title: Middle Persian

text: In addition to the plural ending "-ān", a new plural suffix "-īhā" is increasingly common both in later Manichaean texts, where also the variant "-īhān" occurs, and especially in Book Pahlavi. It is used with inanimate nouns and has been said to express 'individual plurality': 'the various, individual Xs'. At the same time, "-ān" is still used with inanimate as well as with animate nouns, and is far more common than "-īhā". Some examples are "šahr-īhā ("štryhʾ") 'countries' and "dar-īhā ("BBAyhʾ") 'doors', but also "čiš-ān" ("MNDOMʾn") 'things'. The resulting late Middle Persian system looks as follows, as exemplified with the words "mard" 'man' and "kо̄f" 'mountain':


title: Middle Persian

text: As long as case declension was still preserved, a possessor noun stood in the oblique case. In this older construction, it "preceded" the possessed noun. After the breakdown of the case system, what remained of this construction was a simple juxtaposition between a possessor noun and a possessed noun, and that was indeed preserved as one possible expression of possession: e.g. "dūdag sālār" ("dwtk<nowiki>'</nowiki> srdʾl") 'the head of a family', 'the family('s) head', "Ōhrmazd nām" ("ʾwhrmzd ŠM") 'the name of Ahuramazda'. However, there was also a more explicit option using the relative particle "ī", which introduced a "following" possessor nominal phrase (also in the oblique case, as long as the distinction existed): e.g. "sālār ī dūdag" ("srdʾl Y dwtk<nowiki>'</nowiki>"), "nām ī Ōhrmazd" ("ŠM y ʾwhrmzd"). This is discussed in more detail in the section on the relative particle.


title: Middle Persian

text: Indefiniteness may be expressed by the encliticisation of the word "ē(w)" (spelt '1' or "HD") 'one' to a noun: "mard-ēw" ("GBRA-1") 'a (certain) man'. This usage has been described by certain scholars as an 'indefinite article', while others do not regard it as such, since its use is far less common than that of the English word "a(n)".


title: Middle Persian

text: Originally, adjectives had the same inflectional categories as nouns and took the same endings. When used independently as nouns, they still have number inflection: "weh-ān" ("ŠPYLʾn") 'the good (people)'. When they are used as attributive modifers of nouns, however, agreement is optional and, while it remains common in Manichaean Middle Persian, it is increasingly rare in Book Pahlavi, where, e.g. both "abārīgān gyāgān" ("ʾp̄ʾrykʾn gywʾkʾn" ) 'other places' and "abārīg dēwān" ("ʾp̄ʾryk<nowiki>'</nowiki> ŠDYAʾn") 'other demons' have been attested. When the modifying adjective is introduced by the relative particle "ī", as well as in predicative position, it never takes the plural suffix: e.g. "mardān ī weh" ("GBRAʾn Y ŠPYL") 'good men'.


title: Middle Persian

text: Some sources also assert that the original singular oblique case ending "-ē" ("-y") is seen in attributive preposed adjectives in some examples: e.g. "čē-š asar karb az asarē rо̄šnīh frāz brēhēnīd" ("MEš ʾsl klp MN ʾsly lwšnyh prʾc blyhynyt") 'for he created the eternal form from eternal light'.


title: Middle Persian

text: Comparison of adjectives (as well as adverbs) is regularly expressed with the comparative degree suffix "-tar" (spelt "-tl") and the superlative degree suffix "-tom" (spelt "-twm"), or possibly "-tum"; in Manichaean, they also have the allomorphs "-dar" and "-dom" after voiced consonants. For example, "abēzag" ("ʾp̄yck') 'pure' "is compared "abēzag-tar" 'purer"' - "abēzag-"tom" 'purest'". "


title: Middle Persian

text: There are also some irregular or relict forms reflecting more ancient suffixes (comparative "-y" or "-īy" or resulting fronting of the preceding vowel, superlative "-ist") and/or suppletion:


title: Middle Persian

text: In some cases, only a 'superlative' form exists without corresponding positive and comparative forms: "bālist" ("bʾlyst<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'supreme, highermost', "nidom" ("nytwm") 'lowermost', "bēdom" ("bytwm") "outermost", "fradom" ("AWLA") 'first', "abdom" ("ʾp̄dwm") 'last'.


title: Middle Persian

text: The object of comparison for an adjective in the comparative degree is introduced by the preposition "az" ("hc") 'from', the subordinating conjunction "kū" ("AYK") 'where, that' or, more rarely, "čiyо̄n" ("cygwn<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'as': "о̄y az/kū/čiyо̄n tо̄ о̄zо̄mandtar" ("OLE MN/AYK/cygwn<nowiki>'</nowiki> LK ʾwcʾmndtl") 'he is stronger than you.'


title: Middle Persian

text: The object of comparison for an adjective in the superlative degree is introduced by the preposition "az" ("hc") or simply by a possessive construction: "о̄y (az) mardʾn о̄zо̄mandtom" (sp. "OLE (MN) GBRAʾn ʾwcʾmndtwm") ""'he is the strongest of the men'.


title: Middle Persian

text: When adjectives modify a noun without the help of any linking particle, they usually precede them, but may occasionally follow them, too. A far more common possibility than either is for the adjective to be introduced by the relative particle "ī", on which see the relevant section. Thus, e.g. 'a/the big house' can be expressed as "wazurg mān" ("LBA mʾn<nowiki>'</nowiki>), mān wazurg" ("mʾn<nowiki>'</nowiki> LBA") or "mān ī wazurg" ("mʾn<nowiki>'</nowiki> Y LBA").


title: Middle Persian

text: The enclitic allomorphs with initial /i/ ("-im", etc.) are used after consonants. The vowel /u/ or /o/ can also appear instead of /i/, albeit rarely ("-um", "-om"). The spelling variant "LY" of "man" is used before the particle "-iz" ("c") 'too': "man-iz" is spelt "LYc".


title: Middle Persian

text: Of the personal pronouns proper, only the first stressed form has an attested case distinction, but the use of the direct case is already archaic in Book Pahlavi, where the form "man" ("L") is generalised. The pronunciation of the direct case form is controversial – Manichaean has only "an" ("ʾn"), whereas the form "az" has been said to be due to influence from Parthian and its existence has been questioned. In addition, the third person pronoun is originally a demonstrative pronoun and is declined like a noun, so originally the form with the plural suffix "-ān" – and, presumably, the Manichaean one in "-īn" – appeared only in the oblique case; however, again, the oblique was generalised in Manichaean and Book Pahlavi. Apart from that, the stressed forms can have all the same syntactic functions as a noun: subject ("man wēnēm", sp. "L HZYTWNym", 'I see'), object ("man wēnēd", sp. "L HZYTWNyt<nowiki>'</nowiki>", 'he sees me'), complement of a preposition ("о̄ man", sp. "OL L", 'to me'), and a modifier expressing a possessor. As with nouns, the last option is possible in two ways. The first one, which is significantly rarer, is for the pronoun to be placed before another noun. Much more frequently, it is postposed and linked to the head noun with the relative particle "ī". Thus, 'my house' can be expressed as "man mān" ("L mʾn<nowiki>'</nowiki>"), but more commonly as "mān ī man" ("mʾn<nowiki>'</nowiki> Y L").


title: Middle Persian

text: In contrast, the enclitic forms can only have oblique functions: i.e., they cannot correspond to the (non-ergative) subject of the sentence, although a few such cases have been attested in late texts, possibly due to New Persian influence. They can, however, express:


title: Middle Persian

text: The enclitic form is usually attached to a word in the beginning of the clause, typically to the first one, and that is often a conjunction or a particle: specifically it occurs frequently after the conjunctions "ud" 'and' (which appears before these enclitics as the allomorph "u-" and is spelt "AP"), "ka" ("AMT") 'when', "kū" ("AYK") 'that, so that', "čē" ("ME") 'because', after the relative particle "ī" (then spelt "ZY-"), the relative pronoun "kē" ("MNW") 'who, which' and the particle "ā-" ("ʾ") 'then'. Two enclitics can occur after each other, in which case the 1st person enclitic comes first, and in the absence of such, the enclitic denoting the agent has priority: e.g. "ān owо̄n-im-iš wahišt nimūd" "ZK ʾwgwnmš whšt<nowiki>'</nowiki> nmwt<nowiki>'</nowiki>" 'in that manner he showed me paradise.'


title: Middle Persian

text: When the pronoun is logically the complement of a preposition, it is usually nevertheless "not" attached to it. Still, such examples do occur occasionally and tend then to be written phonetically instead of the usual spelling of the preposition with an Aramaeogram, e.g. "az-iš" 'from her', spelt "hcš" rather than "MNš" as usually, and "о̄-mān" 'to us', spelt "ʾwmʾn<nowiki>'</nowiki>" instead of "OLmʾn". More commonly, however, the enclitic is attached to the first word of the clause, so that the preposition that governs it ends up being placed after it, as in the already adduced example "čē-š andar" 'which is in it'. The exception are the prepositions "pad" ("PWN") 'at', "о̄" ("OL") 'to' and "az" ("MN") 'from', which do accept the 3rd person enclitic "-(i)š", using it both with a singular and with a plural reference, and "о̄" then appears as the allomorph "aw" before "-iš": "padiš" ("ptš"), "awiš" ("ʾwbš"), "aziš" ("hcš"). However, if the logical complement is of a non-3rd person, the appropriate enclitic ("-(i)m", etc.) is attached to the first word in the clause rather than the preposition, and it is 'resumed' on the preposition itself by the "3rd" person enclitic: e.g. "u-m awiš" ("APm ʾwbm" 'on me'). A relative pronoun can be 'resumed' like this, too: "kē ... padiš" 'on ... which', and even a noun can, sometimes: "Zardušt ... padiš" 'for... Zarathustra'.


title: Middle Persian

text: There are two reflexive pronouns – a nominal one "xwad" ("BNPŠE") 'oneself' and an adjectival one "xwēš" ("NPŠE") 'one's own' (earlier "xwēbaš", hence Manichaean "xw(b)š".


title: Middle Persian

text: The demonstrative pronouns can be used with singular and plural referents, with the exception of "о̄y". They are the following:


title: Middle Persian

text: Some other demonstrative pronouns are "ham" ("hm") 'the same' and "and" ("ʾnd") 'so much'. Demonstrative adverbs are "ēdо̄n" ("ʾytwn<nowiki>'</nowiki>"), "о̄wо̄n" ("ʾwgwn<nowiki>'</nowiki>") and "о̄h" ("KN"), all three of which mean 'so, thus'; "ēdar" 'here' ("LTME"); "awar" 'hither' ("LPNME"), which is also used as an imperative 'come here!' and has a plural form "awarēd" ("LPNMEyt<nowiki>'</nowiki>"), "ōrōn" ("ʾwlwn<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'hither'; "ānо̄h" ("TME") 'there'; "nūn" ("KON") 'now'; "ēg" ("ADYN") 'then, thereupon'; "ā-" ("ʾ") 'then' (normally used with a following enclitic pronoun); "hād" ("HWEt<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'now, then'; "pas" ("AHL") 'afterwards'; "pēš" "LOYN<nowiki>'</nowiki>" 'before that, earlier'.


title: Middle Persian

text: The interrogative pronouns can normally also be used as relative pronouns and introduce dependent clauses, and as well as indefinite pronouns. The main ones are "kē" ("MNW") 'who', "čē" ("ME") 'what', 'what kind of', 'which', "kadām" ("ktʾm") 'what kind of, which', "kadār" ("ktʾl") 'which' and "čand" ("cnd") 'how much/many'. The first two and the last one are also used as relative pronouns, i.e. they introduce dependent clauses and mean 'which'. In that use, they can't be preceded by prepositions, so they are instead resumed in the dependent clause by the 3rd person singular enclitic or a demonstrative pronoun: 'from which' can be expressed by "kē ... aziš" and 'with which' can be "kē' ... abāg". Interrogative adverbs are "čiyо̄n?" ("cygwn") 'how', "kū?" ("AYK") 'where' and "kay?" ("AYMT") 'when'. The first two can also introduce dependent clauses as relative pronominal adverbs, meaning 'as' and 'that', respectively. The relative adverb corresponding to "kay?" ("AYMT") is, however, "ka" ("AYT") 'when'.


title: Middle Persian

text: As already mentioned, the interrogative word "čand" ("cnd") can also be used as an indefinite one: 'any number/amount', whereas "ē(w)-čand" ("ʾy(w)cnd") is unambiguously indefinite: 'some (number/amount), a few'. An indefinite adverb is "hagriz" ("hklc") 'ever'.


title: Middle Persian

text: The indefinite meaning can be reinforced by the particle "-iz", sp. "-(y)c", meaning 'too'. Thus "kas-iz" 'whoever', etc. The form of "čē" in this case is extended to "čēgām-iz" 'whatever'.


title: Middle Persian

text: Together with a negative particle "nē" 'not' occurring in the same clause, the indefinite pronouns also function as negative ones: 'not ... anybody' > 'nobody' etc.: e.g. "kas nē bawēd" ("AYŠ LA YHWWNyt<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'there will be nobody.'


title: Middle Persian

text: Pronouns are "anīy" ("AHRN") 'other' and "abārīg" ("ʾp̄ʾlyk<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'other, further'; a corresponding pronominal adverb is "enyā" ("ʾynyʾ") 'otherwise'.


title: Middle Persian

text: There are many pronouns with universal meaning, including "har(w)" ("KRA", "hl", Manichaean "hrw") 'every' (pl. "harwīn") ; "ham" ("hm") 'altogether, all, whole', "hamāg" ("hmʾk<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'whole, entire, all', "hāmōyēn" ("hʾmwdyn<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'all, the whole', "wisp" ("wsp") 'all, each, every', "harwisp" "hlwsp̄" (pl. "harwispīn") or "harwist" 'all, each, every'. A pronominal adverb with universal meaning is "hamē(w)" (Book Pahlavi "hmʾy", Manichaean "hmyw") 'always'.


title: Middle Persian

text: Within a nominal phrase, many different kinds of modifiers following the head were introduced by so-called relative particle "ī" (spelt "ZY-" in Inscriptional and Psalter Pahlavi, but "Y" in Book Pahlavi except in front of pronominal enclitics; in Manichaean also "īg", sp. " ʿyg"), which could be roughly translated as 'which'. This is the predecessor of the New Persian construction known as Ezāfe. It could introduce:


title: Middle Persian

text: Besides following the head, the modifier can be attached to a demonstrative pronoun, usually "(h)ān" ("ZK") 'that', but also "ēn" ("ZNE"), "ōy" ("OLE") and "ēd" ("HNA"), which precedes the head of the phrase:


title: Middle Persian

text: "ān ī-š pādixšāyīhā zan" ("ZK Yš ŠLYTAyhʾ NYŠE") 'the wife he is lawfully married to', lit. 'the wife he lawfully has'.


title: Middle Persian

text: Many adjectives can be used adverbially without any change: "Ardawān saxt awištāft" 'Ardawan was in a great hurry' ("ʾldwn sht<nowiki>'</nowiki> ʾwštʾp̄t"), lit. 'Ardawan was hurrying greatly'. However, adverbs can also be formed from adjectives, as well as from nouns and phrases, by adding the suffix "-īhā" ("-yhʾ"): "tuxšāg-īhā" ("twxšʾkyhʾ") 'diligent-ly', "dād-īhā" ("dʾtyhʾ") 'law-fully'.


title: Middle Persian

text: Like adjectives, adverbs can be compared; e.g. "azabar" ("hcpl") 'above' – "azabartar" ("hcpltl") 'farther above' – "azabartom" ("hcpltwm") 'farthest above'. Adverbs in "-īhā" can also be compared: "kam-wināh-īhā-tar" 'with less sin', lit. 'more little-sin-fully'.


title: Middle Persian

text: Some common locational adverbs are "azabar" ("hcpl") 'above' and "azēr" ("hcdl" or "ʾdl") 'below', "andarōn" ("BYNlwn<nowiki>'</nowiki>" / "ʾndlwn<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'inside', "bērōn" ("bylwn<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'outside', "pērāmōn" ("pylʾmwn<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'around' and "parrōn" ("plwn<nowiki>'</nowiki>" 'away, hence'). Many of these are formed as compounds with the noun "rōn" ("lwn<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'direction' as a second element.


title: Middle Persian

text: For pronominal adverbs, see the sections on the pronouns of the respective types. For directional adverbs commonly co-occurring with verbs, see the section of preverbs.


title: Middle Persian

text: Synthetic forms survive only in the present tense, although it does continue to distinguish to a greater or lesser extent four different moods. The past and perfect tenses are expressed periphrastically, even though there might be a few relicts of a synthetic imperfect in early inscriptions, and there may be a single synthetic imperfect form in Manichaean Middle Persian (see the section on "The preterite" below).


title: Middle Persian

text: A Middle Persian verb has two stems – a present stem and a past stem, which coincides with the past participle. Most other synthetic forms are based on the present stem, but the infinitive uses the past stem (as do a few derivational suffixes, see below). The past stem generally ends in "-d" or "-t" (after voiced and voiceless consonants, respectively). Sometimes this is the only difference between the stems – this is common for roots in -š ("kuš - "kušt, sp. "NKSWN-", 'to kill') and is also found e.g. in the verb "xwardan" ("OŠTENtn<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'to eat' ("xwar-" – "xward"). However, much more commonly, there are other differences and the exact relationship between the two stems is often unpredictable. For example:


title: Middle Persian

text: Other notable alternations are seen in "ward-" – "wašt 'to turn', "dār-" – "dāšt ("YHSNN-") 'to hold', "nimāy-" – "nimūd 'to show', "zan-" – "zad ("MHYTWN-") 'to hit'.


title: Middle Persian

text: Some verbs also derive the past stem merely by the addition of a suffix, which, however, does not consist solely of the consonant -"t"/"d". Most commonly it is "-īd" ("-yt'"), but a number of verbs also take "-ād" ("-ʾt'") or "-ist" ("-st"'):


title: Middle Persian

text: The past stem formations in "-īd" and "-ist" are typical of denominative verbs, passives in the suffix "-īh-" and causatives.


title: Middle Persian

text: Another form of suppletion is found in the verb meaning 'to be, exist', which has the stem "h-" (spelt "HWE-") in the present tense, but in the preterite it uses the forms of the verb "būdan" 'to become, to be', which has the present stem "baw-" (often contracted simply to "b-") and the past stem "būd" (spelt "YHWWN-").


title: Middle Persian

text: The present-tense forms of the four moods are formed by adding the following endings to the present stem:


title: Middle Persian

text: For example, the verb "raftan" ("SGYTWNtn<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'to go' will be conjugated as "rawēm ("SGYTWNym"), "rawē ("SGYTWNyd"), "rawēd ("SGYTWNyt<nowiki>'</nowiki>"), etc. in the indicative, "raw" ("SGYTWN"), etc. in the imperative, "rawān ("SGYTWNʾn"), rawāy ("SGYTWNʾy"), rawād ("SGYTWNʾt"), etc. in the subjunctive, and so on.


title: Middle Persian

text: The endings containing alternative vowels to "ē" are not found in Manichaean Middle Persian, except for the 1st person plural "-om", which has, conversely, been reported to be the only version there. For the 1st person singular ending, most authors list "-ēm" as the normal form, but some consider "-am" to have been the regular ending in non-Manichaean Middle Persian as opposed to the 1st person plural "-ēm". Thus, sg. "-am" : pl."-ēm" in Pahlavi would correspond to sg. "-ēm" : pl. "-om" in Manichaean. In general, the apparently random variation of the vowels has been interpreted either as relicts of the inflection of minority stem types or, conversely, as foreshadowings of the New Persian form of the endings.


title: Middle Persian

text: Furthermore, a small number of verbs had alternative contracted forms for the 3rd singular present with no vowel in the ending at all: e.g. "kund for expected "kunēd of "kardan". Verbs for which such forms are attested include "daštan" ("YHSNNtn<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'hold' – "dad ("dt<nowiki>'</nowiki>")", raftan ("SGYTWNtn<nowiki>'</nowiki>")" 'go' "– rawd (lpd), burdan (YBLWNtn<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'carry' – "bard (bld), čāštan (cʾštn<nowiki>'</nowiki>) '"teach' "- čāšt ("čʾšt<nowiki>'</nowiki>"), "hōšīdan" ("hwšytn<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'dry' "- hōšt ("hwšt<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'dries' and "fragendan" ("plkndn<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'lay foundations' - "fragend ("plknd")"." In addition, the present stem of "būdan (YHWWNtn<nowiki>'</nowiki>)" 'become'", baw-," is often shortened to b-": b-ēd (byt<nowiki>'</nowiki>)."


title: Middle Persian

text: Although the 2nd singular imperative has no ending, a vowel "-ā-"' appears in it before enclitics in Manichaean and Psalter Pahlavi, e.g. "ahrām-ā-m!" ("ʾhrʾmʾm") 'raise me up!'


title: Middle Persian

text: The subjunctive forms for persons other than the third occur in Manichaean Middle Persian, but not in Book Pahlavi. The subjunctive may express a wish (in the present tense) or a hypothetical or conditioned event (the latter mostly in the past tenses) The optative is another way to express a wish. However, the same meaning is expressed by combining the present indicative with separate optative particles: "ē(w)", sp."ʾy(w)" in Book Pahlavi (e.g. "ē dārēd", sp. "ʾy YHSNNyt<nowiki>'</nowiki>" 'let him possess it') and "hēb" in Manichaean (e.h. "hēb dārēd" "hyb dʾryd", the same) The present indicative and the present subjunctive may also express future tense (the former is used especially for near future).


title: Middle Persian

text: The synthetic forms of the copula verb follow mostly the same pattern as other verbs, the present stem consisting of the consonant "h-" (sp. "HWE-") alone: thus, 1st sg. ind. "hēm ("HWEym") or "ham ("HWEm"), subj. "hān", etc. However, the 3rd person singular of the present indicative is "ast" (sp. "AYT"), and this latter form is used mostly in the meaning 'to exist'; it is usually (but not always) omitted when the meaning is of pure predication, as in "he is a man" – "ōy mard" ("OLE GBRA"), in contrast to "there is a man" – "mard ast" ("AYT GBRA"). The 3rd plural "hēnd" is often omitted as well, and even a subjunctive "hād" may be absent. Moreover, the existential 3rd person singular also has a special contracted negated form: instead of the regular *"nē ast" ("LA AYT"), it is "nēst" ("LOYT<nowiki>'</nowiki>")


title: Middle Persian

text: The optative proper is regular: "hē ("HWEyd"). The imperative function, however, appears to be performed by an optative form of the verb "būdan" ("YHWWNtn<nowiki>'</nowiki>"), 'to be, become': "bāš" contracted from "bawēš, and in the plural imperative, the same verb is used: "bawēd".


title: Middle Persian

text: Finally, the copula could also occur in enclitic form without the initial "h-", although this isn't found very often in written texts: "kōdak-am" (sp. "kwtkm") 'I am small'.


title: Middle Persian

text: In addition to these endings, P. O. Skjærvø (2009: 219) identifies relicts of the Old Persian imperfect in Inscriptional Pahlavi: the markers, which are added to the present stem, are "-ēn" for the 1st singular, "-ē" or "-ēd" for the 3rd and "-om" for the 1st plural. However, in the synthetic passive formed with the suffixes "-īh-" or "-īy-", no ending is added at all in the imperfect: "gugānīh-∅" 'was destroyed'. There is much uncertainty and debate about the exact interpretations of these and similar forms.


title: Middle Persian

text: When a plural subject is inanimate, the verb may remain in the singular instead of agreeing with it, unless individuality is specially emphasised.


title: Middle Persian

text: All the past tenses use periphrastic constructions with the main verb in the past participle form; e.g. "raft" from the verb "raftan" ("SGYTWN" 'go'). The finite auxiliary verb is conjugated for the appropriate person and mood; the rules for person agreement in particular are described in the section on "Ergativity in the past tenses". The constructions are as follows:


title: Middle Persian

text: The preterite is formed by combining the past participle of the verb and the copula "h-" ("HWE-") used as an auxiliary verb conjugated for the appropriate person and mood. The copula is, as usual, dropped in the third singular:


title: Middle Persian

text: Since the verb "h-" has no corresponding past participle of the same root, it uses suppletively the past participle of "būdan":


title: Middle Persian

text: In addition, a synthetically (and suppletively) formed past tense of the copula appears to be found in Manichaean Middle Persian: 3rd person singular "anād" 'was' and 3rd person plural "anānd" 'were'. There is no obvious difference in function between this and the ordinary preterite. This has been said to be a relict of the Old Persian imperfect tense, and it has been conjectured that a mysterious Armaeogram "HWYTN-" occurring in Inscriptional Pahlavi also designates the stem found in this form of the copula.


title: Middle Persian

text: The past preterite also uses the past participle, but it differs from the simple preterite in that the copula "itself" is in the preterite rather than the present here:


title: Middle Persian

text: "(az) raft būd hēm" (("ANE") "SGYTWNt<nowiki>'</nowiki> YHWWNt<nowiki>'</nowiki>" / "bwt<nowiki>'</nowiki>" HWEym) 'I had gone';


title: Middle Persian

text: Since Manichaean Middle Persian (and possibly Inscriptional Pahlavi) retains synthetic past (imperfect) forms of the copula, it is also able to use them as auxiliaries in the past preterite construction (which has then been called 'past imperfect', although it doesn't seem to have a different function from the other construction):


title: Middle Persian

text: The perfect also uses the past participle, but it differs from the preterite in that the auxiliary verb uses is not the copula, but "ēstādan" ("YKOYMWNtn<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'to stand' in the present tense. Thus:


title: Middle Persian

text: The past perfect or pluperfect differs from the simple perfect in that the verb "ēstādan" "itself" is in the preterite rather than the present here:


title: Middle Persian

text: The auxiliary "būdan" is sometimes omitted not only in the 3rd person singular, but even in the plural: "u-mān ō padīrag āmad awēšān widerdagān ruwān" ("APmʾn<nowiki>'</nowiki> OL ptyrk<nowiki>'</nowiki> YATWNt<nowiki>'</nowiki> OLEšʾn<nowiki>'</nowiki> wtltkʾn<nowiki>'</nowiki> lwbʾn<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'and the souls of the departed came to meet us.'


title: Middle Persian

text: Like the English and Latin past participles, the Middle Persian past participle describes the logical "subject" of a verb when the verb is intransitive, but the logical object of the verb when the verb is transitive: e.g. "raft" ("SGYTWNt") '(somebody who is) gone', but "dīd" ("HZYTWNt<nowiki>'</nowiki>") '(something that is) seen (by somebody)'. As a result, the construction with the copula (and with the auxiliary "ēstādan") has 'active' meaning when the verb is intransitive – "tō raft hē", sp. "(LK) SGYTWNt<nowiki>'</nowiki> HWEyd", lit. 'you are gone' – but 'passive' meaning when the verb is transitive – "(tō) mard dīd", sp. "(LK) GBRA HZYTWNt<nowiki>'</nowiki>", lit. 'the man is seen (by you)'. In other words, the participant that normally would have been the object is treated as the subject here, and the participant that normally would have been the subject is treated as an oblique modifier. Since in these transitive verb constructions, the participant that is treated like the single argument of an intransitive verb is not the more subject-like one, but the more object-like one, the morphosyntactic alignment of these constructions is ergative. Since this alignment is confined to the past tenses, it is further described as split-ergative.


title: Middle Persian

text: The most obvious consequence of this that while the verb in a past tense agrees with the (logical) subject if it is intransitive (just as it would in the present tense), it agrees with the (logical) object if it is transitive:


title: Middle Persian

text: Cf. also the past tense of an intransitive verb: "tō raft hē" ("LK SGYTWNt<nowiki>'</nowiki> HWEyd") 'you went'


title: Middle Persian

text: Cf. present tense: "mardān tō wēnēnd" ("GBRAʾn LK HZYTWNt<nowiki>'</nowiki> HWEnd") = 'the men see you';


title: Middle Persian

text: Cf. also the past tense of an intransitive verb: "mardān raft hēnd" ("GBRAʾn SGYTWNt<nowiki>'</nowiki> HWEnd") 'the men went'


title: Middle Persian

text: Another consequence is seen in the case inflection of nominals, inasmuch as it is preserved. In contrast to the use of the cases in the present tense, the ergative construction means that it is the logical object that is in the direct case and the logical subject that is in the oblique case. Thus, originally we would have, e.g. "az mardān wēnēm" 'I see the men' in the present, but "man mard dīd hēnd in the past; "mard man wēnēnd 'the men see me' in the present, but "mardān az dīd hēm" 'the men saw me' in the past. Even after the last vestiges of case inflection in nouns and the stressed forms of the pronouns had been lost and so their forms in ergative and nominative constructions had become identical, the fact that the very frequent pronominal enclitics were restricted to the oblique case meant that their use still reflected the alignment difference between the tenses:


title: Middle Persian

text: In contrast, *"u-t raft hē" 'and you went' is impossible, as is *"u-t mard dīd hē" 'and the man saw you'. That is because only the stressed form of the pronoun can function in the direct case.


title: Middle Persian

text: Finally, it may be pointed out that the possibility of expressing the logical subject at all appears to have developed later in the perfect tenses with "ēstādan" than in the preterites with "būdan". It is not yet found in Inscriptional and Psalter Pahlavi, nor in Manichaean Middle Persian, where these constructions are impersonal and passive. However, in Book Pahlavi, it is already found regularly, so that clauses like "u-t mard dīd ēstē" are fully possible.


title: Middle Persian

text: The present tense proper of the verb "būdan", "bawēm", is also combined with the past participle to express a kind of present passive: "dād bawēd" ("YHBWNt<nowiki>'</nowiki> YHWWNyt<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'it is, will have been given'. As in the ergative construction, the agent can occasionally be expressed with an oblique enclitic, e.g. "ā-š kard bawēd" 'then it is done by him' ("ʾš OBYDWNyt<nowiki>'</nowiki> YHWWNyt<nowiki>'</nowiki>").


title: Middle Persian

text: Albeit rarely, the verb "kamistan" 'to want' combined with an infinitive may express future tense: "dušpādixšāyīh ī awēšān sar kāmēd būdan" ("dwšSLYTAyh Y OLEšʾn<nowiki>'</nowiki> LOYŠE YCBENyt<nowiki>'</nowiki> YHWWNtn<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'their evil rule will end', lit. 'wants to end'.


title: Middle Persian

text: There are two particles occurring before the verb which may modify its aspectual meaning (apparently in opposite ways), even though their use is not obligatory.


title: Middle Persian

text: One of them appears in Pahlavi as "be" ("BRA") and in Manichaean as "ba" ("bʾ"). Its earliest meaning seems to have been directional and specifically andative, i.e. 'away, out', and this is still said to be the case in Inscriptional and Psalter Pahlavi as well as in Manichaean, but in Book Pahlavi it also seems to have other meanings, which are less clear and more controversial. It has been argued to express perfective aspect in the past or in the future. For example, "mard ī šahr ka-š kas pad pusīh be padīrēd" ("GBRA y štr<nowiki>'</nowiki> AMTš AYŠ PWN BREyh BRA MKBLWNyt<nowiki>'</nowiki>)" 'if somebody adopts a man of the kingdom as his son'; "Šābuhr be xandīd" ("šʾpwhl GHBHWNyt<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'Šābuhr laughed'. It also occurs relatively frequently with imperatives in Book Pahlavi, but not in Manichaean Middle Persian.


title: Middle Persian

text: The other particle is "hamē" ("hmʾy"), originally identical to the adverb meaning 'always'. It expresses imperfective and more specifically durative or iterative aspect: "kanīzag pad sar ī čāh būd ud ... čahārpāyān rāy āb hamē dād" ("knyck<nowiki>'</nowiki> PWN LOYŠE y cʾh YHWWNt<nowiki>'</nowiki> ... chʾlpʾdʾn rʾd MYA hmʾy YHBWNt<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'the girl was by the side of the well and was giving water to the animals'. Some have viewed its aspectual use as a late phenomenon indicative of the transition to New Persian.


title: Middle Persian

text: It can function syntactically as a (verbal) noun: "pad griftan ī Ardaxšīr" ("PWN OHDWNtn<nowiki>'</nowiki> Y ʾrthšyr") 'in order to seize Ardaxšīr' (lit. 'for the seizing of Ardaxšīr'), "hangām ī xwarišn xwardan" ("hngʾm y OŠTENšn<nowiki>'</nowiki> OŠTENtn<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'the time to eat food' (lit. the time of food eating')"."


title: Middle Persian

text: The past participle, which coincides with the past stem. It has passive meaning when the verb is transitive, but active meaning when the verb is intransitive: "kard" ("krt<nowiki>'</nowiki>" or "OBYDWNt<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'made' but "āxist" ("KDMWNt<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'risen'. It is most commonly used predicatively, but it can also be nominalised: "duzīd" ("dwcyd") 'the stolen (goods)'. If it is an attribute modifier instead, it is usually introduced by the relative particle: "čiš ī widard" ("MNDOM Y wtlt<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'a thing that has passed away, vanished'.


title: Middle Persian

text: An extended form of the past participle is produced by the addition of the suffix "-ag" ("-k") to the past stem. This form is used attributively more often than the previous one: "duxt ī padīriftag" ("BRTE Y MKBLWNtk<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'an adopted daughter' and is also frequently nominalised: "nibištag" ("YKTYBWNtk<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'something written, a document' (cf. Latin "scriptum", English "writ").


title: Middle Persian

text: There is also a present active participle derived from the present stem with the ending in "-ān" ("ʾn"): e.g. "griyān ("BKYWNʾn"), "gldʾn"), 'crying'. It may occur as a gerund – "zarduxšt griyān passox guft" ("zrtwxšt gldʾn pshw<nowiki>'</nowiki> gwpt"), 'Zarasthustra answered, weeping.' and is the usual verb form governed by the verb "niwistan" ("nwystn") 'to begin', which, however, is mostly typical of Manichaean (albeit attested in Psalter Pahlavi). These constructions are rare in Book Pahlavi. Historically, the derivational deverbal suffix "-endag" / "-andag" (-"ndk<nowiki>'</nowiki>") as in "sōzendag ("swcndk<nowiki>'</nowiki>" 'burning') contains the Proto-Indo-European present active participle suffix and it does retain such a meaning, so the adjective derived with has also been called a 'participle'. So have deverbal adjectives formed with the productive suffix "-āg" (-"ʾk<nowiki>'</nowiki>") as in "sazāg" ("scʾk") 'fitting', which also have very similar semantics (see the section on "Word formation"). Both of these latter are mostly used attributively.


title: Middle Persian

text: The suffix "-išn" ("-šn") generally forms deverbal nouns of action from the present stem of the verb as in "kunišn" ("kwnšn<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'doing, deed, action' from "kardan" ("OBYDWNtn<nowiki>'</nowiki>" / "krtn<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'to do'. However, such formations also function in predicative position as gerundives and have since been referred to as 'participles of necessity': "u-š čē kunišn" 'And what is he to do?', lit. 'What is an (appropriate) action for him?'; "mardōmān ... mizd ī mēnōy bē nē hilišn" ("ANŠWTAʾn mzd Y mynwd BRE LA ŠBKWNšn<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'people must not relinquish their reward in the spiritual world'. Indeed, they have come to resemble adjectives in that they can be inflected for degree: "zanišntar ("MHYTWNšntl) 'more worthy of being hit/killed'.


title: Middle Persian

text: The periphrastic present passive construction with a past participle and "būdan" in the present tense ("dād bawēd", 'is given') has already been mentioned in the section "Present passive". The corresponding ergative preterite constructions and ergative perfect tense constructions with "ēstādan" 'stand' are not really passive, since they do not contrast with an active form in the same tense and are the standard and only way of expressing these tenses. Nevertheless, they can still be used without an overt agent, resulting in a passive meaning: "pus ... ōzad" ("BRE YKTLWNt<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'the son ... was killed', "mardōm ... xwānd hēnd" ("ANŠWTA ... KRYTWNt<nowiki>'</nowiki> HWEnd") 'the people ... were called'.


title: Middle Persian

text: Another periphrastic way of expressing the passive is by using a third person plural 'they' as an impersonal subject: "kas pad wēmārīh nē mīrēd bē pad zarmānīh ayāb ōzanēnd" ("AYŠ PWN wymʾryh LA BRE YMYTWNyt<nowiki>'</nowiki> PWN zlmʾnyh ʾdwp YKTLWNynd") 'nobody will die of illness, but (only) from of old age or they will be killed (lit. or they kill them)'.


title: Middle Persian

text: However, there is also a "synthetic" passive form derived from the present stem with the suffix "-īh-" ("-yh-"), in older texts such as the Pahlavi Psalter also "-īy-" (sp. -"yd"-). The vowel might have been shortened in later Middle Persian pronunciation. The corresponding past stem may end in "-ist" or in "-īd". Some examples are "dārīhēd" ("YHSNNyhyt<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'is held' (of "dāštan", present stem "dār-", 'to hold'), "yazīhīd" ("YDBHWNyhyt<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'was recited' (of "yaštan", present stem "yaz-", 'to recite, celebrate'). If the base verb has the factitive/causative suffix "-ēn-" ("-yn-"), it is removed before the addition of "-īh-": "rawāgēnīdan" ("lwbʾkynytn<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'propagate' > "rawāgīhistan" 'be propagated' ("lwbʾkyhystn<nowiki>'</nowiki>")


title: Middle Persian

text: Middle Persian does not have a verb 'to have'. Instead, possession is expressed by stating the existence of the possessed object using the verb 'to be' and by treating the possessor as an oblique argument (inflecting it in the oblique case, if possible): "man paygāl ast" ("L pygʾl AYT<nowiki>'</nowiki>) 'To me, a cup exists' = 'I have a cup';" xwāstag ī-š ast "("NKSYA Yš AYT<nowiki>'</nowiki>) 'the property which he has', lit. 'which exists to him'.


title: Middle Persian

text: Certain adverbial particles are combined with verbs to express direction, while remaining separate words. The most important ones are the following:


title: Middle Persian

text: The special postposed forms of "pad", "ō" and "az" with a resumptive pronoun "-(i)š" – "padiš" ("ptš"), "awiš" ("ʾwbš"), "aziš" ("hcš") – have already been mentioned in the section on pronouns.


title: Middle Persian

text: Certain adverbs and nouns can be used as prepositions, in which case they usually (but not always) use the relative particle or the preposition "az" to introduce the noun: thus the adverb "pēš" ("LOYN<nowiki>'</nowiki>") can be extended as "pēš ī" 'in front of', "pēš az" 'before'. In turn, the adverb may be preceded by a preposition: "ō pēš ī". A noun does not necessarily require a preceding preposition: "mayān ī" ("mdyʾn Y") '(in) the middle of'. In this way, many prepositional meanings are expressed: 'before' ("pēš ī," sp. "LOYN<nowiki>'</nowiki> Y"), 'after' ("pas ī" "AHL"), 'around' ("pērāmōn ī," sp. "pylʾmwn<nowiki>'</nowiki> Y"), 'beside' ("kanārag ī", sp. "knʾlk<nowiki>'</nowiki> Y"), 'near, close to' ("nazdīk ī", sp. "nzdyk<nowiki>'</nowiki> Y"), 'beside, around' ("pad sar ī," sp. "PWN LOYŠE Y"), 'except, apart from' "ǰud az" (sp. "ywdt<nowiki>'</nowiki> MN<nowiki>'</nowiki>"), etc. Instead of being introduced by "ī", the component nominal phrase may also be placed before the noun, so it becomes possible to speak of an 'ambiposition': "az / ō ... rōn" ("MN / OL ... lwn<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'from / in the direction of' (from "rōn" 'direction'); a similar structure is seen in "bē ... enyā" ("BRA ... ʾynyʾ") 'except', where "enyā" 'otherwise' may also be omitted.


title: Middle Persian

text: While prepositions can remain stranded after their complements because of some syntactic processes mentioned above, there is also a "regular" postposition: "rāy" ("lʾd"), meaning 'for (the sake of)', 'because of', 'about', 'to'. The postpositional phrase can also be preceded by a preposition: "az ... rāy" 'because of', "pad ... rāy" 'concerning, in order to'. In some other combinations that have been identified as 'ambipositions', the first element can also be dropped, causing the second one to occur as a postposition: such is the case in "(az) ... hammis(t)" ('together with') and "(bē) ... tā" 'except'.


title: Middle Persian

text: The word "ā-" ("ʾ") 'then' may be described as a demonstrative adverb, but it, too, operates as a sentence connector or introducing particle much like "u-", albeit less frequently: an important function of both seems to be to 'support' a pronominal enclitic, and "ā-" generally occurs with one, e.g. "ā-š dīd" ("ʾš HZYTWNt<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'then he saw'.


title: Middle Persian

text: The conjunction "ud" may be reinforced with the particle "ham" ("hm"): "ham abar ahlawān ud ham abar druwandān" ("hm QDM ʾhlwbʾn W hm QDM dlwndʾn") 'both for the righteous and for the unrighteous'.


title: Middle Persian

text: This suffix is also thought to have had diminutive meaning and appears to have been added to already existing nouns with no change in meaning ("ǰām" > "ǰāmag 'glass') or with an unpredictable change ("čašm", sp. "AYNE", 'an eye' > "čašmag, sp. "cšmk<nowiki>'</nowiki>" 'a spring, well'). As such, it was a very productive and expanding suffix. It is identical to an adjective-forming suffix, and that it was its original function; on that, see the next section.


title: Middle Persian

text: The diminutive suffix is "-īzag" ("-yck<nowiki>'</nowiki>"). E.g. "murw" ("mwlw") 'bird' > "murwīzag" ("mwlwyck<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'birdie'.


title: Middle Persian

text: It has been conjectured that also the abovementioned suffix "-ag" ("-k") had the same meaning, but it is difficult to find unambiguous attestations of this usage. Adjectives have their own diminutive suffix, on which see below.


title: Middle Persian

text: Feminine gender could be expressed in proper names by "-ag": "J̌am" > "J̌amag". It could also be expressed by the Avestan suffixes "-ānīy" / "-ēnīy": "ahlaw" 'righteous' > "ahlawēnīy" 'righteous woman'.


title: Middle Persian

text: 1. The suffix "-ēn-" ("-yn-") and less commonly "-ān-", whose past stem always ends in "-īd" "yt"), has the following functions:


title: Middle Persian

text: - It transforms nominal parts of speech into verbs with factitive meaning: "pērōz" ("pylwc") 'victorious' > "pērōzēnīdan" ("pylwcynytn<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'to make victorious';


title: Middle Persian

text: - It makes verbs, to whose present stem it is added, into transitive verbs with causative meaning: "tarsīdan" ("tlsytn<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'to be afraid' > "tarsēnīdan" ("tlsynytn<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'to scare'


title: Middle Persian

text: Apart from that, factitive verbs could be formed simply by creating a new past stem in "-īdan": "nām" ("ŠM") 'name' > "nāmīdan" 'to name'. More commonly, phrasal verbs were used instead as in "nām kardan". On the other hand, there still survived some intransitive-transitive verb pairs with quality and quantity differences in the root, where the transitive one usually has the vowel "ā": intr. "nibastan" ("ŠKBHWNstn<nowiki>'</nowiki>"), "nibay-" 'to lie down' – tr. "nibāstan" ("npʾstn<nowiki>'</nowiki>"), "nibāy-" 'to lay down'; intr. "nišastan", "nišīn-" 'to sit (down) – tr. "nišāstan", "nišān-" 'to seat' (both spelt with the Armaeogram "YTYBWNstn<nowiki>'</nowiki>", but distinguished in the phonetic spellings "nšstn<nowiki>'</nowiki>" – "nšʾstn<nowiki>'</nowiki>").


title: Middle Persian

text: 2. There is also a suffix that forms intransitive verbs from transitive ones. Specifically, it derives present verb stems from transitive past stems in "-ft" and "-xt", but apparently leaves the two verbs identical in the past stem. In Manichaean, the suffix is "-s" and removes the preceding dental of the past stem: "buxtan" (present stem "bōz-") 'save' > present stem "buxs-" 'be saved'. In Pahlavi, the suffix is "-t-"; in other words, the new present stem coincides with the past one: "bōxtan", sp. "bwhtn<nowiki>'</nowiki>", (present stem "bōz-") 'save' > present stem "bōxt-" 'be saved'


title: Middle Persian

text: 1. "a(n)-", sp. "ʾ(n)-", expresses negation or absence of something. Simple negation is found in examples like "purnāy" ("pwlnʾd") 'adult' > "aburnāy" ("ʾpwlnʾd") 'non-adult', "dōstīh" ("dwstyh") 'friendship, amity' > "adōstīh" ("ʾdwstyh") 'enmity', "ēr" ("ʾyl") 'Iranian, Zoroastrian' > "anēr" ("ʾnyl"), 'non-Iranian', 'non-Zoroastrian'.


title: Middle Persian

text: However, when added to most nouns, the prefix "a(n)-" converts them into adjectives or nouns meaning 'lacking something': "kanārag" ("knʾlk<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'border' > "akanārag" ("ʾknʾlk<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'borderless' It can also produce adjectives when added to present verb stems, indicating non-performance of the action: "dānistan" ("YDOYTWNstn<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'to know' > "adān" ("ʾdʾn<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'ignorant'.


title: Middle Persian

text: 2. "abē-", sp. "ʾp̄y" is added to nouns to form adjectives expressing the lack of something, which also one of the functions of the previous suffix. Hence, they can even occur with the same stems and more or less the same meanings: "bīm" 'fear' > "abēbīm" ("ʾp̄ypym") as well as simply "abīm" ("ʾp̄ym") 'fearless'.


title: Middle Persian

text: 3. "ham-" ("hm-") expresses togetherness and sameness. It, too converts nouns into adjectives or nouns meaning 'having / belonging to the same X': e.g. "kār" ("kʾl") 'deed, labour' > "hamkār" ("hmkʾl") 'collaborator'.


title: Middle Persian

text: 4. "ǰud-" ("ywdt-") has partly the opposite meaning to "ham-", transforming nouns into adjectives or nouns meaning 'having / belonging to a different/opposite X', e.g. "kāmag" ("kʾmk<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'desire' > "ǰudkāmag" ("ywdt<nowiki>'</nowiki> kʾmk<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'disagreeing', lit. 'having a different desire'. However, it can also have the meaning 'keeping X away', as in "dēw" ("ŠDYA" 'demon') > "ǰud-dēw" ("ywdtŠDYA") 'keeping the demons away', 'anti-demonic'. Finally, it has a meaning akin to "abē-" in cases like "ǰud-āb" ("ywdt<nowiki>'</nowiki>MYA") 'waterless'. It is also an independent word meaning 'separate', 'different', so it can be viewed as the first member of a compound as well.


title: Middle Persian

text: 5. "hu-" ("hw-") can derive nouns from other nouns to express the meaning 'good X', e.g. "pādixšāy" ("ŠLYTA") 'king' > "hupādixšāy" ("hwpʾthšʾd") 'good king'. Far more commonly, however, it forms adjectives and nouns meaning 'having good X': e.g. "bōy" ("bwd") 'smell' > "hubōy" ("hwbwd") 'fragrant'; "sraw" ("slwb<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'word' > "husraw" ("hwslwb<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'having good fame'.


title: Middle Persian

text: 6. "duš-" / "dus" / "duǰ-" (sp. "dwš-", "dw(s)-"), with the second allomorph occurring before /s/ and the third one before voiced stops, has the opposite meaning to the previous prefix: it forms adjectives and nouns meaning 'having bad X', or rarely, simply 'bad X'. For example, "dušpādixšāy" ("dwšpʾthšʾd") 'bad king', "dusraw" ("dwslwb<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'infamous', "dēn" ("dyn<nowiki>'</nowiki>") > "duǰdēn" (Pahlavi "dwšdyn<nowiki>'</nowiki>", Manichaean "dwjdyn") 'infidel'


title: Middle Persian

text: 7. Finally, a few adjectives begin in "pad-" ("PWN-") and meaning 'having' or 'associated with': e.g. "parrag" ("plk<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'wing' > "pad-parrag" ("PWN plk<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'having wings'; "drō" ("KDBA", "dlwb<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'a lie' > "pad-drō" ("PWN dlwb") 'lying'.


title: Middle Persian

text: Some adverbial particles can co-occur with verbs, but remain separate words; on these, see the section "Preverbs". Earlier Indo-European verbal prefixes have coalesced with the following roots and their original meaning is hardly ever discernible, even though they are very frequent. Thus, we have the following elements:


title: Middle Persian

text: 1. bahuvrihi or possessive compound, a compound adjective or noun of the structure Modifier + Noun, designating the possessor of what the second member designates:


title: Middle Persian

text: 2. A determinative compound noun of the structure Modifier + Noun, designating a subset of the class that the second member designates:


title: Middle Persian

text: commonly an adjective as in "weh-dēn" ("ŠPYLdyn<nowiki>'</nowiki>"), lit. 'good' + 'religion' = 'Zoroastrianism'.


title: Middle Persian

text: 3. A determinative compound adjective or noun of the structure Modifier + Deverbal Noun or Participle:


title: Middle Persian

text: 4. A determinative compound adjective or noun of the structure Modifier + Present Verb Stem. The meaning is of an agent noun:


title: Middle Persian

text: An uncommon type is the copulative (dvandva) type that combines two stems on equal terms – some possible examples are:


title: Middle Persian

text: The numeral system is decimal. The numerals usually don't inflect, but may take the plural ending when preceding the noun they modify, e.g. Manichaean "sēnān anōšagān" 'the three immortals'. The numerals are usually spelt in Pahlavi as digits, but there are also Aramaeograms for the cardinals from 1 to 10.


title: Middle Persian

text: The teens are mostly formed by combining the relevant number of units and the word "dah" 'ten', but there are some voicings, epentheses of /z/, elisions and unpredictable alternations at the morpheme boundaries.


title: Middle Persian

text: The tens often bear some resemblance to the correspondent units and sometimes end in -"ād" or -"ad", but often aren't synchronically analysable:


title: Middle Persian

text: The hundreds combine the relevant unit and the word "sad" 'hundred' (e.g. "hašt sad" for 800), except for 200, which is "duwēst". One thousand is "hazār", and multiples of it are formed again on the pattern "hašt hazār" and so on, but there is also a special numeral for 10 000, "bēwar" (spelt "bywl"). Compound numerals may be formed with or without the conjunction "ud" 'and': "čihl ud čahār" or "čihl čahār".


title: Middle Persian

text: Fractions simply conjoin the cardinal numerals of the denominator and the numerator: "sē-ēk (ī ...)" 'one third (of ...)', and may also take the 'indefinite article' "-ēw". Another notable derivation is the one in "-gānag" meaning '-fold', e.g. "sēgānag" ("3-kʾnk") 'triple'.


title: Middle Persian

text: Cardinal numerals may precede or follow the noun; the noun is usually in the singular, but may be in the plural, too.


title: Middle Persian

text: Ordinal numerals are formed regularly by adding the ending "-om" (sp. "-wm") to the corresponding cardinal numeral: e.g. "haft-om" ("7-wm") 'seven-th'. After vowels, a semivowel is inserted before "-om": "-y-" after the front vowels "e" and "i", and "-w-" after the back vowel "o": thus, 3rd can be "sē-y-om", 30th is "sī-y-om", 2nd is "dō-w-om".


title: Middle Persian

text: While this regular pattern can be applied even to the first three numerals, they also have more common irregular variants: "fradom" ("pltwm") 'first', "dudīgar" or "didīgar" ("dtykl") 'second', "sidīgar" ("stykl") 'third'. The final "ar" may be absent in Manichaean texts: "dudīg" ("dwdyg") and "sidīg" ("sdyg"). Furthermore, 'first' may also occur as "naxust" ("nhwst<nowiki>'</nowiki>") and "nazdist" ("nzdst"') and 'second' may also occur as "did" ("TWB", "dt<nowiki>'</nowiki>"), which also means 'another', and "didom". 'Fourth' can also be "tasom" ("tswm").


title: Middle Persian

text: Like the cardinal numbers, the ordinal ones can occur before or after the noun, and in the latter case, they may be linked to it by the relative particle "ī".


title: Middle Persian

text: The usual word order is subject – object – verb, although there are deviations from it. As already mentioned, genitive and adjective modifiers usually precede their heads if unmarked as such, but adjectives can also be placed after their heads, and a modifier introduced by the relative particle "ī" is placed after its head, unless appended to a demonstrative pronoun modifying the phrase head (pronoun + "ī" + modifier + head). The language uses prepositions, but they may end up as postpositions if their logical complements are enclitic pronouns or relative pronouns. The enclitic pronouns are normally appended to the first word of the clause. Yes/no questions are only distinguished from statements by means of intonation. Wh-questions do not need to be introduced by the interrogative word either: "war ... kū kard ēstēd?" ("wl ... AYK krt<nowiki>'</nowiki> YKOYMWNyt<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'Where has the shelter been made?'


title: Middle Persian

text: Certain verbs are used impersonally: the logical subject is absent or oblique, and the action is expressed by an infinitive or a dependent clause with a verb in the subjunctive. Thus the present tense of "abāyistan" 'be necessary, fitting' is used as follows: "abāyēd raftan" ("ʾp̄ʾdt<nowiki>'</nowiki> SGYTWNtn<nowiki>'</nowiki>" ), 'it is necessary to go'. Other verbs used like this, obligatorily or optionally, are "sahistan" ("MDMENstn'") 'seem', "saz-" ("sc") 'be proper' (present tense only), "šāyistan" ("šʾdstn<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'be possible', "kāmistan" ("YCBENstn'") 'want' (constructed like 'be desirable to s.o.') and "wurrōyistan" ("HYMNN-stn"') 'believe' (constructed like 'seem credible to s.o.'). So are some nouns such as "tuwān" 'might, power': "tuwān raftan" ("twbʾn<nowiki>'</nowiki> SGYTWNtn<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'one can go'.


title: Middle Persian

text: There are many phrasal verbs consisting of a nominal part of speech and a relatively abstract verb, most commonly "kardan" ("OBYDWNtn<nowiki>'</nowiki>" / "krtn<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'do', sometimes also "dādan" ("YHBWNtn<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'to give', "burdan" ("YBLWNtn<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'to bear', "zadan" ("MHYTWNtn<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'to hit', etc. Some examples are "duz kardan" ("dwc krtn<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'to steal', lit. 'to do a theft', "framān dādan" ("plmʾn<nowiki>'</nowiki> YHBWNtn<nowiki>'</nowiki>"), 'to command', lit. 'to give a command', "āgāh kardan" ("ʾkʾs krtn<nowiki>'</nowiki>") 'inform', lit. 'make informed'.


title: Middle Persian

text: The plural number was used in reference to kings, both in the first person (by the kings themselves), in the second person (when addressing a king) and in the third person (when referring to kings, e.g. "awēšān bayān", sp. "OLEšʾn<nowiki>'</nowiki> ORHYAʾn", 'Their Majesty', originally only the oblique case form). An action performed by a superior was introduced by the dummy verb "framūdan" 'order' governing an infinitive of the main verb: "framāyē xwardan!" ("prmʾdyd OŠTENʾn") 'deign eat!'.


title: Middle Persian

text: In contrast to the numerous Arameograms in Pahlavi spelling, there aren't many actual borrowings from Aramaic in Middle Persian; indeed, the number of borrowings in the language in general is remarkably small. An exception is the Middle Persian Psalter, which is a relatively literal translation of the Peshitta and does contain a sizable number of theology-related loans from Syriac: e.g. "purkānā" 'redemption'.


title: Middle Persian

text: Pahlavi often has more forms borrowed from Parthian than Manichaean does: e.g. Pahlavi "zamestān" ("zmstʾn<nowiki>'</nowiki>") vs Manichaean "damestān" ("dmstʾn") 'winter'. Naturally, theological terms borrowed from Avestan occur in Zoroastrian Pahlavi, sometimes even in the original script, but often in 'Pahlavised' form or as loan translations:


title: Middle Persian

text: There are a number of phonological differences between Middle Persian and New Persian. The long vowels of Middle Persian did not survive in many present-day dialects. Also, initial consonant clusters were very common in Middle Persian (e.g. spās "thanks"). However, New Persian does not allow initial consonant clusters, whereas final consonant clusters are common (e.g. asb "horse").


title: Middle Persian

text: There is a number of Persian loanwords in English, many of which can be traced to Middle Persian. The lexicon of Classical Arabic also contains many borrowings from Middle Persian. In such borrowings Iranian consonants that sound foreign to Arabic, "g", "č", "p", and "ž", have been replaced by "q/k", "j", "š", "f/b", and "s/z". The exact Arabic renderings of the suffixes "-ik/-ig" and "-ak/-ag" is often used to deduce the different periods of borrowing. The following is a parallel word list of cognates:


title: Ashley Rickards

text: Ashley Nicole Rickards (born May 4, 1992) is an American actress, known for her role as Jenna Hamilton in the MTV comedy-drama series "Awkward", and as Samantha "Sam" Walker, a troubled young girl in The CW's teen drama series "One Tree Hill". She also starred in the 2011 independent drama film "Fly Away" as Mandy, an autistic girl.


title: Ashley Rickards

text: Rickards was born in Sarasota, Florida. She grew up on a horse farm that catered to children with special needs. She attended a local Montessori school where, at age 13, she had her first taste of acting in an opera production. Rickards graduated from high school at age fifteen and is a member of Mensa. After attending a local talent showcase, organized by Lou Pearlman, Rickards traveled to Los Angeles where she eventually gathered a team of representatives. Upon graduating, Rickards began to appear in a number of minor roles, while child labor laws restricted the number of hours she was able to work. After making a number of guest appearances and shorts, she landed the role of Samantha Walker, a runaway foster child, in the sixth season of The CW's "One Tree Hill". Although not aware of the show before auditioning, Rickards found that she "learned so much from acting techniques to different ways of shooting things". Her character did not return the following season, while in the same year she had a bit part in her first feature film, "Gamer".


title: Ashley Rickards

text: Rickards spent much of 2009 attending auditions while a proposed lead role in the film "Dirty Girl" fell through. In 2010, she appeared opposite Jimmy Smits in an episode of the legal drama "Outlaw" while she also auditioned for the lead role in the MTV series "Awkward". Initially rejected, her manager Adam Griffin sent the producers a tape Rickards had made for "Fly Away" "to show how she can do anything". The actress landed both roles and filmed the pilot for the MTV series prior to "Fly Away", a feature where she played a girl with severe autism.


title: Ashley Rickards

text: As the lead in "Awkward", Rickards' profile began to rise and she was also given the opportunity to direct an episode. In 2012, she had a minor role in the moderately successful comedy "Struck by Lightning" and another coming-of-age film "Sassy Pants." In 2014 Rickards moved into the horror genre with a lead role in "At the Devil's Door" and as a teenage daughter in "A Haunted House 2". In 2015, she filmed the fifth and final season of "Awkward". In August 2016 it was announced that Rickards would play Rosalind "Rosa" Dillon/The Top in the CW series "The Flash".


title: Ashley Rickards

text: In 2011, Rickards helped to launch the Project Futures Somaly Mam Foundation, which works to prevent and end human trafficking and sexual slavery in Southeast Asia. In March 2015, she published a book "A Real Guide to Getting It Together Once and For All".


title: Ashley Rickards

text: Over the course of her career, she has also appeared in various music videos such as The Fray's "How to Save a Life", The Format's "She Doesn't Get It" and M83's "Claudia Lewis".


title: Eddie Haskell

text: Edward Clark Haskell (also referred to as Edward W. Haskell) is a fictional character on the American television sitcom "Leave It to Beaver", which ran on CBS from October 4, 1957, to 1958 and on ABC from 1958 to 1963. He was played by Ken Osmond. The character was also featured in the later series "Still the Beaver", and in the film remake of the original series.


title: Eddie Haskell

text: The son of George (however, in Season 1, episode 20, Eddie gives his name as "Edward Clark Haskell, Jr.," and in Season 4 episode 26, Eddie's father introduces himself as "Frank Haskell") and Agnes, Eddie Haskell was the smart-mouthed best friend of Wally Cleaver. The character, played in the original series by Ken Osmond, has become a cultural reference, recognized as an archetype for insincere sycophants. Ward Cleaver once remarked that "[Eddie] is so polite, it's almost un-American."


title: Eddie Haskell

text: Eddie was known for his neat grooming—hiding his shallow and sneaky character. Typically, Eddie would greet his friends' parents with overdone good manners and often a compliment such as "That's a lovely dress you're wearing, Mrs. Cleaver." However, when no parents were around, Eddie was always up to no good—either conniving with his friends or picking on Wally's younger brother, Beaver, whom he regularly derided as "Squirt". "Gertrude" and "Sam" were nicknames he reserved for Wally. Eddie's duplicity was also exemplified in his efforts to curry favor by trying to talk to adults at the level he thought they would respect, such as referring to their children as Theodore (Beaver's much-disliked given name) and Wallace, even though the parents called them Beaver and Wally.


title: Eddie Haskell

text: An untrustworthy wise guy, Eddie could be relied upon to concoct and instigate schemes with his friends, schemes for which they would be in the position of blame if (and frequently when) they were caught. One of his most infamous pranks with the Cleaver brothers involved fastening a chain around the rear axle of their friend Lumpy Rutherford's car, causing unplanned damage as the entire rear axle, wheels and all, became detached when Lumpy tried to move the car. The prank has been repeated on police and gangster cars in scenes in various films including "American Graffiti" (1973), "Porky's" (1981), and "Gone in 60 Seconds" (2000).


title: Eddie Haskell

text: S4-E38 "Beaver's Doll Buggy" may explain how Eddie's scheming character came to be. He related a story from kindergarten, when a caregiver sent him to school with a home permanent hairstyle. When he told his father about it, his father made a big joke about it. Eddie claims that was the last time he told his dad anything. Then he adds, "If you can make the other guy feel like a goon first, then you don't feel so much like a goon."


title: Eddie Haskell

text: One of Eddy's catchphrases is "What's up, Doc?", which is a reference to the same catchphrase said by Bugs Bunny in response to Elmer Fudd pointing his gun at him, preceded by an "Eh..." and lip smacking while eating a carrot.


title: Eddie Haskell

text: In the 1980s revival series, titled "The New Leave It to Beaver", Eddie is now married to Gertrude ("Gert") and they have two sons, Freddie and Edward Jr. (played by Osmond's real-life sons, Eric and Christian, respectively). Edward Jr. (nicknamed "Bomber") is enrolled at Vicksburg Military School, the result of his having spilled grape juice on the Haskells' white carpeting. Both Freddie and Bomber have adopted their father's scheming and insincere nature.


title: Eddie Haskell

text: Eddie operates an eponymously named contracting company. He remains an avid Woody Woodpecker cartoon fan.


title: Eddie Haskell

text: In 1999, "TV Guide" ranked Eddie Haskell number 20 on its "50 Greatest TV Characters of All Time" list.


title: Faith Ford

text: Faith Alexis Ford (born September 14, 1964) is an American actress. She is known for her roles as Corky Sherwood on the CBS sitcom "Murphy Brown", for which she received five Primetime Emmy Award nominations, and as Hope Shanowski on the ABC sitcom "Hope & Faith".


title: Faith Ford

text: Ford was born as Faith Alexis Ford in Alexandria, Louisiana, the younger daughter of Patricia Walker, a schoolteacher, and Charles Ford, an insurance agent. Ford lived in nearby Pineville and began acting while attending Pineville High School. She moved to Manhattan at the age of 17 where she began to model and find commercial work.


title: Faith Ford

text: In 1983, Ford landed her first television role on ABC's "One Life to Live"; her first major role was on the NBC soap opera "Another World", where she played Julia Shearer (a role previously played by Kyra Sedgwick) for several years. Ford was let go by the producers and soon moved to Hollywood, where she got a regular role on the short-lived sitcom "The Popcorn Kid", had a five-episode appearance on "thirtysomething", played a homeless woman on "Family Ties", and, later, had her role on "Murphy Brown". After a 10-year run, the "Murphy Brown" series ended, and Ford immediately pursued other TV endeavors. In 1998, she executive-produced her own short-lived sitcom, "Maggie Winters". Ford also appeared on "The Norm Show" with Norm Macdonald, Laurie Metcalf, and Artie Lange from 1999 to 2001.


title: Faith Ford

text: Ford starred with Kelly Ripa in "Hope & Faith" as Hope Fairfield-Shanowski, a homemaker who lives a peaceful life until her sister, an actress and Hollywood star, moves in with her and complicates her life in a variety of wild and surreal situations. The sitcom ran for three seasons.


title: Faith Ford

text: In 2004, she published her own cookbook, "Cooking with Faith", and credited her mother and two grandmothers for having taught her how to cook. In Disney's film "The Pacifier", Ford played the mother of a family whose husband had died. The film was released in early 2005. In 2007, she appeared in the sitcom "Carpoolers". In June 2009, she spoke about her series and the future of digital programming at the Digital Content NewFront. In 2011, Ford appeared in the Disney teen film "Prom", playing the role of Kitty Prescott, the mother of main character Nova Prescott, played by Aimee Teegarden.


title: Faith Ford

text: On February 26, 2018, it was announced that Ford would return to a revival series of "Murphy Brown" along with former costars Candice Bergen, Joe Regalbuto, and Grant Shaud.


title: Faith Ford

text: Ford was married to Robert Nottingham from 1989 until 1996 and has been married to writer/director Campion Murphy since 1998. Ford's sister, Devon O'Day, is also in the entertainment industry. Ford and Murphy coproduced an original short film entitled "Citation of Merit", which appeared in numerous film festivals across the United States. Ford was diagnosed with Graves' disease.


title: C4 carbon fixation

text: On one hand, these additional steps require more energy in the form of ATP to regenerate PEP. On the other hand, concentrating allows high rates of photosynthesis at higher temperatures. Higher concentration overcomes the reduction of gas solubility with temperature (Henry's law). The concentrating mechanism also maintains high gradients of concentration across the stomatal pores. This means that plants have generally lower stomatal conductance, reduced water losses and have generally higher water-use efficiency. plants are also more efficient in using nitrogen, since PEP carboxylase is much cheaper to make than RuBisCO. However, since the pathway does not require extra energy for the regeneration of PEP, it is more efficient in conditions where photorespiration is limited, typically at low temperatures and in the shade.


title: C4 carbon fixation

text: The first experiments indicating that some plants do not use carbon fixation but instead produce malate and aspartate in the first step of carbon fixation were done in the 1950s and early 1960s by Hugo Peter Kortschak and Yuri Karpilov. The pathway was elucidated by Marshall Davidson Hatch and Charles Roger Slack, in Australia, in 1966. While Hatch and Slack originally referred to the pathway as the "C dicarboxylic acid pathway", it is sometimes called the Hatch–Slack pathway.


title: C4 carbon fixation

text: plants often possess a characteristic leaf anatomy called "kranz anatomy", from the German word for wreath. Their vascular bundles are surrounded by two rings of cells; the inner ring, called bundle sheath cells, contains starch-rich chloroplasts lacking grana, which differ from those in mesophyll cells present as the outer ring. Hence, the chloroplasts are called dimorphic. The primary function of kranz anatomy is to provide a site in which can be concentrated around RuBisCO, thereby avoiding photorespiration. Mesophyll and bundle sheath cells are connected through numerous cytoplasmic sleeves called plasmodesmata whose permeability at leaf level is called bundle sheath conductance. A layer of suberin is often deposed at the level of the middle lamella (tangential interface between mesophyll and bundle sheath) in order to reduce the apoplastic diffusion of (called leakage). The carbon concentration mechanism in plants distinguishes their isotopic signature from other photosynthetic organisms.


title: C4 carbon fixation

text: Although most plants exhibit kranz anatomy, there are, however, a few species that operate a limited cycle without any distinct bundle sheath tissue. "Suaeda aralocaspica", "Bienertia cycloptera", "Bienertia sinuspersici" and "Bienertia kavirense" (all chenopods) are terrestrial plants that inhabit dry, salty depressions in the deserts of the Middle East. These plants have been shown to operate single-cell -concentrating mechanisms, which are unique among the known mechanisms. Although the cytology of both genera differs slightly, the basic principle is that fluid-filled vacuoles are employed to divide the cell into two separate areas. Carboxylation enzymes in the cytosol are separated from decarboxylase enzymes and RuBisCO in the chloroplasts. A diffusive barrier is between the chloroplasts (which contain RuBisCO) and the cytosol. This enables a bundle-sheath-type area and a mesophyll-type area to be established within a single cell. Although this does allow a limited cycle to operate, it is relatively inefficient. Much leakage of from around RuBisCO occurs.


title: C4 carbon fixation

text: There is also evidence of inducible photosynthesis by non-kranz aquatic macrophyte "Hydrilla verticillata" under warm conditions, although the mechanism by which leakage from around RuBisCO is minimised is currently uncertain.


title: C4 carbon fixation

text: In plants, the first step in the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis is the fixation of by the enzyme RuBisCO to form 3-phosphoglycerate. However, RuBisCo has a dual carboxylase and oxygenase activity. Oxygenation results in part of the substrate being oxidized rather than carboxylated, resulting in loss of substrate and consumption of energy, in what is known as photorespiration. Oxygenation and carboxylation are competitive, meaning that the rate of the reactions depends on the relative concentration of oxygen and .


title: C4 carbon fixation

text: In order to reduce the rate of photorespiration, plants increase the concentration of around RuBisCO. To do so two partially isolated compartments differentiate within leaves, the mesophyll and the bundle sheath. Instead of direct fixation by RuBisCO, is initially incorporated into a four-carbon organic acid (either malate or aspartate) in the mesophyll. The organic acids then diffuse through plasmodesmata into the bundle sheath cells. There, they are decarboxylated creating a -rich environment. The chloroplasts of the bundle sheath cells convert this into carbohydrates by the conventional pathway.


title: C4 carbon fixation

text: There is large variability in the biochemical features of C4 assimilation, and it is generally grouped in three subtypes, differentiated by the main enzyme used for decarboxylation ( NADP-malic enzyme, NADP-ME; NAD-malic enzyme, NAD-ME; and PEP carboxykinase, PEPCK). Since PEPCK is often recruited atop NADP-ME or NAD-ME it was proposed to classify the biochemical variability in two subtypes. For instance, maize and sugarcane use a combination of NADP-ME and PEPCK, millet uses preferentially NAD-ME and "Megathyrsus maximus", uses preferentially PEPCK.


title: C4 carbon fixation

text: The first step in the NADP-ME type pathway is the conversion of pyruvate (Pyr) to phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), by the enzyme Pyruvate phosphate dikinase (PPDK). This reaction requires inorganic phosphate and ATP plus pyruvate, producing PEP, AMP, and inorganic pyrophosphate (PP). The next step is the carboxylation of PEP by the PEP carboxylase enzyme (PEPC) producing oxaloacetate. Both of these steps occur in the mesophyll cells:


title: C4 carbon fixation

text: PEPC has a low K for — and, hence, high affinity, and is not confounded by O thus it will work even at low concentrations of .


title: C4 carbon fixation

text: The product is usually converted to malate (M), which diffuses to the bundle-sheath cells surrounding a nearby vein. Here, it is decarboxylated by the NADP-malic enzyme (NADP-ME) to produce and pyruvate. The is fixed by RuBisCo to produce phosphoglycerate (PGA) while the pyruvate is transported back to the mesophyll cell, together with about half of the phosphoglycerate (PGA). This PGA is chemically reduced in the mesophyll and diffuses back to the bundle sheath where it enters the conversion phase of the Calvin cycle. For each molecule exported to the bundle sheath the malate shuttle transfers two electrons, and therefore reduces the demand of reducing power in the bundle sheath.


title: C4 carbon fixation

text: Here, the OAA produced by PEPC is transaminated by aspartate aminotransferase to aspartate (ASP) which is the metabolite diffusing to the bundle sheath. In the bundle sheath ASP is transaminated again to OAA and then undergoes a futile reduction and oxidative decarboxylation to release . The resulting Pyruvate is transaminated to alanine, diffusing to the mesophyll. Alanine is finally transaminated to pyruvate (PYR) which can be regenerated to PEP by PPDK in the mesophyll chloroplasts. This cycle bypasses the reaction of malate dehydrogenase in the mesophyll and therefore does not transfer reducing equivalents to the bundle sheath.


title: C4 carbon fixation

text: In this variant the OAA produced by aspartate aminotransferase in the bundle sheath is decarboxylated to PEP by PEPCK. The fate of PEP is still debated. The simplest explanation is that PEP would diffuse back to the mesophyll to serve as a substrate for PEPC. Because PEPCK uses only one ATP molecule, the regeneration of PEP through PEPCK would theoretically increase photosynthetic efficiency of this subtype, however this has never been measured. An increase in relative expression of PEPCK has been observed under low light, and it has been proposed to play a role in facilitating balancing energy requirements between mesophyll and bundle sheath.


title: C4 carbon fixation

text: While in photosynthesis each chloroplast is capable of completing light reactions and dark reactions, chloroplasts differentiate in two populations, contained in the mesophyll and bundle sheath cells. The division of the photosynthetic work between two types of chloroplasts results inevitably in a prolific exchange of intermediates between them. The fluxes are large and can be up to ten times the rate of gross assimilation.<ref name="10.1093/jxb/erw303 "></ref> The type of metabolite exchanged and the overall rate will depend on the subtype. To reduce product inhibition of photosynthetic enzymes (for instance PECP) concentration gradients need to be as low as possible. This requires increasing the conductance of metabolites between mesophyll and bundle sheath, but this would also increase the retrodiffusion of out of the bundle sheath, resulting in an inherent and inevitable trade off in the optimisation of the concentrating mechanism.


title: C4 carbon fixation

text: To meet the NADPH and ATP demands in the mesophyll and bundle sheath, light needs to be harvested and shared between two distinct electron transfer chains. ATP may be produced in the bundle sheath mainly through cyclic electron flow around Photosystem I, or in the M mainly through linear electron flow depending on the light available in the bundle sheath or in the mesophyll. The relative requirement of ATP and NADPH in each type of cells will depend on the photosynthetic subtype. The apportioning of excitation energy between the two cell types will influence the availability of ATP and NADPH in the mesohyll and bundle sheath. For instance, green light is not strongly adsorbed by mesophyll cells and can preferentially excite bundle sheath cells, or "vice versa" for blue light. Because bundle sheaths are surrounded by mesophyll, light harvesting in the mesophyll will reduce the light available to reach BS cells. Also, the bundle sheath size limits the amount of light that can be harvested.


title: C4 carbon fixation

text: Different formulations of efficiency are possible depending on which outputs and inputs are considered. For instance, average quantum efficiency is the ratio between gross assimilation and either absorbed or incident light intensity. Large variability of measured quantum efficiency is reported in the literature between plants grown in different conditions and classified in different subtypes but the underpinnings are still unclear. One of the components of quantum efficiency is the efficiency of dark reactions, biochemical efficiency, which is generally expressed in reciprocal terms as ATP cost of gross assimilation (ATP/GA). In photosynthesis ATP/GA depends mainly on and O concentration at the carboxylating sites of RuBisCO. When concentration is high and O concentration is low photorespiration is suppressed and assimilation is fast and efficient, with ATP/GA approaching the theoretical minimum of 3. In photosynthesis concentration at the RuBisCO carboxylating sites is mainly the result of the operation of the concentrating mechanisms, which cost circa an additional 2 ATP/GA but makes efficiency relatively insensitive of external concentration in a broad range of conditions. Biochemical efficiency depends mainly on the speed of delivery to the bundle sheath, and will generally decrease under low light when PEP carboxylation rate decreases, lowering the ratio of /O concentration at the carboxylating sites of RuBisCO. The key parameter defining how much efficiency will decrease under low light is bundle sheath conductance. Plants with higher bundle sheath conductance will be facilitated in the exchange of metabolites between the mesophyll and bundle sheath and will be capable of high rates of assimilation under high light. However, they will also have high rates of retrodiffusion from the bundle sheath (called leakage) which will increase photorespiration and decrease biochemical efficiency under dim light. This represents an inherent and inevitable trade off in the operation of photosynthesis. plants have an outstanding capacity to attune bundle sheath conductance. Interestingly, bundle sheath conductance is downregulated in plants grown under low light and in plants grown under high light subsequently transferred to low light as it occurs in crop canopies where older leaves are shaded by new growth.


title: C4 carbon fixation

text: plants have a competitive advantage over plants possessing the more common carbon fixation pathway under conditions of drought, high temperatures, and nitrogen or limitation. When grown in the same environment, at 30 °C, grasses lose approximately 833 molecules of water per molecule that is fixed, whereas grasses lose only 277. This increased water use efficiency of grasses means that soil moisture is conserved, allowing them to grow for longer in arid environments.


title: C4 carbon fixation

text: Today, plants represent about 5% of Earth's plant biomass and 3% of its known plant species. Despite this scarcity, they account for about 23% of terrestrial carbon fixation. Increasing the proportion of plants on earth could assist biosequestration of and represent an important climate change avoidance strategy. Present-day plants are concentrated in the tropics and subtropics (below latitudes of 45 degrees) where the high air temperature increases rates of photorespiration in plants.


title: C4 carbon fixation

text: About 8,100 plant species use carbon fixation, which represents about 3% of all terrestrial species of plants. All these 8,100 species are angiosperms. carbon fixation is more common in monocots compared with dicots, with 40% of monocots using the pathway, compared with only 4.5% of dicots. Despite this, only three families of monocots use carbon fixation compared to 15 dicot families. Of the monocot clades containing plants, the grass (Poaceae) species use the photosynthetic pathway most. 46% of grasses are and together account for 61% of species. has arisen independently in the grass family some twenty or more times, in various subfamilies, tribes, and genera, including the Andropogoneae tribe which contains the food crops maize, sugar cane, and sorghum. Various kinds of millet are also . Of the dicot clades containing species, the order Caryophyllales contains the most species. Of the families in the Caryophyllales, the Chenopodiaceae use carbon fixation the most, with 550 out of 1,400 species using it. About 250 of the 1,000 species of the related Amaranthaceae also use .


title: C4 carbon fixation

text: Members of the sedge family Cyperaceae, and members of numerous families of eudicots – including Asteraceae (the daisy family), Brassicaceae (the cabbage family), and Euphorbiaceae (the spurge family) – also use .


title: C4 carbon fixation

text: There are very few trees which use . Only a handful are known: "Paulownia", seven Hawaiian "Euphorbia" species and a few desert shrubs that reach the size and shape of trees with age.


title: C4 carbon fixation

text: Given the advantages of , a group of scientists from institutions around the world are working on the Rice Project to produce a strain of rice, naturally a plant, that uses the pathway by studying the plants maize and "Brachypodium". As rice is the world's most important human food—it is the staple food for more than half the planet—having rice that is more efficient at converting sunlight into grain could have significant global benefits towards improving food security. The team claim rice could produce up to 50% more grain—and be able to do it with less water and nutrients.


title: C4 carbon fixation

text: The researchers have already identified genes needed for photosynthesis in rice and are now looking towards developing a prototype rice plant. In 2012, the Government of the United Kingdom along with the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation provided US$14 million over three years towards the Rice Project at the International Rice Research Institute. In 2019, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation granted another US$15 million to the Oxford-University-led C4 Rice Project. The goal of the 5-year project is to have experimental field plots up and running in Taiwan by 2024.


title: Olive Byrne

text: Mary Olive Byrne (), known professionally as Olive Richard (February 19, 1904 – May 19, 1990), was the domestic partner of William Moulton Marston and Elizabeth Holloway Marston. She has been credited as an inspiration for the comic book character Wonder Woman.


title: Olive Byrne

text: Byrne was the daughter of Ethel Byrne, the Progressive Era activist who opened the first birth-control clinic in the United States with her sister Margaret Sanger.


title: Olive Byrne

text: Byrne was delivered into an Irish American family by her aunt Margaret Sanger to the Byrne family in Corning, New York, 1904. Two years later her mother Ethel Byrne left a two-year-old Byrne and her three-year-old brother Jack at their paternal grandparents' home to protect them from their abusive father. Ethel visited once, when Byrne was six. She was then raised by her grandparents until they died in 1914, when she was sent off to a Catholic orphanage. In 1917, during Ethel Byrne's famous hunger strike, Margaret Sanger came to the orphanage and met Byrne for the first time in the young girl's memory to tell her of her mother and her work. Byrne met her mother for the first time in ten years when she was 16, after which she began occasionally living with Ethel and her lover Rob Parker. While staying with them she was exposed to much of Sanger's work such as "Woman and the New Race," "The Pivot of Civilization," and the ideas of "voluntary motherhood" and sexual freedom.


title: Olive Byrne

text: Byrne entered her freshman year at Tufts University studying medicine at her mother's bidding. By the end of the school year she had been initiated into the Alpha Omicron Pi sorority. She had a distinctively androgynous appearance with a short "Eton Crop" and was known around campus for her connection to Sanger. She worked at Sanger's Clinical Research Bureau over Christmas vacation.


title: Olive Byrne

text: Byrne met William and Elizabeth Marston in 1925 while she was a senior attending Tufts University. William was her psychology professor, and she soon became his research assistant, even taking him to her sorority to do some of his research. She was instrumental in introducing him to the world of sorority baby parties (in which freshmen girls are required to dress like babies and are treated like children), at which he performed some of his experiments on human reactions to power. Following her graduation she moved in with the Marstons and planned to begin a doctoral program in psychology. Ultimately she dropped out of her program to care for the first of Holloway's children, Moulton "Pete" Marston. That same year William published "Emotions of Normal People," a defense of many behaviors considered sexual taboos at the time, using much of Byrne's original research she had done for her doctorate and dedicated the work to five women, Byrne included. It received almost no attention from the rest of the academic community other than a review, written by Byrne herself, under her alternate name Olive Richard in "The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology".


title: Olive Byrne

text: That November, she "married" both William and Elizabeth, wearing wide-band bracelets on each arm instead of a ring, and from then on referred to November 21 as "anniversary". In 1931, she had her first son, Byrne, and the next year she had her second and final, Donn. In 1935, both boys were officially adopted by the Marstons. She began working as a staff writer for "Family Circle" that same year writing under her Richard name. Her first article was about Marston, his polygraph and her experience meeting him and his children—without mentioning her relation to him or that two of the children were hers. She helped type many of Marston's Wonder Woman scripts.


title: Olive Byrne

text: Byrne lived with William and Elizabeth Marston for a number of years, but kept the details of their intimate relationship a secret. They told census takers that Byrne was Elizabeth's widowed sister-in-law. They told Marston's mother that Byrne was their widowed house keeper. Byrne and Marston had two sons together, Byrne and Donn. Olive Byrne largely raised the children and Elizabeth held the most stable career until William established himself with Wonder Woman. Both women had Marston's children while the three were together and each woman named one of their children after the other. Byrne (then using her alias Olive Richard) named her first son Byrne Holloway Richard and Elizabeth named her daughter Olive. Byrne's mother and brother, Ethel and Jack Byrne never approved of Marston. Byrne told her children that their father was a man named William K. Richard who died shortly after they were born. The boys were told of their true parentage in 1963. Byrne and Elizabeth Marston continued living together while raising both of their children after William's death.


title: Olive Byrne

text: Both Byrne and Elizabeth "embodied the feminism of the day". As reported by Jill Lepore in the 2014 book "The Secret History of Wonder Woman", Byrne has been credited by some as being Marston's inspiration for the physical appearance of his iconic character, Wonder Woman. Marston himself only remarked that a pair of bracelets that Byrne frequently wore inspired the ones that became an important feature of the comic book heroine.


title: Olive Byrne

text: Byrne's life is depicted in "Professor Marston and the Wonder Women", a 2017 biographical drama which tells the director's fictionalised view of her life and that of her family, especially of the relationship she had with her intimate life partners William Moulton Marston and his wife Elizabeth Holloway Marston. The film also relates the influence her person has had on the creation of the iconic Amazonian heroine Wonder Woman. Byrne is portrayed in the film by Australian actress Bella Heathcote.


title: Olive Byrne

text: Asteroid 102234 Olivebyrne was named in her memory. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 25 September 2018 () along with the naming of asteroid 101813 Elizabethmarston.


title: Economy of Chile

text: The Economy of Chile is a market economy and high-income economy as ranked by the World Bank. The country is considered one of South America's most prosperous nations, leading the region in competitiveness, income per capita, globalization, economic freedom, and low perception of corruption. Although Chile has high economic inequality, as measured by the Gini index, it is close to the regional mean.


title: Economy of Chile

text: In 2006, Chile became the country with the highest nominal GDP per capita in Latin America. In May 2010 Chile became the first South American country to join the OECD. Tax revenues, all together 20.2069% of GDP in 2013, were the second lowest among the 34 OECD countries, and the lowest in 2010. Chile has an inequality-adjusted human development index of 0.722, compared to 0.720, 0.710 and 0.576 for neighboring Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil, respectively. In 2017, only 0.7% of the population lived on less than US$1.90 a day.


title: Economy of Chile

text: The Global Competitiveness Report for 2009–2010 ranked Chile as being the 30th most competitive country in the world and the first in Latin America, well above Brazil (56th), Mexico (60th), and Argentina which ranks (85th); it has since fallen out of the top 30. The ease of doing business index, created by the World Bank, listed Chile as 34th in the world as of 2014, 41st for 2015, and 48th as of 2016. The privatized national pension system (AFP) has an estimated total domestic savings rate of approximately 21% of GDP.


title: Economy of Chile

text: After Spanish arrival in the 15th century Chilean economy came to revolve around autarchy estates called fundos and around the army that was engaged in the Arauco War. During early colonial times there were gold exports to Perú from placer deposits which soon depleted. Trade restrictions and monopolies established by the Spanish crown are credited for having held back economic development for much of the colonial times. As effect of these restrictions the country incorporated very few new crops and animal breeds after initial conquest. Other sectors that were held back by restrictions were the wine and mining industries. The Bourbon reforms in the 18th century eased many monopolies and trade restrictions.


title: Economy of Chile

text: In the 1830s Chile consolidated under the ideas of Diego Portales as a stable state open to foreign trade. Foreign investment in Chile grew over the 19th century. After the War of the Pacific the Chilean treasury grew by 900%. The League of Nations labeled Chile the country hardest hit by the Great Depression because 80% of government revenue came from exports of copper and nitrates, which were in low demand. After the Great Depression Chilean economic policies changed toward import substitution industrialization and the Production Development Corporation was established.


title: Economy of Chile

text: Under the influence of the Chicago Boys the Pinochet regime made of Chile a leading country in establishing neoliberal policies. These policies allowed large corporations to consolidate their power over the Chilean economy, leading to long-term economic growth.


title: Economy of Chile

text: The crisis of 1982 caused the appointment of Hernán Büchi as minister of finance and a sharp revision of economic policy. Despite a general selling of state property and contrary to neoliberal prescriptions, the regime retained the lucrative state owned mining company Codelco which stands for about 30% of government income.


title: Economy of Chile

text: According to the CIA World Factbook, during the early 1990s, Chile's reputation as a role model for economic reform was strengthened when the democratic government of Patricio Aylwin, who took over from the military in 1990, deepened the economic reform initiated by the military government. The Aylwin government departed significantly from the neoliberal doctrine of the Chicago boys, as evidenced by higher government expenditure on social programs to tackle poverty and poor quality housing. Growth in real GDP averaged 8% from 1991 to 1997, but fell to half that level in 1998 because of tight monetary policies (implemented to keep the current account deficit in check) and lower exports due to the Asian financial crisis. Chile's economy has since recovered and has seen growth rates of 5–7% over the past several years.


title: Economy of Chile

text: After a decade of impressive growth rates, Chile began to experience a moderate economic downturn in 1999, brought on by unfavorable global economic conditions related to the Asian financial crisis, which began in 1997. The economy remained sluggish until 2003, when it began to show clear signs of recovery, achieving 4.0% real GDP growth. The Chilean economy finished 2004 with growth of 6.0%. Real GDP growth reached 5.7% in 2005 before falling back to 4.0% in 2006. GDP expanded by 5.1% in 2007.


title: Economy of Chile

text: During 2012, the largest sectors by GDP were mining (mainly copper), business services, personal services, manufacturing and wholesale and retail trade. Mining also represented 59.5% of exports in the period, while the manufacturing sector accounted for 34% of exports, concentrated mainly in food products, chemicals and pulp, paper and others.


title: Economy of Chile

text: Chile is one of the 5 largest world producers of cherry and cranberry, and one of the 10 largest world producers of grape, apple, kiwi, peach, plum and hazelnut, focusing on exporting high-value fruits.


title: Economy of Chile

text: In 2018, Chile was the 9th largest producer of grape in the world, with 2 million tons produced; the 10th largest producer of apple in the world, with 1.7 million tons produced; and the 6th largest producer of kiwi in the world, with 230 thousand tons produced, in addition to producing 1.4 million tons of wheat, 1.1 million tons of maize, 1.1 million tons of potato, 951 thousand tons of tomato, 571 thousand tons of oats, 368 thousand tons of onion, 319 thousand tons of peach, 280 thousand tons of pear, 192 thousand tons of rice, 170 thousand tons of barley, 155 thousand tons of cherry, 151 thousand tons of lemon, 118 thousand tons of tangerine, 113 thousand tons of orange, 110 thousand tons of olives, 106 thousand tons of cranberry, in addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products.


title: Economy of Chile

text: Agriculture and allied sectors like forestry, logging and fishing accounts only for 4.9% of the GDP as of 2007 and employed 13.6% of the country's labor force. Some major agriculture products of Chile includes grapes, apples, pears, onions, wheat, corn, oats, peaches, garlic, asparagus, beans, beef, poultry, wool, fish and timber.


title: Economy of Chile

text: Chile's position in the Southern Hemisphere leads to an agricultural season cycle opposite to those of the principal consumer markets, primarily located in the Northern Hemisphere. Chile's extreme north–south orientation produces seven different macro-regions distinguished by climate and geographical features, which allows the country itself to stagger harvests and results in extended harvesting seasons. However, the mountainous landscape of Chile limits the extent and intensity of agriculture so that arable land corresponds only to 2.62% of the total territory. Through Chile's trade agreements, its agricultural products have gained access to a market controlling 77% of the world's GDP and by approximately 2012, 74% of Chilean agribusiness exports will be duty-free.


title: Economy of Chile

text: Chile's principal growing region and agricultural heartland is the Central Valley delimited by the Chilean Coast Range in the west, the Andes in the east Aconcagua River by the north and Bío-Bío River by the south. In the northern half of Chile cultivation is highly dependent on irrigation. South of the Central Valley cultivation is gradually replaced by aquaculture, silviculture, sheep and cattle farming.


title: Economy of Chile

text: Chile is the second largest producer of salmon in the world. As of August 2007, Chile's share of worldwide salmon industry sales was 38.2%, rising from just 10% in 1990. The average growth rate of the industry for the 20 years between 1984 and 2004 was 42% per year. The presence of large foreign firms in the salmon industry has brought what probably most contributes to Chile's burgeoning salmon production, technology. Technology transfer has allowed Chile to build its global competitiveness and innovation and has led to the expansion of production as well as to an increase in average firm size in the industry. In November 2018, the Chinese company Joyvio Group (Legend Holdings) bought the Chilean salmon producer Australis Seafoods for $880 million, thus gaining control over 30% of all Chilean salmon exports.


title: Economy of Chile

text: The Chilean forestry industry grew to comprise 13% of the country's total exports in 2005, making it one of the largest export sectors for Chile. Radiata Pine and Eucalyptus comprise the vast majority of Chile's forestry exports. Within the forestry sector, the largest contributor to total production is pulp, followed by wood-based panels and lumber. Due to popular and increasing demands for Chile's forestry products, the government is currently focusing on increasing the already vast acreage of Chile's Pine and Eucalyptus plantations as well as opening new industrial plants.


title: Economy of Chile

text: Chile's unique geography and climate make it ideal for winegrowing and the country has made the top ten list of wine producers many times in the last few decades.


title: Economy of Chile

text: The popularity of Chilean wine has been attributed not just to the quantity produced but also to increasing levels of quality. The combination of quantity and quality allows Chile to export excellent wines at reasonable prices to the international market.


title: Economy of Chile

text: The mining sector in Chile is one of the pillars of Chilean economy. The Chilean government strongly supports foreign investment in the sector and has modified its mining industry laws and regulations to create a favorable investing environment for foreigners. Thanks to a large amount of copper resources, complaisant legislation and an unregulated investment environment, Chile has become one of the main copper producer, with almost 30% of the global annual copper output.


title: Economy of Chile

text: In addition to copper, Chile was, in 2019, the world's largest producer of iodine and rhenium, the second largest producer of lithium and molybdenum, the sixth largest producer of silver, the seventh largest producer of salt, the eighth largest producer of potash, the thirteenth producer of sulfur and the thirteenth producer of iron ore in the world. The country also has considerable gold production: between 2006 and 2017, the country produced annual amounts ranging from 35.9 tonnes in 2017 to 51.3 tonnes in 2013.