title: Saraiki language

text: The Saraiki language identity arose in the 1960s, encompassing more narrow local earlier identities (like Multani, Derawi or Riasati), and distinguishing itself from broader ones like that of Punjabi.


title: Saraiki language

text: The present extent of the meaning of ' is a recent development, and the term most probably gained its currency during the nationalist movement of the 1960s. It has been in use for much longer in Sindh to refer to the speech of the immigrants from the north, principally Siraiki-speaking Baloch tribes who settled there between the 16th and the 19th centuries. In this context, the term can most plausibly be explained as originally having had the meaning "the language of the north", from the Sindhi word ' 'up-river, north'. This name can ambiguously refer to the northern dialects of Sindhi, but these are nowadays more commonly known as "Siroli" or "Sireli".


title: Saraiki language

text: An alternative hypothesis is that "Sarākī" originated in the word "sauvīrā", or Sauvira, an ancient kingdom which was also mentioned in the Sanskrit epic Mahabharata.


title: Saraiki language

text: Currently, the most common rendering of the name is "Saraiki". However, "Seraiki" and "Siraiki" have also been used in academia until recently. Precise spelling aside, the name was first adopted in the 1960s by regional social and political leaders.


title: Saraiki language

text: Saraiki is a member of the Indo-Aryan subdivision of the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family.


title: Saraiki language

text: In 1919, Grierson maintained that the dialects of what is now the southwest of Punjab Province in Pakistan constitute a dialect cluster, which he designated "Southern Lahnda" within a putative "Lahnda language". Subsequent Indo-Aryanist linguists have confirmed the reality of this dialect cluster, even while rejecting the name "Southern Lahnda" along with the entity "Lahnda" itself. Grierson also maintained that "Lahnda" was his novel designation for various dialects up to then called "Western Punjabi", spoken north, west, and south of Lahore. The local dialect of Lahore is the Majhi dialect of Punjabi, which has long been the basis of standard literary Punjabi. However, outside of Indo-Aryanist circles, the concept of "Lahnda" is still found in compilations of the world's languages (e.g. Ethnologue).


title: Saraiki language

text: The historical inventory of names for the dialects now called Saraiki is a confusion of overlapping or conflicting ethnic, local, and regional designations. One historical name for Saraiki, Jaṭki, means "of the Jaṭṭs", a northern South Asian ethnic group. Only a small minority of Saraiki speakers are Jaṭṭs, and not all Saraiki speaking Jaṭṭs necessarily speak the same dialect of Saraiki. However, these people usually call their traditions as well as language as "Jataki". Conversely, several Saraiki dialects have multiple names corresponding to different locales or demographic groups. The name "Derawali" is used to refer to the local dialects of both Dera Ghazi Khan and Dera Ismail Khan, but "Ḍerawali" in the former is the Multani dialect and "Derawali" in the latter is the Thaḷi dialect.


title: Saraiki language

text: When consulting sources before 2000, it is important to know that Pakistani administrative boundaries have been altered frequently. Provinces in Pakistan are divided into districts, and sources on "Saraiki" often describe the territory of a dialect or dialect group according to the districts. Since the founding of Pakistan in 1947, several of these districts have been subdivided, some multiple times.


title: Saraiki language

text: In the context of South Asia, the choice between the appellations "language" and "dialect" is a difficult one, and any distinction made using these terms is obscured by their ambiguity. In a sense both Siraiki and Standard Panjabi are "dialects" of a "Greater Punjabi" macrolanguage.


title: Saraiki language

text: Saraiki was considered a dialect of Punjabi by most British colonial administrators, and is still seen as such by many Punjabis. Saraikis, however, consider it a language in its own right and see the use of the term "dialect" as stigmatising.


title: Saraiki language

text: A language movement was started in the 1960s to standardise a script and promote the language. The national census of Pakistan has tabulated the prevalence of Saraiki speakers since 1981.


title: Saraiki language

text: Saraiki is primarily spoken in the south-western part of the province of Punjab, in an area that broadly coincides with the extent of the proposed Saraikistan province. To the west, it is set off from the Pashto- and Balochi-speaking areas by the Suleiman Range, while to the south-east the Thar desert divides it from the Marwari language. Its other boundaries are less well-defined: Punjabi is spoken to the east; Sindhi is found to the south, after the border with Sindh province; to the north, the southern edge of the Salt Range is the rough divide with the northern varieties of Lahnda.


title: Saraiki language

text: The first national census of Pakistan to gather data on the prevalence of Saraiki was the census of 1981. In that year, the percentage of respondents nationwide reporting Saraiki as their native language was 9.83. In the census of 1998, it was 10.53% out of a national population of 132 million, for a figure of 13.9 million Saraiki speakers resident in Pakistan. Also according to the 1998 census, 12.8 million of those, or 92%, lived in the province of Punjab.


title: Saraiki language

text: After Partition in 1947, Hindu and Sikh speakers of Saraiki migrated to India, where they are currently widely dispersed, though with more significant pockets in the states of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi and Jammu and Kashmir. There is also a smaller group of Muslim pastoralists who migrated to India, specifically Andhra Pradesh, prior to Partition.


title: Saraiki language

text: There are census figures available – for example, in the 2011 census, people reported their language as "Bahawal Puri", and as "Hindi Multani". However, these are not representative of the actual numbers, as the speakers will often refer to their language using narrower dialect or regional labels, or alternatively identify with the bigger language communities, like those of Punjabi, Hindi or Urdu. Therefore, the number of speakers in India remains unknown. There have been observations of Lahnda varieties "merging" into Punjabi (especially in Punjab and Delhi), as well as of outright shift to the dominant languages of Punjabi or Hindi. One pattern reported in the 1990s was for members of the younger generation to speak the respective "Lahnda" variety with their grandparents, while communicating within the peer group in Punjabi and speaking to their children in Hindi.


title: Saraiki language

text: Saraiki's consonant inventory is similar to that of neighbouring Sindhi. It includes phonemically distinctive implosive consonants, which are unusual among the Indo-European languages. In Christopher Shackle's analysis, Saraiki distinguishes up to 48 consonants and 9 monophthong vowels.


title: Saraiki language

text: The "centralised" vowels tend to be shorter than the "peripheral" vowels . The central vowel is more open and back than the corresponding vowel in neighbouring varieties. Vowel nasalisation is distinctive: 'may you go' vs. 'may he go'. Before , the contrast between and is neutralised. There is a high number of vowel sequences, some of which can be analysed as diphthongs.


title: Saraiki language

text: In its stop consonants, Saraiki has the typical for Indo-Aryan four-fold contrast between voiced and voiceless, and aspirated and unaspirated. In parallel to Sindhi it has additionally developed a set of implosives, so that for each place of articulation there are up to five contrasting stops, for example: voiceless 'custom' ∼ aspirated 'blister' ∼ implosive 'cobweb' ∼ voiced 'niche' ∼ voiced aspirate 'foam'.


title: Saraiki language

text: There are five contrasting places of articulation for the stops: velar, palatal, retroflex, dental and bilabial. The dentals are articulated with the blade of the tongue against the surface behind the teeth. The retroflex stops are post-alveolar, the articulator being the tip of the tongue or sometimes the underside.


title: Saraiki language

text: There is no dental implosive, partly due to the lesser retroflexion with which the retroflex implosive is pronounced. The palatal stops are here somewhat arbitrarily represented with and . In casual speech some of the stops, especially , and , are frequently rendered as fricatives – respectively , and .


title: Saraiki language

text: Of the nasals, only and are found at the start of a word, but in other phonetic environments there is a full set of contrasts in the place of articulation: . The retroflex is a realised as a true nasal only if adjacent to a retroflex stop, elsewhere it is a nasalised retroflex flap . The contrasts ∼ , and ∼ are weak; the single nasal is more common in southern varieties, and the nasal + stop cluster is prevalent in central dialects. Three nasals have aspirated counterparts .


title: Saraiki language

text: The realisation of the alveolar tap varies with the phonetic environment. It is trilled if geminated to and weakly trilled if preceded by or . It contrasts with the retroflex flap ( 'wire' ∼ 'watching'), except in the variety spoken by Hindus. The fricatives are labio-dental. The glottal fricative is voiced and affects the voice quality of a preceding vowel.


title: Saraiki language

text: There are no tones in Saraiki. All consonants except can be geminated ("doubled"). Geminates occur only after stressed centralised vowels, and are phonetically realised much less markedly than in the rest of the Punjabi area.


title: Saraiki language

text: A stressed syllable is distinguished primarily by its length: if the vowel is peripheral then it is lengthened, and if it is a "centralised vowel" () then the consonant following it is geminated. Stress normally falls on the first syllable of a word. The stress will, however, fall on the second syllable of a two-syllable word if the vowel in the first syllable is centralised, and the second syllable contains either a diphthong, or a peripheral vowel followed by a consonant, for example 'carpenter'. Three-syllable words are stressed on the second syllable if the first syllable contains a centralised vowel, and the second syllable has either a peripheral vowel, or a centralised vowel + geminate, for example 'seventy-four'. There are exceptions to these rules and they account for minimal pairs like 'informing' and 'so much'.


title: Saraiki language

text: Unusually for South Asian languages, implosive consonants are found in Sindhi, possibly some Rajasthani dialects, and Saraiki, which has the following series: / /.


title: Saraiki language

text: The "retroflex" is articulated with the tip or the underside of the tongue, further forward in the mouth than the plain retroflex stops. It has been described as post-alveolar, pre-palatal or pre-retroflex. reports that this sound is unique in Indo-Aryan and that speakers of Multani take pride in its distinctiveness. The plain voiced and the implosive are mostly in complementary distribution although there are a few minimal pairs, like 'doctor' ∼ 'mail'. The retroflex implosive alternates with the plain voiced dental stop in the genitive postposition/suffix , which takes the form of when combined with 1st or 2nd person pronouns: 'my', 'your'.


title: Saraiki language

text: A dental implosive () is found in the northeastern Jhangi dialect, which is characterised by a lack of phonemic contrast between implosives and plain stops, and a preference for implosives even in words where Saraiki has a plain stop. The dental implosive in Jhangi is articulated with the tongue completely covering the upper teeth. It is not present in Saraiki, although contends that it should be reconstructed for the earlier language. Its absence has been attributed to structural factors: the forward articulation of and the lesser retroflexion of .


title: Saraiki language

text: Aspirated (breathy voiced) implosives occur word-initially, where they contrast with aspirated plain stops: ' 'sit' ~ ' 'fear'. The aspiration is not phonemic; it is phonetically realised on the whole syllable, and results from an underlying that follows the vowel, thus is phonemically .


title: Saraiki language

text: The historical origin of the Saraiki implosives has been on the whole the same as in Sindhi. Their source has generally been the older language's series of plain voiced stops, thus Sanskrit ' > Saraiki ' 'be born'. New plain voiced stops have in turn arisen out of certain consonants and consonant clusters (for example, ' > ' 'barley'), or have been introduced in loanwords from Sanskrit, Hindi, Persian or English (' 'throat', ' 'bus'). The following table illustrates some of the major developments:


title: Saraiki language

text: Within South Asia, implosives were first described for Sindhi by Stake in 1855. Later authors have noted their existence in Multani and have variously called them "recursives" or "injectives", while Grierson incorrectly treated them as "double consonants".


title: Saraiki language

text: In the province of Punjab, Saraiki is written using the Arabic-derived Urdu alphabet with the addition of seven diacritically modified letters to represent the implosives and the extra nasals. In Sindh the Sindhi alphabet is used. The calligraphic styles used are Naskh and Nastaʿlīq.


title: Saraiki language

text: Historically, traders or bookkeepers wrote in a script known as "kiṛakkī" or laṇḍā, although use of this script has been significantly reduced in recent times. Likewise, a script related to the Landa scripts family, known as Multani, was previously used to write Saraiki. A preliminary proposal to encode the Multani script in ISO/IEC 10646 was submitted in 2011. Saraiki Unicode has been approved in 2005. The Khojiki script has also been in use, whereas Devanagari and Gurmukhi are not employed anymore.


title: Saraiki language

text: The Department of Saraiki, Islamia University, Bahawalpur was established in 1989 and the Department of Saraiki, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan was established in 2006. Saraiki is taught as a subject in schools and colleges at higher secondary, intermediate and degree level.


title: Saraiki language

text: The Allama Iqbal Open University at Islamabad, and the Al-Khair University at Bhimbir have Pakistani Linguistics Departments. They offer M.Phil. and Ph.D in Saraiki. The Associated Press of Pakistan has launched a Saraiki version of its site, as well.


title: Saraiki language

text: Khawaja Ghulam Farid (1845–1901; his famous collection is "Deewan-e-Farid") and Sachal Sar Mast (1739–1829) are the most celebrated Sufi poets in Saraiki and their poems known as Kafi are still famous.


title: Saraiki language

text: Shakir Shujabadi ("Kalam-e-Shakir", "Khuda Janey", "Shakir Diyan Ghazlan", "Peelay Patr", "Munafqan Tu Khuda Bachaway", and "Shakir De Dohray" are his famous books) is a very well recognized modern poet.


title: Saraiki language

text: Famous singers who have performed in Saraiki include Attaullah Khan Essa Khailwi, Pathanay Khan, Abida Parveen, Ustad Muhammad Juman, Mansoor Malangi, Talib Hussain Dard, Kamal Mahsud, and The Sketches. Many modern Pakistan singers such as Hadiqa Kiyani and Ali Zafar have also sung Saraiki folk songs.


title: Saraiki language

text: Former Pakistan Prime Minister Yousaf Raza Gillani had said southern Punjab is rich in cultural heritage which needs to be promoted for next generations. In a message on the launch of Saraiki channel by Pakistan Television (PTV) in Multan, he is reported to have said that the step would help promote the rich heritage of 'Saraiki Belt'.


Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health (sometimes abbreviated as DMSMH) is a book by L. Ron Hubbard about Dianetics, a system that he developed from a combination of personal experience, basic principles of Eastern philosophy, and the work of Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis. The book is a canonical text of Scientology. It is colloquially referred to as Book One. The book launched the movement, which later defined itself as a religion, in 1950. As of 2013, New Era Publications, the international publishing company of Hubbard's works, sells the book in English and in fifty other languages.


title: Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health

text: In this book, Hubbard wrote that he had isolated the "dynamic principle of existence", which he states as the basic command "Survive!", and presents his description of the human mind. He identified the source of human aberration as the "reactive mind", a normally hidden but always conscious area of the mind, and certain traumatic memories (engrams) stored in it. "Dianetics" describes counseling (or auditing) techniques which Hubbard claimed would get rid of engrams and bring major therapeutic benefits.


text: Hubbard was criticized by scientists and medical professionals, who charge that he presents these claims in superficially scientific language but without evidence. Despite this, "Dianetics" proved a major commercial success on its publication, although B. Dalton employees have stated that these figures were inflated by Hubbard's Scientologist-controlled publisher, who had groups of Scientologists each purchase dozens or even hundreds of copies of Hubbard's books, and who sold these back to the same retailers. But Adam Clymer, a "New York Times" executive and journalist, said the newspaper examined the sales patterns of L. Ron Hubbard's books and uncovered no instances in which vast quantities of books were being sold to single individuals.


text: Before the publication of "Dianetics", L. Ron Hubbard was a prolific writer for pulp magazines. He attended George Washington University engineering school, but did not graduate.


text: According to Hubbard, the ideas in "Dianetics" were developed over twelve years of research, although many of his friends at the time said this was entirely mythical. The first public outline of those ideas was an article in the pulp magazine "Astounding Science Fiction", titled "Dianetics: A new science of the mind" appearing a few weeks before the publication of the book but published in the May 1950 issue of the magazine, the same month the book was published; the book-length article was later published as the book "". This advance publicity generated so much interest that in April 1950, Hubbard and "Astounding" editor John W. Campbell with other interested parties established the Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation. Hubbard claimed to have written "Dianetics" in three weeks. His writing speed was assisted by a special typewriter which accepted paper on a continuous roll and which had dedicated keys for common words like "the" or "but". It is called the Remington typewriter, which is on display in the Bay Head, New Jersey, Scientology pilgrimage site. An early version of the book, "Abnormal Dianetics", intended for the medical profession, was rejected by numerous publishers as well as the medical profession but was passed in mimeograph form from hand to hand and was later sold under the name "Dianetics: The Original Thesis"; the same book is published at present as "The Dynamics of Life". Like other works by L. Ron Hubbard, "Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health" has been subject to continuous editing since its inception so that at present it hardly resembles the original 1950 edition.


text: According to religion scholar Dorthe Refslund Christensen, in Scientology, "DMSMH" represents "the most elaborate of Hubbard's presentations on the human mind, its functions, and the problems related to these functions." The opening chapter presents the context of Dianetics as human beings being preoccupied with "finding a science of the mind that could not only isolate the common denominator of life and the goal of thought" but also isolate the only source of "strange illnesses and aberrations". Hubbard claims that the two answers to the question of human misery across time and civilizations have been religion and magical practices and modern psychotherapy that includes the practice of electroshocks and brain surgeries, which according to him, have turned patients into "helpless zombies". Dianetics, he claims is the answer to this dilemma.


text: In the section "How to Read this Book", L. Ron Hubbard suggests to read right on through. An "Important Note" appeared in later editions of the book advising the reader to understand every word read. In the book, Hubbard uses two different and contradictory definitions for the word "engram". In Book One, the Goal of Man, chapter 5, summary, Hubbard states the Fundamental Axioms of Dianetics, among which is "The engram is a moment of 'unconsciousness' containing physical pain or painful emotion and all perceptions and is not available to the analytical mind as experience." Later in the text, Hubbard writes of the engram in a footnote on page 74 of Book Two, chapter two, of the 2007 edition of "Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health". The footnote reads: "The word engram in Dianetics is used in its severely accurate sense as a 'definite and permanent trace left by a stimulus on the protoplasm of a tissue'. It is considered as a unit group of stimuli impinged solely on the cellular being." In other words, Hubbard takes a definition previously debunked by biology and labels it Dianetics. Dianetics, in and of itself, thus presents nothing that was not already known to science in that area, while adding phenomena and functional systems that have no basis in fact. The very manner of "scientific method" displayed by Hubbard in his works has indeed been called "anti-science", in that the claims made in the books are based not on peer-reviewed observation of phenomena, with its attendant blind testing, control groups etc., but rather on an "a priori" decision that a phenomenon exists–followed by an attempt to prove its validity.


text: In "Dianetics", to explain the abilities of a Clear, Hubbard makes use of tropes and special idioms and draws the attention away by pointing to old colloquialisms as the "mind's eye". Hubbard uses such terms as "optimum recall", "optimum individual", "What a Clear can do easily, quite a few people have, from time to time, been partially able to do in the past", "A clear uses imagination in its entirety", "Rationality, as divorced from aberration, can be studied in a Cleared person only", a Clear's intelligence is above normal, a Clear is free from all aberrations and the attributes of a Clear have never been previously included in a study of man and man's inherent abilities. After faithfully attributing all kinds of benefits to the Clear state, Hubbard finally admits "Until we obtain Clears, it remains obscure why such differences should exist" as if no Clear has ever been made or no Clear ever made it. L. Ron Hubbard was extremely apt and able in using these tropes to suit "Dianetics" presentation of a new reality.


text: Through Dianetics, Hubbard claimed that most illnesses were psychosomatic and caused by engrams, including arthritis, dermatitis, allergies, asthma, coronary difficulties, eye trouble, bursitis, ulcers, sinusitis and migraine headaches. He further claimed that dianetic therapy could treat these illnesses, and also included cancer and diabetes as conditions that Dianetic research was focused on.


text: In 1951, "Consumer Report" announced a one-month $500 course, based on the recently published "Dianetics", open to anyone and intended to produce the Clear, the goal of Dianetic therapy. The report on "a new cult" places Dianetics beyond the scope of medical practice.


text: According to Hubbard, the book "Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health" follows the original line of research:


text: "Dianetics" purports to reveal revolutionary discoveries about the source of psychosomatic illness, neuroses and other mental ailments, as well as an exact, infallible way of permanently curing them. Hubbard divides the human mind into an "analytic mind" which supposedly functions perfectly, and a "reactive mind" which is incapable of thinking or making distinctions. When the analytic mind is unconscious, the reactive mind physically records memories called "engrams". As a result of all stimuli it receives, the Reactive Mind is a mass of engrams, feeding the otherwise perfect Analytical Mind incorrect data. Misinterpretation of these Reactive Mind engrams by the analytical mind causes damage later in life. Actually, these engrams cause compulsions and repressions in later life. According to Hubbard, a person is affected in later life by the unconscious effects of these engrams. By a process called "Dianetic auditing", the book promises, people can achieve a superhuman state called "Clear" with superior IQ, morally pure intentions and greatly improved mental and physical health. In August 1950, Hubbard predicted that Clears would become the world's new aristocracy, although he admitted that he had not achieved the state himself. In welcoming expectancy, the "Theosophist Magazine" compares the Dianetic engram to the Theosophic permanent atom as these atoms receive and retransmit impressions received life after life so that as the ego descends to a new birth, the new incarnation receives the stored impressions of engrams from previous lives. As the appearance of a new science, it was not so explicitly stated in "DMSMH" but eventually, Hubbard would go into the exploration of past lives with Dianetics.


text: According to Hubbard, the basic discovery is not that man survives, but that he is solely motivated by survival.


text: According to Hubbard, the Reactive Mind works solely on a stimulus-response basis and it stores not memories but engrams.


text: In "Dianetics", Hubbard mentions the post-hypnotic suggestion. This phenomenon of the post-hypnotic suggestion was described as far back as 1787. The development of Dynamic psychiatry dates back to the encounter between the physician Mesmer and the exorcist Johann Joseph Gassner. According to followers of the school of Dynamic Psychiatry, the advent of hypnotism signaled the discovery of the unconscious. At the Oak Knoll Naval Hospital, where he was being treated for ulcers, Hubbard studied hypnosis, psychological theory and other similar subjects; Hubbard was quite adept at hypnotism. According to Hubbard, it was trying to find what makes hypnotism such a wide variable that led to the discovery of the Reactive Mind. Dr. Roy Grinker and Dr. John Spiegel developed Narcosynthesis which was widely used by psychiatrists in World War II. In the book "Dianetics" Hubbard mentions Narcosynthesis or drug-hypnosis. However, Hubbard states that the technique of drug-hypnosis has been known for ages, both in ancient Greece and in the Orient. The technique of narcosynthesis is not used in "Dianetics" even though Hubbard may have been trained in it while in Naval Intelligence. A shot of sodium pentothal is administered as a truth serum. The technique is described on page 150 of the 2007 edition of "Dianetics: the modern science of mental health".


text: The medical establishment completely rejected the new "science" for lack of experimental proof. "Dianetics" has never passed any scientific rigor. In 1953, Harvey Jay Fischer wrote the report "Dianetic Therapy: an experimental evaluation" concluding that ""Dianetic" does not systematically favorably or adversely influence the ability to perform" either intellectually, mathematically or resolving personality conflicts. According to Hubbard's son, "DMSMH" is not the result of any research whatsoever but a man's obsession with abortion and other phenomena of the unconscious, specially the occult and black magic. There is an entire chapter in "DMSMH" devoted to demonology. To maintain the "scientific" appearance of "DMSMH", Hubbard decries the belief in demons. In "DMSMH", demons are explained as electronic circuits. However, in Hubbard's later writings, entities begin to appear that possess man's physical body. These entities are spirits which Hubbard calls "thetans". What Hubbard does assert is that demonology is good business. A person is a thetan but the person's physical body is possessed by thetans called body thetans. To be spiritually free, a person would have to audit out all those other thetans in the body and that would take a great deal of time and a great deal of money.


text: In advising the auditor to be uncommunicative, Hubbard was divorcing Dianetics from other psycho-therapies, as in psychoanalysis, where the therapist most obstinately offers a personal interpretation of what is happening in the patient's mind.


text: Scientologist Harvey Jackins said of Dianetics therapy: "The results have been nearly uniform and positive. Apparently, the auditor (listener or therapist) can be very forthright and direct in seeking out the past traumatic experiences which are continuing to mar the rationality and well being of the person. Once located, the exhaustion of the distress and re-evaluation of the experience apparently leads uniformly to dramatic improvement in ability, emotional tone and well-being."


text: Hubbard considered that to maintain silence around unconscious or injured persons is of the utmost importance in the prevention of aberration. After the publication of "DMSMH", Hubbard moved to Cuba. There, the signs in every hospital zone are still prominently displayed: Hospital Silence. In a letter dated December 7, 1950, Ernest Hemingway's son Greg writes to his father mentioning that the publisher of Dianetics is coming down to Cuba to present Ernest with a copy in earnest. Hemingway's son's girlfriend is the publisher's daughter; Greg himself is working at the Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation. On December 14, Hemingway answered: "The Dianetics king never sent the book so I bought one, but Miss Nita borrowed it and it is still outside of the joint. So have not been able to practice jumping back into the womb or any of those popular New York indoor sports and have to just continue to write them as I see them."


text: According to Martin Gardner, the workability of Dianetics lies in the field of faith healing as most neurotics will react positively to something they have faith in. There is nothing extraordinary about Dianetics case histories as it is something quite common in faith healing.


text: Finally, Hubbard gives fair warning to those who attempt to self-audit his DIY (do-it-yourself) Dianetic process. It cannot be done, says Hubbard, because every engram contains analytical attenuation. It is better to learn to audit the technique and apply it to others. Anyone engaged in self-auditing will only succeed in getting sick. However, in later developments of technique application Hubbard would develop "Solo Auditing" where auditor and pre-clear are one and the same except that in the procedure as always Hubbard would be obeyed to the letter. In Dianetics and Scientology, self-auditing always carries a bad connotation while solo auditing does not. As usual, Hubbard's particular use of nomenclature would win the day.


text: Hubbard says in "DMSMH" that all civilizations have had two responses to the reality of human misery: first, "religion and magical practices", second, "modern psychotherapy", which according to him, "have exceeded the brutality of magic and religious practices by turning patients into helpless zombies." He also said that because man does not understand himself, he has developed "terrifying weapons", which is the reason that the earth is in war.


text: Hubbard was against the diagnosis of psychiatric disorders, saying it "is so much wasted time", since, "on the one hand, detailed diagnoses does not cure the patient and, on the other hand, the things the auditor needs to know to cure the patient will appear to him or her during auditing: the patient will talk about them." According to Christensen, Hubbard claims that there are only three things that need to be established instead of a diagnosis: "(1) Are his or her 'perceptics' over or under optimum? (2) How is the patient's ability to recall by utilizing the different perceptics? and (3) is he or she 'overusing' his or her imagination by recalling too many things or by too many perceptics?"


text: Hubbard believed in the ability of Dianetics to cure illnesses, and also claimed that most pathologies had a psychosomatic origin. "Psychosomatic disorders were estimated by Hubbard to include 70 percent of all illnesses and were exemplified by asthma, arthritis, dermatitis, allergies, some coronary difficulties, eye trouble, bursitis, ulcers, sinusitis, migraine headaches etc., while mental disorders were neuroses, psychoses, compulsions, serious depressions, etc." Hubbard later stated that Dianetics had nothing to do with psychosomatic illness: "Dianetics today is a science of ability. It has no traffic with psychosomatic illness or aberration. It does not care a whit about these two things. Dianetics today can be prepared to expect out of an asylum, or off a mount, alike some benefit to mankind."


text: "Dianetics" was first published May 9, 1950, by Hermitage House, at One Madison Ave., a New York-based publisher of psychiatric textbooks whose president, Arthur Ceppos, was also on the Board of Directors of the Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation. The book became a nationwide bestseller, selling over 150,000 copies within a year. Due to the interest generated, a multitude of "Dianetics clubs" and similar organizations were formed for the purpose of applying Dianetics techniques. Hubbard himself established a nationwide network of Dianetic Research Foundations, offering Dianetics training and processing for a fee. Dianetics blossomed into a national fad and was then denounced by psychologists.


text: The original edition of the book included an introduction by J. A. Winter, M.D., who became the first medical director of the Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation, an appendix on "The Philosophic Method" by Will Durant (reprinted from "The Story of Philosophy", 1926), another on "The Scientific Method" by John W. Campbell and a third appendix by Donald H. Rogers. These contributions are omitted from editions of "Dianetics" published since about the start of the 1980s.


text: Although it received an initial positive public response, "Dianetics" was strongly criticized by scientists and medical professionals for its scientific deficiencies. The American Psychological Association passed a resolution in 1950 stating of Dianetics "the fact that these claims are not supported by empirical evidence of the sort required for the establishment of scientific generalizations."


text: Despite a couple of favorable reviews from medical doctors, "Dianetics" has had very hostile reviews from many, or almost all, sources. An early review in "The New Republic" summed up the book as "a bold and immodest mixture of complete nonsense and perfectly reasonable common sense, taken from long-acknowledged findings and disguised and distorted by a crazy, newly invented terminology" and warned of medical risks: "it may prove fatal to have put too much trust in the promises of this dangerous book." Frederick L. Schuman, political science professor at Williams College in Williamstown, Massachusetts became an ardent follower of "Dianetics" and wrote indignant letters to those who reviewed "Dianetics" adversely including the "New Republic" and "The New York Times". Professor Schuman wrote a favorable article on "Dianetics" in the April 1951 issue of "Better Homes and Gardens".


text: Reviewing the book for "Scientific American" in 1951, physicist Isidor Isaac Rabi criticized the lack of either evidence or qualification, saying it "probably contains more promises and less evidence per page than has any publication since the invention of printing." An editorial in "Clinical Medicine" summarized the book as "a rumination of old psychological concepts, ... misunderstood and misinterpreted and at the same time adorned with the halo of the philosopher's stone and of an universal remedy", which had initiated "a new system of quackery of apparently considerable dimensions." According to "Consumer Reports", the book over-extends scientific and cybernetic metaphors, and lacks the needed case reports, experimental replication and statistical data to back up its bold claims. Both "Consumer Reports" and "Clinical Medicine" also warned of the danger that the book would inspire unqualified people to harmfully intervene in others' mental problems.


text: These warnings were echoed by psychoanalyst Erich Fromm, who contrasted the sophistication of Sigmund Freud's theories with the "oversimplified" and "propagandistic" ideas offered by "Dianetics". The latter's extremely mechanistic view of the mind had no need for human values, conscience or any authority other than Hubbard himself. A similar point was made by psychologist Rollo May in "The New York Times", arguing that "Dianetics" unwittingly illustrates the fallacy of trying to understand human nature by invariant mathematical models taken from mechanics.


text: A review by semantics expert S. I. Hayakawa described "Dianetics" as an example of "fiction-science", meaning that it borrows several linguistic techniques from science fiction to make fanciful claims seem plausible. Science fiction, he explained, relies on vividly conveying imaginary entities such as Martians and rayguns as though they were commonplace. Hubbard was doing this with his fantastic "discoveries", perhaps fooling even himself.


text: Science writer Martin Gardner criticized the book's "repetitious, immature style" likening it to the grand pseudoscientific pronouncements of Wilhelm Reich. "Nothing in the book remotely resembles a scientific report", he wrote.


text: Aleksei Shliapov, a columnist at the Russian paper "Izvestia", said about "Dianetics", "I think that our politicians should acquaint themselves with this book, since here is, as it were, a technology for how to become popular, how to acquire influence among the masses without having to appear a significant personality."


text: More recently, the book has been described by "Salon" as "a fantastically dull, terribly written, crackpot rant", which covers a lack of credible evidence with mere insistence and "The Daily Telegraph" called it a "creepy bit of mind-mechanics" which would cause rather than cure depression.


text: When Hubbard wrote the book in 1950, homosexuality was considered a pathological illness and in 1951 the DSM I listed it under Sexual Deviation which stance was reflected in passages of "Dianetics" where homosexuality is considered a mental illness. Besides the homosexual as sexual pervert, Hubbard also includes things such as lesbianism, sexual sadism and all the catalog of Ellis and Krafft-Ebing as being actually "quite ill physically".


text: Karl Lashley spent decades looking for the engram which he abandoned in 1950 for non-localized memory. This was not the same type of engram described by Hubbard. However, Hubbard derived his ideas and the term "engram", from psychology sources, and biology. Richard Semon coined the term "engram" in 1904 and wrote extensively about it in 1921, decades before the publication of "Dianetics".


text: It is unclear how many editions there have been, but at least 60 printings are said to have been issued by 1988, almost all having been printed by the Church of Scientology and its related organizations.


text: Current editions are published by Bridge Publications and New Era Publications, Scientology-owned imprints. Over twenty million copies have been sold according to the cover of the latest paperback books. The following statement is included on the copyright page of all editions: "This book is part of the works of L. Ron Hubbard, who developed Dianetics spiritual healing technology and Scientology applied religious philosophy. It is presented to the reader as a record of observations and research into the nature of mind and spirit, and not a statement of claims made by the author".


text: According to Bridge Publications, 83 million copies of "Dianetics" were sold in the forty years after publication. According to Nielsen BookScan, the book has sold 52,000 copies between 2001 and 2005. The book has been very aggressively marketed, often in ways that are unusual for the book industry, for instance appearing as one of the twelve sponsors of the Goodwill Games under a $4 million agreement between Bridge Publications and Turner Broadcasting System. Bridge Publications also sponsors NASCAR racer and Scientologist Kenton Gray, who races as the "Dianetics Racing Team" and whose No. 27 Ford Taurus is decorated with Dianetics logos.


text: Various sources allege that the book's continued sales have been manipulated by the Church of Scientology and its related organizations ordering followers to buy up new editions to boost sales figures. According to a "Los Angeles Times" exposé published in 1990, "sales of Hubbard's books apparently got an extra boost from Scientology followers and employees of the publishing firm [Bridge Publications]. Showing up at major book outlets like B. Dalton and Waldenbooks, they purchased armloads of Hubbard's works, according to former employees." Members are asked to contribute by placing "Dianetics" in public libraries. However, "Dianetics" was not added to the collection of the Brooklyn Public Library on the basis of a negative review.


text: Scientologists regard the publication of "Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health" as a key historical event for their movement and the world, and refer to the book as "Book One". In Scientology, years are numbered relative to the first publication of the book: 1990, for example, being "40 AD" (After Dianetics). The book is promoted as "a milestone for Man comparable to his discovery of fire and superior to his inventions of the wheel and the arch."


text: "Dianetics" is still heavily promoted today by the Church of Scientology and has been advertised widely on television and in print. Indeed, it has been alleged that the Church has asked its members to purchase large quantities of the book with their own money, or with money supplied by the Church, for the sole purpose of keeping the book on the "New York Times" Best Seller list. Hubbard described the book as a key asset for getting people in Scientology:


text: The Church of Scientology has been explicit about using Dianetics' sponsorship of the Goodwill Games to boost Scientology membership. The Church's internal journal for Scientologists, "International Scientology News", has stated that


text: "Dianetics" uses the image of an exploding volcano, both on the covers of post-1967 editions, and in advertising. A giant billboard built in Sydney, Australia, measured 33 m (100 ft) wide and 10 m (30 ft) high and depicted an erupting volcano with "non-toxic smoke". Hubbard told his marketing staff that this imagery would make the books irresistible to purchasers by reactivating unconscious memories.


text: According to Hubbard, the volcano recalls the incident in which galactic overlord Xenu placed billions of his people around Earth's volcanoes and killed them there by blowing them up with hydrogen bombs. A representative of the Church of Scientology has confirmed in court that the Dianetics volcano is indeed linked with the "catastrophe" wrought by Xenu.


title: Prison Break (season 3)

text: The third season of "Prison Break", an American serial drama television series, commenced airing in the United States on September 17, 2007, on Mondays at 8:00 pm (EST) on Fox. "Prison Break" is produced by Adelstein-Parouse Productions, in association with Rat Entertainment, Original Film and 20th Century Fox Television. The season contains 13 episodes, and concluded on February 18, 2008. The season was shorter than the previous two due to the Writer's Guild strike.


title: Prison Break (season 3)

text: "Prison Break" revolves around two brothers: one who has been sentenced to death for a crime he did not commit and his younger sibling, a genius structural engineer, who devises an elaborate plan to help him escape prison. The two brothers escape prison in the first season, but are hunted down during the second season and ultimately Michael is recaptured and sent to a Panamanian jail, Penitenciaría Federal de Sona, at the end of the second season. The third season revolves around Michael's breakout from Sona with several other inmates.


title: Prison Break (season 3)

text: For the season, three characters are removed, and four new characters are added as series regulars. Filming continued to take place in Dallas, Texas.


title: Prison Break (season 3)

text: The third season of "Prison Break" received positive reviews. In their season review, IGN wrote, "With so much going against it, this shortened third season of "Prison Break" could have been disastrous. But instead, the writers managed to not only salvage the season, but tell a tightly woven, compelling and action-packed story" and gave it an 8.5 out of 10.


title: Prison Break (season 3)

text: Unlike many other TV shows, "Prison Break" was primarily filmed outside of Hollywood. The first season was primarily shot in and around Chicago, Illinois. During the second season, filming was moved to Dallas, Texas. Filming for the third season continued to be done in Dallas, but the price tag increased to about $3 million per episode. Several of the exterior scenes with Lincoln and Gretchen negotiating the escape from the Panama jail were shot in the Casco Viejo quarter of Panama City.


title: Pauleta

text: Pedro Miguel Carreiro Resendes (born 28 April 1973), known as Pauleta (), is a Portuguese former professional footballer who played as a striker.


title: Pauleta

text: During 18 years as a senior he never played in the Primeira Liga, having spent 12 of those campaigns in Spain and France. He had his most successful spell at Paris Saint-Germain, where he scored 109 goals across all competitions. Three times the top goalscorer in Ligue 1, he was also voted twice as the division's player of the season.


title: Pauleta

text: Pauleta also scored 47 goals in 88 matches for Portugal, a national record at the time of his retirement. He played for his country in two World Cups and two European Championships.


title: Pauleta

text: Born in Ponta Delgada, São Miguel Island in the Azores, Pauleta started his career with local clubs in his native region, before turning professional in the lower leagues. He was part of FC Porto's youth team for a brief stint yet left soon due to homesickness, signing his first professional contract with CU Micaelense in 1994 and spending one year there. He then moved to second division's G.D. Estoril Praia in 1995, helping them to the 12th position in his first and only season.


title: Pauleta

text: The goals continued to flow following a switch to Spanish second level side UD Salamanca in 1996, with Pauleta scoring 19 goals as it gained promotion to La Liga in the following year, adding a further 15 in his first season in the top flight. That rate earned him a move to Deportivo de La Coruña, in summer 1998.


title: Pauleta

text: Pauleta scored his first goal in European competition in the 1999–2000 UEFA Cup, netting in a 3–1 home win against Montpellier HSC and repeating the feat in the second leg (2–0). On 22 November 1999 he netted a hat-trick for "Depor" in a home fixture against Sevilla FC, going on to enjoy a two-year spell with the Galicians which included 33 goals in 92 official matches, including eight from 12 starts as the club won its first league championship title in 2000.


title: Pauleta

text: On 1 September 2000, after being tracked by the likes of Newcastle United, Aston Villa and Sunderland, Pauleta joined FC Girondins de Bordeaux in France, reportedly for financial and family reasons. He scored three as his new club crushed FC Nantes 5–0 in an away match, and some days later, on 26 September, did the same in a UEFA Cup first round match against Lierse SK, with his team qualifying for the next round; he enjoyed an impressive run in his first season, ending it as team top scorer with 26 goals in all competitions, and the Ligue 1's second leading scorer with 20.


title: Pauleta

text: In the 2001–02 campaign, Pauleta was the league's top scorer with 22 goals. He also led the team charts in all competitions with 35 successful strikes – a record. Subsequently, he was voted the best player in the French League and was also awarded the 'Oscar of football' by fellow players and coaches, and was named one of the 50 players shortlisted for the 2002 European Footballer of the Year award (Ballon d'Or), with only one other player from the French League in the list; additionally, he won the French League Cup, being instrumental to the success by netting twice in the final. After these performances, Manchester City's manager Kevin Keegan expressed an interest in the striker, but Bordeaux's chairman Jean-Louis Triaud said that, initially, they were not interested in the transfer, showing that he could be for sale only in the right circumstances.


title: Pauleta

text: In 2002–03, Pauleta proved himself another time, scoring 23 league goals and 30 overall. For the second time he won the title for the best player in the league, and was also named in its team of the year. In total, he registered 65 league goals in 98 games and 91 in 130 matches in all competitions for Bordeaux, ranking third all-time upon his departure.


title: Pauleta

text: Pauleta joined Paris Saint-Germain F.C. ahead of the 2003–04 season, signing a three-year contract in a reported €12 million transfer deal. He helped the capital side to its first silverware in six years by scoring the only goal of the 2004 French Cup final against LB Châteauroux, and continued with his goal scoring exploits in the league, netting 18 times in 37 contests as they finished the league in second place.


title: Pauleta

text: On 2 April 2006, Pauleta scored his first hat-trick for Paris Saint-Germain against former club Bordeaux, as the hosts won 3–1. Despite reported interest from defending champions Olympique Lyonnais, he stayed put to help clinch the 2006 French Cup; he netted his 99th and 100th overall goals for the side in heroic fashion, off a fantastic volley and a textbook header respectively.


title: Pauleta

text: Pauleta scored one of PSG's goals as they won the 2008 Coupe de la Ligue Final 2–1 against RC Lens. After the 2007–08 campaign, as PSG faced relegation until the very last matchday (eventually reaching safety at 16th), Pauleta retired from football after his last match on 17 May 2008, with the possible exception being if any of the Big three (S.L. Benfica, Sporting CP and Porto) in Portugal came calling, which they did not. He retired at 35 without having played one game in Portugal's Primeira Liga, subsequently staying at PSG but in an ambassadorial role; he remained the club's top scorer of all time with 109 goals in 211 matches, until the record was broken by Zlatan Ibrahimović in October 2015.


title: Pauleta

text: In late May 2009, Pauleta played his farewell match at the Parc des Princes, playing one half each with a team of friends and PSG – former and current – players. His son André, 13, replaced him at the end of the game and scored the final two goals.


title: Pauleta

text: Pauleta returned to football at the age of 37, joining amateurs Grupo Desportivo São Roque in the Azores' regional leagues and retiring shortly after arriving.


title: Pauleta

text: Pauleta was the first Portugal national team player to never have played in the Portuguese top level when he made his international debut against Armenia, in August 1997. He would have to wait 18 months for his first start, against the Netherlands. His first goals came a month later, when he scored two in a 7–0 rout of Azerbaijan in a UEFA Euro 2000 qualifier on 26 March 1999.


title: Pauleta

text: A substitute at the Euro 2000 tournament, Pauleta led the Portuguese attack at the 2002 FIFA World Cup, scoring three times against Poland and ending with that tally in as many games, as the nation was ousted in the group stage. On 19 November 2003, he scored four goals in an 8–0 friendly win over Kuwait in Leiria.


title: Pauleta

text: Although he played all but one game on the road to the final of Euro 2004, Pauleta did not score in that tournament finals. After the competition, with the international retirements of Fernando Couto, Luís Figo and Rui Costa, he was made captain, a role he held until Figo's return; however, he sporadically played as captain in the latter's absence, including a 2–0 win over Egypt at the Estádio de São Miguel in his hometown on 17 August 2005. On 12 October, against Latvia, he netted twice to become the national team's all-time goal scoring leader at the time, surpassing Eusébio's previous record of 41.


title: Pauleta

text: During the 2006 World Cup qualifying campaign, Pauleta was the European zone's top scorer and, in a friendly match against Cape Verde in May 2006 preluding the final stages, he showed great form as he netted a hat-trick in a 4–1 win. However, after scoring the side's first goal in the group stage match against Angola, he failed to find the net again during the tournament; after Portugal's defeat to Germany in the third place play-off, he announced his international retirement.


title: Pauleta

text: A prolific goalscorer in his prime, Pauleta was considered one of the best strikers in Europe. He usually operated as a lone striker or alongside another forward, and combined mobility, pace and athleticism with good technique, two-footedness and strength in the air.


title: Pauleta

text: Pauleta's nickname was passed down from generation to generation in the family of his father's maternal grandmother, while his goal celebration of spreading his arms like wings earned him the additional moniker "The Eagle of the Azores".


title: Pauleta

text: In November 2005, he signed to become a FIFA ambassador for the SOS Children's Villages, the first Portuguese to do so.


title: Jake Sully

text: Jake Sully is a fictional character and the main protagonist in the American science fiction film series "Avatar", created by James Cameron. Jake Sully served with the U.S. Marine Corps but was discharged after an injury left him paralyzed from the waist down. After learning that his twin brother Tom was killed, Jake agrees to replace him in the RDA's Avatar Program on Pandora, where humans remotely control human/Na'vi hybrids to safely navigate the planet. Lost in the Pandoran woods, Jake is attacked by a group of viperwolves when Neytiri, a Na'vi, saves him. Jake turns against the RDA after sympathizing with the Na'vi and mating with Neytiri. Jake becomes the sixth Toruk Makto and leads the Na'vi in a battle to drive the RDA off Pandora.


title: Jake Sully

text: The character is portrayed by Sam Worthington in "Avatar" and its sequels, including "" and the currently untitled upcoming "Avatar 3". He also appears in literature, including comic books published by Dark Horse Comics. Various merchandise of the character have also been produced, including action figures and toys produced for McDonald's Happy Meals.


title: Jake Sully

text: James Cameron offered the role to Matt Damon, with a 10% stake in the film's profits, but Damon turned the film down because of his commitment to "The Bourne Ultimatum". Other notable actors who auditioned for the part include Chris Pratt and Chris Pine with the studio pushing Jake Gyllenhaal to play the role. Ultimately, the three finalists for the role were Channing Tatum, Chris Evans, and Sam Worthington, with Cameron ultimately going with Worthington based on his read of the climactic speech, saying:


title: Jake Sully

text: Worthington, who was living in his car at the time, auditioned twice early in development, and signed on for the film's sequels. Cameron felt that because Worthington had not done a major film, he would give the character "a quality that is really real". Cameron said he "has that quality of being a guy you'd want to have a beer with, and he ultimately becomes a leader who transforms the world".


title: Jake Sully

text: Jake Sully served with the U.S. Marine Corps but was discharged after receiving a severe spinal injury during a service in Venezuela, which left him paralyzed from the waist down. The Resources Development Administration (RDA) inform Jake that his twin brother Tom was killed. Due to their genetical similarities, the RDA offer him the opportunity to replace his brother in the RDA's Avatar Program on Pandora, an Earth-like moon in Alpha Centauri inhabited by the Na'vi; the Avatar Program involves creating human/Na'vi hybrid clones that are genetically linked to their human "pilots", meaning that Jake can control his brother's avatar due to them being twins.


title: Jake Sully

text: Arriving on Pandora, Dr. Grace Augustine, head of the Avatar Program, considers Sully an inadequate replacement for Tom but accepts his assignment as a bodyguard. While escorting the avatars of Grace and fellow scientist Dr. Norm Spellman, Jake's avatar is attacked by a thanator. Fleeing into the forest, Jake is rescued by Neytiri, a female Na'vi. Witnessing an auspicious sign, she takes him to her clan. Mo'at, Neytiri's mother and the clan's spiritual leader, orders her daughter to initiate Jake into their society. Taking advantage of his new position, Colonel Miles Quaritch, head of RDA's private security force, promises to pay for an operation that would give him the ability to walk again, in exchange for giving information about the Na'vi. After learning of this, Grace transfers herself, Jake, and Norm to an outpost.


title: Jake Sully

text: Over the next three months, Jake falls in love with Neytiri and begins sympathizing with the Na'vi. Jake reveals his change of allegiance when attempting to disable a bulldozer that threatens to destroy a sacred Na'vi site. Quaritch shows a video recording of Jake's attack on the bulldozer and another where he admits that the Na'vi will never abandon Hometree to Administrator Parker Selfridge, who orders them to destroy Hometree. Jake asks Selfridge to give him one hour to convince the Na'vi to evacuate before commencing the attack.


title: Jake Sully

text: Jake confesses to the Na'vi that he was a spy, and they take him and Grace captive as Quaritch's men destroy Hometree. In the midst of the chaos, Mo'at frees Jake and Grace, who are then detached from their avatars and imprisoned by the RDA. Disgusted by Quaritch's brutality, pilot Trudy Chacón frees Jake, Grace, and Norm, and airlifts them to Grace's outpost, but Grace is shot by Quaritch during the escape. To regain the Na'vi's trust, Jake connects his mind to Toruk, a dragon-like predator who is feared and honored by the Na'vi. Finding the refugees at the sacred Tree of Souls, Jake pleads with Mo'at to heal Grace and transfer her human body into her avatar with the aid of the Tree of Souls, but she dies before the process can be completed. Supported by new chief Tsu'tey, Jake unites the clan and tells them to gather all of the clans to battle the RDA. During the subsequent battle, the Na'vi suffer heavy casualties, but are rescued when Pandoran wildlife unexpectedly join the attack and overwhelm the humans, which Neytiri interprets as Eywa's answer to Jake's prayer. Jake destroys a makeshift bomber before it can reach the Tree of Souls. Meanwhile, Quaritch, wearing an AMP suit, escapes from his own damaged aircraft, then later finds and breaks open the avatar link unit containing Jake's human body, exposing it to Pandora's poisonous atmosphere. Quaritch prepares to slit the throat of Jake's avatar, but Neytiri kills Quaritch and saves Jake from suffocation, seeing his human form for the first time. With the exceptions of Jake, Norm and a select few others, all humans are expelled from Pandora and are sent back to Earth. Jake is permanently transferred into his avatar with the aid of the Tree of Souls.


title: Jake Sully

text: More than a decade later, Jake and Neytiri have settled down and raised a family consisting of: Neteyam, their first son and oldest child, Lo'ak, their second son, and Tuktirey "Tuk", their daughter and youngest child, all of whom are Na'vi. They have also adopted Kiri, a teenage Na'vi, and Miles "Spider" Socorro, a human teenager who prefers to spend his time in the Pandoran rainforest.


title: Jake Sully

text: Shortly after the events of the "Avatar", Jake has the Na'vi give his human body a traditional burial and moves the Omaticaya Clan near Hell's Gate to be close to the human allies who were allowed to stay on Pandora.


title: Jake Sully

text: Two weeks later, Jake still visits his former body's burial site, envisioning himself as a human. Neytiri informs him she must go help the Olangi Clan, who had suffered the most casualties from the war. Jake, thinking about how the other clan's belief in him is getting shaky, agrees with her and sees her off.


title: Jake Sully

text: Jake confides in Mo'at his lack of self-confidence as clan leader and the guilt he faces for the destruction of Hometree. Mo'at assures Jake that he is stronger than he thinks, and that their new home and him becoming Toruk Makto was Eywa's will. Tsu'tey's parents, Artsut and Ateyo, arrive with their other son, Arvok, who challenges Jake's position as Olo'eyktan by invoking First Blood. Jake agrees to fight Arvok despite Mo'at warning that the ritual is dangerous. Jake easily defeats Arvok by cutting his arm and drawing blood. Angry about his loss, Arvok throws his knife at Jake, who catches it, but gets poisoned and collapses into a coma.


title: Jake Sully

text: In his coma, Jake has nightmares where he is tormented by Miles Quaritch and the deceased Tsu'tey, until he unintentionally makes tsaheylu with the Tree of Souls and is transported into the Pandoran Neural Network. The manifested spirits of Eytukan and Tsu'tey urge him to forgive himself for his mistakes and offer guidance. Tsu'tey reveals Artsut and Ateyo's plan to Jake, explaining that although their actions were wrong, they had the interests of the Omaticaya at heart. Jake decides that he will punish them for their wrongdoings, while also being merciful towards them in doing so.


title: Jake Sully

text: Awaking from his coma, Jake exiles Artsut and Ateyo for their assassination attempt. After they leave, he gathers the Omaticaya, promising to do his best and lead them to a better future. Neytiri returns and finds Jake at the gravesite. Neytiri comments that he doesn't seem like himself, but Jake reassures her that he has never felt more like himself and leaves his human body behind


title: Jake Sully

text: Years after the events of Avatar, Jake and Neytiri have settled and have created a family, and are trying to keep peace in their family, but Jake still worries that the humans will return while everyone else believes he is just paranoid, and believe that Eywa chased the humans away the first time, and she will do the same this time around.


title: Jake Sully

text: Mattel made action figures of Jake Sully as part of their range of "Avatar" action figures. The variants included: Avatar Jake Sully, Avatar Jake Sully (Clothes) and Avatar Jake Sully (Warrior). He was also included in a range of "Avatar" toys produced for McDonald's Happy Meals. In 2022, McFarlane Toys began releasing toys based on the "Avatar franchise", among them include a Jake Sully action figure, an action figure of Jake riding his banshee, a set of Jake fighting the thanator, and a set of Jake in the Omatikaya rainforest. They will be releasing an additional three toys to coincide with the release of "". Further, in November 2022, Funko announced they would be releasing two Pop! Vinyl toys based on Jake Sully, one which shows him in his basic avatar body and the other of him as Toruk Makto.


title: Jake Sully

text: For his performance in "Avatar", Worthington won the Saturn Award for Best Actor for his performance as Sully at the 36th Saturn Awards.


title: Jake Sully

text: In 2022, Worthington was nominated for the Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association award for Best Motion Capture Performance for his performance in "". However, he lost to his co-star Zoe Saldana.


title: Rhys Williams (footballer, born 2001)

text: Rhys Williams (born 3 February 2001) is an English professional footballer who plays as a centre-back for Blackpool, on loan from Liverpool.


title: Rhys Williams (footballer, born 2001)

text: Williams joined Liverpool's academy aged ten and won the FA Youth Cup with the their youth team in 2019. He joined Kidderminster Harriers on loan in August 2019.


title: Rhys Williams (footballer, born 2001)

text: In September 2020, Williams signed a long-term contract with Liverpool. He made his first-team debut for the club in the EFL Cup on 24 September 2020, against Lincoln City, partnering Virgil van Dijk in central defence. On 21 October 2020, Williams came on as a 90th-minute substitute against AFC Ajax in the UEFA Champions League. He made his second Champions League appearance the following week, where he came on as a 30th-minute substitute against FC Midtjylland after an injury to Fabinho. Liverpool went on to win 2–0, with Jürgen Klopp praising his performance after the game, saying to the press, "He did well, everything looks promising." On 4 November 2020, Williams played the full ninety minutes in a Champions League tie at Atalanta, keeping a clean sheet in a 5–0 win. On 16 December 2020, he made his Premier League debut with a start in a 2–1 win against Tottenham Hotspur. On 8 May, he slotted back alongside Nat Phillips in a 2–0 win over Southampton. He went on to play every game in the heart of the defence for Liverpool as they finished third.


title: Rhys Williams (footballer, born 2001)

text: On 31 August 2021, Williams signed a new contract with Liverpool and joined Swansea City on loan, initially to last until 30 June 2022, but Liverpool recalled him on 20 January 2022.


title: Rhys Williams (footballer, born 2001)

text: Williams's next loan move was to Blackpool, on 19 July 2022, for the duration of the 2022–23 season. He made his debut for the club in a single-goal victory over Reading at Bloomfield Road on 29 July.


title: Rhys Williams (footballer, born 2001)

text: Williams played for the England U18 team between March and May 2019, and was called up for the England U-19 team for the International Marbella Cup in October 2019.


title: Rhys Williams (footballer, born 2001)

text: On 5 October 2020, Williams received his first call-up to the England U-21 squad, and made his debut during a 3–3 draw against Andorra on 7 October 2020.


title: Charles Fourier

text: François Marie Charles Fourier (;; 7 April 1772 – 10 October 1837) was a French philosopher, an influential early socialist thinker and one of the founders of utopian socialism. Some of Fourier's social and moral views, held to be radical in his lifetime, have become mainstream thinking in modern society. For instance, Fourier is credited with having originated the word "feminism" in 1837.


title: Charles Fourier

text: Fourier's social views and proposals inspired a whole movement of intentional communities. Among them in the United States were the community of Utopia, Ohio; La Reunion near present-day Dallas, Texas; Lake Zurich, Illinois; the North American Phalanx in Red Bank, New Jersey; Brook Farm in West Roxbury, Massachusetts; the Community Place and Sodus Bay Phalanx in New York State; Silkville, Kansas, and several others. In Guise, France, he influenced the . Fourier later inspired a diverse array of revolutionary thinkers and writers.


title: Charles Fourier

text: Fourier was born in Besançon, France on 7 April 1772. The son of a small businessman, Fourier was more interested in architecture than in his father's trade. He wanted to become an engineer, but the local military engineering school accepted only sons of noblemen. Fourier later said he was grateful that he did not pursue engineering, because it would have consumed too much of his time and taken away from his true desire to help humanity.


title: Charles Fourier

text: When his father died in 1781, Fourier received two-fifths of his father's estate, valued at more than 200,000 francs. This inheritance enabled Fourier to travel throughout Europe at his leisure. In 1791 he moved from Besançon to Lyon, where he was employed by the merchant M. Bousquet. Fourier's travels also brought him to Paris, where he worked as the head of the Office of Statistics for a few months. From 1791 to 1816 Fourier was employed in Paris, Rouen, Lyon, Marseille, and Bordeaux. As a traveling salesman and correspondence clerk, his research and thought was time-limited: he complained of "serving the knavery of merchants" and the stupefaction of "deceitful and degrading duties."


title: Charles Fourier

text: He began writing. His first book was published in 1808, but it only sold a few copies. Surprisingly, after six years, the book fell into the hands of Monsieur Just Muiron who eventually became Fourier's patron. Fourier produced most of his writings between 1816 and 1821. In 1822, he tried to sell his books again but with no success.


title: Charles Fourier

text: Fourier declared that concern and cooperation were the secrets of social success. He believed that a society that cooperated would see an immense improvement in their productivity levels. Workers would be recompensed for their labors according to their contribution. Fourier saw such cooperation occurring in communities he called "phalanxes," based upon structures called Phalanstères or "grand hotels". These buildings were four-level apartment complexes where the richest had the uppermost apartments and the poorest had a ground-floor residence. Wealth was determined by one's job; jobs were assigned based on the interests and desires of the individual. There were incentives: jobs people might not enjoy doing would receive higher pay. Fourier considered trade, which he associated with Jews, to be the "source of all evil" and advocated that Jews be forced to perform farm work in the phalansteries. By the end of his life, Fourier advocated the return of Jews to Palestine with the assistance of the Rothschilds. John K. Roth and Richard L. Rubenstein have seen Fourier as motivated by economic and religious antisemitism, rather than the racial antisemitism that would emerge later in the century.


title: Charles Fourier

text: Fourier characterized poverty (not inequality) as the principal cause of disorder in society, and he proposed to eradicate it by sufficiently high wages and by a "decent minimum" for those who were not able to work. Fourier used the word civilization in a negative sense and as such "Fourier's contempt for the respectable thinkers and ideologies of his age was so intense that he always used the terms philosopher and civilization in a pejorative sense. In his lexicon civilization was a depraved order, a synonym for perfidy and constraint ... Fourier's attack on civilization had qualities not to be found in the writing of any other social critic of his time."


title: Charles Fourier

text: For Herbert Marcuse "The idea of libidinal work relations in a developed industrial society finds little support in the tradition of thought, and where such


title: Charles Fourier

text: support is forthcoming it seems of a dangerous nature. The transformation of labor into pleasure is the central idea in Fourier's giant


title: Charles Fourier

text: He believed that there were twelve common passions which resulted in 810 types of character, so the ideal phalanx would have exactly 1620 people. One day there would be six million of these, loosely ruled by a world "omniarch", or (later) a World Congress of Phalanxes. He had a concern for the sexually rejected; jilted suitors would be led away by a corps of "fairies" who would soon cure them of their lovesickness, and visitors could consult the card-index of "personality types" for suitable partners for casual sex. He also defended homosexuality as a personal preference for some people. Anarchist Hakim Bey describes Fourier's ideas as follows:


title: Charles Fourier

text: In Fourier's system of Harmony all creative activity including industry, craft, agriculture, etc. will arise from liberated passion—this is the famous theory of "attractive labor." Fourier sexualizes work itself—the life of the Phalanstery is a continual orgy of intense feeling, intellection, & activity, a society of lovers & wild enthusiasts.


title: Charles Fourier

text: Fourier was also a supporter of women's rights in a time period when influences like Jean-Jacques Rousseau were prevalent. Fourier believed that all important jobs should be open to women on the basis of skill and aptitude rather than closed on account of gender. He spoke of women as individuals, not as half the human couple. Fourier saw that "traditional" marriage could potentially hurt woman's rights as human beings and thus never married. Writing before the advent of the term 'homosexuality', Fourier held that both men and women have a wide range of sexual needs and preferences which may change throughout their lives, including same-sex sexuality and "androgénité". He argued that all sexual expressions should be enjoyed as long as people are not abused, and that "affirming one's difference" can actually enhance social integration.


title: Charles Fourier

text: Fourier's concern was to liberate every human individual, man, woman, and child, in two senses: education and the liberation of human passion.


title: Charles Fourier

text: On education, Fourier felt that "civilized" parents and teachers saw children as little idlers. Fourier felt that this way of thinking was wrong. He felt that children as early as age two and three were very industrious. He listed the dominant tastes in all children to include, but not limited to:


title: Charles Fourier

text: Fourier was deeply disturbed by the disorder of his time and wanted to stabilize the course of events which surrounded him. Fourier saw his fellow human beings living in a world full of strife, chaos, and disorder.


title: Charles Fourier

text: Fourier is best remembered for his writings on a new world order based on unity of action and harmonious collaboration. He is also known for certain Utopian pronouncements, such as that the seas would lose their salinity and turn to lemonade, and a coincidental view of climate change, that the North Pole would be milder than the Mediterranean in a future phase of Perfect Harmony.


title: Charles Fourier

text: The influence of Fourier's ideas in French politics was carried forward into the 1848 Revolution and the Paris Commune by followers such as Victor Considerant.


title: Charles Fourier

text: In the movie "Metropolitan", one of the main characters, Tom Townsend, mentions "I favor the socialist model developed by the 19th-century French social critic Charles Fourier".


title: Something the Lord Made

text: Something the Lord Made is a 2004 American made-for-television biographical drama film about the black cardiac pioneer Vivien Thomas (1910–1985) and his complex and volatile partnership with white surgeon Alfred Blalock (1899–1964), the "Blue Baby doctor" who pioneered modern heart surgery. Based on the National Magazine Award-winning "Washingtonian" magazine article "Like Something the Lord Made" by Katie McCabe, the film was directed by Joseph Sargent and written by Peter Silverman and Robert Caswell.


title: Something the Lord Made

text: "Something the Lord Made" tells the story of the 34-year partnership that begins in Depression Era Nashville in 1930 when Blalock (Alan Rickman) hires Thomas (Mos Def) as an assistant at his Vanderbilt University lab, expecting him to perform janitorial work. But Thomas' remarkable manual dexterity and intellectual acumen confound Blalock's expectations, and Thomas rapidly becomes indispensable as a research partner to Blalock in his forays into heart surgery.


title: Something the Lord Made

text: The film traces the two men's work when they move in 1943 from Vanderbilt to Johns Hopkins, an institution where the only black employees are janitors and where Thomas must enter by the back door. Together, they attack the congenital heart defect of Tetralogy of Fallot, also known as Blue Baby Syndrome, and in so doing they open the field of heart surgery.


title: Something the Lord Made

text: Helen Taussig (Mary Stuart Masterson), the pediatrician/cardiologist at Johns Hopkins, challenges Blalock to come up with a surgical solution for her Blue Babies. She needs a new for them to oxygenate their blood.


title: Something the Lord Made

text: The duo is seen experimenting on stray dogs they got from the local dog pound, deliberately giving the dogs the heart defect and trying to solve it. The outcome looks good and they are excited to operate on a baby with the defect, but in a dream, Thomas sees the baby grown up and crying because she's dying. Thomas asks why she's dying in the dream and she says it's because she has a baby heart. Blalock interprets it as the fact that their sewing technique didn't work because the sutures didn't grow with the heart, and worked on a new version that would work.


title: Something the Lord Made

text: The film dramatizes Blalock's and Thomas' fight to save the dying Blue Babies. Blalock praises Thomas' surgical skill as being "like something the Lord made", and insists that Thomas coach him through the first Blue Baby surgery over the protests of Hopkins administrators. Yet outside the lab, they are separated by the prevailing racism of the time. Blalock makes a mistake once by accidentally cutting an artery at the wrong place, but eventually, along with Thomas, succeeds. As word quickly spreads of their success, parents all over the country flock to the hospital with their sick children, hoping the surgery will cure them. Also doctors from around the world start attending Thomas's surgery in order to learn how to do the surgery themselves so they can treat their own patients. Thomas attends Blalock's parties as a bartender, moonlighting for extra income, and when Blalock is honored for the Blue Baby work at the segregated Belvedere Hotel, Thomas is not among the invited guests. Instead, he watches from behind a potted palm at the rear of the ballroom. From there, he listens to Blalock give credit to the other doctors who assisted in the work but make no mention of Thomas or his contributions. The next day, Thomas reveals that he saw the ceremony, and quits from his lab. However his heart is so with the work he left behind that he finds himself unhappy in other endeavors and decides to overlook Blalock's lack of acknowledgement and return to the lab.


title: Something the Lord Made

text: In 1964, one day before Blalock dies, he sees Thomas, now a professional surgeon and trainer in the open heart surgery wing. After Blalock's death, Thomas continued his work at Johns Hopkins training surgeons. At the end of the film, in a formal ceremony in 1976, Hopkins recognized Thomas' work and awarded him an honorary doctorate. A portrait of Thomas was placed on the walls of Johns Hopkins next to Blalock's portrait, which had been hung there years earlier. and a brief montage shows 'DR. ALFRED BLALOCK 1899-1964' over Blalock's portrait, and 'DR. VIVIEN THOMAS: 1910-1985' over Thomas's.


title: Something the Lord Made

text: A man who in life avoided the limelight, Thomas remained virtually unknown outside the circle of Hopkins surgeons he trained. Thomas' story was first brought to public attention by Washington writer Katie McCabe, who learned of his work with Blalock on the day of his death in a 1985 interview with a prominent Washington, D.C. surgeon who described Thomas as "an absolute legend." McCabe's 1989 "Washingtonian" magazine article on Thomas, "Like Something the Lord Made", generated widespread interest in the story and inspired the making of a 2003 public television documentary on Thomas and Blalock, "Partners of the Heart." A Washington, D.C. dentist, Irving Sorkin, discovered McCabe's article and brought it to Hollywood, where it was developed into the film.


title: Denuvo

text: Denuvo Anti-Tamper is an anti-tamper technology and digital rights management (DRM) product developed by Austrian software company Denuvo Software Solutions GmbH, a subsidiary of Irdeto. The company also developed an anti-cheat counterpart.


title: Denuvo

text: Denuvo is developed by Denuvo Software Solutions GmbH, a software company based in Salzburg, Austria. The company was formed through a management buyout of DigitalWorks, the arm of the Sony Digital Audio Disc Corporation that developed the SecuROM DRM technology. It originally employed 45 people. In January 2018, the company was acquired by larger software company Irdeto. Development of the Denuvo software started in 2014. "FIFA 15", released in September 2014, was the first game to use Denuvo.


title: Denuvo

text: 3DM, a Chinese warez group, first claimed to have breached Denuvo's technology in a blog post published on 1 December 2014, wherein they announced that they would release cracked versions of Denuvo-protected games "FIFA 15", "" and "Lords of the Fallen". Following onto this, 3DM released the version of "Dragon Age: Inquisition" about two weeks after that game had shipped. The overall cracking progress took about a month, an unusually long time in the game cracking scene. When asked about this development, Denuvo Software Solutions acknowledged that "every protected game eventually gets cracked". However, technology website "Ars Technica" noted that most sales for major games happen within 30 days of release, and so publishers may consider Denuvo a success if it meant a game took significantly longer to be cracked. In January 2016, 3DM's founder, Bird Sister, revealed that they were to give up on trying to break the Denuvo implementation for "Just Cause 3", and warned that, due to the ongoing trend for the implementation, there would be "no free games to play in the world" in the near future. Subsequently, 3DM opted to not crack any games for one year to examine whether such a move would have any influence on game sales. Denuvo's marketing director, Thomas Goebl, claimed that some console-exclusive games get PC releases due to this technology.


title: Denuvo

text: By October 2017, crackers were able to bypass Denuvo's protection within hours of a game's release, with notable examples being "", "", "" and "FIFA 18", all being cracked on their release dates. In another notable case, "Assassin's Creed Origins", which wrapped Denuvo within security tool VMProtect as well as Ubisoft's proprietary DRM used for their Uplay distribution software, had its security features bypassed by Italian collective CPY in February 2018, three months after the game's release. In December 2018, "Hitman 2" protection was bypassed three days before its official release date due to exclusive pre-order access, drawing comparisons to "Final Fantasy XV", which had its protection removed four days before release.


title: Denuvo

text: By 2019, several products like "Devil May Cry 5", "Metro Exodus", "Resident Evil 2", "Far Cry New Dawn", "Football Manager 2019" and "Soul Calibur 6", were cracked within their first week of release, with "Ace Combat 7" taking thirteen days. In the case of "Rage 2", which was released on Steam as well as Bethesda Softworks' own Bethesda Launcher, the Steam version was protected by Denuvo, whereas the Bethesda Launcher version was not, leading to the game being cracked immediately, and Denuvo being removed from the Steam release two days later.


title: Denuvo

text: A sister product, Denuvo Anti-Cheat, was announced in March 2019, and first used with "Doom Eternal" following a patch on 14 May 2020. However, less than a week later "Doom" developer id Software announced they would be removing it from the game following negative response from players.


title: Denuvo

text: On August 24th, 2022, it was announced that Denuvo had developed "Nintendo Switch Emulator Protection", a new digital rights management solution for Nintendo Switch titles which aims to allow developers to block play via emulators such as Yuzu.


title: Denuvo

text: Games protected by Denuvo require an online activation. According to Empress, a notable Denuvo cracker, the software assigns a unique authentication token to each copy of a game, depending on factors like the user's hardware. The DRM is integrated with the game's code, which makes it especially hard to circumvent.


title: Denuvo

text: Denuvo has been criticised for high central processing unit (CPU) usage and excessive writing operations on storage components, the latter causing significant life-span reductions for solid-state drives (SSDs). Denuvo Software Solutions has denied both claims. In the case of "Tekken 7" and "Sonic Mania Plus", Denuvo caused a significant decrease in performance in several parts of these games. Sam Machkovech of "Ars Technica" reviewed in-depth how Denuvo was causing performance penalties, releasing an article on the matter in December 2018. In December 2018, Joel Hruska of "ExtremeTech" compared the performance of multiple games with Denuvo enabled and disabled, and found that the games tested had significantly higher frame rates and lower loading times when Denuvo was not used. Richard Leadbetter of "Digital Foundry" compared the performance of a pirated version of "Resident Evil Village" which had stripped out Denuvo and Capcom's additional copy protection against the release version for Windows, and found that the DRM-stripped version performed far better than the released game. It has been confirmed that the stuttering was caused by CAPCOM's DRM and not by Denuvo.


title: Denuvo

text: In July 2018, Denuvo Software Solutions filed a lawsuit against Voksi, a 21-year-old Bulgarian hacker who had cracked several Denuvo-protected games. Voksi was arrested by Bulgarian authorities, and his website, Revolt, was taken offline.


title: Denuvo

text: In May 2020, Kaspersky Anti-Virus detected the now removed Denuvo Anti-Cheat implementation in "Doom Eternal" as malware, possibly due to its kernel-level access.


title: Denuvo

text: In November 2021, many recent games using Denuvo were rendered unplayable, reportedly due to a Denuvo owned domain name expiring. The same month it was discovered that many Denuvo games would not work with Intel 12th Gen Alder Lake CPUs in either Windows 10 or Windows 11. However, as of January 12 2022, the Alder Lake incompatibility issue has been addressed, bringing the list of 90 incompatible titles down to zero.


title: Denuvo

text: In August of 2022, Nintendo Switch owners on social media widely criticized the announcement of the "Nintendo Switch Emulator Protection" intended to prevent play of Switch games on emulators, expressing concerns that it would hinder software performance, citing Denuvo DRM's history of being reported as impacting PC gaming performance. However, Denuvo said in statements to the press that it would not negatively impact performance of Switch games for those playing on real console hardware. Denuvo declined to disclose the names of any other companies involved, but claimed that Nintendo was "not involved" and said there had been "strong demand" from software publishers for such a solution, to preclude piracy of Nintendo Switch games enabled through emulation. The statement of Nintendo's non-involvement was met with skepticism from the Switch modding community. The developers of Switch emulator Ryujinx responded to the announcement in a tweet, stating their intention to continue developing the software.


title: Artemisinin

text: Artemisinin () and its semisynthetic derivatives are a group of drugs used in the treatment of malaria due to "Plasmodium falciparum". It was discovered in 1972 by Tu Youyou, who shared the 2015 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for her discovery. Artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs) are now standard treatment worldwide for "P. falciparum" malaria as well as malaria due to other species of "Plasmodium". Artemisinin is extracted from the plant "Artemisia annua", sweet wormwood, a herb employed in Chinese traditional medicine. A precursor compound can be produced using a genetically engineered yeast, which is much more efficient than using the plant.


title: Artemisinin

text: Artemisinin and its derivatives are all sesquiterpene lactones containing an unusual peroxide bridge. This endoperoxide 1,2,4-trioxane ring is responsible for their antimalarial properties. Few other natural compounds with such a peroxide bridge are known.


title: Artemisinin

text: Artemisinin and its derivatives have been used for the treatment of malarial and parasitic worm (helminth) infections. They have the advantage over other drugs in having an ability to kill faster and kill all the life cycle stages of the parasites. But low bioavailability, poor pharmacokinetic properties and high cost of the drugs are major drawbacks of their use. Use of the drug by itself as a monotherapy is explicitly discouraged by the World Health Organization, as there have been signs that malarial parasites are developing resistance to the drug. Therapies that combine artemisinin or its derivatives with some other antimalarial drug are the preferred treatment for malaria.


title: Artemisinin

text: The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends artemisinin or one of its derivatives ― typically in combination with a longer-lasting partner drug ― as frontline therapy for all cases of malaria. For uncomplicated malaria, the WHO recommends three days of oral treatment with any of five artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs): artemether/lumefantrine, artesunate/amodiaquine (ASAQ), artesunate/mefloquine, dihydroartemisinin/piperaquine, or artesunate/sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine. In each of these combinations, the artemisinin derivative rapidly kills the parasites, but is itself rapidly cleared from the body. The longer-lived partner drug kills the remaining parasites and provides some lingering protection from reinfection.


title: Artemisinin

text: For severe malaria, the WHO recommends intravenous or intramuscular treatment with the artemisinin derivative artesunate for at least 24 hours. Artesunate treatment is continued until the treated person is well enough to take oral medication. They are then given a three-day course of an ACT, as for uncomplicated malaria. Where artesunate is not available, the WHO recommends intramuscular injection of the less potent artemisinin derivative artemether. For children less than six years old, if injected artesunate is not available the WHO recommends rectal administration of artesunate, followed by referral to a facility with the resources for further care.


title: Artemisinin

text: Artemisinins are not used for malaria prevention because of the extremely short activity (half-life) of the drug. To be effective, it would have to be administered multiple times each day.


title: Artemisinin

text: The WHO recommends avoiding ACT for women in their first trimester of pregnancy due to a lack of research on artemisinin's safety in early pregnancy. Instead the WHO recommends a seven-day course of clindamycin and quinine. For pregnant women in their second or third trimesters, the WHO recommends a normal treatment course with an ACT. For some other groups, certain ACTs are avoided due to side effects of the partner drug: sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine is avoided during the first few weeks of life as it interferes with the action of bilirubin and can worsen neonatal jaundice. In HIV-positive people, the combination of trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, zidovudine-containing antiretroviral treatments, and ASAQ is associated with neutropenia. The combination of the HIV drug efavirenz and ASAQ is associated with liver toxicity.


title: Artemisinin

text: Artemisinins are generally well tolerated at the doses used to treat malaria. The side effects from the artemisinin class of medications are similar to the symptoms of malaria: nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, and dizziness. Mild blood abnormalities have also been noted. A rare but serious adverse effect is allergic reaction. One case of significant liver inflammation has been reported in association with prolonged use of a relatively high-dose of artemisinin for an unclear reason (the patient did not have malaria). The drugs used in combination therapies can contribute to the adverse effects experienced by those undergoing treatment. Adverse effects in patients with acute "P. falciparum" malaria treated with artemisinin derivatives tend to be higher.


title: Artemisinin

text: An unusual component of the artemisinin molecules is an endoperoxide 1,2,4-trioxane ring. This is the main antimalarial centre of the molecule. Modifications at carbon 10 (C10) position give rise to a variety of derivatives which are more powerful than the original compound. Because the physical properties of artemisinin itself, such as poor bioavailability, limit its effectiveness, semisynthetic derivatives of artemisinin have been developed. Derivatives of dihydroartemisinin were made since 1976. Artesunate, arteether and artemether were first synthesized in 1986. Many derivatives have been produced of which artelinic acid, artemotil, artemisone, SM735, SM905, SM933, SM934, and SM1044 are among the most powerful compounds. There are also simplified analogs in preclinical development. Over 120 other derivatives have been prepared, but clinical testing has not been possible due to lack of financial support.


title: Artemisinin

text: Artemisinin is poorly soluble in oils and water. Therefore, it is typically administered via the digestive tract, either by oral or rectal administration. Artesunate however can be administered via the intravenous and intramuscular, as well as the oral and rectal routes. A synthetic compound with a similar trioxolane structure (a ring containing three oxygen atoms) named RBx-11160 showed promise in "in vitro" testing. Phase II testing in patients with malaria was not as successful as hoped, but the manufacturer decided to start Phase III testing anyway.


title: Artemisinin

text: As of 2018, the exact mechanism of action of artemisinins has not been fully elucidated. Artemisinin itself is a prodrug of the biologically active dihydroartemisinin. This metabolite undergoes cleavage of its endoperoxide ring inside the erythrocytes. As the drug molecules come in contact with the haem (associated with the hemoglobin of the red blood cells), the iron(II) oxide breaks the endoperoxide ring. This process produces free radicals that in turn damage susceptible proteins, resulting in the death of the parasite. In 2016 artemisinin was shown to bind to a large number of targets suggesting that it acts in a promiscuous manner. Artemisinin's endoperoxide moiety is however less sensitive to free iron(II) oxide, and therefore more active in the intraerythrocytic stages of "P. falciparum". In contrast, clinical practice shows that unlike other antimalarials, artemisinin is active during all life cycle stages of the parasite.


title: Artemisinin

text: Clinical evidence for artemisinin drug resistance in southeast Asia was first reported in 2008, and was subsequently confirmed by a detailed study from western Cambodia. Resistance in neighbouring Thailand was reported in 2012, and in northern Cambodia, Vietnam and eastern Myanmar in 2014. Emerging resistance was reported in southern Laos, central Myanmar and northeastern Cambodia in 2014. The parasite's kelch gene on chromosome 13 appears to be a reliable molecular marker for clinical resistance in Southeast Asia.


title: Artemisinin

text: In 2011, the WHO stated that resistance to the most effective antimalarial drug, artemisinin, could unravel national Indian malaria control programs, which have achieved significant progress in the last decade. WHO advocates the rational use of antimalarial drugs and acknowledges the crucial role of community health workers in reducing malaria in the region.


title: Artemisinin

text: Artemisinins can be used alone, but this leads to a high rate of return of parasites and other drugs are required to clear the body of all parasites and prevent a recurrence. The WHO is pressuring manufacturers to stop making the uncompounded drug available to the medical community at large, aware of the catastrophe that would result if the malaria parasite developed resistance to artemisinins.


title: Artemisinin

text: Two main mechanisms of resistance drive "Plasmodium" resistance to antimalarial drugs. The first one is an efflux of the drug away from its action site due to mutations in different transporter genes (like "pfcrt" in chloroquine resistance) or an increased number of the gene copies (like pfmdr1 copy number in mefloquine resistance). The second is a change in the parasite target due to mutations in corresponding genes (like, at the cytosol level, "dhfr" and "dhps" in sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine resistance or, at the mitochondrion level, "cytochrome b" in atovaquone resistance). Resistance of "P. falciparum" to the new artemisinin compounds involves a novel mechanism corresponding to a quiescence phenomenon.


title: Artemisinin

text: The biosynthesis of artemisinin is believed to involve the mevalonate pathway (MVA) and the cyclization of farnesyl diphosphate (FDP). It is not clear whether the non-mevalonate pathway can also contribute 5-carbon precursors (IPP or DMAPP), as occurs in other sesquiterpene biosynthetic systems. The routes from artemisinic alcohol to artemisinin remain controversial, and they differ mainly in when the reduction step takes place. Both routes suggested dihydroartemisinic acid as the final precursor to artemisinin. Dihydroartemisinic acid then undergoes photo-oxidation to produce dihydroartemisinic acid hydroperoxide. Ring expansion by the cleavage of hydroperoxide and a second oxygen-mediated hydroperoxidation finish the biosynthesis of artemisinin.