title: Mrinal Kulkarni

text: She was not very serious about acting. Instead, she wanted to complete doctorate in philosophy. But offers kept coming her way and finally she decided to make a career in acting in 1994. She continued with acting as her career on receiving, many more successful roles, including those in "Shrikant" (a TV serial based on one of Saratchandra Chatterjee's novels), "The Great Maratha", "Draupadi", "Hasratein", "Meerabai", "Teacher", "Khel", "Sparsh" and "Sonpari". Her role in the TV serial "Avantika" on Alpha Marathi channel has received much acclaim. Mrinal is famous for playing a number of historic characters –Meerabai, Draupadi , Ahilya Bai Holkar, Ramabai, Jijabai etc. She had done 22 Hindi TV shows till now. She stopped acting in TV serial to focus on her direction venture.


title: Mrinal Kulkarni

text: Mrinal Kulkarni debuted as a Director for the Marathi film, Prem Mhanje... Prem Mhanje... Prem Asta. The story of the film has been written by Mrunal Kulkarni. After that, she directed Marathi historical drama Rama Madhav.


title: Behaviour Interactive

text: Behaviour Interactive Inc. is a Canadian video game development studio specializing in the production of 2D and 3D action/adventure games for home video game consoles, handheld game consoles, PCs and mobile. Based in Montreal, Canada, the company is the producer and publisher of the action-horror game, "Dead by Daylight".


title: Behaviour Interactive

text: The company was founded in 1992 in Quebec City as Megatoon. Two years later, the company’s current CEO and Executive Producer, Rémi Racine, co-founded the Montreal-based Multimedia Interactive (MMI) to develop interactive entertainment software for CD-ROM. Both companies were sold to Malofilm Communications in 1996, and a year later, they were merged into Behaviour Interactive with Racine as General Manager. In 1997, the studio released Jersey Devil on Playstation and later Windows. The 3D platformer was the first console game made entirely in Quebec. Distributed by Sony, Jersey Devil caught the eye of Infogrames Entertainment, which approached Behaviour to produce what would become , released in 1999.


title: Behaviour Interactive

text: In 1999, Racine and some investors bought the studio back, but they had to rename it, changing the name in 2000 to Artificial Mind & Movement Inc. (A2M). As A2M, the studio continued its work-for-hire projects, producing titles for clients including Konami, Sony Computer Entertainment, Ubisoft, Disney Interactive Studios, Nintendo, EA and Activision. In November 2008, the company acquired Santiago-based Wanako Games from Activision Blizzard, which was the first and largest South American game studio. As A2M, the studio maintained its focus on producing original titles, releasing Scaler (2004), WET (2009) and Naughty Bear (2010). This last title had more than 800,000 console-unit sales and laid the groundwork for the studio’s 2016 breakthrough original game, Dead by Daylight.


title: Behaviour Interactive

text: On November 8, 2010, Artificial Mind & Movement announced its name was returning to Behaviour Interactive. The change was partly due to increased production of original titles and thus stronger presence in the gaming community, partly due to the availability of the original name, and partly due to one particular obscene interpretation of the initialism "A2M".


title: Behaviour Interactive

text: The studio has maintained its work-for-hire services with major clients while continuing to invest in original games. In 2016, Behaviour released Dead by Daylight, a multiplayer survival action horror game published by Sweden’s Starbreeze. Dead by Daylight sold more than 1 million copies in its first two months and now has more than 50 million players worldwide. In 2018, Behaviour purchased the game’s publishing rights from Starbreeze for USD $16 million. Thanks in large part to the game’s success, Behaviour has seen its revenues grow from CAD $25 million in 2015 to CAD $225 million in 2021.


title: Behaviour Interactive

text: In April 2022, Behaviour announced the opening of a new office in Toronto. The studio said the office will accommodate at least 50 employees working on projects across Behaviour’s three business units.


title: Behaviour Interactive

text: In May 2022, it was announced Behaviour Interactive had acquired the Seattle-based game development studio, Midwinter Entertainment.


title: Behaviour Interactive

text: Behaviour’s next major original release, "Meet Your Maker", is due for release in April 2023 on PC, PlayStation 4/5, and Xbox One, Series X/S. The game is billed as a "post-apocalyptic first-person building-and-raiding game where every level is designed by players for players."


title: Behaviour Interactive

text: In the summer of 2022, Behaviour released "Hooked on You", a dating sim spinoff from the "Dead by Daylight" franchise, and the melee brawler "Flippin Misfits". Both games were revealed alongside "Meet Your Maker" at the first-ever Behaviour Beyond showcase of new and upcoming releases broadcast in August 2022.


title: Behaviour Interactive

text: Behaviour’s operations are divided into three business units – Studios, Digital and Business Solutions. Its Studios unit provides work-for-hire development services to major video game and entertainment industry brands such as Disney, Sony, Activision, Warner Bros., Ubisoft, HBO and Nintendo. Its Digital unit produces Behaviour’s original content including Dead by Daylight. Behaviour’s Business Solutions unit applies game technology to business ends for corporate clients such as Bombardier, CAE and CN Rail.


title: Behaviour Interactive

text: Behaviour Interactive made headlines as one of the first video game studios to abolish crunch time, a controversial yet widespread practice in the video game industry that requires employees to work longer hours, often unpaid, to meet project milestones. The policy helped Behaviour earn its designation as one of Canada’s Best Workplaces by gamesindustry.biz in 2018 and again in 2021.


title: Behaviour Interactive

text: On June 21, 2018, Bethesda Softworks sued Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment and Behaviour Interactive over "Westworld", a mobile game based on the science fiction television series "Westworld", alleging that the game is a "blatant rip-off" of "Fallout Shelter", another mobile game, co-developed by Behaviour.


title: Behaviour Interactive

text: In a suit filed in a United States District Court for the District of Maryland, Bethesda alleges that "Westworld" "has the same or highly similar game design, art style, animations, features and other gameplay elements" as "Fallout Shelter". Bethesda sued for copyright infringement, breach of contract and misappropriating trade secrets, seeking a jury trial and damages. The lawsuit also alleged that "Westworld" identically reproduced some software bugs that were originally present in "Fallout Shelter". The lawsuit was settled in January 2019 on friendly terms.


title: Y. S. Sharmila

text: Yeduguri Sandinti Sharmila Reddy is an Indian politician who is the founder and president of the YSR Telangana Party. She is the younger sister of Andhra Pradesh Chief Minister Y. S. Jagan Mohan Reddy and the daughter of Y. S. Rajasekhara Reddy and Y. S. Vijayamma. She worked as the party convener for the YSR Congress Party.


title: Y. S. Sharmila

text: Sharmila made headlines after she took up campaigning on behalf of the YSR Congress Party (YSRCP) along with her mother Y. S. Vijayamma, in the absence of her elder brother Y. S. Jaganmohan Reddy from June 2012 in Andhra Pradesh. YSRCP won 15 of the 18 assembly seats and 1 of 1 Parliament seat for which the by-elections were held.


title: Y. S. Sharmila

text: Sharmila began her at Idupulapaya in Kadapa district on 18 October 2012. She completed it on 4 August 2013 in Ichchapuram. She toured 14 districts as part of the walkathon.


title: Y. S. Sharmila

text: Before the 2019 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election, Sharmila undertook an 11-day bus Yatra across Andhra Pradesh in branded buses with a “Bye Bye Babu” timer clock, suggesting that it was time for the then Chief Minister N. Chandrababu Naidu. The campaign under the name “Praja Theerpu - Bye Bye Babu” covered and 39 public addresses. She also handed out over 20,000 autographed caps.


title: Y. S. Sharmila

text: In February 2021, Sharmila alleged that she had political differences with her brother, Jagan Mohan Reddy, who is the chief of YSRCP, and claimed there is no presence of the party in the state of Telangana.


title: Y. S. Sharmila

text: On 9 April 2021, Sharmila has announced that she would launch a new political party on 8 July 2021 in Telangana. She chose the date as it is the birth date of her father, Rajasekhara Reddy. Ahead of the party's launch, she has started campaigning against the incumbent Telangana Rashtra Samithi (TRS) government.


title: Y. S. Sharmila

text: Sharmila was born into a Reddy political-business family to Y. S. Rajasekhara Reddy and Vijayamma in Hyderabad. Her husband Morusupalli Anil Kumar is an evangelist and founder of Anil World Evangelism. The couple has two children. Sharmila has an elder brother Jagan Mohan Reddy, who is the current Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh. She resides in Hyderabad.


title: United Nations laissez-passer

text: A United Nations laissez-passer (UNLP or LP) is a diplomatic travel document issued by the United Nations under the provisions of Article VII of the 1946 Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations in its offices in New York City and Geneva, as well as by the International Labour Organization (ILO).


title: United Nations laissez-passer

text: The UNLP is issued to UN and ILO staff as well as staff members of international organizations such as the WHO, the IAEA, the World Tourism Organization, the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization Preparatory Commission, the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), the World Trade Organization, the International Monetary Fund, the International Organization for Migration (IOM), the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and the World Bank. The document is written in English and French, working languages of United Nations.


title: United Nations laissez-passer

text: The UNLP is a valid travel document, which can be used like a national passport (in connection with travel on official missions only). However, UNLP holders often encounter immigration officials who are unfamiliar with the document and require them to show a national passport in addition. As with national passports, some countries/regions accept it for entry without the need for a visa (e.g., Turkmenistan, Kenya, the United Kingdom, Schengen Area, Lebanon, etc.), while other countries may require a visa before it can be accepted for entry to the country (depending on the nationality of the UNLP holder).


title: United Nations laissez-passer

text: Most officials hold a blue UNLP (up to D-1 level), which is similar in legal status to a service passport. A red UNLP is issued to particularly high officials (D-2 and above), and confers similar status to that of a diplomatic passport holder.


title: United Nations laissez-passer

text: A data page has a visual zone and a machine-readable zone. The visual zone has a photograph of the holder, data about the passport, and data about the LP holder much similar to a normal passport. The nationality and place of birth of the passport holder is not mentioned in a UNLP, but the UN is used in fields similar to "issuing country".


title: United Nations laissez-passer

text: The first line of a machine-readable zone (which is at the bottom of the page) of the passport contains a letter to denote the type of travel document (which is despite the laissez-passer status, it is "P" for passport), followed by the code normally used for the citizenship of the passport holder (but here: "UNO/UNA" for "United Nations Organization/Agency"), and the name (surname first, then given name or names) of the passport holder. When visa are placed in a UNLP, the same practice should be followed, and in the nationality field, UNO/UNA should be placed. This guideline however is often not observed.


title: United Nations laissez-passer

text: Effective , all applicants for new LPs received by the UN Office in Geneva (UNOG) will be issued the new "e-UNLPs" and there will be no renewal of current UNLPs. The new "e-UNLP" is fully compliant with international standards established by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). These include the use of bio-chip technology, facial recognition identification and employs strict photographic standards for passport documents. All "e-UNLPS" will be issued with a five-year fixed duration, regardless of contract expiration and will not contain dependents. The validity period of the new e-UNLP cannot be extended and additional visa pages cannot be added. Existing LPs retain the validity date stipulated in the document.


title: United Nations laissez-passer

text: The UN laissez-passer is not treated as a valid passport for the purposes of obtaining an Electronic Travel Authorization to visit Canada.


title: United Nations laissez-passer

text: Some categories of persons employed by or affiliated with the United Nations are not normally entitled to receive a laissez-passer, e.g.: goodwill ambassadors, Messengers of Peace, consultants of United Nations organizations and funds and programmes, experts on missions for the United Nations, and individual and institutional contractors.


title: United Nations laissez-passer

text: However, in accordance with section 22 of the Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations, individuals who are designated as experts on missions for the UN may be issued a United Nations Certificate, which is not a legal travel document but serves to certify that the holder is travelling on official business on behalf of the UN or specialized agency or related organization.


title: Life's Too Short (TV series)

text: Life's Too Short is a British mockumentary sitcom created and written by Ricky Gervais and Stephen Merchant, based on an idea by Warwick Davis, about "the life of a showbiz dwarf". Davis plays a fictionalised version of himself, and both Gervais and Merchant appear in supporting roles as themselves. The show began airing on BBC Two on 10 November 2011. Premium cable channel HBO, which co-produced the series with the BBC, has the US rights and aired the series from 19 February 2012.


title: Life's Too Short (TV series)

text: In January 2013, it was announced that "Life's Too Short" would end later in the year with a special that would bring the series' closure. The one-hour special aired on 30 March 2013 in the UK and 5 July 2013 in the US.


title: Life's Too Short (TV series)

text: The genesis of the show was when Davis worked with Gervais and Merchant in an episode of the second series of "Extras", in which he co-starred with Daniel Radcliffe. Gervais said that Davis is funny in real life and tells great stories. Merchant said that Davis helped create the idea. Gervais and Merchant approached the BBC about developing a show centred on a character based on Davis.


title: Life's Too Short (TV series)

text: The real Warwick tells us these great stories. They're comedy gold. (The show) is a cross between "Extras" and "Curb Your Enthusiasm" and "One Foot in the Grave" but with a dwarf. That is out and out funny."


title: Life's Too Short (TV series)

text: In the programme, Davis runs a small person's talent agency and plays a twisted version of himself; quite conceited, arrogant and manipulative. He is supposedly doing a documentary to improve his career, and because he is going through a messy divorce and needs the money. Davis bugs Gervais and Merchant about whether they have any work, much to their annoyance.


title: Life's Too Short (TV series)

text: In an interview with Jonathan Ross, Davis said that his character is egotistical and suffers from small man syndrome, Gervais said of the character He refuses to live his life as a disabled person. We're making him empowered but also give him these foibles" Third in our trilogy of TV sitcoms … another naturalist observational comedy, dealing with everyday problems, human foibles and social faux pas … but with a dwarf.


title: Life's Too Short (TV series)

text: Gervais first mentioned "Life's Too Short" on his blog in February 2010, when he and Merchant were writing and casting the project. They would go on to select Warwick Davis for the lead role after a number of auditions.


title: Life's Too Short (TV series)

text: The pilot for the comedy was commissioned by the BBC in April 2010. Gervais reported on progress in his blog. In April 2010 he stated, "Some reports are saying that the "Life's Too Short" pilot we are shooting in the summer will be aired. It wont . It is a non-broadcast pilot. We will shoot the whole series before anything is aired. We're not sure how many eps [episodes] we will record (probably 6) and not sure when the series will air."


title: Life's Too Short (TV series)

text: Gervais wrote on his blog in June 2010 that they had "Found the last location today for "Life's Too Short". It feels great doing this project. Just like "The Office" and "Extras". Starting from scratch, just me and Steve in a room crafting a brand new show. It doesn't get better than that for me." He later wrote that filming of the pilot was undertaken in June and July 2010. While talking at the Banff World Media Festival in July 2010, Gervais described "Life's Too Short" as "the funniest thing we've done". Gervais told "The Hollywood Reporter" "We're having so much fun working with Warwick. Pound for pound he is one of the funniest men I know." Stephen Merchant said of Davis: "Warwick is very funny, a very physical comedian which we really made use of … He's very charismatic, very charming in it … I was really pleased. He's a real comic star in waiting." Gervais went on to say that they had "Finished the pilot for "Life's Too Short" too. Just have to write the series now".


title: Life's Too Short (TV series)

text: The series was produced by Charlie Hanson, who previously produced "Extras", and Michelle Farr. Gervais and Merchant were executive producers, along with Mark Freeland. On 17 September 2010 the BBC announced, via the BBC Two Controller Janice Hadlow and the Controller of BBC Comedy Commissioning Cheryl Taylor, that the six-part series had been commissioned and filmed in 2011. Gervais reported in his blog on the progress of writing "Life's Too Short" throughout November 2010: "Had a great week writing "Life's Too Short". It's the hardest bit, the most important bit and the most invigorating bit", and in a later entry "Wrote one of the funniest sketches we've ever done for "Life's Too Short". Six hours hard labour for a potential two minutes screen time." In January 2011 he reported that he was still working on the scripts for the show, and in February that he and Merchant were trying to finish writing the series.


title: Life's Too Short (TV series)

text: In March 2011 Gervais reported on his blog "Getting ready to film "Life's Too Short"." Merchant confirmed that filming would begin in May 2011. Cast members included Jo Enright, who played Davis' wife in the pilot, Shaun Williamson, who played himself (known as "Barry off "EastEnders"") in "Extras", Cat Deeley, Rosamund Hanson, Kiruna Stamell and Jamie Dodd. Boxer Mike Tyson also asked Gervais to consider casting him in a role. On 31 March Gervais confirmed on his blog that "We've basically got first drafts of all seven episodes of "Life's Too Short" now. Yes seven!". As the pilot had already been filmed, the series would comprise eight shows. On 1 April he stated "Started casting "Life's Too Short" this week too. So much fun." On 29 April he wrote "Did the last of the casting today on "Life's Too Short". Some amazing cameos too. You know about the [Johnny] Depp one, but hopefully we might be able to keep a couple of the other really big ones under wraps. Not just because of the surprise factor but because it takes the focus away from the real meat of the show." On 11 May the cast had their first read-through of all seven episodes, and rehearsals started on the week beginning 16 May 2011 with Gervais commenting "We've put together an amazing cast so it should be a joy." Filming started on 30 May 2011.


title: Life's Too Short (TV series)

text: On 22 June 2011 it was announced that Sting and Steve Carell would be filming cameos for the series. The teaser trailer released on the same day featured Keith Chegwin, Les Dennis and Shaun Williamson as well as the three main stars. On 11 July Gervais hinted on his blog that a "Doctor Who"-related cameo would be in the show, as well as posting a link to a YouTube video of him and Davis filmed on the set of "Life's Too Short". Earlier in that week he had blogged about how "Matt Groening's favourite character from "The Office" will make a cameo in "Life's Too Short"", along with an on-set photograph of actor Ewen MacIntosh who played Big Keith in "The Office".


title: Life's Too Short (TV series)

text: Principal filming ran for eight weeks ending on 22 July 2011. Gervais and Davis attended a question and answer session to discuss the making of "Life's Too Short" at the Edinburgh Fringe Festival in August 2011. A half-hour-long documentary, "The Making of Life's Too Short", aired on BBC Two and BBC HD on 5 November 2011, prior to the start of the series run. After the first series finished airing, Gervais confirmed via Twitter that a second series had been commissioned for early 2013. Always the comedian, Gervais stated on his blog that "We are thinking of going straight to the Xmas Special. Lazier and lazier. Now it's down to ONE series and a special. Ha ha." The series finale premiered on 5 July 2013 in the US on HBO.


title: Life's Too Short (TV series)

text: "Life's Too Short" was released on DVD and Blu-ray on 22 October 2012 in the UK, 7 November 2012 in Australia and on 15 January 2013 in the US. "The Special" was released onto DVD in the UK on 2 February 2015.


title: Life's Too Short (TV series)

text: In the United Kingdom the first series received mostly mixed reviews. Rachel Tarley, of "Metro", described the show as "tripe" while David Butcher of the "Radio Times" introduced his review of episode six with "another week, another queasy mix of comedy and unpleasantness." Many reviews were deeply critical of the writing – Gwilym Mumford of "The Guardian" felt that writers Gervais and Merchant were "on autopilot", referring to the programme as "strikingly lazy stuff, little more than a predictable checklist of taboos and social faux pas", and journalist for "The Independent" Robert Epstein likewise branded it "shoddily derivative" and potentially degrading. T.J. Barnard, writing for "WhatCulture", called the show "a mess. It's aimless, indulgent, self-plagiarizing and cold." However, "Metro"s review of episode 7 was slightly more positive saying ""Life's Too Short" bowed out tonight with an episode that was more than marginally better than the six previous offerings, not only was the plot stronger than in previous weeks, but there were some genuinely funny scenes too, most notably a discussion between Gervais and Merchant about charity. And Steve Brody as Warwick's ineffectual giggly/depressive accountant continued to shine."


title: Life's Too Short (TV series)

text: More positive reviews could be found in "The Telegraph", where Gerald O'Donovan praised the show for its "belly laughs and cringe-making moments." Likewise, Caroline Frost of "The Huffington Post" applauded both the writing and the acting following the first episode, proclaiming that though it could easily have overreached, "Gervais and Merchant have pulled another one out of the hat."


title: Life's Too Short (TV series)

text: While the first episode rated strongly in the UK, the ratings dropped by 40% in the following week, and by the fifth episode the overnight ratings had dropped below a million, to 997,000—35% down on the average audience for its timeslot in the UK.


title: Life's Too Short (TV series)

text: Critical reaction to the Easter special was more positive, Dan Owen of "msn.tv" said "this Easter special was one of Life's Too Short's better episodes and provided enough laughs and fun to please most viewers." He felt that the special felt like a new pilot for the show that "fixed a few problems." He felt that Keith Chegwin, Shaun Williamson and Les Dennis were the funniest parts of the hour. Overall he gave the special 3 stars out of five. The "Metro" agreed saying, "there were laughs to be had here, mainly from the antics of Williamson, Chegwin and Dennis."


title: Life's Too Short (TV series)

text: The Guardian praised the episode and called it "a piece of genius" and admired it for being "done with such a breathtaking boldness."


title: Life's Too Short (TV series)

text: Harry Venning of "The Stage" gave a positive review of the first series also gave a positive review of the special "My favourite comedy of 2011 enjoyed a last hurrah. Sadly, it looks as though there will be no second series." He felt that Rosamund Hanson provided scene-stealing support as dippy secretary Cheryl. He concluded that overall "Life's Too Short" was "Painfully poignant, beautifully played and constantly inventive, this one-hour special conclusively proved that "Life’s Too Short"s own end was also premature."


title: Life's Too Short (TV series)

text: In the United States, the show received generally positive reviews. At Metacritic, which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the show received an average score of 63, based on 14 reviews, which indicates "Generally favorable reviews". On Rotten Tomatoes, the show holds a rating of 55% based on 33 critics, with the consensus reading: ""Life's Too Short" is enjoyably crass, but borrows heavily from Ricky Gervais and Stephen Merchant's previous work."


title: The X-Files (season 2)

text: The second season of the science fiction television series "The X-Files" commenced airing on the Fox network in the United States on September 16, 1994, concluded on the same channel on May 19, 1995, after airing all 25 episodes. The series follows Federal Bureau of Investigation special agents Fox Mulder and Dana Scully, portrayed by David Duchovny and Gillian Anderson respectively, who investigate paranormal or supernatural cases, known as X-Files by the FBI.


title: The X-Files (season 2)

text: The second season of "The X-Files" takes place after the closure of the department following the events of the first season finale. In addition to stand-alone "Monster-of-the-Week" episodes, several episodes also furthered the alien conspiracy mythology that had begun to form. Season two introduced several recurring characters—X (Steven Williams), an informant to Mulder; Alex Krycek (Nicholas Lea), Mulder's partner-turned-enemy; and the Alien Bounty Hunter (Brian Thompson), a shape-shifting assassin.


title: The X-Files (season 2)

text: The storylines were widely affected by the pregnancy of actress Gillian Anderson; it was decided that Scully would be kidnapped and abducted by aliens, explaining her absence and allowing her to appear comatose two episodes later, which ultimately added more intricacies to the mythology. The season earned seven Primetime Emmy Award nominations. The premiere "Little Green Men", debuted with a Nielsen household rating of 10.3 and was viewed by 9.8 million households, marking a noticeable increase in viewership since the previous year. The series rose from number 111 to number 63 for the 1994–95 television year. In addition, the show's second season has generally received positive reviews from television critics.


title: The X-Files (season 2)

text: Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson) is reassigned to teach at the FBI Academy while Fox Mulder (David Duchovny) is given lowly surveillance assignments. After he investigates extraterrestrial cases at the Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico, Mulder is given a new partner, Alex Krycek (Nicholas Lea), and meets a secretive informant, X (Steven Williams). Mulder is recruited to assist in a hostage negotiation when Duane Barry, an alien abductee, captures four people. Barry eventually kidnaps Scully, believing that if he brings her to his original abduction site, Skyland Mountain, aliens will take her instead of him. Mulder follows but is delayed by Krycek, who is revealed to be a mole working for Cigarette Smoking Man (William B. Davis). When Mulder reaches Skyland Mountain, Scully is gone. Barry, who insists that aliens took him, dies soon after an interrogation by Krycek. When Krycek vanishes, Skinner re-opens the X-Files, claiming that is what the conspirators will fear most.


title: The X-Files (season 2)

text: Scully turns up comatose in a hospital four weeks later with no explanation about how she got there. X provides Mulder with information allowing him to take revenge on her captors, but Mulder is instead convinced by Scully's sister Melissa to visit her bedside. Scully recovers and returns to work shortly thereafter. The agents later investigate a case involving alien biology being injected into teenagers in Wisconsin, and once again they encounter Deep Throat's killer, who is killed by the local sheriff.


title: The X-Files (season 2)

text: When investigating a case involving the murder of identical doctors, the agents come across a shapeshifting Alien Bounty Hunter (Brian Thompson) responsible for executing a series of alien clones. During this case a grown woman claiming to be Mulder's sister Samantha appears, telling Mulder of the Bounty Hunter's objectives and that she has the ability to identify him. When Scully is kidnapped by the Bounty Hunter, Mulder is forced to trade Samantha for her. During a botched attempt to kill the Bounty Hunter, Samantha is killed. However, it is discovered that this was simply one of many alien clones of Samantha. With the help of X, Mulder pursues the Bounty Hunter to a submarine in the Arctic. Mulder is nearly killed when exposed to the Bounty Hunter's toxic blood, but is saved by Scully.


title: The X-Files (season 2)

text: When a hacker downloads decades' worth of classified information about aliens onto a digital tape, he gives it to Mulder, who finds that the entire tape is written in Navajo. Cigarette Smoking Man begins searching for the tape and visits Mulder's father, who calls Mulder to see him shortly afterwards. Before he can reveal anything to Mulder, however, he is murdered by Alex Krycek. Scully brings Mulder to New Mexico, where she introduces him to Albert Hosteen, a code-talker who can translate the digital tape. Albert's grandson shows Mulder a boxcar filled with alien corpses. Cigarette Smoking Man tracks Mulder's location, however, and orders the boxcar burned.


title: The X-Files (season 2)

text: The season premiere was originally supposed to have been written by series creator Chris Carter. In his initial pitch, Mulder would have been sent to Moscow. In fact, the producers wanted to film the episode in Russia, but they were not able to secure the appropriate arrangements. In the end, Carter was unable to complete the script idea, which would have also featured the reopening of the X-Files. Instead, co-executive producers Glen Morgan, James Wong and Howard Gordon penned the opening premiere, "Little Green Men"; the episode was the first entry to actually show an alien in the series. This delay gave Carter time to write "Duane Barry", the start of the series' first two-parter.


title: The X-Files (season 2)

text: As the series ended its first season, a problem had arisen for the producers: the pregnancy of Gillian Anderson, who played Dana Scully. Some network executives wanted the role recast, which Carter refused to do. Though they considered having Scully giving birth to an alien child, the producers decided to work around Anderson's pregnancy by having her abducted and appearing comatose several episodes later. This was described by executive producer Frank Spotnitz as "the best thing that ever happened to the series" as it helped form the intricate mythology that would run throughout the show. The writers decided to close the X-Files at the end of the first season and thus separate Mulder and Scully in the earlier episodes of the season. To hide Anderson's pregnancy in the early episodes, the producers disguised it with "very fancy trick angles, trench coats, and scenes where she is seated rather than standing". The two-parter of Carter's "Duane Barry" and Paul Brown's "Ascension" were scripted to culminate in Scully's abduction and the re-opening of the X-Files. Anderson does not feature at all in the following episode "3", as she was giving birth to her daughter at the time of filming.


title: The X-Files (season 2)

text: The season introduced the character X, played by Steven Williams, who replaced Deep Throat as Mulder's informant, following Deep Throat's assassination in the first-season finale, "The Erlenmeyer Flask". X was originally intended to be a woman with Natalija Nogulich already cast in the role, but was replaced by Williams as the writers did not believe she had the "right chemistry" with her co-stars. X was written to be different than Deep Throat; Deep Throat had been selfless, while X was intended to be selfish and scared. Nicholas Lea, who had previously appeared in a small part in the season one's "Gender Bender", was cast as Alex Krycek. Krycek was originally intended as a temporary replacement for Scully when she was abducted, but grew into a character who would last seven seasons on the show.


title: The X-Files (season 2)

text: During the production of the season, Duchovny asked Carter "wouldn't it be great if we had like an alien bounty hunter?" Carter was positive towards the idea and acted upon it, creating with Spotniz the character of the Alien Bounty Hunter for the two-part episodes "Colony" and "End Game". Actor Brian Thompson auditioned for the role in a casting session, where he was competing with another actor. Spotnitz and Carter did not have much time to cast the character, but they knew this casting would be important since they intended the character to become a recurring character. Thompson was chosen according to Spotnitz because he had a very "distinctive look" about him, most notably his face and mouth. Megan Leitch also appeared in "Colony" and "End Game" as a grown-up clone version of Samantha Mulder, and would return to play Samantha or one of her clones over the other seasons. Carter did not want it to be the real Samantha, since that would have been "straight science fiction" and it was too "ridiculous" to give too many answers. Darren McGavin, star of "", was sought out for the part of Senator Matheson in "Little Green Men" and Mulder's father in "Colony" and "End Game", but the roles went to Raymond J. Barry and Peter Donat respectively, while McGavin agreed to play X-Files founder Arthur Dales in season five.


title: The X-Files (season 2)

text: Carter also served as executive producer and showrunner and wrote seven episodes. Co-executive producers and writing team Glen Morgan and James Wong wrote five episodes for their final season as regular writers for the series, although they would both return as consulting producers for part of season four. Supervising producer Howard Gordon wrote five episodes. Frank Spotnitz joined the series, writing two episodes. Cast member David Duchovny collaborated with Carter for two episodes receiving story credit. Glen Morgan's younger brother Darin Morgan joined the series, contributing the story for an episode written by his older brother and James Wong, and writing another script solo. Paul Brown joined the series as a producer and wrote two episodes. Sara B. Charno, another staff writer, wrote two episodes. Vince Gilligan joined the series, writing one episode. Former supervising producer Alex Gansa returned to co-wrote one episode with writing partner Howard Gordon. Chris Ruppenthal returned to write one more freelance episode after last season. Steve De Jarnatt also contributed one freelance episode for the season. Line producer and production manager Joseph Patrick Finn was promoted to producer with this season. Paul Rabwin continued to serve as co-producer for the show.


title: The X-Files (season 2)

text: Producing-directors for the show included Rob Bowman, David Nutter, Kim Manners and co-executive producer R. W. Goodwin, who all directed the most of the season; Bowman with seven, Nutter with five, and Manners and Goodwin each with two. Series creator Chris Carter directed one episode, making his directorial debut, while Daniel Sackheim, Michael Lange, James Contner, James Whitmore, Jr., Michael Vejar, Nick Marck, Stephen Surjik and Win Phelps each directed one episode.


title: The X-Files (season 2)

text: The second season of "The X-Files" debuted with "Little Green Men" on September 16, 1994. The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 10.3, with a 19 share, meaning that roughly 10.3 percent of all television-equipped households, and 19 percent of households watching television, were tuned in to the episode. The episode was viewed by 9.8 million households, an increase from the first season's finale, "The Erlenmeyer Flask", which was viewed by 8.3 million households. "Little Green Men" was, at the time, the highest-rated episode of "The X-Files" to air. As the season continued, ratings began to grow. The season hit a high with the fifteenth episode, "Fresh Bones", which was viewed by 10.8 million households. The season hit a low with the twenty-first episode, "The Calusari", which was viewed by 7.9 million households and received a rating of 8.3/16. The season finale, "Anasazi", earned a Nielsen rating of 10.1, with an 18 share, and was viewed by 9.6 million households, marking a 13.5 percent increase in households when compared to the previous season finale. The series was ranked as number 63 during the 1994–95 television season, a significant increase in ratings when compared to the first season, which finished at number 111.


title: The X-Files (season 2)

text: "The DVD Journal" gave the season four out of four stars, calling it a "memorable season". The review highlighted "The Host", "Duane Barry" and "Ascension", the cliffhanger finale "Anasazi", the "unforgettable" "Humbug", and meeting Mulder and Scully's families in "Colony" and "One Breath". IGN gave the season a rating of 9 out of 10, with the reviewer noting it was an improvement upon the first as it had "started to explore a little" and the "evolution of the characters makes the product shine even though the plotlines have begun to seem familiar". Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson, in their book "Wanting to Believe: A Critical Guide to The X-Files, Millennium & The Lone Gunmen", rated several episodes across the season highly, awarding five stars out of five to "Little Green Men", "Duane Barry", "One Breath", "Irresistible", "Die Hand Die Verletzt", and "Anasazi". However, several episodes rated poorly, with "3", "Excelsis Dei", and "The Calusari" being considered particularly poor.


title: The X-Files (season 2)

text: Many critics considered the "Duane Barry"/"Ascension"/"One Breath" story arc to be the best part of the season. Shearman singled out the three-parter as the highlight of the season, noting that the "intimacy" and "sincerity [of] the emotion" of the episodes allowed the mythology of "The X-Files" to play out for a further seven seasons. Tom Kessenich, in his book "Examination: An Unauthorized Look at Seasons 6–9 of the X-Files" named the story arc the top episode of "The X-Files" and wrote, "to this day, this remains the defining moment in the series run. So much sprang forth from this trio of episodes. ... Sensational."


title: The X-Files (season 2)

text: The second season earned the series seven Primetime Emmy Award nominations, including its first for Outstanding Drama Series. The episode "Duane Barry" received four nominations for different categories; CCH Pounder for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series; Chris Carter for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Writing for a Drama Series; James Coblentz for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Editing for a Series – Single Camera Production; and for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Sound Editing for a Series. Other nominations included John S. Bartley for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Cinematography for a Series for "One Breath" and Stephen Mark for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Editing for a Series – Single Camera Production for "Sleepless". This season would also earn the series its first of three wins for the Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series – Drama.


title: Scale of temperature

text: Scale of temperature is a methodology of calibrating the physical quantity temperature in metrology. Empirical scales measure temperature in relation to convenient and stable parameters, such as the freezing and boiling point of water. Absolute temperature is based on thermodynamic principles: using the lowest possible temperature as the zero point, and selecting a convenient incremental unit.


title: Scale of temperature

text: Celsius, Kelvin, and Fahrenheit are common temperature scales. Other scales used throughout history include Centigrade, Rankine, Rømer, Newton, Delisle, Réaumur, Gas Mark, Leiden and Wedgwood.


title: Scale of temperature

text: The zeroth law of thermodynamics describes thermal equilibrium between thermodynamic systems in form of an equivalence relation. Accordingly, all thermal systems may be divided into a quotient set, denoted as M. If the set M has the cardinality of c, then one can construct an injective function , by which every thermal system has a parameter associated with it such that when two thermal systems have the same value of that parameter, they are in thermal equilibrium. This parameter is the property of temperature. The specific way of assigning numerical values for temperature is establishing a "scale of temperature". In practical terms, a temperature scale is always based on usually a single physical property of a simple thermodynamic system, called a "thermometer", that defines a scaling function for mapping the temperature to the measurable thermometric parameter. Such temperature scales that are purely based on measurement are called "empirical temperature scales".


title: Scale of temperature

text: The second law of thermodynamics provides a fundamental, natural definition of thermodynamic temperature starting with a null point of absolute zero. A scale for thermodynamic temperature is established similarly to the empirical temperature scales, however, needing only one additional fixing point.


title: Scale of temperature

text: Empirical scales are based on the measurement of physical parameters that express the property of interest to be measured through some formal, most commonly a simple linear, functional relationship. For the measurement of temperature, the formal definition of thermal equilibrium in terms of the thermodynamic coordinate spaces of thermodynamic systems, expressed in the zeroth law of thermodynamics, provides the framework to measure temperature.


title: Scale of temperature

text: All temperature scales, including the modern thermodynamic temperature scale used in the International System of Units, are calibrated according to thermal properties of a particular substance or device. Typically, this is established by fixing two well-defined temperature points and defining temperature increments via a linear function of the response of the thermometric device. For example, both the old Celsius scale and Fahrenheit scale were originally based on the linear expansion of a narrow mercury column within a limited range of temperature, each using different reference points and scale increments.


title: Scale of temperature

text: Different empirical scales may not be compatible with each other, except for small regions of temperature overlap. If an alcohol thermometer and a mercury thermometer have the same two fixed points, namely the freezing and boiling point of water, their readings will not agree with each other except at the fixed points, as the linear 1:1 relationship of expansion between any two thermometric substances may not be guaranteed.


title: Scale of temperature

text: Empirical temperature scales are not reflective of the fundamental, microscopic laws of matter. Temperature is a universal attribute of matter, yet empirical scales map a narrow range onto a scale that is known to have a useful functional form for a particular application. Thus, their range is limited. The working material only exists in a form under certain circumstances, beyond which it no longer can serve as a scale. For example, mercury freezes below 234.32 K, so temperatures lower than that cannot be measured in a scale based on mercury. Even ITS-90, which interpolates among different ranges of temperature, has a range of only 0.65 K to approximately 1358 K (−272.5 °C to 1085 °C).


title: Scale of temperature

text: When pressure approaches zero, all real gas will behave like ideal gas, that is, of a mole of gas relying only on temperature. Therefore, we can design a scale with as its argument. Of course any bijective function will do, but for convenience's sake a linear function is the best. Therefore, we define it as


title: Scale of temperature

text: The ideal gas scale is in some sense a "mixed" scale. It relies on the universal properties of gas, a big advance from just a particular substance. But still it is empirical since it puts gas at a special position and thus has limited applicability—at some point no gas can exist. One distinguishing characteristic of ideal gas scale, however, is that it precisely equals thermodynamical scale when it is well defined (see "").


title: Scale of temperature

text: ITS-90 is designed to represent the thermodynamic temperature scale (referencing absolute zero) as closely as possible throughout its range. Many different thermometer designs are required to cover the entire range. These include helium vapor pressure thermometers, helium gas thermometers, standard platinum resistance thermometers (known as SPRTs, PRTs or Platinum RTDs) and monochromatic radiation thermometers.


title: Scale of temperature

text: Although the Kelvin and Celsius scales are defined using absolute zero (0 K) and the triple point of water (273.16 K and 0.01 °C), it is impractical to use this definition at temperatures that are very different from the triple point of water. Accordingly, ITS–90 uses numerous defined points, all of which are based on various thermodynamic equilibrium states of fourteen pure chemical elements and one compound (water). Most of the defined points are based on a phase transition; specifically the melting/freezing point of a pure chemical element. However, the deepest cryogenic points are based exclusively on the vapor pressure/temperature relationship of helium and its isotopes whereas the remainder of its cold points (those less than room temperature) are based on triple points. Examples of other defining points are the triple point of hydrogen (−259.3467 °C) and the freezing point of aluminum (660.323 °C).


title: Scale of temperature

text: Thermometers calibrated per ITS–90 use complex mathematical formulas to interpolate between its defined points. ITS–90 specifies rigorous control over variables to ensure reproducibility from lab to lab. For instance, the small effect that atmospheric pressure has upon the various melting points is compensated for (an effect that typically amounts to no more than half a millikelvin across the different altitudes and barometric pressures likely to be encountered). The standard even compensates for the pressure effect due to how deeply the temperature probe is immersed into the sample. ITS–90 also draws a distinction between "freezing" and "melting" points. The distinction depends on whether heat is going "into" (melting) or "out of" (freezing) the sample when the measurement is made. Only gallium is measured while melting, all the other metals are measured while the samples are freezing.


title: Scale of temperature

text: There are often small differences between measurements calibrated per ITS–90 and thermodynamic temperature. For instance, precise measurements show that the boiling point of VSMOW water under one standard atmosphere of pressure is actually 373.1339 K (99.9839 °C) when adhering "strictly" to the two-point definition of thermodynamic temperature. When calibrated to ITS–90, where one must interpolate between the defining points of gallium and indium, the boiling point of VSMOW water is about 10 mK less, about 99.974 °C. The virtue of ITS–90 is that another lab in another part of the world will measure the very same temperature with ease due to the advantages of a comprehensive international calibration standard featuring many conveniently spaced, reproducible, defining points spanning a wide range of temperatures.


title: Scale of temperature

text: Celsius (known until 1948 as centigrade) is a temperature scale that is named after the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius (1701–1744), who developed a similar temperature scale two years before his death. The degree Celsius (°C) can refer to a specific temperature on the Celsius scale as well as a unit to indicate a temperature "interval "(a difference between two temperatures).


title: Scale of temperature

text: From 1744 until 1954, 0 °C was defined as the freezing point of water and 100 °C was defined as the boiling point of water, both at a pressure of one standard atmosphere.


title: Scale of temperature

text: Although these defining correlations are commonly taught in schools today, by international agreement, between 1954 and 2019 the unit "degree Celsius" and the Celsius scale were defined by absolute zero and the triple point of VSMOW (specially prepared water). This definition also precisely related the Celsius scale to the Kelvin scale, which defines the SI base unit of thermodynamic temperature with symbol K. Absolute zero, the lowest temperature possible, is defined as being exactly 0 K and −273.15 °C. Until 19 May 2019, the temperature of the triple point of water was defined as exactly 273.16 K (0.01 °C). This means that a temperature difference of one degree Celsius and that of one kelvin are exactly the same.


title: Scale of temperature

text: On 20 May 2019, the kelvin was redefined so that its value is now determined by the definition of the Boltzmann constant rather than being defined by the triple point of VSMOW. This means that the triple point is now a measured value, not a defined value. The newly-defined exact value of the Boltzmann constant was selected so that the measured value of the VSMOW triple point is exactly the same as the older defined value to within the limits of accuracy of contemporary metrology. The degree Celsius remains exactly equal to the kelvin, and 0 K remains exactly −273.15 °C.


title: Scale of temperature

text: Thermodynamic scale differs from empirical scales in that it is absolute. It is based on the fundamental laws of thermodynamics or statistical mechanics instead of some arbitrary chosen working material. Besides it covers full range of temperature and has simple relation with microscopic quantities like the average kinetic energy of particles (see equipartition theorem). In experiments ITS-90 is used to approximate thermodynamic scale due to simpler realization.


title: Scale of temperature

text: Because of Carnot theorem, any reversible heat engine operating between temperatures "T" and "T" must have the same efficiency, meaning, the efficiency is the function of the temperatures only:


title: Scale of temperature

text: In addition, a reversible heat engine operating between temperatures "T" and "T" must have the same efficiency as one consisting of two cycles, one between "T" and another (intermediate) temperature "T", and the second between "T" and "T". This can only be the case if


title: Scale of temperature

text: Specializing to the case that formula_5 is a fixed reference temperature: the temperature of the triple point of water. Then for any "T" and "T",


title: Scale of temperature

text: and the reference temperature "T" has the value 273.16. (Of course any reference temperature and any positive numerical value could be used—the choice here corresponds to the Kelvin scale.)


title: Scale of temperature

text: Substituting Equation 3 back into Equation 1 gives a relationship for the efficiency in terms of temperature:


title: Scale of temperature

text: This is identical to the efficiency formula for Carnot cycle, which effectively employs the ideal gas scale. This means that the two scales equal numerically at every point.


title: Vichyssoise

text: Vichyssoise ( , ), also known as potage Parmentier, velouté Parmentier, or crème Parmentier, is a thick soup made of boiled and puréed leeks, onions, potatoes, cream, and chicken stock. It is traditionally served cold, but it can be eaten hot.


title: Vichyssoise

text: Recipes for soup made of pureed leeks and potatoes were common by the 19th century in France. In 19th-century cookbooks, and still today, they are often named "Potage Parmentier" or "Potage à la Parmentier" after Antoine-Augustin Parmentier, the French nutritionist and scholar who popularized the use of potatoes in France in the 18th century. The French military cookbook of 1938 includes a recipe for "Potage Parmentier for 100 men" using milk instead of cream but with proportions and directions that are similar to the recipe for "Vichyssoise Soup" given later by Julia Child.


title: Vichyssoise

text: The origins of the soup are a subject of debate among culinary historians; one version of the story is that Louis XV of France was afraid of being poisoned and had so many servants taste the potato leek soup that, by the time he tried it, the soup was cold, and since he enjoyed it that way it became a cold soup. Julia Child called it "an American invention", whereas others observe that "the origin of the soup is questionable in whether it's genuinely French or an American creation".


title: Vichyssoise

text: Louis Diat, a French chef at the Ritz-Carlton in New York City who grew up in Montmarault in the Allier department near the spa resort town of Vichy, is most often credited with its reinvention. In 1950, Diat told "The New Yorker" magazine:


title: Vichyssoise

text: The same article explains that the soup was first called "Crème Vichyssoise Glacée", after the spa town. In 1930 the restaurant's menu changed from French to English, whereupon it was called "Cream Vichyssoise Glacée".


title: Vichyssoise

text: Earlier, French chef Jules Gouffé created a recipe for a hot potato and leek soup, publishing a version in "Royal Cookery" (1869).


title: World Tourism Organization

text: The World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) is the United Nations specialized agency entrusted with the promotion of responsible, sustainable and universally accessible tourism. Its headquarters are in Madrid, Spain. UNWTO is the leading international organization for the promotion of tourism as a driver of economic growth, inclusive development and environmental sustainability. It provides leadership and support in advancing knowledge and tourism policies and serves as a global forum for tourism policy and a source of tourism research and knowledge. It encourages the implementation of the Global Code of Ethics for Tourism e Development, Competitiveness, Innovation & Digital Transformation, Ethics, Culture & Social Responsibility, Technical Cooperation, UNWTO Academy, and Statistics.


title: World Tourism Organization

text: Before the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, tourism stood at an all-time high: 1 out of 10 jobs worldwide depended on tourism and international tourist arrivals reached 1.5 billion in 2019.


title: World Tourism Organization

text: Against a backdrop of heightened uncertainty, UNWTO conveyed the Global Tourism Crisis Committee to guide the tourism sector as it faced up to the COVID-19 challenge.


title: World Tourism Organization

text: Mainstreaming tourism in the global agenda: Advocating the value of tourism as a driver of socio-economic growth and development, its inclusion as a priority in national and international policies and the need to create a level playing field for the sector to develop and prosper.


title: World Tourism Organization

text: Improving tourism competitiveness: Improving UNWTO Members’ competitiveness through knowledge creation and exchange, human resource development and the promotion of excellence in areas such as policy planning, research and statistics, sustainable tourism development, marketing and promotion, product development and risk and crisis management.


title: World Tourism Organization

text: Promoting sustainable tourism development: Supporting sustainable tourism policies and practices: policies which make optimal use of environmental resources, respect the socio-cultural authenticity of host communities and provide socio-economic benefits for all.


title: World Tourism Organization

text: Increasing the contribution of tourism to poverty reduction and development: Maximizing the contribution of tourism to poverty reduction and achieving the MDGs by making tourism work as a tool for development and promoting the inclusion of tourism in the development agenda.


title: World Tourism Organization

text: Fostering knowledge, education and capacity building: Supporting countries to assess and address their needs in market knowledge, education and training, as well as providing networks for knowledge creation and exchange.


title: World Tourism Organization

text: Building partnerships: Engaging with the private sector, regional and local tourism organizations, academia and research institutions, civil society and the UN system to build a more sustainable, responsible and competitive tourism sector.


title: World Tourism Organization

text: The worldwide outbreak of COVID-19 brought the world to a standstill, and tourism is the worst affected of all major economic sectors. Against a backdrop of heightened uncertainty, up-to-date and reliable information is more important than ever, both for tourists and for the tourism sector. UNWTO's priorities shifted towards recovery of tourism increasing its efforts:


title: World Tourism Organization

text: Sustainability as the new normal - To mark World Environment Day, the One Planet Sustainable Tourism Programme led by UNWTO announces its new vision for global tourism– growing better, stronger, and balancing the needs of people, planet and prosperity.


title: World Tourism Organization

text: Tourism Recovery - Governments have responded quickly and strongly with the level and coverage of measures steeping up over time. Most countries have adopted economy-wide stimulus packages (fiscal and monetary measures) along with job support measures.


title: World Tourism Organization

text: Restarting Tourism - At its fifth meeting, UNWTO changed the emphasis towards restarting tourism. The Committee endorsed UNWTO's Global Guidelines to Restart Tourism, an action plan focused on the Priorities for Tourism Recovery.


title: World Tourism Organization

text: Recovery for Action - Supporting Jobs and Economies Through Travel & Tourism. A Call for Action to Mitigate the Socio-Economic Impact of COVID-19 and Accelerate Recovery


title: World Tourism Organization

text: Travel Restrictions - This latest research shows that while discussions on possible first measures for lifting restrictions are underway, 100% of destinations worldwide still have COVID-19 related travel restrictions for international tourists in place.


title: World Tourism Organization

text: Tourism Recovery Tracker - As tourism slowly restarts in an increasing number of countries, the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) has developed the first comprehensive tourism recovery tracker worldwide, monitoring a number of relevant indicators throughout the recovery of tourism.


title: World Tourism Organization

text: Latest impact assessment - The UNWTO World Tourism Barometer monitors short-term tourism trends on a regular basis to provide global tourism stakeholders with up-to-date analysis on international tourism.


title: World Tourism Organization

text: Plastics and COVID-19 - A new set of Recommendations published today outline how the global tourism sector can continue in its fight against plastic pollution while effectively facing the public health and hygiene challenges of the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: World Tourism Organization

text: Tourism Recovery Technical Assistance Package - We are facing an unprecedented global health crisis, the repercussions of which are being felt in all sectors of society and the economy.


title: World Tourism Organization

text: Knowledge - Improve your skills and knowledge by joining the webinars delivered by UNWTO and those created and delivered directly by our partner Institutions and experts. You can join Live Webinars or come back to them in our Recorded Webinars’ section.


title: World Tourism Organization

text: UNWTO Global Tourism Dashboard - Loss of 850 million to 1.1 billion international tourists. Loss of US$910 billion to US$1.2 trillion in export revenues from tourism. 100 to 120 million jobs at risk


title: World Tourism Organization

text: Measures to support tourism - This compilation of country and international policy responses aims to share and monitor worldwide measures to mitigate the effects of COVID-19 crisis in the travel and tourism sector and accelerate recovery.


title: World Tourism Organization

text: Supporting Recovery - UNWTO calls for solid international leadership and for tourism to be included as a priority in future recovery efforts


title: World Tourism Organization

text: Health advice for tourists - As the COVID-19 situation evolves, many people around the world continue to travel: for leisure, for business and for vital humanitarian reasons.


title: World Tourism Organization

text: Know the Impact - International tourism has seen continued expansion, despite occasional shocks, demonstrating the sector's strength and resilience and benefiting all regions in the world.


title: World Tourism Organization

text: World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) has long considered the public and private sector to be integral partners in fulfilling its general mandate of promoting sustainable development in tourism. In addition, UNWTO is the only agency of the United Nations that has private sector members that participate in the governance structure. We believe that the public and private sectors share many common objectives which, in today's globalized world, can be more effectively tackled through collaboration and the establishment of partnerships.


title: World Tourism Organization

text: UNWTO members have endorsed the Management Vision and Priorities of the Secretary-General which seeks to position tourism as a policy priority, lead in knowledge creation, enhance the Organization's capacity through building new and stronger partnerships, and offer better value for existing Members while also expanding membership.


title: World Tourism Organization

text: “It is absolutely crucial to work towards the enhancement of a new generation of partnerships, partnerships not only with governments, not only with civil society and academia but equally partnerships with the business community in the context of the perspective of implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals, creating the conditions for an inclusive and sustainable development – the best way to prevent crises and conflicts in today's world”. António Guterres, United Nations Secretary-General


title: World Tourism Organization

text: Membership of the UNWTO includes 159 states, six territories (Flemish Community (1997), Puerto Rico (2002), Aruba (1987), Hong Kong (1999), Macau (1981), Madeira (1995)), and two permanent observers (Holy See (1979), Palestine (1999)). Seventeen state members have withdrawn from the organization for different periods in the past (with some returned several years after withdrawn): Australia (citing poor value for money), Bahamas, Bahrain, Belgium, Canada (Canada withdrew from the World Tourism Organization when it appointed Robert Mugabe as a leader in 2013), Costa Rica, El Salvador, Grenada, Honduras, Kuwait, Latvia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Panama, Philippines, Qatar, Thailand, United Kingdom and Puerto Rico (as an associate member). The Netherlands Antilles was an associate member before its dissolution.


title: World Tourism Organization

text: Non-members are: Australia, Belgium, Belize, Canada, Denmark, Dominica, Estonia, Finland, Grenada, Guyana, Iceland, Ireland, Kiribati, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Nauru, New Zealand, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Somalia, South Sudan, Suriname, Sweden, Tonga, Tuvalu, United Kingdom and United States.


title: World Tourism Organization

text: The United Arab Emirates (UAE) rejoined the organization in May 2013, 26 years after having left UNWTO.


title: World Tourism Organization

text: Additionally, and uniquely for a United Nations specialized agency, UNWTO has over 500 affiliate members, representing the private sector, educational institutions, tourism associations and local tourism authorities, non-governmental entities with specialised interests in tourism, and commercial and non-commercial bodies and associations with activities related to the aims of UNWTO or falling within its competence.


title: World Tourism Organization

text: On April 27 2022, Russia expressed desire to quit the UNWTO and later the same day UNWTO voted to suspend Russia in view of the Russian invasion of Ukraine.


title: World Tourism Organization

text: The General Assembly is the principal gathering of the World Tourism Organization. It meets every two years to approve the budget and programme of work and to debate topics of vital importance to the tourism sector. Every four years it elects a Secretary-General. The General Assembly is composed of full members and associate members. Affiliate members and representatives of other international organizations participate as observers. The World Committee on Tourism Ethics is a subsidiary organ of the General Assembly.


title: World Tourism Organization

text: The Executive Council is UNWTO's governing board, responsible for ensuring that the Organization carries out its work and adheres to its budget. It meets at least twice a year and is composed of members elected by the General Assembly in a ratio of one for every five full members. As host country of UNWTO's headquarters, Spain has a permanent seat on the Executive Council. Representatives of the associate members and affiliate members participate in Executive Council meetings as observers.


title: World Tourism Organization

text: Specialized committees of UNWTO members advise on management and programme content. These include: the Programme Committee, the Committee on Budget and Finance, the Committee on Statistics and the Tourism Satellite Account, the Committee on Market and Competitiveness, the Sustainable Development of Tourism Committee, the World Committee on Tourism Ethics, the Committee on Poverty Reduction and the Committee for the Review of applications for affiliate membership.


title: World Tourism Organization

text: The Secretariat is responsible for implementing UNWTO's programme of work and serving the needs of members and affiliate members. The group is led by Secretary-General, Zurab Pololikashvili of Georgia, who supervises about 110 full-time staff at UNWTO's Madrid headquarters. The Secretariat also includes a regional support office for Asia-Pacific in Osaka, Japan, financed by the Japanese Government, and a liaison office in Geneva as UNWTO's representation to the UN System, the World Trade Organization, and other diplomatic organizations in Switzerland.


title: World Tourism Organization

text: UNWTO research concluded that, by improving visa processes and entry formalities, G20 economies could boost their international tourist numbers by 122 million, tourism exports by US$2016 billion and employment by 5 million.


title: World Tourism Organization

text: The Organization's latest UNWTO Visa Openness Report, published in 2016, shows the highest ever percentage of international tourists not requiring a visa to travel - 39% compared with 23% in 2008. The report concluded that the 30 countries whose citizens were least affected by visa restrictions in 2015 were (based on the data compiled by the UNWTO, based on information from national official institutions):


title: Paula Broadwell

text: Paula Dean Broadwell (née Kranz; born November 9, 1972) is an American writer, academic and former military officer. Broadwell served in the US Army on both active and reserve duty for over 20 years, including time as a military school undergraduate with experience in over 70 countries. In 2012, she co-authored, with Vernon Loeb, "", a biography of then-International Security Assistance Force commander David Petraeus. She is the co-founder and co-director of the Think Broader Foundation, a media consulting firm that focuses on addressing gender bias in the media and society. Broadwell is most notable for her involvement in the Petraeus scandal.


title: Paula Broadwell

text: Broadwell was born in Bismarck, North Dakota on November 9, 1972. She attended Century High School, where she was homecoming queen, valedictorian of the class of 1991, and an all-state basketball player. In 2006 Broadwell was inducted into the Century High School Hall of Fame.


title: Paula Broadwell

text: Broadwell graduated from the United States Military Academy at West Point in 1995 with a Bachelor of Science degree in engineering and political geography. In 2006, she earned a Master of Arts degree in international security from the University of Denver's Josef Korbel School of International Studies, and went on to earn a Master of Public Administration degree from the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University in 2008.


title: Paula Broadwell

text: Broadwell was a research associate in the Kennedy School's Center for Public Leadership Fellows, a term member at the Council on Foreign Relations, a Distinguished Young Leader in the French-America Foundation and American Council on Germany, and a national finalist in the White House Fellows program. Broadwell was elected as the Harvard student representative to the Academy of Achievement in 2006. During this time, she also worked at The Fletcher School at Tufts University as the Deputy Director of the Jebsen Center on Counter-Terrorism. In 2008, Broadwell entered the PhD program at the Department of War Studies at King's College London. As of February 2014 Broadwell was listed as a "former student" presumably without receiving a Ph.D. Her lead supervisor at KCL was Lawrence Freedman.


title: Paula Broadwell

text: Broadwell served in the United States Army and the United States Army Reserve as a military intelligence officer on four continents, serving in the disciplines of electronic warfare, document exploitation, counterterrorism analysis and operations, and human intelligence work. In August 2012, Broadwell was promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel in the Reserve. On November 14, 2012, Broadwell was stripped of her clearances to access classified information; her promotion to lieutenant colonel was revoked and she was demoted back to major. Broadwell was then classified by the Army as being ineligible for further promotion due to her being under investigation by the Army for the Petraeus affair scandal. This classification remained in place until the investigation was fully resolved.


title: Paula Broadwell

text: Broadwell applied for a position with the FBI in 2001, passing the polygraph, academic, and life-experience requirements. A retired FBI agent quoted by "The Daily Beast" suggested that the FBI would have been very impressed with her qualifications and experience. While the FBI did offer Broadwell a position, she decided instead to attend Harvard University.


title: Paula Broadwell

text: Broadwell met Petraeus in 2006 while he was a speaker at the Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University. She was a graduate student at the University of Denver at that time. According to "The Charlotte Observer", Broadwell told him about her research interests after he spoke. He handed her his card and offered his help. She began a doctoral dissertation that included a case study of his leadership, with Petraeus fully cooperating. Broadwell then co-authored (with Vernon Loeb) a biography of Petraeus, "" which was published in January 2012. The writer, Joshua Foust, challenged the accuracy of Broadwell's account of the US destruction of the Afghan village of Khosrow Sofla. Soldiers and officers came to her defense, questioning Foust's hostility toward Broadwell.


title: Paula Broadwell

text: Broadwell was deputy director of the Jebsen Center for Counter-Terrorism Studies at The Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy at Tufts University. She also worked with the FBI Joint Terrorism Task Force.


title: Paula Broadwell

text: Broadwell has also written for "The New York Times, CNN Security Blog," and "The Boston Globe", as well as publishing book chapters in edited volumes.


title: Paula Broadwell

text: In June 2009 and June 2011 Broadwell attended meetings on Afghanistan-Pakistan policy in the Eisenhower Executive Office Building, which is part of the White House complex.


title: Paula Broadwell

text: Broadwell was married to Dr. Scott Broadwell, an interventional radiologist who graduated from George Washington University School of Medicine in 1996. They resided in Charlotte, North Carolina, and have two sons.


title: Paula Broadwell

text: The couple met in 2000, when they were both active duty U.S. Army captains. Scott Broadwell at the time was a physician and commander of the Mannheim military clinic in Germany and Broadwell was completing a military intelligence deployment. They married in Heidelberg Castle, with Lt. Col. Ronald Leininger, a Protestant Army chaplain, officiating.


title: Paula Broadwell

text: Broadwell became notable after her extramarital affair with then-CIA director David Petraeus was exposed.


title: Paula Broadwell

text: In mid-2012, Broadwell sent a series of emails to General Mattis, General John Allen, and Admiral Harward, cautioning them about Jill Kelley. She also sent harassing emails to Kelley, apparently warning her to stay away from Petraeus (Broadwell's lover). Kelley reported the stalking/threatening emails to the FBI, who then began an investigation since the emails contained confidential information about the CIA director's schedule. The emails were prompted after Broadwell alleged that Kelley intimately fondled Petraeus under a table at a restaurant at the Georgetown Four Seasons. Kelley denies the claim that she fondled Petraeus and alleges that Petraeus made those statements to the FBI to spare Broadwell from serving time in prison. The Department of Justice investigated Broadwell for possessing classified information by illegally accessing the CIA director's emails to learn the confidential schedules of the generals she was emailing. The FBI called Broadwell in for questioning, at which time she admitted to her illegal access of Petraeus's emails. After Broadwell turned over her computer to the FBI, additional classified documents were found in her possession. The extra-marital affair was revealed in early November 2012 and was cited by Petraeus as the reason for his resignation on November 9.


title: Paula Broadwell

text: When the news of the scandal became public, Broadwell spent time secluded in Washington, D.C., (at the home of her brother, Stephen Kranz) away from her husband and family. At the same time, her home in Charlotte, North Carolina was being searched by the FBI. While she subsequently returned to her family and the media took note of how the Broadwells tried to get back to normal life, the couple ultimately divorced.


title: Paula Broadwell

text: Following the revelations about her relationship with Petraeus, Broadwell retained the services of former Clinton administration press secretary Dee Dee Myers with the public relations firm The Glover Park Group.


title: Covenanters

text: Covenanters () were members of a 17th-century Scottish religious and political movement, who supported a Presbyterian Church of Scotland, and the primacy of its leaders in religious affairs. The name is derived from "Covenant", a biblical term for a bond or agreement with God.


title: Covenanters

text: The origins of the movement lay in disputes with James VI, and his son Charles I over church structure and doctrine. In 1638, thousands of Scots signed the National Covenant, pledging to resist changes imposed by Charles on the kirk; following victory in the 1639 and 1640 Bishops' Wars, the Covenanters took control of Scotland and the 1643 Solemn League and Covenant brought them into the First English Civil War on the side of Parliament. Following his defeat in May 1646 Charles I surrendered to the Scots Covenanters, rather than Parliament. By doing so, he hoped to exploit divisions between Presbyterians, and English Independents.


title: Covenanters

text: As a result, the Scots supported Charles in the 1648 Second English Civil War. After his execution in 1649, the Covenanter government, in order to protect the Presbyterian polity and Calvinist doctrine of the Church of Scotland, signed the Treaty of Breda (1650) restoring his son to the Scottish throne and supporting him against the English Parliamentary forces as Charles II . Charles II was crowned King of Scots in Scone in January 1651, but by then the terms agreed at Breda were already a dead letter. The army associated with the Kirk Party under David Leslie, 1st Lord Newark was destroyed by Oliver Cromwell at the Battle of Dunbar in September 1650 and the English Parliamentarian New Model Army had taken Edinburgh and much of Lowland Scotland. The resulting annexation of Scotland by the Commonwealth of England abolished Scotland's legislative institutions and dis-established Presbyterianism. There was freedom of religion under the Commonwealth, except for Roman Catholics, but the edicts of the Kirk's assemblies were no longer enforced by law, as previously.


title: Covenanters

text: At his Restoration in 1660 the King reneged, renouncing the terms of the Treaty and his Oath of Covenant; the Scottish Covenanters saw this as a betrayal. The Rescissory Act 1661 repealed all laws made since 1633, effectively ejecting 400 Ministers from their livings, restoring patronage in the appointment of ministers to congregations and allowing the king to proclaim the restoration of bishops to the Church of Scotland. The Abjuration Act of 1662 was a formal rejection of the National Covenant of 1638 and the Solemn League and Covenant of 1643. These were declared to be against the fundamental laws of the kingdom. The Act required all persons taking public office to take the Oath of Abjuration not to take arms against the king, and rejecting the Covenants. This excluded most Presbyterians from holding official positions of trust.


title: Covenanters

text: The resulting disappointment with Charles II's religious policy became civil unrest and erupted in violence during the early summer of 1679 with the assassination of Archbishop Sharp and the Battles of Drumclog and Bothwell Bridge. The Sanquhar Declaration of 1680 effectively declared the people could not accept the authority of a king who would not commit to his previous oaths, nor recognise their religion. In February 1685 the king died and was succeeded by his Roman Catholic brother, the Duke of York, as King James VII.


title: Covenanters

text: After the 1660 Restoration, the Covenanters lost control of the kirk and became a persecuted minority, leading to several armed rebellions and a period from 1679 to 1688 known as "The Killing Time". Following the 1688 Glorious Revolution in Scotland, the Church of Scotland was re-established as a wholly Presbyterian structure and most Covenanters readmitted. This marked the end of their existence as a significant movement, although dissident minorities persisted in Scotland, Ireland, and North America, and exist today as the Reformed Presbyterian communion of churches.


title: Covenanters

text: In the mid-16th century, John Knox and other converts from Catholicism founded a reformed Church of Scotland, or kirk, Presbyterian in structure, and Calvinist in doctrine. Members committed to maintain the kirk as the sole form of religion in Scotland, under a Godly bond, or 'Covenant', the first of which was signed by the Lords of the Congregation in December 1557. In 1560, the Parliament of Scotland adopted the Scots Confession, largely written in four days by Knox, which rejected many Catholic teachings and practices.


title: Covenanters

text: The Confession was adopted by James VI, enjoined on persons of all ranks and classes, and re-affirmed in 1590, then in 1596. However, James argued that as king he was also head of the church, governing through bishops appointed by himself; very simply, 'No bishops, no king.' The alternative view was best expressed by Andrew Melville as "...Thair is twa Kings and twa Kingdomes in Scotland... Chryst Jesus the King and this Kingdome the Kirk, whose subject King James the Saxt is"; the kirk was subject only to God, and its members, including James, ruled by presbyteries, consisting of ministers and elders.


title: Covenanters

text: Although James successfully imposed bishops on the kirk, it remained Calvinist in doctrine; when he also became king of England in 1603, he saw a unified Church as the first step in creating a centralised, Unionist state. Although both Churches were nominally Episcopalian in structure and Protestant in doctrine, even Scottish bishops rejected many Church of England practises as little better than Catholic.


title: Covenanters

text: Opposition to Catholicism remained widespread in Scotland, even though by 1630 Catholicism was largely confined to the aristocracy and remote, Gaelic-speaking areas of the Highlands and Islands. Many Scots fought in the Thirty Years' War, one of the most destructive religious conflicts in European history, while there were close links with the Protestant Dutch Republic, then fighting for independence from Catholic Spain. Lastly, the majority of kirk ministers had been educated in French Calvinist universities, most of which were suppressed in the 1620s.


title: Covenanters

text: The result was a general perception that Protestant Europe was under attack and increased sensitivity to changes in church practice. In 1636, the Scots Church replaced Knox's "Book of Discipline" with the "Book of Canons", and excommunicated anyone who denied the King's supremacy in church matters. When this was followed by a new "Book of Common Prayer" in 1637, it caused anger and widespread rioting. Traditionally, the riots were sparked when Jenny Geddes threw a stool at the minister during a service in St Giles Cathedral. More recently, historians like Mark Kishlansky have argued her protest was part of a series of planned and co-ordinated acts of opposition to the "Book of Common Prayer", whose origin was as much political as it was religious.


title: Covenanters

text: Supervised by Archibald Johnston and Alexander Henderson, in February 1638 representatives from all sections of Scottish society agreed to a National Covenant, pledging resistance to liturgical 'innovations.' An important factor in the political contest with Charles was the Covenanter belief they were preserving an established and divinely ordained form of religion which he was seeking to alter. Debate as to what that meant persisted until finally settled in 1690. For example, the Covenant made no reference to bishops; Murdoch MacKenzie, Bishop of Orkney from 1677 to 1688, viewed himself as a Covenanter and argued their expulsion interfered with that form. Nevertheless, when the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland met in Glasgow in December 1638, it abolished episcopacy and affirmed its right to meet annually.


title: Covenanters

text: Support was widespread except in Aberdeenshire and Banff, heartland of Royalist and Episcopalian resistance for the next 60 years. The Marquess of Argyll and six other members of the Scottish Privy Council had backed the Covenant; Charles tried to impose his authority in the 1639 and 1640 Bishop's Wars, with his defeat leaving the Covenanters in control of Scotland. When the First English Civil War began in 1642, the Scots remained neutral at first but sent troops to Ulster to support their co-religionists in the Irish Rebellion; the bitterness of this conflict radicalised views in Scotland and Ireland.


title: Covenanters

text: Since Calvinists believed a 'well-ordered' monarchy was part of God's plan, the Covenanters committed to "defend the king's person and authority with our goods, bodies, and lives". The idea of government without a king was inconceivable. This view was generally shared by English Parliamentarians, who wanted to control Charles, not remove him, but both they and their Royalist opponents were further divided over religious doctrine. In Scotland, near unanimous agreement on doctrine meant differences centred on who held ultimate authority in clerical affairs. Royalists tended to be 'traditionalist' in religion and politics but there were various factors, including nationalist allegiance to the kirk. Individual motives were very complex, and many fought on both sides, including Montrose, a Covenanter general in 1639 and 1640 who nearly restored Royalist rule in Scotland in 1645.


title: Covenanters

text: The Covenanter faction led by Argyll saw religious union with England as the best way to preserve a Presbyterian Kirk and in October 1643, the Solemn League and Covenant agreed a Presbyterian Union in return for Scottish military support. Royalists and moderates in both Scotland and England opposed this on nationalist grounds, while religious Independents like Oliver Cromwell claimed he would fight, rather than agree to it.


title: Covenanters

text: The Covenanters and their English Presbyterian allies gradually came to see the Independents who dominated the New Model Army as a bigger threat than the Royalists and when Charles surrendered in 1646, they began negotiations to restore him to the English throne. In December 1647, Charles agreed to impose Presbyterianism in England for three years and suppress the Independents but his refusal to take the Covenant himself split the Covenanters into Engagers and Kirk Party fundamentalists or Whiggamores. Defeat in the Second English Civil War resulted in the execution of Charles in January 1649 and the Kirk Party taking control of the General Assembly.


title: Covenanters

text: In February 1649, the Scots proclaimed Charles II King of Scotland and Great Britain; under the terms of the Treaty of Breda, the Kirk Party agreed to restore Charles to the English throne and in return he accepted the Covenant. Defeats at Dunbar and Worcester resulted with Scotland being incorporated into the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland in 1652.


title: Covenanters

text: After defeat in 1651, the Covenanters split into two factions. Over two-thirds of the ministry supported the Resolution of December 1650 re-admitting Royalists and Engagers and were known as 'Resolutioners.' 'Protestors' were largely former Kirk Party fundamentalists or Whiggamores who blamed defeat on compromise with 'malignants.' Differences between the two were both religious and political, including church government, religious toleration and the role of law in a godly society.


title: Covenanters

text: Following the events of 1648–51, Cromwell decided the only way forward was to eliminate the power of the Scottish landed elite and the kirk. The Terms of Incorporation published on 12 February 1652 made a new Council of Scotland responsible for regulating church affairs and allowed freedom of worship for all Protestant sects. Since Presbyterianism was no longer the state religion, kirk sessions and synods functioned as before but its edicts were not enforced by civil penalties.


title: Covenanters

text: Covenanters were hostile to sects like the Congregationalists or Quakers because they advocated separation of church and state. Apart from a small number of Protestors known as Separatists, the vast majority refused to accept these changes, and Scotland was incorporated into the Commonwealth without further consultation on 21 April 1652.


title: Covenanters

text: Contests for control of individual presbyteries made the split increasingly bitter and in July 1653 each faction held its own General Assembly in Edinburgh. Robert Lilburne, English military commander in Scotland, used the excuse of Resolutioner church services praying for the success of Glencairn's rising to dissolve both sessions. The Assembly would not formally reconvene until 1690, the Resolutioner majority instead meeting in informal 'Consultations' and Protestors holding field assemblies or conventicles outside Resolutioner-controlled kirk structures.


title: Covenanters

text: When the Protectorate was established in 1654, Lord Broghill, head of the Council of State for Scotland summarised his dilemma; 'the Resolutioners love Charles Stuart and hate us, while the Protesters love neither him nor us.' Neither side was willing to co-operate with the Protectorate except in Glasgow, where Protestors led by Patrick Gillespie used the authorities in their contest with local Resolutioners.


title: Covenanters

text: Since the Resolutioners controlled 750 of 900 parishes, Broghill recognised they could not be ignored; his policy was to isolate the 'extreme' elements of both factions, hoping to create a new, moderate majority. He therefore encouraged internal divisions within the kirk, including appointing Gillespie Principal of the University of Glasgow, against the wishes of the James Guthrie and Warriston-led Protestor majority. The Protectorate authorities effectively became arbitrators between the factions, each of whom appointed representatives to argue their case in London; the repercussions affected the kirk for decades to come.


title: Covenanters

text: After the Restoration of the Monarchy in 1660, Scotland regained control of the kirk, but the Rescissory Act 1661 restored the legal position of 1633 and removing the Covenanter reforms of 1638–1639. The Privy Council of Scotland restored bishops on 6 September 1661. James Sharp, leader of the Resolutioners, became Archbishop of St Andrews; Robert Leighton was consecrated Bishop of Dunblane, and soon an entire bench of bishops had been appointed.


title: Covenanters

text: In 1662, the kirk was restored as the national church, independent sects banned and all office-holders required to renounce the 1638 Covenant; about a third, or around 270 in total, refused to do so and lost their positions as a result. Most occurred in the south-west of Scotland, an area particularly strong in its Covenanting sympathies; the practice of holding conventicles outside the formal structure continued, often attracting thousands of worshippers.


title: Covenanters

text: The government alternated between persecution and toleration; in 1663, dissenting ministers were declared 'seditious persons' and imposed heavy fines on those who failed to attend the parish churches of the "King's curates". In 1666 a group of men from Galloway captured the local military commander, marched on Edinburgh and were defeated at the Battle of Rullion Green. Around 50 prisoners were taken, while a number of others were arrested; 33 were executed and the rest transported to Barbados.


title: Covenanters

text: The Rising led to the replacement of the Duke of Rothes as King's Commissioner by John Maitland, 1st Duke of Lauderdale who followed a more conciliatory policy. Letters of Indulgence were issued in 1669, 1672 and 1679, allowing evicted ministers to return to their parishes, if they agreed to avoid politics. A number returned but over 150 refused the offer, while many Episcopalians were alienated by the compromise.


title: Covenanters

text: The outcome was a return to persecution; preaching at a conventicle was made punishable by death, while attendance attracted severe sanctions. In 1674, heritors and masters were made responsible for the 'good behaviour' of their tenants and servants; from 1677, this meant posting bonds for those living on their land. In 1678, 3,000 Lowland militia and 6,000 Highlanders, known as the "Highland Host", were billeted in the Covenanting shires, especially those in the South-West, as a form of punishment.


title: Covenanters

text: The assassination of Archbishop Sharp by Covenanter radicals in May 1679 led to a revolt that ended at the Battle of Bothwell Bridge in June. Although battlefield casualties were relatively few, over 1,200 prisoners were sentenced to transportation, the chief prosecutor being Lord Advocate Rosehaugh. Claims of undocumented, indiscriminate killing in the aftermath of the battle have also been made.


title: Covenanters

text: Defeat split the movement into moderates and extremists, the latter headed by Donald Cargill and Richard Cameron who issued the Sanquhar Declaration in June 1680. While Covenanters previously claimed to object only to state religious policy, this renounced any allegiance to either Charles, or his Catholic brother James. Adherents were known as Cameronians, and although a relatively small minority, the deaths of Cameron, his brother and Cargill gained them considerable sympathy.


title: Covenanters

text: The 1681 Scottish Succession and Test Acts made obedience to the monarch a legal obligation, 'regardless of religion', but in return confirmed the primacy of the kirk "as currently constituted". This excluded the Covenanters, who wanted to restore it to the structure prevailing in 1640. A number of government figures, including James Dalrymple, chief legal officer, and Archibald Campbell, 9th Earl of Argyll, objected to inconsistencies in the Act and refused to swear. Argyll was convicted of treason and sentenced to death, although he and Dalrymple escaped to the Dutch Republic.


title: Covenanters

text: The Cameronians were now organised more formally as the 'United Societies'; estimates of their numbers vary from 6,000 to 7,000, mostly concentrated in Argyllshire. Led by James Renwick, in 1684 copies of an "Apologetical Declaration" were posted in different locations, effectively declaring war on government officers. This led to the period known in Protestant historiography as "the Killing Time"; the Scottish Privy Council authorised the extrajudicial execution of any Covenanters caught in arms, policies carried out by troops under John Graham, 1st Viscount Dundee. At the same time, Lord Rosehaugh adopted the French practice of same day trial and execution for militants who refused to swear oaths of loyalty to the king.


title: Covenanters

text: Despite his Catholicism, James VII became king in April 1685 with widespread support, largely due to fears of civil war if he were bypassed, and opposition to re-opening past divisions within the kirk. These factors contributed to the rapid defeat of Argyll's Rising in June 1685; in a bid to widen its appeal, his manifesto omitted any mention of the 1638 Covenant. Renwick and his followers refused to support it as a result.


title: Covenanters

text: A major factor in the defeat of Argyll's Rising was the desire for stability within the kirk. By issuing "Letters of Indulgence" to dissident Presbyterians in 1687, James now threatened to re-open this debate and undermine his own Episcopalian base. At the same time, he excluded the Society People, and created another Covenanter martyr with the execution of Renwick in February 1688.


title: Covenanters

text: In June 1688, two events turned dissent into a crisis: the birth of James Francis Edward on 10 June created a Catholic heir, excluding James' Protestant daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange. Prosecuting the Seven Bishops seemed to go beyond tolerance for Catholicism and into an assault on the Episcopalian establishment; their acquittal on 30 June destroyed James' political authority. Representatives from the English political class invited William to assume the English throne; when he landed in Brixham on 5 November, James' army deserted him and he left for France on 23 December.


title: Covenanters

text: The Scottish Convention elected in March to determine settlement of the Scottish throne was dominated by Covenanter sympathisers. On 4 April, it passed the Claim of Right and the 'Articles of Grievances', which held James forfeited the Crown by his actions; on 11 May, William and Mary became co-monarchs of Scotland. Although William wanted to retain bishops, the role played by Covenanters during the Jacobite rising of 1689, including the Cameronians' defence of Dunkeld in August, meant their views prevailed in the political settlement that followed. The General Assembly met in November 1690 for the first time since 1654; even before it convened, over 200 Episcopalian ministers had been removed from their livings.


title: Covenanters

text: The Assembly once again eliminated episcopacy and created two commissions for the south and north of the Tay, which over the next 25 years removed almost two-thirds of all ministers. To offset this, nearly one hundred clergy returned to the kirk in the 1693 and 1695 Acts of Indulgence, while others were protected by the local gentry and retained their positions until death by natural causes.


title: Covenanters

text: Following the 1690 Settlement, a small minority of the United Societies followed Cameronian leader Robert Hamilton in refusing to re-enter the kirk. They continued as an informal grouping until 1706, when John M'Millan was appointed minister; in 1743, he and Thomas Nairn set up the Reformed Presbyterian Church of Scotland. Although the church still exists, the vast majority of its members joined the Free Church of Scotland in 1876.


title: Covenanters

text: Covenanter graves and memorials from the 'Killing Time' became important in perpetuating a political message, initially by the small minority of the United Societies who remained outside the kirk. In 1701, their Assembly undertook to recover or mark the graves of the dead; many were to be found in remote places, as the government of the time deliberately sought to avoid creating places of pilgrimage.