea successfully submitted the song for inclusion in 2014.


title: Arirang

text: In 2015, the South Korean Cultural Heritage Administration added the "Arirang" to its list of important intangible cultural assets.


title: Arirang

text: The U.S. Army's 7th Infantry Division adopted "Arirang" as its official march song in May 1956, after receiving permission from Syngman Rhee, the first president of South Korea. The division had been stationed in Korea from 1950 to 1953, during the Korean War.


title: OpenVMS

text: OpenVMS, often referred to as just VMS, is a multi-user, multiprocessing and virtual memory-based operating system. It is designed to support time-sharing, batch processing, transaction processing and workstation applications. Customers using OpenVMS include banks and financial services, hospitals and healthcare, telecommunications operators, network information services, and industrial manufacturers. During the 1990s and 2000s, there were approximately half a million VMS systems in operation worldwide.


title: OpenVMS

text: It was first announced by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) as VAX/VMS ("Virtual Address eXtension/Virtual Memory System") alongside the VAX-11/780 minicomputer in 1977. OpenVMS has subsequently been ported to run on DEC Alpha systems, the Itanium-based HPE Integrity Servers, and select x86-64 hardware and hypervisors. Since 2014, OpenVMS is developed and supported by VMS Software Inc. (VSI). OpenVMS offers high availability through clustering — the ability to distribute the system over multiple physical machines. This allows clustered applications and data to remain continuously available while operating system software and hardware maintenance and upgrades are performed, or if part of the cluster is destroyed. VMS cluster uptimes of 17 years have been reported.


title: OpenVMS

text: In April 1975, Digital Equipment Corporation embarked on a project to design a 32-bit extension to its PDP-11 computer line. The hardware component was code named "Star"; the operating system was code named "Starlet". Roger Gourd was the project lead for VMS. Software engineers Dave Cutler, Dick Hustvedt, and Peter Lipman acted as technical project leaders. The Star and Starlet projects culminated in the VAX-11/780 computer and the VAX/VMS operating system. The Starlet project's code name survives in VMS in the name of several of the system libraries, including codice_1 and codice_2. VMS was mostly written in VAX MACRO with some components written in BLISS.


title: OpenVMS

text: One of the original goals for VMS was backwards compatibility with DEC's existing RSX-11M operating system. Prior to the V3.0 release, VAX/VMS included an compatibility layer named the "RSX Application Migration Executive" (RSX AME) which allowed user mode RSX-11M software to be run unmodified on top of VMS. The RSX AME played an important role on early versions of VAX/VMS, which used re-used certain RSX-11M user mode utilities before native VAX versions had been developed. By the V3.0 release, all compatibility mode utilities were replaced with native implementations. In VAX/VMS V4.0, RSX AME was removed from the base system, and replaced with an optional layered product named "VAX-11 RSX".


title: OpenVMS

text: With the V5.0 release in April 1988, DEC began to refer to VAX/VMS as simply VMS in its documentation. In July 1992, DEC renamed VAX/VMS to OpenVMS as an indication for its support of open systems industry standards such as POSIX and Unix compatibility, and to drop the VAX connection since a migration to a different architecture was underway. The OpenVMS name was first used with the OpenVMS AXP V1.0 release in November 1992. DEC began using the OpenVMS VAX name with the V6.0 release in June 1993.


title: OpenVMS

text: During the 1980s, DEC planned to replace the VAX platform and the VMS operating system with the PRISM architecture and the MICA operating system. When these projects were cancelled in 1988, a team was set up to design new VAX/VMS systems of comparable performance to RISC-based Unix systems. After a number of failed attempts to design a faster VAX-compatible processor, the group demonstrated the feasibility of porting VMS and its applications to a RISC architecture based on PRISM. This led to the creation of the Alpha architecture. The project to port VMS to Alpha began in 1989, and first booted on a prototype Alpha EV3-based "Alpha Demonstration Unit" in early 1991.


title: OpenVMS

text: The main challenge in porting VMS to a new architecture was that VMS and the VAX were designed together, meaning that VMS was dependent on certain details of the VAX architecture. Furthermore, a significant amount of the VMS kernel, layered products, and customer-developed applications were implemented in VAX MACRO assembly code. Some of the changes needed to decouple VMS from the VAX architecture included the creation of the "MACRO-32" compiler, which treated VAX MACRO as a high-level language, and compiled it to Alpha object code, and the emulation of certain low-level details of the VAX architecture in PALcode, such as interrupt handling and atomic queue instructions.


title: OpenVMS

text: The VMS port to Alpha resulted in the creation of two separate codebases - one for VAX, and for Alpha. The Alpha code library was based on a snapshot of the VAX/VMS code base circa V5.4-2. 1992 saw the release of the first version of OpenVMS for Alpha AXP systems, designated "OpenVMS AXP V1.0". In 1994, with the release of OpenVMS V6.1, feature (and version number) parity between the VAX and Alpha variants was achieved, this was the so-called Functional Equivalence release. The decision to use the 1.x version numbering stream for the pre-production quality releases of OpenVMS AXP caused confusion for some customers, and was not repeated in the subsequent ports of OpenVMS to new platforms.


title: OpenVMS

text: When VMS was ported to Alpha, it was initially left as a 32-bit only operating system. This was done to ensure backwards compatibility with software written for the 32-bit VAX. 64-bit addressing was first added for Alpha in the V7.0 release. In order to allow 64-bit code to interoperate with older 32-bit code, OpenVMS does not create a distinction between 32-bit and 64-bit executables, but instead allows for both 32-bit and 64-bit pointers to be used within the same code. This is known as mixed pointer support. The 64-bit OpenVMS Alpha releases support a maximum virtual address space size of 8TiB (a 43-bit address space), which is the maximum supported by the Alpha 21064 and Alpha 21164.


title: OpenVMS

text: One of the more noteworthy Alpha-only features of OpenVMS was "OpenVMS Galaxy" - which allowed the partitioning of a single SMP server to run multiple instances of OpenVMS. Galaxy supported dynamic resource allocation to running partitions, and the ability to share memory between partitions.


title: OpenVMS

text: In 2001, prior to its acquisition by Hewlett-Packard, Compaq announced the port of OpenVMS to the Intel Itanium architecture. The Itanium port was the result of Compaq's decision to discontinue future development of the Alpha architecture in favour of adopting the then-new Itanium architecture. The porting began in late 2001, and the first boot on took place on January 31, 2003. The first boot consisted of booting a minimal system configuration on a HP i2000 workstation, logging in as the codice_3 user, and running the codice_4 command. The Itanium port of OpenVMS supports specific models and configurations of HPE Integrity Servers. The Itanium releases were originally named "HP OpenVMS Industry Standard 64 for Integrity Servers", although the names "OpenVMS I64" or "OpenVMS for Integrity Servers" are more commonly used.


title: OpenVMS

text: The Itanium port was accomplished using source code maintained in common within the OpenVMS Alpha source code library, with the addition of conditional code and additional modules where changes specific to Itanium were required. This required certain architectural dependencies of OpenVMS to be replaced, or emulated in software. Some of the changes included using the Extensible Firmware Interface (EFI) to boot the operating system, reimplementing the functionality previously provided by Alpha PALcode inside the kernel, using new executable file formats (Executable and Linking Format and DWARF), and adopting IEEE 754 as the default floating point format.


title: OpenVMS

text: As with the VAX to Alpha port, a binary translator for Alpha to Itanium was made available, allowing user mode OpenVMS Alpha software to be ported to Itanium in situations where it was not possible to recompile the source code. This translator is known as the "Alpha Environment Software Translator" (AEST), and it also supported translating VAX executables which had already translated with VEST.


title: OpenVMS

text: Two pre-production releases, OpenVMS I64 V8.0 and V8.1, were available on June 30, 2003, and on December 18, 2003. These releases were intended for HP organizations and third-party vendors involved with porting software packages to OpenVMS I64. The first production release, V8.2, was released in February 2005. V8.2 was also released for Alpha, subsequent V8.x releases of OpenVMS have maintained feature parity between the Alpha and Itanium architectures.


title: OpenVMS

text: When VMS Software Inc. (VSI) announced that they had secured the rights to develop the OpenVMS operating system from HP, they also announced their intention to port OpenVMS to the x86-64 architecture. The porting effort ran concurrently with the establishment of the company, as well as the development of VSI's own Itanium and Alpha releases of OpenVMS V8.4-x.


title: OpenVMS

text: The x86-64 port is targeted for specific servers from HPE and Dell, as well as certain virtual machine hypervisors. Initial support was targeted for KVM and VirtualBox. Support for VMware was announced in 2020, and Hyper-V has been described as a future target. In 2021, the x86-64 port was demonstrated running on an Intel Atom-based single-board computer.


title: OpenVMS

text: As with the Alpha and Itanium ports, the x86-64 port made some changes to simplify porting and supporting OpenVMS on the new platform including: replacing the proprietary GEM compiler backend used by the VMS compilers with LLVM, changing the boot process so that OpenVMS is booted from a memory disk, and simulating the four privilege levels of OpenVMS in software since only two of x86-64's privilege levels are usable by OpenVMS.


title: OpenVMS

text: The first boot was announced on May 14, 2019. This involved booting OpenVMS on VirtualBox, and successfully running the codice_4 command. In May 2020, the V9.0 Early Adopter's Kit release was made available to a small number of customers. This consisted of the OpenVMS operating system running in a VirtualBox VM with certain limitations - most significantly, few layered products were available, and code can only be compiled for x86-64 using cross compilers which run on Itanium-based OpenVMS systems. Following the V9.0 release, VSI released a series of updates on a monthly or bimonthly basis which added additional functionality and hypervisor support. These were designated V9.0-A through V9.0-H. In June 2021, VSI released the V9.1 Field Test, making it available to VSI's customers and partners. V9.1 shipped as an ISO image which can be installed onto a variety of hypervisors, and onto HPE ProLiant DL380 servers starting with the V9.1-A release.


title: OpenVMS

text: During the 1980s, the MICA operating system for the PRISM architecture was intended to be the eventual successor to VMS. MICA was designed to maintain backwards compatibility with VMS applications while also supporting Ultrix applications on top of the same kernel. MICA was ultimately cancelled along with the rest of the PRISM platform, leading Dave Cutler to leave DEC for Microsoft. At Microsoft, Cutler led the creation of the Windows NT operating system, which was heavily inspired by the architecture of MICA. As a result, VMS is considered an ancestor of Windows NT, together with RSX-11, VAXELN and MICA, and many similarities exist between VMS and NT.


title: OpenVMS

text: A now-defunct project named "FreeVMS" attempted to develop an open source operating system following VMS conventions. FreeVMS was built on top of the L4 microkernel and supported the x86-64 architecture. Prior work investigating the implementation of VMS using a microkernel-based architecture had previously been undertaken as a prototyping exercise by DEC employees with assistance from Carnegie Mellon University using the Mach 3.0 microkernel ported to VAXstation 3100 hardware, adopting a multiserver architectural model.


title: OpenVMS

text: The OpenVMS operating system has a layered architecture, consisting of a privileged "Executive", an intermediately-privileged Command Language Interpreter, and unprivileged utilities and run-time libraries (RTLs). Unprivileged code typically invokes the functionality of the Executive through "system services" (equivalent to system calls in other operating systems).


title: OpenVMS

text: These VAX architecture mechanisms are implemented on Alpha, Itanium and x86-64 by either mapping to corresponding hardware mechanisms on those architectures, or through emulation (via PALcode on Alpha, or in software on Itanium and x86-64).


title: OpenVMS

text: The OpenVMS Executive comprises the privileged code and data structures which reside in the system space. The Executive is further subdivided between the "Kernel", which consists of the code which runs at the kernel access mode, and the less-privileged code outside of the Kernel which runs at the executive access mode.


title: OpenVMS

text: The components of the Executive which run at executive access mode include the Record Management Services, and certain system services such as image activation. The main distinction between the kernel and executive access modes is that most of the operating system's core data structures can be read from executive mode, but require kernel mode to be written to. Code running at executive mode can switch to kernel mode at will, meaning that the barrier between the kernel and executive modes is intended as a safeguard against accidental corruption as opposed to a security mechanism.


title: OpenVMS

text: The Kernel comprises the operating system's core data structures (e.g. page tables, the I/O database and scheduling data), and the routines which operate on these structures. The Kernel is typically described as having three major subsystems: I/O, Process and Time Management, Memory Management. In addition, other functionality such as logical name management, synchronization and system service dispatch are implemented inside the Kernel.


title: OpenVMS

text: OpenVMS allows user mode code with suitable privileges to switch to executive or kernel mode using the codice_6 and codice_7 system services, respectively. This allows code outside of system space to have direct access to the Executive's routines and system services. In addition to allowing third-party extensions to the operating system, Privileged Images are used by core operating system utilities to manipulate operating system data structures through undocumented interfaces.


title: OpenVMS

text: The typical user and application interface into the file system is the Record Management Services (RMS), although applications can interface directly with the underlying file system through the QIO system services. The file systems supported by VMS are referred to as the Files-11 "On-Disk Structures" (ODS), the most significant of which are "ODS-2" and "ODS-5". VMS is also capable of accessing files on ISO 9660 CD-ROMs and magnetic tape with ANSI tape labels.


title: OpenVMS

text: Files-11 is limited to 2TiB volumes. DEC attempted to replace it with a log-structured file system file system named Spiralog first released in 1995. However, Spiralog was discontinued due to a variety of problems, including issues with handling full volumes. Instead, there has been discussion of porting the open source GFS2 file system to OpenVMS.


title: OpenVMS

text: An OpenVMS Command Language Interpreter (CLI) implements a command line interface for OpenVMS; responsible for executing individual commands, as well as "command procedures" (equivalent to shell scripts or batch files). The standard CLI for OpenVMS is the DIGITAL Command Language, although other options are available as well.


title: OpenVMS

text: Unlike Unix shells, which typically run in their own isolated process and behave like any other user mode program, OpenVMS CLIs are an optional component of a process, which exist alongside any executable image which that process may run. Whereas a Unix shell will typically run executables by creating a separate process using fork-exec, an OpenVMS CLI will typically load the executable image into the same process, transfer control to the image, and ensure that control is transferred back to CLI once the image has exited and that the process is returned to its original state.


title: OpenVMS

text: Due to the fact that the CLI is loaded into the same address space as user code, and that the CLI is responsible for invoking image activation and image rundown, the CLI is mapped into the process address space at supervisor access mode - a higher level of privilege than most user code. This is in order to prevent accidental or malicious manipulation of the CLI's code and data structures by user mode code.


title: OpenVMS

text: OpenVMS supports clustering (first called "VAXcluster" and later "VMScluster"), where multiple computers run their own instance of the operating system. Clustered computers (nodes) may be fully independent from each other, or they may share devices like disk drives and printers. Communication across nodes provides a single system image abstraction. Nodes may be connected to each other via a proprietary hardware connection called Cluster Interconnect or via a standard Ethernet LAN.


title: OpenVMS

text: OpenVMS supports up to 96 nodes in a single cluster. It also allows mixed-architecture clusters. (VAX, Alpha, and Itanium computers each have a different architecture.) OpenVMS clusters allow applications to function during planned or unplanned outages. Planned outages include hardware and software upgrades.


title: OpenVMS

text: The DECnet protocol suite is tightly integrated into VMS, allowing remote logins, as well as transparent access to files, printers and other resources on VMS systems over a network. Modern versions of VMS support both the traditional Phase IV DECnet protocol, as well as the OSI-compatible Phase V (also known as "DECnet-Plus"). Support for TCP/IP is provided by the optional "TCP/IP Services for OpenVMS" layered product (originally known as the "VMS/ULTRIX Connection", then as the "ULTRIX Communications Extensions" or UCX). TCP/IP Services is based on a port of the BSD network stack to OpenVMS, along with support for common protocols such as SSH, DHCP, FTP and SMTP.


title: OpenVMS

text: DEC sold a software package named PATHWORKS (originally known as the "Personal Computer Systems Architecture" or PCSA) which allowed personal computers running MS-DOS, Microsoft Windows or OS/2, or the Apple Macintosh to serve as a terminal for VMS systems, or to use VMS systems as a file or print server. PATHWORKS was later renamed to "Advanced Server for OpenVMS", and was eventually replaced with a VMS port of Samba at the time of the Itanium port.


title: OpenVMS

text: DEC provided the Local Area Transport (LAT) protocol which allowed remote terminals and printers to be attached to a VMS system through a terminal server such as one of the DECserver family.


title: OpenVMS

text: DEC (and its successor companies) provided a wide variety of programming languages for VMS. Officially supported languages on VMS, either current or historical, include:


title: OpenVMS

text: Among OpenVMS's notable features is the "Common Language Environment", a strictly defined standard that specifies calling conventions for functions and routines, including use of stacks, registers, etc., independent of programming language. Because of this, it is possible to call a routine written in one language (for example, Fortran) from another (for example, COBOL), without needing to know the implementation details of the target language. OpenVMS itself is implemented in a variety of different languages and the common language environment and calling standard supports freely mixing these languages. DEC created a tool named the "Structure Definition Language" (SDL), which allowed data type definitions to be generated for different languages from a common definition.


title: OpenVMS

text: DEC provided a collection of software development tools in a layered product named "DECset" (originally named "VAXset"). This consisted of the following tools:


title: OpenVMS

text: The OpenVMS Debugger supports all DEC compilers and many third party languages. It allows breakpoints, watchpoints and interactive runtime program debugging either using a command line or graphical user interface. A pair of lower-level debuggers, named "DELTA" and "XDELTA", can be used to debug privileged code in additional to normal application code.


title: OpenVMS

text: In 2019, VSI released an officially-supported Integrated Development Environment for VMS based on Visual Studio Code. This allows VMS applications to be developed and debugged remotely from a Microsoft Windows, macOS or Linux workstation.


title: OpenVMS

text: DEC created a number of optional database products for VMS, some of which were marketed as the "VAX Information Architecture" family. These products included:


title: OpenVMS

text: In 1994, DEC sold Rdb, DBMS and CDD to Oracle, where they remain under active development. In 1995, DEC sold DSM to InterSystems, who renamed it "Open M", and eventually replaced it with their Caché product.


title: OpenVMS

text: Examples of third-party database management systems for OpenVMS include MariaDB, Mimer SQL and System 1032.


title: OpenVMS

text: VMS was originally designed to be used and managed interactively using DEC's text-based video terminals such as the VT100, or hardcopy terminals such as the DECwriter series. Since the introduction of the VAXstation line in 1984, VMS has optionally supported graphical user interfaces for use with workstations or X terminals such as the VT1000 series.


title: OpenVMS

text: The DIGITAL Command Language (DCL), has served as the primary command language interpreter (CLI) of OpenVMS since the first release. Other official CLIs available for VMS include the RSX-11 MCR (VAX only), and various Unix shells. DEC provided tools for creating text-based user interface applications – the "Form Management System" (FMS) and "Terminal Data Management System" (TDMS), later succeeded by "DECforms". A lower level interface named "Screen Management Services" (SMG$), comparable to Unix curses, also exists.


title: OpenVMS

text: Versions of VMS running on DEC Alpha workstations in the 1990s supported OpenGL and Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) graphics adapters. VMS also provides support for older graphics standards such as GKS and PHIGS. Modern versions of DECwindows are based on X.Org Server.


title: OpenVMS

text: OpenVMS provides various security features and mechanisms, including security identifiers, resource identifiers, subsystem identifiers, ACLs, intrusion detection and detailed security auditing and alarms. Specific versions evaluated at Trusted Computer System Evaluation Criteria Class C2 and, with the SEVMS security enhanced release at Class B1. OpenVMS also holds an ITSEC E3 rating (see NCSC and Common Criteria). Passwords are hashed using the Purdy Polynomial.


title: OpenVMS

text: Various official Unix and POSIX compatibility layers were created for VMS. The first of which was "DEC/Shell" - which was a layered product consisting of ports of the Version 7 Unix Bourne shell and several other Unix utilities to VAX/VMS. In 1992, DEC released the "POSIX for OpenVMS" layered product, which included a shell based on the Korn Shell. POSIX for OpenVMS was later replaced by the open source "GNV" (GNU's not VMS) project, which was first included in OpenVMS media in 2002. Amongst other GNU tools, GNV includes a port of the Bash shell to VMS. Examples of third party Unix compatibility layers for VMS include Eunice.


title: OpenVMS

text: In 1997 OpenVMS and a number of layered products were made available free of charge for hobbyist, non-commercial use as part of the "OpenVMS Hobbyist Program". Since then, several companies producing OpenVMS software have made their products available under the same terms, such as Process Software. Prior to the x86-64 port, the age and cost of hardware capable of running OpenVMS made emulators such as SIMH a common choice for hobbyist installations.


title: OpenVMS

text: In March 2020, HPE announced the end of the OpenVMS Hobbyist Program. This was followed by VSI's announcement of the "Community License Program" (CLP) in April 2020, which was intended as a replacement for the HPE Hobbyist Program. The CLP was launched in July 2020, and provides licenses for VSI OpenVMS releases on Alpha and Integrity systems. OpenVMS x86-64 licenses will be made available when a stable version is released for this architecture. OpenVMS for VAX is not covered by the CLP, since there are no VSI releases of OpenVMS VAX, and the old versions are still owned by HPE.


title: Grimm's law

text: Grimm's law (also known as the First Germanic Sound Shift) is a set of sound laws describing the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) stop consonants as they developed in Proto-Germanic in the 1st millennium BC. First systematically put forward by Jacob Grimm but previously remarked upon by Rasmus Rask, it establishes a set of regular correspondences between early Germanic stops and fricatives and stop consonants of certain other centum Indo-European languages.


title: Grimm's law

text: Grimm's law was the first discovery of a systematic sound change, and it led to the creation of historical phonology as a separate discipline of historical linguistics. The correspondence between Latin "p" and Germanic "f" was first noted by Friedrich von Schlegel in 1806. In 1818, Rasmus Rask extended the correspondences to other Indo-European languages such as Sanskrit and Greek, and to the full range of consonants involved. In 1822, Jacob Grimm put forth the rule in his book "Deutsche Grammatik" and extended it to include standard German. He noticed that there were many words which had different consonants from what his law predicted, and these exceptions defied linguists for several decades, until they eventually received explanation from Danish linguist Karl Verner in the form of Verner's law.


title: Grimm's law

text: Grimm's law consists of three parts which form consecutive phases in the sense of a chain shift. The phases are usually constructed as follows:


title: Grimm's law

text: Here each sound moves one position to the right to take on its new sound value. Note that within Proto-Germanic, the sounds denoted by , , and were stops in some environments and fricatives in others, so → should be understood here as → , and likewise for the others. The voiceless fricatives are customarily spelled , , and in the context of Germanic.


title: Grimm's law

text: The exact details of the shift are unknown, and it may have progressed in a variety of ways before arriving at the final situation. The three stages listed above show the progression of a "pull chain", in which each change leaves a "gap" in the phonological system that "pulls" other phonemes into it to fill the gap. But it is also conceivable that the shift happened as a “push chain”, where the changes happened in reverse order, with each change "pushing" the next forward to avoid merging the phonemes.


title: Grimm's law

text: The steps could also have occurred somewhat differently. Another possible sequence of events could have been:


title: Grimm's law

text: This sequence would lead to the same end result. This variety of Grimm's law is often suggested in the context of the glottalic theory of Proto-Indo-European, which is followed by a minority of linguists. This theoretical framework assumes that "voiced stops" in PIE were actually voiceless to begin with, so that the second phase did not actually exist as such, or was not actually devoicing but a loss of some other articulatory feature such as glottalization or ejectiveness. This alternative sequence also accounts for the phonetics of Verner's law (see below), which are easier to explain within the glottalic theory framework when Grimm's law is formulated in this manner. Additionally, a change from aspirated stops to fricatives is known to have happened in the transition between Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Italic, so represents a plausible potential change from Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic.


title: Grimm's law

text: Once the changes described by Grimm's law had taken place, there was only one type of voiced consonant, with no distinction between voiced stops and voiced fricatives. They eventually became stops at the beginning of a word (for the most part), as well as after a nasal consonant, but fricatives elsewhere. Whether they were plosives or fricatives at first is therefore not clear. The voiced aspirated stops may have first become voiced fricatives, before hardening to stops under certain conditions. But they may also have become stops at first, softening to fricatives in most positions later.


title: Grimm's law

text: Around the same time as the Grimm's law adjustments took place, another change occurred known as Verner's law. Verner's law caused, under certain conditions, the voicing of the voiceless fricatives that resulted from the Grimm's law changes, creating apparent exceptions to the rule. For example:


title: Grimm's law

text: Here, the same sound "*t" appears as "*þ" in one word (following Grimm's law), but as "*d" in another (apparently violating Grimm's law). See the Verner's law article for a more detailed explanation of this discrepancy.


title: Grimm's law

text: The early Germanic "*gw" that had arisen from Proto-Indo-European (and from through Verner's law) underwent further changes of various sorts:


title: Grimm's law

text: Perhaps the usual reflex was "*b" (as suggested by the connection of "bid" < "*bidjaną" and Old Irish "guidid"), but "*w" appears in certain cases (possibly through dissimilation when another labial consonant followed?), such as in "warm" and "wife" (provided that the proposed explanations are correct). Proto-Germanic "*hw" voiced by Verner's law fell together with this sound and developed identically, compare the words for 'she-wolf': from Middle High German "wülbe" and Old Norse "ylgr", one can reconstruct Proto-Germanic nominative singular "*wulbī", genitive singular "*wulgijōz", from earlier "*wulgwī", "*wulgwijōz".


title: Grimm's law

text: Further changes following Grimm's law, as well as sound changes in other Indo-European languages, can occasionally obscure its own effects. The most illustrative examples are used here.


title: Grimm's law

text: This process appears strikingly regular. Each phase involves one single change which applies equally to the labials () and their equivalent dentals (), velars () and rounded velars (). The first phase left the phoneme repertoire of the language without voiceless stops, the second phase filled this gap, but created a new one, and so on until the chain had run its course.


title: Grimm's law

text: When two obstruents occurred in a pair, the first was changed according to Grimm's law, if possible, while the second was not. If either of the two was voiceless, the whole cluster was devoiced, and the first obstruent also lost its labialisation, if it was present.


title: Grimm's law

text: Most examples of this occurred with obstruents preceded by *s (resulting in *sp, *st, *sk, *skʷ), or obstruents followed by *t (giving *ft, *ss, *ht, *ht) or *s (giving *fs, *ss, *hs, *hs). The latter change was frequent in suffixes, and became a phonotactic restriction known as the Germanic spirant law. This rule remained productive throughout the Proto-Germanic period. The cluster *tt became *ss (as in many Indo-European daughter languages), but this was often restored analogically to *st later on.


title: Grimm's law

text: The Germanic "sound laws", combined with regular changes reconstructed for other Indo-European languages, allow one to define the expected sound correspondences between different branches of the family. For example, Germanic (word-initial) *b- corresponds regularly to Latin "*f-", Greek ', Sanskrit ', Slavic, Baltic or Celtic "b-", etc., while Germanic "*f-" corresponds to Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, Slavic and Baltic "p-" and to zero (no initial consonant) in Celtic. The former set goes back to PIE * (faithfully reflected in Sanskrit and modified in various ways elsewhere), and the latter set to PIE *p- (shifted in Germanic, lost in Celtic, but preserved in the other groups mentioned here).


title: Grimm's law

text: One of the more conspicuous present surface correspondences is the English digraph "wh" and the corresponding Latin and Romance digraph "qu", notably found in interrogative words ("wh"-words) such as the five Ws. These both come from . The present pronunciations have undergone further sound changes, such as "wh"-cluster reductions in many varieties of English, though the spellings reflect the history more; see Interrogative word: Etymology for details.


title: Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey

text: Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey (1516/1517 – 19 January 1547), KG, was an English nobleman, politician and poet. He was one of the founders of English Renaissance poetry and was the last known person executed at the instance of King Henry VIII. He was a first cousin of the king's wives Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard. His name is usually associated in literature with that of the poet Sir Thomas Wyatt. Owing largely to the powerful position of his father, Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk, Surrey took a prominent part in the court life of the time, and served as a soldier both in France and Scotland. He was a man of reckless temper, which involved him in many quarrels, and finally brought upon him the wrath of the ageing and embittered Henry VIII. He was arrested, tried for treason and beheaded on Tower Hill.


title: Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey

text: He was born in Hunsdon, Hertfordshire, the eldest son of Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk, by his second wife Elizabeth Stafford, a daughter of Edward Stafford, 3rd Duke of Buckingham. He was thus descended from King Edward I on his father's side and from King Edward III too on his mother's side.


title: Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey

text: He was brought up at Windsor Castle with Henry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Richmond and Somerset, the illegitimate son of King Henry VIII. He became a close friend, and later a brother-in-law, of Fitzroy following the marriage of his sister to him. Like his father and grandfather, he was a soldier, serving in Henry VIII's French wars as Lieutenant General of the King on Sea and Land.


title: Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey

text: He was repeatedly imprisoned for rash behaviour: on one occasion for striking a courtier and on another for wandering through the streets of London breaking the windows of houses whose occupants were asleep. He assumed the courtesy title Earl of Surrey in 1524 when his grandfather died and his father became Duke of Norfolk.


title: Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey

text: In 1532 he accompanied Anne Boleyn (his first cousin), King Henry VIII, and the Duke of Richmond to France, staying there for more than a year as a member of the entourage of King Francis I of France. 1536 was a notable year for Howard: his first son was born, namely Thomas Howard (later 4th Duke of Norfolk), Anne Boleyn was executed on charges of adultery and treason, and the Duke of Richmond died at the age of 17 and was buried at Thetford Abbey, one of the Howard seats. In 1536 Howard also served with his father in the suppression of the Pilgrimage of Grace, a rebellion against the Dissolution of the Monasteries.


title: Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey

text: He married Frances de Vere, a daughter of John de Vere, 15th Earl of Oxford, (by his wife Elizabeth Trussell) by whom he had two sons and three daughters:


title: Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey

text: The Howards had little regard for the "new men" who had risen to power at court, such as Thomas Cromwell and the Seymours. Howard was less circumspect than his father in concealing his disdain. The Howards had many enemies at court. Howard himself branded Cromwell a 'foul churl' and William Paget a 'mean creature' as well as arguing that 'These new erected men would by their wills leave no nobleman on life!'


title: Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey

text: Henry VIII, consumed by paranoia and increasing illness, became convinced that Howard had planned to usurp the crown from his son the future King Edward VI. Howard suggested that his sister Mary FitzRoy, Duchess of Richmond and Somerset (widow of Henry's illegitimate son Henry Fitzroy) should seduce the aged King, her father-in-law, and become his mistress, to "wield as much influence on him as Madame d'Etampes doth about the French King". The Duchess, outraged, said she would "cut her own throat" rather than "consent to such villainy".


title: Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey

text: She and her brother fell out, and she later laid testimony against Howard that helped lead to his trial and execution for treason. The matter came to a head when Howard quartered the attributed arms of King Edward the Confessor. John Barlow had once called Howard "the most foolish proud boy that is in England" and, although the arms of Howard's ancestor Thomas Mowbray, 1st Duke of Norfolk, show that he was entitled to bear Edward the Confessor's arms, doing so was an act of pride.


title: Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey

text: In consequence, the King ordered Howard's imprisonment and that of his father, sentencing them to death on 13 January 1547. Howard was beheaded on 19 January 1547 on a charge of treasonably quartering the royal arms. His father escaped execution as the king died the day before that appointed for the beheading, but he remained imprisoned. Howard's son Thomas Howard, became heir to the Dukedom of Norfolk in place of his father, which title he inherited on the 3rd Duke's death in 1554.


title: Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey

text: He was buried in Framlingham Church in Suffolk, where survives his spectacular painted alabaster tomb.


title: Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey

text: He and his friend Sir Thomas Wyatt were the first English poets to write in the sonnet form that Shakespeare later used, and Howard was the first English poet to publish blank verse (unrhymed iambic pentameter) in his translation of the second and fourth books of Virgil's "Aeneid".


title: Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey

text: Together, Wyatt and Howard, due to their excellent translations of Petrarch's sonnets, are known as "Fathers of the English Sonnet". While Wyatt introduced the sonnet into English, it was Howard who gave them the rhyming meter and the division into quatrains that now characterises the sonnets variously named English, Elizabethan, or Shakespearean sonnets.


title: Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey

text: Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey was portrayed by the actor David O'Hara in "The Tudors", a television series which ran from 2007 to 2010.


title: Óscar Mingueza

text: Óscar Mingueza García (born 13 May 1999) is a Spanish Association football player who plays as a defender for La Liga club Celta Vigo and the Spain national team. Mainly a centre-back, he can also play in either full-back position, mostly as a right-back.


title: Óscar Mingueza

text: Born in Santa Perpètua de Mogoda, Barcelona, Catalonia, Mingueza joined Barcelona's La Masia academy in 2007 from Santa Perpètua. He won the UEFA Youth League with the club's "Juvenil A" team in 2018, and moved up to FC Barcelona B for the 2018–19 season.


title: Óscar Mingueza

text: Mingueza made his first-team debut for Barcelona on 24 November 2020, as a replacement for the injured Gerard Piqué, starting the 4–0 2020–21 UEFA Champions League group stage victory against Dynamo Kyiv at the NSC Olimpiyskiy in Kyiv. Five days later, he made his La Liga debut in a 4–0 win against Osasuna at Camp Nou. On 15 March 2021, Mingueza scored his first goal for Barcelona in a 4–1 home win over Huesca in La Liga. He scored his second career goal in the 60th minute of El Clásico on 10 April 2021. One week later, he won his first professional title, after winning the 2020–21 Copa del Rey against Athletic Bilbao.


title: Óscar Mingueza

text: On 31 July 2022, Mingueza joined fellow top tier side RC Celta de Vigo on a permanent four-year deal for a reported fee of €3 million.


title: Óscar Mingueza

text: Due to the isolation of some national team players following the positive COVID-19 test of Sergio Busquets, Spain's under-21 squad were called up for the international friendly against Lithuania on 8 June 2021. Mingueza made his senior debut in the match as Spain won 4–0. Later that month, he was included in Spain's preliminary squad for the 2020 Summer Olympics.


title: Óscar Mingueza

text: Óscar's younger sister, Ariadna, is also a professional footballer having made her debut for Barcelona's women's team on 6 March 2021.


title: Imagined community

text: An imagined community is a concept developed by Benedict Anderson in his 1983 book "Imagined Communities" to analyze nationalism. Anderson depicts a nation as a socially-constructed community, imagined by the people who perceive themselves as part of a group.


title: Imagined community

text: Anderson focuses on the way media creates imagined communities, especially the power of print media in shaping an individual's social psyche. Anderson analyzes the written word, a tool used by churches, authors, and media companies (notably books, newspapers, and magazines), as well as governmental tools such as the map, the census, and the museum. These tools were all built to target and define a mass audience in the public sphere through dominant images, ideologies, and language. Anderson explores the racist and colonial origins of these practices before explaining a general theory that explains how contemporary governments and corporations can (and frequently do) utilize these same practices. These theories were not originally applied to the Internet or television.


title: Imagined community

text: According to Anderson, the creation of imagined communities has become possible because of "print capitalism". Capitalist entrepreneurs printed their books and media in the vernacular (instead of exclusive script languages, such as Latin) in order to maximize circulation. As a result, readers speaking various local dialects became able to understand each other, and a common discourse emerged. Anderson argued that the first European nation states were thus formed around their "national print-languages."


title: Imagined community

text: Anderson argues that the first form of capitalism started with the process of printing books and religious materials. The process of printing texts in the vernacular started right after books began to be printed in script languages, such as Latin, which saturated the elite market. At the moment it was also observed that just a small category of people was speaking it and was part of the bilingual society. The start of cultural and national revolution was around 1517 when Martin Luther presented his views regarding the scripture, that people should be able to read it in their own homes. In the following years, from 1520 to 1540, more than half of the books printed in German translation bore his name.


title: Imagined community

text: Moreover, the first European nation states that are presented as having formed around their "national print-languages" are said to be found in the Anglo-Saxon region, nowadays England, and around today's Germany. Not only in Western Europe was the process of creating a nation emerging. In a few centuries, most European nations had created their own national languages but still were using languages such as Latin, French or German (primarily French and German) for political affair.


title: Imagined community

text: According to Anderson's theory of imagined communities, the main causes of nationalism are the movement to abolish the ideas of rule by divine right and hereditary monarchy; and the emergence of printing press capitalism ("the convergence of capitalism and print technology... standardization of national calendars, clocks and language was embodied in books and the publication of daily newspapers")—all phenomena occurring with the start of the Industrial Revolution.


title: Imagined community

text: From this, Anderson argues that in the presence and development of technology, people started to make differences between what means divine and divinity and what really is history and politics because initially, the divine and the history of society and politics were based on the existence of a common religion that was a unification umbrella for all the people across Europe. With the emergence of the printing press and capitalism, people gained national consciousness regarding the common values that bring those people together. The Imagined Communities started with the creation of their own nation print-languages that each individual spoke. That helped develop the first forms of known nation-states, who then created their own form of art, novels, publications, mass media, and communications.


title: Imagined community

text: "(1) The objective modernity of nations to the historians' eyes vs. their subjective antiquity in the eyes of nationalists. (2) The formal universality of nationality as a socio-cultural concept [and] (3) the 'political power of such nationalisms vs. their philosophical poverty and even incoherence."


title: Imagined community

text: Anderson talks of Unknown Soldier tombs as an example of nationalism. The tombs of Unknown Soldiers are either empty or hold unidentified remains, but each nation with these kinds of memorials claims these soldiers as their own. No matter what the actual origin of the Unknown Soldier is, these nations have placed them within their imagined community.


title: Imagined community

text: He defined a nation as "an imagined political community." As Anderson puts it, a nation "is imagined because the members of even the smallest nation will never know most of their fellow-members, meet them, or even hear of them, yet in the minds of each lives the image of their communion." Members of the community probably will never know each of the other members face to face; however, they may have similar interests or identify as part of the same nation. Members hold in their minds a mental image of their affinity. For example, the nationhood felt with other members of your nation when your "imagined community" participates in a larger event such as the Olympic Games.


title: Imagined community

text: Benedict Anderson arrived at his theory because he felt neither Marxist nor liberal theory adequately explained nationalism.


title: Imagined community

text: Anderson falls into the "historicist" or "modernist" school of nationalism along with Ernest Gellner and Eric Hobsbawm in that he posits that nations and nationalism are products of modernity and have been created as means to political and economic ends. This school opposes the primordialists, who believe that nations, if not nationalism, have existed since early human history. Imagined communities can be seen as a form of social constructionism on par with Edward Said's concept of imagined geographies.


title: Imagined community

text: In contrast to Gellner and Hobsbawm, Anderson is not hostile to the idea of nationalism, nor does he think that nationalism is obsolete in a globalizing world. Anderson values the utopian element in nationalism.


title: Imagined community

text: According to Harald Bauder, the concept of imagined communities remains highly relevant in a contemporary context of how nation-states frame and formulate their identities about domestic and foreign policy, such as policies towards immigrants and migration. According to Euan Hague, "Anderson's concept of nations being 'imagined communities' has become standard within books reviewing geographical thought".


title: Imagined community

text: Even though the term was coined to specifically describe nationalism, it is now used more broadly, almost blurring it with community of interest. For instance, it can be used to refer to a community based on sexual orientation, or awareness of global risk factors.


title: Imagined community

text: The term has been influential on other thinkers. British anthropologist Mark Lindley-Highfield of Ballumbie Castle describes ideas such as "the West", which are given agentive status as though they are homogeneous real things, as entity-concepts, where these entity-concepts can have different symbolic values attributed to them to those attributed to the individuals comprising the group, who on an individual basis might be perceived differently. Lindley-Highfield explains: "Thus the discourse flows at two levels: One at which ideological disembodied concepts are seen to compete and contest, that have an agency of their own and can have agency acted out against them; and another at which people are individuals and may be distinct from the concepts held about their broader society." This varies from Anderson’s work in that the application of the term is from the outside, and in terms of the focus on the inherent contradiction between the divergent identities of the entity-concepts and those who would fall under them.


title: Katie Pavlich

text: Catherine Merri "Katie" Pavlich (born July 10, 1988) is an American conservative commentator, author, blogger, and podcaster.


title: Katie Pavlich

text: Pavlich was born in Phoenix, Arizona, to a family of Croat and German descent. She grew up in the mountainous areas of northern Arizona, where she developed interests in outdoor activities such as river rafting and hunting. Pavlich graduated from Sinagua High School in Flagstaff, where she played volleyball and basketball.


title: Katie Pavlich

text: In 2010, Pavlich earned a bachelor of arts degree in broadcast journalism from the University of Arizona. As an adult woman with eligible ancestry, she became a member of the Daughters of the American Revolution.


title: Katie Pavlich

text: Pavlich moved to the Washington, D.C., area and became news editor for Townhall.com, a contributing editor to "Townhall Magazine", and a Fox News contributor. In the summer of 2013, she became an alternate co-host for "The Five", a panel talk show on the Fox News Channel. She was also a "National Review" Washington Fellow. Pavlich has appeared on media outlets including Fox News, CNN, MSNBC, CNBC, and Fox Business. Starting in 2018, she co-hosted the podcast "Everything's Going to Be All Right" with former White House Press Secretary Sean Spicer.


title: Katie Pavlich

text: The Conservative Political Action Conference named her 2013 Blogger of the Year. The Clare Boothe Luce Policy Institute gave her the 2014 Woman of the Year Award, and the 2013 Conservative Leadership Award.


title: Katie Pavlich

text: She authored the books "Fast and Furious: Barack Obama's Bloodiest Scandal and Its Shameless Cover-Up" (2012) and "Assault & Flattery: The Truth About the Left and Their War on Women" (2014).


title: Katie Pavlich

text: On the March 19, 2019, broadcast of the Fox News show "Outnumbered", Pavlich said that America was the first country to end slavery within 150 years, and receives no credit for it. The remark was disputed by PolitiFact, which noted that countries that outlawed slavery earlier and more quickly than the U.S. included El Salvador, Mexico, Chile, Argentina and Venezuela. In a reversal, she later said she had misspoken, meaning to say that America was "one of" the first countries to end slavery within 150 years "from the point of its founding".


title: Katie Pavlich

text: In September 2019, she questioned Greta Thunberg's global warming activism, saying "She claims that there needs to be more information about the quote 'science,' but actually on the other side there needs to be more information about the hundreds of scientists who actually disagree with the projections of climate change."


title: Bronchiolitis

text: Bronchiolitis is inflammation of the small airways in the lungs. Acute bronchiolitis is due to a viral infection usually affecting children younger than two years of age. Symptoms may include fever, cough, runny nose, wheezing, and breathing problems. More severe cases may be associated with nasal flaring, grunting, or the skin between the ribs pulling in with breathing. If the child has not been able to feed properly, signs of dehydration may be present.


title: Bronchiolitis

text: Chronic bronchiolitis is the general term used for small airways disease in adults, notably in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.


title: Bronchiolitis

text: Acute bronchiolitis is usually the result of infection by respiratory syncytial virus (72% of cases) or human rhinovirus (26% of cases). Diagnosis is generally based on symptoms. Tests such as a chest X-ray or viral testing are not routinely needed.


title: Bronchiolitis

text: There is no specific treatment. Symptomatic treatment at home is generally sufficient. Occasionally, hospital admission for oxygen, support with feeding, or intravenous fluids is required. Tentative evidence supports nebulized hypertonic saline. Evidence for antibiotics, antivirals, bronchodilators, or nebulized epinephrine is either unclear or not supportive.


title: Bronchiolitis

text: About 10% to 30% of children under the age of two years are affected by bronchiolitis at some point in time. It commonly occurs in the winter in the Northern Hemisphere. It is the leading cause of hospitalizations in those less than one year of age in the United States. The risk of death among those who are admitted to hospital is about 1%. Outbreaks of the condition were first described in the 1940s.


title: Bronchiolitis

text: Bronchiolitis typically presents in children under two years old and is characterized by a constellation of respiratory symptoms that consists of fever, rhinorrhea, cough, wheeze, tachypnea and increased work of breathing such as nasal flaring or grunting that develops over one to three days. Crackles or wheeze are typical findings on listening to the chest with a stethoscope. The child may also experience apnea, or brief pauses in breathing. After the acute illness, it is common for the airways to remain sensitive for several weeks, leading to recurrent cough and wheeze.


title: Bronchiolitis

text: The term usually refers to acute viral bronchiolitis, a common disease in infancy. This is most commonly caused by respiratory syncytial virus (RSV, also known as human pneumovirus). Other agents that cause this illness include human metapneumovirus, influenza, parainfluenza, coronavirus, adenovirus, rhinovirus and mycoplasma.


title: Bronchiolitis

text: Children are at an increased risk for progression to severe respiratory disease if they have any of the following additional factors:


title: Bronchiolitis

text: The diagnosis is typically made by clinical examination. Chest X-ray is sometimes useful to exclude bacterial pneumonia, but not indicated in routine cases. Chest x-ray may also be useful in people with impending respiratory failure. Additional testing such as blood cultures, complete blood count, and electrolyte analyses are not recommended for routine use although may be useful in children with multiple comorbidities or signs of sepsis or pneumonia.


title: Bronchiolitis

text: Testing for the specific viral cause can be done but has little effect on management and thus is not routinely recommended. RSV testing by direct immunofluorescence testing on nasopharyngeal aspirate had a sensitivity of 61% and specificity of 89%. Identification of those who are RSV-positive can help for disease surveillance, grouping ("cohorting") people together in hospital wards to prevent cross infection, predicting whether the disease course has peaked yet, and reducing the need for other diagnostic procedures (by providing confidence that a cause has been identified). Identification of the virus may help reduce the use of antibiotics.


title: Bronchiolitis

text: Infants with bronchiolitis between the age of two and three months have a second infection by bacteria (usually a urinary tract infection) less than 6% of the time. When further evaluated with a urinalysis, infants with bronchiolitis had a concomitant UTI 0.8% of the time. Preliminary studies have suggested that elevated procalcitonin levels may assist clinicians in determining the presence of bacterial co-infection, which could prevent unnecessary antibiotic use and costs.


title: Bronchiolitis

text: There are many childhood illnesses that can present with respiratory symptoms, particularly persistent cough and wheezing. Bronchiolitis may be differentiated from some of these by the characteristic pattern of preceding febrile upper respiratory tract symptoms lasting for 1 to 3 days followed by the persistent cough, tachypnea, and wheezing. However, some infants may present without fever (30% of cases) or may present with apnea without other signs or with poor weight gain prior to onset of symptoms. In such cases, additional laboratory testing and radiographic imaging may be useful. The following are some other diagnoses to consider in an infant presenting with signs of bronchiolitis:


title: Bronchiolitis

text: Prevention of bronchiolitis relies strongly on measures to reduce the spread of the viruses that cause respiratory infections (that is, handwashing, and avoiding exposure to those symptomatic with respiratory infections). Guidelines are mixed on the use of gloves, aprons, or personal protective equipment. In addition to good hygiene, an improved immune system is a great tool for prevention.


title: Bronchiolitis

text: One way to improve the immune system is to feed the infant with breast milk, especially during the first month of life. Respiratory infections were shown to be significantly less common among breastfed infants and fully breastfed RSV-positive hospitalized infants had shorter hospital stays than non or partially breastfed infants. Guidelines recommend exclusive breastfeeding for infants for the first 6 months of life.


title: Bronchiolitis

text: Palivizumab, a monoclonal antibody against RSV, can be administered to prevent bronchiolitis to infants less than one year of age that were born very prematurely or that have underlying heart disease or chronic lung disease of prematurity. Passive immunization therapy requires monthly injections during winter. Otherwise healthy premature infants that were born after a gestational age of 29 weeks should not be administered palivizumab as the harms outweigh the benefits. Passive protection through the administration of other novel monoclonal antibodies is also under evaluation.


title: Bronchiolitis

text: Immunizations for RSV are being developed but none are available currently outside of clinical trials.


title: Bronchiolitis

text: Tobacco smoke exposure has been shown to increase both the rates of lower respiratory disease in infants, as well as the risk and severity of bronchiolitis. Tobacco smoke lingers in the environment for prolonged periods and on clothing even when smoking outside the home. Guidelines recommend that parents be fully educated on the risks of tobacco smoke exposure on children with bronchiolitis.


title: Bronchiolitis

text: Treatment of bronchiolitis is usually focused on the hydration and symptoms instead of the infection itself since the infection will run its course and complications are typically from the symptoms themselves. Without active treatment, half of cases will go away in 13 days and 90% in three weeks. Children with severe symptoms, especially poor feeding or dehydration, may be considered for hospital admission. Oxygen saturation under 90%-92% as measured with pulse oximetry is also frequently used as an indicator of need for hospitalization. High-risk infants, apnea, cyanosis, malnutrition, and diagnostic uncertainty are additional indications for hospitalization.


title: Bronchiolitis

text: Most guidelines recommend sufficient fluids and nutritional support for affected children. Measures for which the recommendations were mixed include nebulized hypertonic saline, nebulized epinephrine, and nasal suctioning. Treatments which the evidence does not support include salbutamol, steroids, antibiotics, antivirals, heliox, continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP), chest physiotherapy, and cool mist or steam inhalation.


title: Bronchiolitis

text: Maintaining hydration is an important part of management of bronchiolitis. Infants with mild pulmonary symptoms may require only observation if feeding is unaffected. However, oral intake may be affected by nasal secretions and increased work of breathing. Poor feeding or dehydration, defined as less than 50% of usual intake, is often cited as an indication for hospital admission. Guidelines recommend the use of nasogastric or intravenous fluids in children with bronchiolitis who cannot maintain usual oral intake. The risk of health care caused hyponatremia and fluid retention are minimal with the use of isotonic fluids such as normal saline, breast milk, or formula.


title: Bronchiolitis

text: Inadequate oxygen supply to the tissue is one of the main concerns during severe bronchiolitis and oxygen saturation is often closely associated with both the need for hospitalization and continued length of hospital stay in children with bronchiolitis. However, oxygen saturation is a poor predictor of respiratory distress. Accuracy of pulse oximetry is limited in the 76% to 90% range and there is weak correlation between oxygen saturation and respiratory distress as brief hypoxemia is common in healthy infants. Additionally, pulse oximetry is associated with frequent false alarms and parental stress and fatigue. Clinicians may choose not to given additional oxygen to children with bronchiolitis if their oxygen saturation is above 90%. Additionally, clinicians may choose not to use continuous pulse oximetry in these people.


title: Bronchiolitis

text: When choosing to use oxygen therapy for a child with bronchiolitis, there is evidence that home oxygen may reduce hospitalization rate and length of stay although readmission rates and follow-up visits are increased. Also, the use of humidified, heated, high-flow nasal cannula may be a safe initial therapy to decrease work of breathing and need for intubation. However, evidence is lacking regarding the use of high-flow nasal cannula compared to standard oxygen therapy or continuous positive airway pressure. These practices may still be used in severe cases prior to intubation.


title: Bronchiolitis

text: Blood gas testing is not recommended for people hospitalized with the disease and is not useful in the routine management of bronchiolitis. People with severe worsening respiratory distress or impending respiratory failure may be considered for capillary blood gas testing.


title: Bronchiolitis

text: Guidelines recommend against the use of nebulized hypertonic saline in the emergency department for children with bronchiolitis but it may be given to children who are hospitalized.


title: Bronchiolitis

text: Nebulized hypertonic saline (3%) has limited evidence of benefit and previous studies lack consistency and standardization. A 2017 review found tentative evidence that it reduces the risk of hospitalization, duration of hospital stay, and improved the severity of symptoms. The majority of evidence suggests that hypertonic saline is safe and effective at improving respiratory symptoms of mild to moderate bronchiolitis after 24 hours of use. However, it does not appear effective in reducing the rate of hospitalization when used in the emergency room or other outpatient settings in which length of therapy is brief. Side effects were mild and resolved spontaneously.


title: Bronchiolitis

text: Guidelines recommend against the use of bronchodilators in children with bronchiolitis as evidence does not support a change in outcomes with such use. Additionally, there are adverse effects to the use of bronchodilators in children such as tachycardia and tremors, as well as adding increased financial expenses.


title: Bronchiolitis

text: Several studies have shown that bronchodilation with β-adrenergic agents such as salbutamol may improve symptoms briefly but do not affect the overall course of the illness or reduce the need for hospitalization. However, there are conflicting recommendations about the use of a trial of a bronchodilator, especially in those with history of previous wheezing, due to the difficulty with assessing an objective improvement in symptoms. Bronchiolitis-associated wheezing is likely not effectively alleviated by bronchodilators anyway as it is caused by airway obstruction and plugging of the small airway diameters by luminal debris, not bronchospasm as in asthma-associated wheezing that bronchodilators usually treat well.


title: Bronchiolitis

text: Anticholinergic inhalers, such as ipratropium bromide, have a modest short-term effect at best and are not recommended for treatment.


title: Bronchiolitis

text: The current state of evidence suggests that nebulized epinephrine is not indicated for children with bronchiolitis except as a trial of rescue therapy for severe cases.


title: Bronchiolitis

text: Epinephrine is an α and β adrenergic agonist that has been used to treat other upper respiratory tract illnesses, such as croup, as a nebulized solution. A Cochrane meta-analysis in 2011 found no benefit to the use of epinephrine in the inpatient setting and suggested that there may be utility in the outpatient setting in reducing the rate of hospitalization. However, current guidelines do not support the outpatient use of epinephrine given the lack of substantial sustained benefit.