title: 0.0.0.0

text: In routing tables, can also appear in the gateway column. This indicates that the gateway to reach the corresponding destination subnet is unspecified. This generally means that no intermediate routing hops are necessary because the system is directly connected to the destination.


title: 0.0.0.0

text: This should not be confused with the CIDR notation which defines an IP block containing all possible IP addresses. It is commonly used in routing to depict the default route as a destination subnet. It matches all addresses in the IPv4 address space and is present on most hosts, directed towards a local router.


title: 0.0.0.0

text: In IPv6, the all-zeros address is typically represented by (two colons), which is the short notation of . The IPv6 variant serves the same purpose as its IPv4 counterpart.


title: Eine kleine Nachtmusik

text: The serenade was completed in Vienna on 10 August 1787, around the time Mozart was working on the second act of his opera "Don Giovanni". It is not known why it was composed. Wolfgang Hildesheimer, noting that most of Mozart's serenades were written on commission, suggests that this serenade, too, was a commission, whose origin and first performance were not recorded.


title: Eine kleine Nachtmusik

text: The traditionally used name of the work comes from the entry Mozart made for it in his personal catalog, which begins, "Eine kleine Nacht-Musik". As Zaslaw and Cowdery point out, Mozart almost certainly was not giving the piece a special title, but only entering in his records that he had completed a little serenade.


title: Eine kleine Nachtmusik

text: The work was not published until about 1827, long after Mozart's death, by Johann André in Offenbach am Main. It had been sold to this publisher in 1799 by Mozart's widow Constanze, part of a large bundle of her husband's compositions.


title: Eine kleine Nachtmusik

text: Today, the serenade is widely performed and recorded; indeed, both Jacobson and Hildesheimer opine that the serenade is the most popular of all Mozart's works. Of the music, Hildesheimer writes, "even if we hear it on every street corner, its high quality is undisputed, an occasional piece from a light but happy pen."


title: Eine kleine Nachtmusik

text: This first movement is in sonata-allegro form. It opens with an ascending Mannheim rocket theme. The second theme is more graceful and in D major, the dominant key of G major. The exposition closes in D major and is repeated. The development section begins on D major and touches on D minor and C major before the work returns to G major for the recapitulation.


title: Eine kleine Nachtmusik

text: The second movement, with the tempo marked "Andante", is a Romanze in the subdominant key of C major. It is in rondo form, taking the shape A–B–A–C–A plus a final coda. The keys of the sections are C major for A and B, C minor for C. The middle appearance of A is truncated, consisting of only the first half of the theme. Daniel Heartz describes the movement as evoking gavotte rhythm: each of its sections begins in the middle of the measure, with a double upbeat.


title: Eine kleine Nachtmusik

text: The third movement, marked "Allegretto", is a minuet and trio, both in time. The minuet is in the home key of G major, the contrasting trio in the dominant key of D major. As is normal in this form, the minuet is played again da capo following the trio.


title: Eine kleine Nachtmusik

text: The fourth and last movement is in lively tempo, marked "Allegro"; the key is again G major. The movement is written in sonata form. Mozart specifies repeats not just for the exposition section but also for the following development and recapitulation section. The recapitulation's first theme is unusual because only its last two bars return in the parallel minor. The work ends with a long coda.


title: Eine kleine Nachtmusik

text: In the catalog entry mentioned above, Mozart listed the work as having five movements ("Allegro – Minuet and Trio – Romance – Minuet and Trio – Finale."). The second movement in his listing — a minuet and trio — was long thought lost, and no one knows if Mozart or someone else removed it. In his 1984 recording, Christopher Hogwood used a minuet of Thomas Attwood (found in his sketchbooks used while he took lessons from Mozart), and an additional newly composed trio to substitute the missing movement. Musicologist Alfred Einstein suggested, however, that a minuet in the Piano Sonata in B major, K. 498a, is the missing movement. K. 498a, which is credited to the composer August Eberhard Müller, incorporates significant amounts of Mozart's work in the form of reworkings of material from the piano concertos K. 450, K. 456, and K. 595, leading Einstein to suggest that the minuet in Müller's sonata might be an arrangement of the missing movement from "Eine kleine Nachtmusik".


title: Eine kleine Nachtmusik

text: In 1971, this movement was incorporated into a recording of the work prepared by the musicologist and performer Thurston Dart. In 1989, the minuet and trio of K. 498a was again recorded as part of an arrangement of "Eine Kleine Nachtmusik" made by Jonathan Del Mar for Nimbus Records.


title: Passau

text: Passau (; ) is a city in Lower Bavaria, Germany, also known as the Dreiflüssestadt ("City of Three Rivers") as the river Danube is joined by the Inn from the south and the Ilz from the north.


title: Passau

text: Passau's population is approx. 50,000, of whom about 12,000 are students at the University of Passau, renowned in Germany for its institutes of economics, law, theology, computer science and cultural studies.


title: Passau

text: In the 2nd century BC, many of the Boii tribe were pushed north across the Alps out of northern Italy by the Romans. They established a new capital called Boiodurum by the Romans (from Gaulish "Boioduron"), now within the Innstadt district of Passau.


title: Passau

text: Passau was an ancient Roman colony called Batavis, Latin for "for the "Batavi"." The Batavi were an ancient Germanic tribe often mentioned by classical authors, and they were regularly associated with the Suebian marauders, the Heruli. "Batavis" (Passau-Altstadt) was a Roman castrum in the province of Raetia, while another late Roman castrum, "Boiotro" (Passau-Innstadt), was in the province of Noricum.


title: Passau

text: During the second half of the 5th century, St. Severinus established a monastery here. The site was subject to repeated raids by the Alemanni. In 739, the recently consecrated English archbishop Boniface founded the diocese of Passau, which for many years was the largest diocese of the German Kingdom/Holy Roman Empire, covering territory in southern Bavaria and most of what is now Upper and Lower Austria. From the 10th century the bishops of Passau also exercised secular authority as Prince-Bishops in the immediate area around Passau (see ).


title: Passau

text: In the Treaty of Passau (1552), Archduke Ferdinand I, representing Emperor Charles V, secured the agreement of the Protestant princes to submit the religious question to a diet. This led to the Peace of Augsburg in 1555.


title: Passau

text: During the Renaissance and early modern period, Passau was one of the most prolific centres of sword and bladed weapon manufacture in Germany (after Solingen). Passau smiths stamped their blades with the Passau wolf, usually a rather simplified rendering of the wolf on the city's coat-of-arms. Superstitious warriors believed that the Passau wolf conferred invulnerability on the blade's bearer, and thus Passau swords acquired a great premium. According to the "", aside from the wolf, some cabalistic signs and inscriptions were added. As a result, the whole practice of placing magical charms on swords to protect the wearers came to be known for a time as "Passau art". (See Eduard Wagner, "Cut and Thrust Weapons", 1969.) Other cities' smiths, including those of Solingen, recognized the marketing value of the Passau wolf and adopted it for themselves. By the 17th century, Solingen was producing more wolf-stamped blades than Passau was.


title: Passau

text: In 1662, a devastating fire consumed most of the city. Passau was subsequently rebuilt in the Baroque style.


title: Passau

text: Passau was secularised and divided between the Electorate of Bavaria and the Electorate of Salzburg in 1803. The portion belonging to Salzburg became part of Bavaria in 1805.


title: Passau

text: From 1892 until 1894, Adolf Hitler and his family lived in Passau. The city archives mention Hitler being in Passau on four occasions in the 1920s for speeches. In addition, Heinrich Himmler spent some time there.


title: Passau

text: In November 1933, the building of "" (Hall of the Nibelungs) was announced. Intended to hold 8,000 to 10,000 guests, and another 30,000 in front of it, in 1935 the hall also became quarters for a unit of the "Austrian Legion". Beginning in 1934, these troops had occupied a building that belonged to Sigmund Mandl, a Jewish merchant. That building, in turn, was referred to as "SA barracks".


title: Passau

text: During World War II, the city also housed three sub-camps of the infamous Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp: Passau I (Oberilzmühle), Passau II (Waldwerke Passau-Ilzstadt) and Passau III (Jandelsbrunn). From January to May 1945, refugees from East Prussia and Silesia passed the city, after May, as the result of ethnic cleansing of neighboring Bohemia and Moravia of their German populace, further waves of refugees arrived in the city.


title: Passau

text: On May 3, 1945, a message from Major General Stanley Eric Reinhart’s 261st Infantry Regiment stated at 3:15 am: "AMG Officer has unconditional surrender of PASSAU signed by Burgermeister, Chief of Police and Lt. Col of Med Corps there. All troops are to turn themselves in this morning."


title: Passau

text: On 2 June 2013, the old town suffered from severe flooding as a result of several days of rain and its location at the confluence of three rivers. Peak elevations of floods as early as 1501 are displayed on a wall at the Old City Hall. Flood water reaches the base of that wall on average once every 5 years.


title: Passau

text: Until 2013, the City of Passau was subdivided into eight statistical districts, which in general coincide with formerly separate municipalities. Since 2013, the city is divided in 16 so-called areas of open council ("Bürgerversammlungsgebiete").


title: Passau

text: Many river cruises down the Danube start at Passau and there is a cycling path all the way down to Vienna. It is on the designated heritage route, the Route of Emperors and Kings.


title: Passau

text: Passau is notable for its gothic and baroque architecture. The city is dominated by the Veste Oberhaus and the Veste Niederhaus, both parts of the former fortress of the Bishop, on the mountain crest between the Danube and the Ilz.


title: Passau

text: Tourism in Passau focuses mainly on the three rivers, the St. Stephen's Cathedral ("Der Passauer Stephansdom") and the "Old City" ("Die Altstadt").


title: Passau

text: With 17,774 pipes and 233 registers, the organ at St. Stephen's was long held to be the largest church pipe organ in the world and is today second in size only to the organ at First Congregational Church of Los Angeles, which was expanded in 1994. Organ concerts are held daily between May and September. St.Stephen's is a true masterpiece of Italian Baroque, built by Italian architect Carlo Lurago and decorated in part by Carpoforo Tencalla.


title: Passau

text: Among many other churches are the Jesuits church of St. Michael, the oldest parish church of St. Paul and the pilgrim church Mariahilf on the hill south of the rivers Inn and Danube.


title: Passau

text: Before the cathedral is a large square (Domplatz) with the Lamberg-Palais, where the Peace of Passau was concluded.


title: Passau

text: The medieval Old Residence south of the cathedral and the baroque New Residence further west at Residenzplatz were the palaces of the Prince-Bishops within the city. Right beside the 14th century Gothic city hall with its neo Gothic tower and the big 19th century former Hauptzollamtsgebäude (Main Customs Office) at the Danube is the Scharfrichterhaus, an important jazz and cabaret stage on which political cabaret is performed.


title: Passau

text: Due to its location on the German-Austrian border, and in the south-east of the country, Passau has become a major migrant entry point into Germany. Refugees and economic migrants from the Middle East, Asia and Africa who have reached Europe, often entering either overland via Greece or across the sea via the Mediterranean (see Operation Triton), then head north and sometimes enter Germany. In 2015 the BBC reported that traffickers drive migrants and refugees through Austria and leave them on the side of the autobahn. The migrants and refugees then often walk unaccompanied into Passau, the first German town northwards. This situation has caused the government of Passau to divert funds from flood prevention to housing and feeding the refugees and migrants, around 10% of whom are unaccompanied children.


title: Passau

text: A traditionally very Catholic region, Passau and Lower Bavaria have made national news for a lack of access to safe abortion. Due to a political decision in the city council, staff at the Municipal Clinic are prevented from performing abortions in accordance with §218a (1) of the German Penal Code, which permits abortions up to 12 weeks of pregnancy after mandatory counselling. After the last gynaecologist performing abortions retired in early 2020, women had to travel more than 100km to get an abortion. This development fits into a wider pattern of declining numbers of gynaecologists performing abortions, often due to the harassment of anti-abortion activists protesting in front of doctor's offices and reporting doctors who perform abortions to the police.


title: Passau

text: In order to improve access to abortions in Passau and fight for a complete legalisation and destigmatisation of abortions, in 2019 several political and civic groups founded the "Coalition For Bodily Autonomy". Since the 1990s, there have been protests in favour of the right to abortion. In recent years, the "Coalition For Bodily Autonomy" staged counter-protests against an anti-abortion campaigner who regularly takes part in the international campaign 40 Days for Life protesting in front of the pro familia counselling centre that women seeking an abortion are mandated to visit in order to have an abortion.


title: Rowntree's

text: Rowntree's is a British confectionery brand and former business based in York, England. Rowntree developed the Kit Kat (introduced in 1935), Aero (introduced in 1935), Fruit Pastilles (introduced in 1881), Smarties (introduced in 1937) brands, and the Rolo and Quality Street brands when it merged with Mackintosh's in 1969 to form Rowntree Mackintosh Confectionery. Rowntree's also launched After Eight thin mint chocolates in 1962. The Yorkie and Lion bars were introduced in 1976. Rowntree's also pioneered the festive selection box (a gift consisting of assorted bars and sweets) which in the UK have been a staple gift at Christmas for over a century.


title: Rowntree's

text: Founded in 1862, the company developed strong associations with Quaker philanthropy. Throughout much of the 19th and 20th centuries, it was one of the big three confectionery manufacturers in the United Kingdom, alongside Cadbury and Fry, both also founded by Quakers.


title: Rowntree's

text: In 1981, Rowntree's received the Queen's Award for Enterprise for outstanding contribution to international trade. In 1988, when the company was acquired by Nestlé, it was the fourth-largest confectionery manufacturer in the world. The Rowntree brand continues to be used to market Nestlé's jelly sweet brands, such as Fruit Gums and Fruit Pastilles. Rowntree’s ceased to exist as a corporate entity in 1991, becoming Nestlé UK.


title: Rowntree's

text: In 1862, Rowntree's was founded at Castlegate, in York, by Henry Isaac Rowntree, a Quaker, as the company manager bought out the Tuke family.


title: Rowntree's

text: In 1864, Rowntree acquired an old iron foundry at Tanners Moat for £1,000, and moved production there. In 1869, the factory was staffed by 12 men. By 1869, Rowntree was in financial difficulties and his brother, Joseph Rowntree, joined him in full partnership, and H.I. Rowntree & Co was formally established.


title: Rowntree's

text: In 1881, Rowntree introduced Fruit Pastilles, competing against French imports of the time, and the product proved to be a great success, accounting for about 25% of the company's tonnage by 1887. This success allowed the company to invest in a Van Houten press, which enabled it to produce chocolate with the cocoa butter removed, to compete with Cadbury's successful Cocoa Essence. In the 1890s, Rowntree transformed from a small family business into a large-scale manufacturer, as sales more than quadrupled due to an increased demand among the public for confectionery.


title: Rowntree's

text: In 1889, Seebohm Rowntree established a small research and testing laboratory for analysing ingredients and rival company products. In 1890, to cater for this increased demand, Rowntree acquired a 20-acre site at Haxby Road on the outskirts of York. The Tanners Moat site had become too small for Rowntree's needs, and the company had noted the success of Cadbury's purpose-built factory in Bournville. In 1893, the company introduced Rowntree's Fruit Gums.


title: Rowntree's

text: By 1897, the unlimited partnership needed external funding for its expansion, and became a public limited liability company called Rowntree & Co. Robert Fitzgerald has accused the company of being slow in new product development and marketing compared to its major competitor of the period, Cadbury. Fitzgerald suggests that Joseph Rowntree imitated the successes of competitors (Cadbury's Cocoa Essence, French fruit pastilles) and that under his leadership, the company did not introduce any innovations of its own. Around 1898, the company acquired its own cocoa plantations in the West Indies. In 1899, Rowntree introduced its first milk chocolate block.


title: Rowntree's

text: Rowntree had struggled to make a milk chocolate product of comparable quality or value to Cadbury's Dairy Milk. Joseph Rowntree even described the growing market for milk chocolate as a fad. Rowntree's poor performance in the category became a major problem from 1914 onwards, as British public preference continued to move towards milk chocolate, and away from the more bitter cocoa essence products. Rowntree's two major rivals, Cadbury and Fry, merged in 1918, and although Rowntree was invited to participate in the merger, the company declined to do so. Meanwhile, the Rowntree board was torn as to whether it should become a low-turnover, high-quality product company or a mass producer of cheaper lines. Seebohm Rowntree inherited a struggling company when he succeeded his father as chairman in 1923. By 1930, as a result of all its problems, Rowntree was approaching bankruptcy.


title: Rowntree's

text: In 1926, Cowan Company of Toronto Limited (founded in 1890 as Cowan Cocoa and Chocolate), in Toronto, Canada, was acquired for $1 million. From 1931, Rowntree of Canada began to manufacture Mackintosh toffees under licence. In 1927, the company began to market its fruit gums, and its pastilles from 1928, in the now familiar tube packaging.


title: Rowntree's

text: George Harris was appointed marketing manager for chocolate bars in January 1931. Harris had learned the latest marketing techniques while he was in the United States. According to Robert Fitzgerald, "It was Harris's drive and insight which inspired his firm's renaissance in the 1930s." In 1932, Rowntree appointed a new advertising agency, the London branch of J. Walter Thompson. Thompson undertook extensive market research to discover what consumers wanted. As a result of this research, the Black Magic assorted chocolate box was launched in 1934.


title: Rowntree's

text: In January 1935, Rowntree decided to abandon its attempt to compete with Cadbury Dairy Milk. In May 1935, Rowntree launched the Aero, an aerated milk chocolate. The Chocolate Crisp, a wafer-and-chocolate bar later known as the Kit Kat, was also launched in 1935. In 1937, the Dairy Box of assorted chocolates was launched, using the market research that had been undertaken for Black Magic. Chocolate beans were first sold loose in 1938, but were later packaged in a cardboard tube and branded as Smarties. Polo, the distinctive mint with a hole in the centre, was developed in 1939, but its introduction was delayed by the onset of war. Harris was made company chairman in 1941.


title: Rowntree's

text: Rowntree entered the continental Europe market in the 1960s, establishing production facilities in Hamburg, Dijon, Elst, and Noisiel. After Eight thin mint chocolates were launched in 1962.


title: Rowntree's

text: In 1969, the Rowntree board rejected a £37 million takeover bid from General Foods. That same year, Rowntree entered into a long-term agreement with Hershey whereby Hershey would produce Rowntree products under license in the US. Rowntree merged with John Mackintosh and Co in 1969, to become Rowntree Mackintosh. Mackintosh produced Rolo, Munchies, Caramac, and Quality Street. Hershey's began U.S. distribution of Kit Kat in 1970 and followed in 1971 with Rolo.


title: Rowntree's

text: In 1971, Rowntree Mackintosh acquired Menier Chocolate of France. In the same year, the board attempted to diversify the business, and made a bid for Bovril, but lost out to James Goldsmith's Cavenham Foods. In 1972, Hoadley's Chocolates of Australia was acquired by Rowntree Mackintosh. This company had invented such products as the Violet Crumble and Polly Waffle.


title: Rowntree's

text: The Yorkie and Lion chocolate bars were introduced in 1976. In 1978, the Hershey contract was renegotiated, giving Hershey the rights to the Kit Kat and Rolo brands in the US in perpetuity.


title: Rowntree's

text: Ken Dixon was appointed as chairman and chief executive in 1981. Between 1981 and 1987, Rowntree invested nearly £400 million in upgrading its manufacturing facilities and developing high-volume, product-dedicated equipment for several of the company's brands, including Kit Kat, After Eights, and Smarties.


title: Rowntree's

text: Between 1983 and 1987, Rowntree spent nearly £400 million on acquisitions, including Tom's Foods for £138 million (1983), Laura Secord Chocolates for £19 million (1983), Hot Sam Pretzels for £14 million (1986), the Sunmark confectionery business in the US for £156 million (1986), and Gale's honey for £11 million (1986).


title: Rowntree's

text: Between 1982 and 1987, the number of UK staff was reduced from 19,700 to 15,600. In 1987, Rowntree operated 25 factories in nine countries and employed 33,000 people, including close to 16,000 in its eight UK operations. Group turnover was £1.4 billion, with the UK and Ireland accounting for 40% of the total.


title: Rowntree's

text: On 13 April 1988, the Swiss confectioner Jacobs Suchard began a dawn raid on Rowntree's shares, which had been under-performing the market, although they were beginning to improve, taking a 14.9% stake in the company by 9:15 am. As a result, the managing director of Nestlé, Helmut Maucher, contacted Kenneth Dixon, the chairman of Rowntree, offering to act as a white knight. Nestlé was the largest food company in the world, and had been interested in Rowntree previously, but the Rowntree board would aggressively contest any attempted takeover, and Nestlé had never undertaken a hostile takeover before. However, Nestlé was worried about the potential of Rowntree falling into the hands of one of its major competitors. Rowntree was the fourth-largest chocolate manufacturer in the world, after Mars, Hershey, and Cadbury, with a 7% global market share.


title: Rowntree's

text: Nestlé eventually won control with an offer valuing Rowntree at £2.55 billion. Strategically, Nestlé had always seen Rowntree as a perfect fit for its own operations. Nestlé had strength in the block chocolate bar business, and Rowntree had strength in the countline branded chocolate business. Rowntree's strong global brands were the key reason for Nestlé's interest. Due to potential synergies between the two companies, Nestlé believed that savings between 5 and 15% of Rowntree's operating costs could be made if the companies were to combine.


title: Rowntree's

text: The takeover was controversial, as Nestlé was effectively protected from similar takeover attempts under Swiss law. After the Nestlé takeover, the Rowntree chocolate ranges began to use the branding "Nestlé Rowntree", before eventually the Rowntree name was dropped from the packaging altogether, except on Rowntree's Cocoa and the Fruit Pastilles and Fruit Gums lines. The Mackintosh branding was dropped from all former Rowntree Mackintosh products except for Mackintosh's Toffee.


title: Rowntree's

text: Between 1988 and 1994, the Nestlé Rowntree workforce was reduced by 2,000. The Nestlé Rowntree factory in Norwich closed in 1994, and Rolo, Yorkie, and Easter-egg production was moved to York.


title: Rowntree's

text: In September 2006, it was announced that the manufacture of Smarties would be relocated to Hamburg, resulting in 645 job losses at the York factory. Production of Dairy Box was relocated to Spain, and Black Magic to the Czech Republic.


title: Rowntree's

text: In May 2009, Nestlé launched a new jelly sweet, Rowntree's Randoms, and in April 2012, another new jelly sweet, Fruit Bottles, both under the Rowntree's brand.


title: Rowntree's

text: Nestlé has invested more than £200 million in the Rowntree business since 1988, making the York site one of the world's largest confectionery factories. Nestlé's global research centre for confectionery is also based in York, and recently doubled in size following a £7 million investment.


title: Rowntree's

text: The best known products that are still branded under the Rowntree name are Rowntree's Fruit Gums, Rowntree's Fruit Pastilles and Jelly Tots. Jelly Tots are soft, chewy fruit-flavoured sweets. They are round, sugar-coated gumdrop-like confections about 13mm in diameter, and contain 25% fruit juices and no artificial colours or flavours. Jelly Tots were invented by Dr Brian Boffey of Horsforth, Leeds when he was working for Rowntree's. Jelly Tots were launched in 1965 and quickly became established as a popular children's brand. Rowntree's Randoms were introduced in 2009.


title: Rowntree's

text: The Rowntree brand is also used on a number of ice lollies (made by R&R Ice Cream) for Nestlé. The brand has a similar marketplace to that of the Trebor Bassett division of Cadbury's, and competes head-to-head with this company in a number of fruit-gum categories.


title: Rowntree's

text: The company largely eschewed advertising before its establishment as a public company in 1897, when it employed S. H. Benson as its agency. Before 1930, the company considered that quality products would speak for themselves, and did not need advertising to sell their benefits.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: The Holland Tunnel is a vehicular tunnel under the Hudson River that connects the New York City neighborhood of Hudson Square in Lower Manhattan to the east with Jersey City in New Jersey to the west. The tunnel is operated by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, and carries Interstate 78; the New Jersey side is also designated the eastern terminus of Route 139. The Holland Tunnel is one of three vehicular crossings between Manhattan and New Jersey; the two others are the Lincoln Tunnel and George Washington Bridge.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: Plans for a fixed vehicular crossing over the Hudson River were first devised in 1906. However, disagreements prolonged the planning process until 1919, when it was decided to build a tunnel under the river. Construction of the Holland Tunnel started in 1920, and it opened in 1927. At the time of its opening, it was the longest continuous underwater vehicular tunnel in the world.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: The tunnel was originally known as the "Hudson River Vehicular Tunnel" or the "Canal Street Tunnel". It was renamed the "Holland Tunnel" in memory of Clifford Milburn Holland, the chief engineer, following his sudden death in 1924 before the tunnel was opened. The Holland Tunnel was the world's first mechanically ventilated tunnel; the ventilation system was designed by Ole Singstad, who oversaw the tunnel's completion.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: The Holland Tunnel is operated by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. It consists of a pair of tubes with diameters, running roughly parallel to each other and apart underneath the Hudson River. The exteriors of each tube are composed of a series of cast iron rings, each of which comprises 14 curved steel pieces that are each long. The steel rings are covered by a layer of concrete.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: Each tube provides a roadway with two lanes and of vertical clearance. The north tube is between portals, while the south tube is slightly shorter, at . If each tube's immediate approach roads are included, the north tube is long and the south tube long. Most vehicles carrying hazmats, trucks with more than three axles, and vehicles towing trailers cannot use the tunnel. There is a width limit of for vehicles entering the tunnel.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: Both tubes' underwater sections are long and are situated in the silt beneath the river. The lowest point of the roadways is about below mean high water. The lowest point of the tunnel ceiling is about below mean high water. The tubes descend at a maximum grade of 4.06% and ascend at a grade of up to 3.8%. The tubes stretch an additional from the eastern shoreline to the New York portals, and from the western shoreline to the New Jersey portals.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: These sections of the tunnel are more rectangular in shape, since they were built as open cuts that were later covered over. The walls and ceiling are furnished with glazed ceramic tiles, which were originally engineered to minimize staining. The majority of the tiles are white, but there is a two-tile-high band of yellow-orange tiles at the bottom of each tube's walls, as well as two-tile-high band of blue tiles on the top.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: The northern tube, which carries westbound traffic, originates at Broome Street in Manhattan between Varick and Hudson Streets. It continues to 14th Street east of Marin Boulevard in Jersey City. The southern tube, for eastbound traffic, originates at 12th Street east of Marin Boulevard, and surfaces at the Holland Tunnel Rotary in Manhattan. The entrance and exit ramps to and from each portal are lined with granite and are wide. Although the two tubes' underwater sections are parallel and adjacent to each other, the tubes' portals on either side are located two blocks apart in order to reduce congestion on each side.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: The Holland Tunnel's tubes initially contained a road surface made of Belgian blocks and concrete. This was replaced with asphalt in 1955. Each tube contains a catwalk on its left (inner) side, raised above the roadway. Five emergency-exit cross-passages connect the two tubes' inner catwalks. When the Holland Tunnel opened, the catwalk was equipped with police booths and a telephone system, stationed at intervals of .


title: Holland Tunnel

text: The amount of traffic going through the Holland Tunnel has remained steady despite tight restrictions on eastbound traffic in response to the September 11, 2001, attacks, including a ban on commercial traffic entering New York City put in place after an August 2004 threat. Aside from a sharp decline immediately following the September 11 attacks, the number of vehicles using the Holland Tunnel in either direction daily has steadily declined from a peak of 103,020 daily vehicles in 1999 to 89,792 vehicles in 2016. , the eastbound direction of the Holland Tunnel was used by 14,871,543 vehicles annually.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: The Holland Tunnel was designed by Clifford Milburn Holland, chief engineer on the project, who died in October 1924, before it was completed. He was succeeded by Milton Harvey Freeman, who died less than a year after Holland did. Afterward, Ole Singstad oversaw the completion of the tunnel. The tunnel was designated a National Historic Civil and Mechanical Engineering Landmark in 1982 and a National Historic Landmark in 1993.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: Emergency services at the Holland Tunnel are provided by the Port Authority's Tunnel and Bridge Agents, who are stationed at the Port Authority's crossings.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: The Holland Tunnel was the first mechanically ventilated underwater vehicular tunnel in the world. It contains a system of vents that run transverse, or perpendicular, to the tubes. Each side of the Hudson River has two ventilation shaft buildings: one on land, and one in the river approximately from the respective shoreline. All of the ventilation buildings have buff brick facades with steel and reinforced-concrete frames.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: The shafts within the river rise above mean high water. Their supporting piers descend , of which are underwater and are embedded in the riverbed. The river shafts double as emergency exits by way of shipping piers that connected each ventilation shaft to the shoreline. The New York Land Ventilation Tower, a five-story building with a trapezoidal footprint, is tall. The New Jersey Land Ventilation Tower is a four-story, building with a rectangular perimeter.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: The four ventilation towers contain a combined 84 fans. Of these, 42 are intake fans with varying capacities from per minute. The other 42 are exhaust fans, which can blow between per minute. At the time of the tunnel's construction, two-thirds of the 84 fans were being used regularly, while the other fans were reserved for emergency use. The fans blow fresh air into ducts, which provide air intake to the tunnel via openings at the tubes' curbside. The ceiling contains slits, which are used to exhaust air. The fans can replace all of the air inside the tunnel every 90 seconds. A forced ventilation system is essential because of the poisonous carbon monoxide component of automobile exhaust, which constituted a far greater percentage of exhaust gases before catalytic converters became prevalent.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: The approach to the Holland Tunnel in Jersey City begins where the lower level of Route 139 and the Newark Bay Extension merge. On May 6, 1936, the section of what became Route 139/I-78 between Jersey Avenue and Marin Boulevard was named in memory of John F. Boyle, the former interstate tunnel commissioner. Despite being part of the Interstate Highway System, I-78 and Route 139 run concurrently along 12th and 14th Streets to reach the Holland Tunnel. Westbound traffic uses 14th Street while eastbound traffic uses 12th Street. The plaza was restored and landscaped by the Jersey City government in 1982.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: There is a nine-lane toll plaza for eastbound traffic only at the eastern end of 12th Street, just west of the tunnel portal. The original toll plaza had eight lanes; it was renovated in 1953–1954, and the current nine-lane tollbooth was constructed in 1988.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: Soon after construction of the tunnel, and amid rising vehicular traffic in the area, a railroad freight depot called the St. John's Park Terminal was abandoned and later demolished. The depot was located on the city block bounded by Laight, Varick, Beach and Hudson Streets. The depot's site was used as a storage yard until the 1960s, when it became a circular roadway for traffic exiting the eastbound tube in Manhattan. The original structure had four exits, but the plaza was renovated in the early 2000s with landscaping by Studio V Architecture and Ives Architecture Studio. A fifth exit was added in 2004.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: Originally used as the toll plazas for New Jersey-bound traffic, the small triangular patches of land at the mouth of the westbound tube entrance are referred to as Freeman Plaza or Freeman Square. The plaza is named after Milton Freeman, the engineer who took over the Holland Tunnel project after the death of Clifford Milburn Holland. The Freeman Plaza received its name just before the tunnel opened in 1927. The toll plaza was removed circa 1971 when the Port Authority stopped collecting tolls for New Jersey-bound drivers, and the square was later fenced off by the Port Authority. The small maintenance buildings for toll collectors were removed around 1982 or 1983. A bust of Holland sits outside the entrance to the westbound tube in Freeman Plaza.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: A business improvement district for the area, the Hudson Square Connection, was founded in 2009 with the goal of repurposing the square for pedestrian use. Hudson Square Connection and the Port Authority collaborated to create a five-year, $27 million master plan for Freeman Plaza. In 2013, Freeman Plaza West was opened to the public. Bounded by Hudson, Broome, and Watts Streets, it features umbrellas, bistro tables and chairs, and tree plantings.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: In 2014, Freeman Plaza East and Freeman Plaza North were opened on Varick and Broome Streets, respectively. The plazas contained chaise longues, bistro tables, and umbrellas. In 2016, the Hudson Square Connection added solar powered charging stations to both plazas, and introduced a summer lunchtime music series, called live@lunch. A statue by the artist Isamu Noguchi was also installed within the plaza. To the south of Freeman Plaza, between Varick, Watts, and Canal Streets, is the Holland Plaza Building, made a New York City designated landmark in 2013.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: Until the first decade of the 20th century, passage across the lower Hudson River was possible only by ferry. The first tunnels to be bored below the Hudson River were for railroad use. The Hudson & Manhattan Railroad (now PATH) constructed two pairs of tubes to link the major railroad terminals in New Jersey with Manhattan Island: the Uptown Hudson Tubes, which opened in 1908, and the Downtown Hudson Tubes, which opened in 1909. The Pennsylvania Railroad's twin North River Tunnels, constructed to serve the new Pennsylvania Station, opened in 1910. The construction of these three tunnels proved that tunneling under the Hudson River was feasible. However, although train traffic was allowed to use the tunnel crossings, automotive traffic still had to be transported via ferry.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: At the same time, freight traffic in the Port of New York and New Jersey was mostly carried on boats, but traffic had grown to such a point that the boats were at full capacity, and some freight started going to other ports in the United States. To alleviate this, officials proposed building a freight railroad tunnel, but this was blocked by the organized syndicates that held influence over much of the port's freight operations. The public learned of the excessive traffic loads on existing boat routes, as well as the limited capacity of the H&M and North River Tunnels, when the surface of the Hudson River froze in winter 1917, and again when Pennsylvania Railroad workers went on strike in winter 1918. One engineer suggested that three freight railroad tunnels would be cheaper to construct than one bridge.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: In 1906, the New York and New Jersey Interstate Bridge Commission, a consortium of three groups, was formed to consider the need for a crossing across the Hudson River between New York City and New Jersey. That year, three railroads asked the commission to consider building a railroad bridge over the river. In 1908, the commission considered building three bridges across the Hudson River at 57th, 110th, and 179th Streets in Manhattan. The reasoning was that bridges would be cheaper than tunnels. These three locations were considered to be the only suitable locations for suspension bridges; other sites were rejected on the grounds of aesthetics, geography, or traffic flows. John Vipond Davies, one of the partners for the consulting firm Jacobs and Davies (which had constructed the Uptown Hudson Tubes), wanted to build a vehicular tunnel between Canal Street, Manhattan, and 13th Street, Jersey City. This proposal would compete with the six-lane suspension bridge at 57th Street. Some plans provided for the construction of both the bridge and the tunnel. The ferries could not accommodate all of the 19,600 vehicles per day, as of 1913, that traveled between New York and New Jersey. The Bridge Commission hosted several meetings to tell truck drivers about the details of both the 57th Street Bridge and Canal Street Tunnel plans.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: The United States Department of War brought up concerns about the 57th Street bridge plans: the span would need to be at least above the mean high water to avoid interfering with shipping. By comparison, the tunnel would be below mean water level. The Interstate Bridge Commission, which had been renamed the New York State Bridge and Tunnel Commission in April 1913, published a report that same month, stating that the Canal Street tunnel would cost $11 million while the 57th Street bridge would cost $42 million. In October 1913, Jacobs and Davies stated that a pair of tunnels, with each tube carrying traffic in one direction, would cost only $11 million, while a bridge might cost over $50 million. Moreover, the low elevation and deep bedrock of Lower Manhattan was more conducive to a tunnel than to a bridge. By the end of that year, the consulting engineers for both the 57th Street Bridge and the Canal Street Tunnel had submitted their plans to the Bridge and Tunnel Commission. New York City merchants mainly advocated for the tunnel plan, while New Jerseyans and New York automobile drivers mostly supported the bridge plan. Meanwhile, the New York State Bridge and Tunnel Commission indicated that it favored the Canal Street tunnel plan. On the other hand, the 57th Street bridge plan remained largely forgotten.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: The Public Service Commission of New Jersey published a report in April 1917, stating that the construction of a Hudson River vehicle tunnel from Lower Manhattan to Jersey City was feasible. That June, following this report, New Jersey Governor Walter Evans Edge convened the Hudson River Bridge and Tunnel Commission of New Jersey, which would work with the New York Bridge and Tunnel Commission to construct the new tunnel. In March 1918, a report was sent to the New York State Legislature, advocating for the construction of the tunnel as soon as possible. That year, six million dollars in funding for the Hudson River Tunnel was proposed in two bills presented to subcommittees of the United States Senate and House of Representatives. The bill was voted down by the Interstate Commerce Committee before it could be presented to the full Senate.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: The original plans for the Hudson River tunnel were for twin two-lane tubes, with each tube carrying traffic in a single direction. A request for proposals for the tunnel was announced in 1918, and eleven such requests were considered. One of these proposals, authored by engineer George Goethals, was for a bi-level tube. A modification of Jacobs and Davies' 1913 plan, the Goethals proposal specified that each level would carry three lanes of traffic, and that traffic on each level would run in a different direction. Goethals stated that his plan would cost $12 million and could be completed in three years. Subsequently, John F. O'Rourke offered to build the tunnel for $11.5 million. Goethals cited the area's freight traffic as one of the reasons for constructing the tube. His proposal would use a diameter shield to dig the tunnel. This large tunnel size was seen as a potential problem, since there were differences in the air pressure at the top and the bottom of each tunnel, and that air pressure difference increased with a larger tunnel diameter. Thus, five engineers were assigned to examine the feasibility of Goethals's design. In July 1919, President Woodrow Wilson ratified a Congressional joint resolution for a trans-Hudson tunnel, and Clifford Milburn Holland was named the Chief Engineer of the project. Holland stated that, based on the construction methods used for both pairs of H&M tubes (and for the downtown pair in particular), it should be relatively easy to dig through the mud on the bottom of the Hudson River, and that construction should be completed within two years.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: The federal government refused to finance the project, even in part, and so it was the states' responsibility to raise the funds. In June 1919, U.S. Senator and former New Jersey governor Edge presented another iteration of the Hudson River Tunnel bill to the U.S. Senate, where it was approved. The New York and New Jersey governments signed a contract in September 1919, in which the states agreed to build, operate, and maintain the tunnel in partnership. The contract was signed by the states' respective tunnel commissions in January 1920.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: Under Holland's plan, each of the two tubes would have an outside diameter of including exterior linings, and the tubes would contain two-lane roadways with a total width of . One lane would be for slower traffic, and the other would be for faster traffic. This contrasted with Goethals's plan, wherein the three roadways would have had a total width of , only a few feet wider than Holland's two-lane roadways. Additionally, according to Holland, the 42-foot-wide tube would require the excavation of more dirt than both 29-foot tubes combined: two circles with 29-foot diameters would have a combined area of , while a circle with a 42-foot diameter would have an area of . The more northerly westbound tube would begin at Broome and Varick Streets on the Manhattan side and end at the now-demolished intersection of 14th and Provost Streets on the New Jersey side. The more southerly eastbound tube would begin at the still-intact intersection of 12th and Provost Streets in Jersey City, and end at the south side of Canal Street near Varick Street. By way of comparison, Goethals's plan would have combined the entrance and exit plazas on each side. The Motor Truck Association of America unsuccessfully advocated for three lanes in each tube.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: Even though Goethals's method of digging had not been tested, he refused to concede to Holland's proposal, and demanded to see evidence that Holland's proposal would work. The New York and New Jersey Tunnel Commission subsequently rejected Goethals's plan in favor of a twin-tube proposal that Holland had devised, which was valued at around $28.7 million. When Goethals asked why, the commission responded that Goethals's proposal had never been tested; that it was too expensive; and that the tunnel plans had many engineering weaknesses that could cause the tube to flood. Additionally, while a tube with three lanes in each direction would be able to handle more traffic than a tube with two lanes, projections showed that traffic on the tunnel's approach roads could barely handle the amount of traffic going to and from the two-lane tubes, and that widening the approach roads on each side would cost millions of dollars more. The commission then voted to forbid any further consideration of Goethals's plan. Holland defended his own plan by pointing out that the roadways in Goethals's plan would not only feature narrower road lanes, but also would have ventilation ducts that were too small to ventilate the tube efficiently.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: In May 1920, the New Jersey legislature voted to approve the start of construction, overriding a veto from the New Jersey governor. The same month, the New York governor signed a similar bill that had been passed in the New York legislature. The legislature of New Jersey approved a $5 million bond issue for the tunnel in December 1920.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: The first bid for constructing the Hudson River Tunnel, a contract for digging two of the tunnel's eight planned shafts, was advertised in September 1920. A groundbreaking for the Hudson River Tunnel's ventilation shaft, which marked the official start of construction on the tunnel, occurred on October 12, 1920, at Canal and Washington Streets on the Manhattan side. However, further construction of the Hudson River Tunnel was soon held up due to concerns over its ventilation system. There was also a dispute over whether the New York City government should pay for street-widening projects on the New Jersey side. Further delays arose when the New York and New Jersey tunnel commissions could not agree over which agency would award the contract to build the construction and ventilation shafts.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: The most significant design aspect of the Holland Tunnel is its ventilation system; it is served by four ventilation towers designed by Norwegian architect Erling Owre. At the time of its construction, underwater tunnels were a well-established part of civil engineering, but no long vehicular tunnels had been built, as all of the existing tunnels under New York City waterways carried only railroads and subways. These tubes did not have as much of a need for ventilation, since the trains that used the tubes were required to be electrically powered, and thus emitted very little pollution. On the other hand, the traffic in the Holland Tunnel consisted mostly of gasoline-driven vehicles, and ventilation was required to evacuate the carbon monoxide emissions, which would otherwise asphyxiate the drivers. There were very few tunnels at that time that were not used by rail traffic; the most notable of these non-rail tunnels, the Blackwall Tunnel and Rotherhithe Tunnel in London, did not need mechanical ventilation. However, a tunnel of the Hudson River Tunnel's length required an efficient method of ventilation, so Chief Engineer Singstad pioneered a system of ventilating the tunnel transversely (perpendicular to the tubes).


title: Holland Tunnel

text: In October 1920, General George R. Dyer, the chairman of the New York Tunnel Commission, published a report in which he stated that Singstad had devised a feasible ventilation system for the Hudson River Tunnel. Working with Yale University, the University of Illinois, and the United States Bureau of Mines, Singstad built a test tunnel in the bureau's experimental mine at Bruceton, Pennsylvania, measuring over long, where cars were lined up with engines running. Volunteer students were supervised as they breathed the exhaust in order to confirm air flows and tolerable carbon monoxide levels by simulating different traffic conditions, including backups. The University of Illinois, which had hired the only professors of ventilation in the United States, built an experimental ventilation duct at its Urbana campus to test air flows. In October 1921, Singstad concluded that a conventional, longitudinal ventilation system would have to be pressurized to an air flow rate of along the tunnel. On the other hand, the tunnel could be adequately ventilated transversely if the compartment carrying the tube's roadway was placed in between two plenums. A lower plenum below the roadway floor could supply fresh air, and an upper plenum above the ceiling could exhaust fumes at regular intervals.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: Two thousand tests were performed with the ventilation system prototype. The system was determined to be of sufficiently low cost, relative to the safety benefits, that it was ultimately integrated into the tunnel's design. By the time the tunnel was in service, the average carbon monoxide content in both tunnels was 0.69 parts per 10,000 parts of air. The highest recorded carbon monoxide level in the Holland Tunnel was 1.60 parts per 10,000, well below the permissible maximum of 4 parts per 10,000. The public and the press proclaimed air conditions were better in the tubes than in some streets of New York City; after the tunnel opened, Singstad stated that the carbon monoxide content in the tubes were half of those recorded on the streets.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: The ventilation system and other potential issues had been resolved by December 1921, and officials announced that the tunnel would break ground the following spring. Builders initially considered building a trench at the bottom of the Hudson River and then covering it up, but this was deemed infeasible because of the soft soil that comprised the riverbed, as well as the heavy maritime traffic that used the river. Officials started purchasing the properties in the path of the tunnel's approaches, evicting and compensating the tenants "without delay" so that construction could commence promptly. A bid to construct the tubes was advertised, and three firms responded. On March 29, 1922, the contract to dig the tubes was awarded to the lowest bidder, Booth & Flinn Ltd., for $19.3 million. The materials that were necessary to furnish the Hudson River Tunnel had already been purchased, so it was decided to start work immediately. Construction on the bores began two days later as workers broke ground for an air compressor to drive the tubes. The ceremony for the air compressor was held at the corner of Canal and West Streets on the Manhattan side. The workers who were performing the excavations, who were referred to as "sandhogs", were to dig each pair of tubes from either bank of the Hudson River, so that the two sides would eventually connect somewhere underneath the riverbed. The tunnel was to be long between portals, and the roadway was to descend to a maximum depth of below mean high water level.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: The start of construction for the tubes from the New Jersey side was delayed because the Hudson River Vehicular Tunnel Commission had not yet acquired some of the land for the project. Although Jersey City officials had insisted that the Tunnel Commission widen 12th and 14th Streets in Jersey City, these officials were involved in a disagreement over sale prices with the Erie Railroad, which owned some of the land that was to be acquired for the street widening. As a result, work on the Hudson River Tunnel was delayed by one year and could not be completed before 1926 at the earliest. Work on the New Jersey side finally started on May 30, 1922, after Jersey City officials continued to refuse to cede public land for the construction of the tunnel's plazas. The Jersey City Chamber of Commerce wrote a letter that denounced this action, since the New Jersey Tunnel Commission's members on the Hudson River Tunnel Commission had not been notified of the groundbreaking until they read about it in the following day's newspapers. In mid-June, a state chancellor made permanent an injunction that banned Jersey City officials from trying to preclude construction on the Hudson River Tunnel. The Hudson River Tunnel Commission ultimately decided that Jersey City would not have its own groundbreaking celebration due to the city's various efforts at blocking the tunnel's construction. However, although Jersey City officials had been primarily accused of delaying construction, officials from both states had wanted the Tunnel Commission to widen the approach streets to the Hudson River Tunnel as part of the construction process.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: For the project, six tunnel digging shields were to be delivered. These shields comprised cylinders whose diameters were wider than the tunnel bores, and these cylinders contained steel plates of various thicknesses on the face that was to be driven under the riverbed. Four of the shields would dig the Hudson River Tunnel under the river, while the remaining two shields would dig from the Hudson River west bank to the Jersey City portals. They could dig through rock at a rate of per day, or through mud at a daily rate of . The air compressors would provide an air pressure of . The shovels used to dig the tunnel were provided by the Marion Power Shovel Company, while the six digging shields were built by the Merchants Shipbuilding Corporation. The air compressor was completed in September 1922, and the first shield was fitted into place in the Manhattan side's construction shaft. By this point, the shafts on the New Jersey side were being excavated, and two watertight caissons were being constructed.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: The shield started boring in late October of that year after the steel plates that were necessary for the shield's operation had been delivered. The first permanent steel-rings lining the tubes were laid a short time afterward. The caissons were completed and launched into the river in December, and after the caissons were outfitted with the requisite equipment such as airlocks, tugboats dropped the caissons into place in January 1923. Officials projected that at this rate of progress, the tunnel would be finished within 36 months, by late 1926 or early 1927.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: Tunnel construction required the sandhogs to spend large amounts of time in the caisson under high pressure of up to , which was thought to be necessary to prevent river water from entering prior to completion of the tubes. The caissons were massive metal boxes with varying dimensions, but each contained walls. Sandhogs entered the tunnel through a series of airlocks, and could only remain inside of the tunnel for a designated time period. On exiting the tunnel, sandhogs had to undergo controlled decompression to avoid decompression sickness or "the bends", a condition in which nitrogen bubbles form in the blood from rapid decompression. The rate of decompression rate for sandhogs working on the Hudson River Tunnel was described as being "so small as to be negligible". Sandhogs underwent such decompressions 756,000 times throughout the course of construction. which resulted in 528 cases of the bends, though none were fatal. The tunnel's pressurization caused other problems, including a pressure blowout in April 1924 that flooded the tube.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: Due to the geology of the river, the shields digging from the New Jersey side were mostly being driven through mud, and so could be driven at a faster rate than the shields from the New York side, which were being dug through large rock formations. When workers tried to dig through the Manhattan shoreline, they had encountered several weeks of delay due to the existence of an as-yet-unrecorded granite bulkhead on the shoreline. In September 1923, after having proceeded about from the Manhattan shoreline, workers encountered a sheet of Manhattan schist under the riverbed, forcing them to slow shield digging operations from to less than . This outcropping was fed from a stream in Manhattan that emptied into the Hudson River. The sandhogs planned to use small explosive charges to dig through the rock shelf without damaging the shield. By December 1923, about of each tube's total length had been excavated, and the first of the shields had passed through the underwater shafts that had been sunk during construction. Due to these unexpected issues, the cost estimate for the tunnel was increased from $28 million to $42 million in January 1924. By March 1924, all seven of the ventilation shafts had been dug, and three of the four shields that were digging underwater had passed through their respective underwater construction shafts, with the fourth shield nearing its respective shaft.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: Workers also performed tests to determine whether they could receive radio transmissions while inside the tunnel. They found that they were able to receive transmissions within much of the Hudson River Tunnel. However, a New Jersey radio station later found that there was a spot in the middle of the tunnel that had no reception.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: The cost of the project increased as work progressed. In July 1923, the New York and New Jersey Vehicular Tunnel Commission had revised plans for the entrance and exit plazas on each side to accommodate an increase in traffic along Canal Street on the Manhattan side. The commission had spent $2.1 million to acquire land. Further redesigns were made in January 1924 due to a change of major components in the tunnel plan, including tunnel diameters and ventilation systems, which had increased the cost by another $14 million.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: The two ends of both tubes were scheduled to be "holed through", or connected to each other, at a ceremony on October 29, 1924, in which President Calvin Coolidge would have remotely set off an explosion to connect the two sides of the tunnel. However, two days before the holing-through ceremony supposed to take place, Holland died of a heart attack at the sanatorium in Battle Creek, Michigan, aged 41. Individuals cited in "The New York Times" attributed his death to the stress he endured overseeing the tunnel's construction. The ceremony was postponed out of respect for Holland's death. The tunnel was ultimately holed through on October 29, but it was a nondescript event without any ceremony. On November 12, 1924, the Hudson River Vehicular Tunnel was renamed the Holland Tunnel by the two states' respective tunnel commissions. Holland was succeeded by Milton Harvey Freeman, who died of pneumonia in March 1925, after several months of heading the job. After Freeman's death, the position was occupied by Ole Singstad, who oversaw the completion of the tunnel.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: As part of the tunnel project, one block of Watts Street in Manhattan was to be widened to accommodate traffic heading toward the westbound tube. Sixth Avenue was also widened and extended between Greenwich Village and Church Street. Ten thousand people were evicted to make way for the Sixth Avenue extension. The north-south Church Street was widened and extended southward to Trinity Place; West Street was expanded and supplemented with an elevated highway; and the west-east Vestry and Laight Streets were also widened. On the New Jersey side, the Holland Tunnel was to connect a new highway (formerly the ; now New Jersey Route 139), which extended westward to Newark. This included a viaduct, rising from 12th and 14th Streets, at the bottom of the Palisades, to the new highway, at the top of the Palisades. The New Jersey highway approach was opened in stages beginning in 1927, and most of that highway was finished in 1930.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: The construction of the tunnel approach roads on the New Jersey side was delayed for months by the Erie Railroad, whose Bergen Arches right-of-way ran parallel to and directly south of Route 139, in the right of way of the proposed approach roads. Although the Erie had promised to find another site for its railroad yards, it had refused to respond to the plans that the New Jersey State Highway Commission had sent them. In March 1925, the Highway Commission decided that construction on the approach roads would begin regardless of Erie's response, and so the land would be taken using eminent domain. This led to a legal disagreement between the Erie and the Highway Commission. The Erie maintained that it absolutely needed 30 feet of land along 12th Street, while the Highway Commission stated that the most direct approach to the eastbound Holland Tunnel's 12th Street portal should be made using 12th Street. The commission rejected a suggestion that it should use 13th Street, one block north, because it would cost $500,000 more and involve two perpendicular turns. In October 1926, one million dollars was allocated to the completion of the Route 139 approach.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: The contracts for constructing the Holland Tunnel's ventilation systems were awarded in December 1925. Two months later, the New York-New Jersey Vehicular Tunnel Commission asked for $3.2 million more in funding. The tunnel was now expected to cost $46 million, an increase of $17 million over what was originally budgeted. The Holland Tunnel was nearly complete: in March 1926, Singstad stated that the tunnel was expected to be opened by the following February. By May 1926, the tubes had been almost completely furnished: the polished-white tile walls were in place, as were the bright lighting systems and the Belgian-block-and-concrete road surfaces. The north tube's tiles were sourced locally (by the Sonzogni Brothers of Union City, New Jersey), while the south tube's tiles were sourced in equal amounts from Czechoslovakia and Germany. The tiles' surfaces were specially engineered so that they could maintain their coloring even after years of use. The lighting systems used in the Holland Tunnel were designed to allow motorists to adjust to a gradual change in lighting levels just before leaving the tubes.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: The ventilation towers were the only major component of the Holland Tunnel that was not completed, but major progress had been made by the end of 1926. Ole Singstad and the two states' tunnel commissions tested the tunnel's ventilation system by releasing gas clouds in one of the tubes in February 1927. Singstad subsequently declared that the ventilation system was well equipped to ventilate the tunnel air. However, the New York Board of Trade and Transportation disagreed, stating that the system would be inadequate if there was a genuine incident within the tunnel. In April 1927, the board had conducted their own tests with two lighted candles, and a cloud of smoke had filled the entire tube before the ventilation system was able to perform a full exhaust. The Chief Surgeon of the U.S. Board of Mines supported Singstad's position that the ventilation system could sufficiently filter the tubes' air. To affirm the ventilation system's efficacy, in November 1927, the New York and New Jersey tunnel commissions burned a car within the tunnel; the ventilation system dissipated the fire within three and a half minutes.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: The governors of New York and New Jersey took ceremonial rides through the tunnel in August 1926, meeting at the midpoint. The first unofficial drive through the entirety of the Holland Tunnel was undertaken by a group of British businessmen a year later, in August 1927. The next month, a group from the Buffalo and Niagara Frontier Port Authority Survey Commission also visited the tunnel. In October, a delegation of representatives from Detroit, Michigan, and Windsor, Ontario, toured the nearly complete Holland Tunnel to get ideas for the then-proposed Detroit–Windsor Tunnel. A reporter for "The New York Times" was able to make a test drive through the tunnel, noting that "there is no sudden pressure of wind upon the ear-drums" and that it would reduce the duration of crossing the Hudson River by between 15 and 22 minutes. Three hundred police officers were trained in advance of the Holland Tunnel's opening, and bus companies started receiving franchises to operate buses through the tunnel.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: The Holland Tunnel was officially opened at 4:55 p.m. EST on November 12, 1927. President Coolidge ceremonially opened the tunnel from his yacht by turning the same key that had "opened" the Panama Canal in 1915. "Time" magazine called it "the golden lever of the Presidential telegraphic instrument." It rang a giant brass bell at the tunnel's entrances that triggered American flags on both sides of the tunnel to separate. The tunnel's opening ceremony was broadcast on local radio stations. About 20,000 people walked the entire length of the Holland Tunnel before it was closed to pedestrians at 7 p.m. The Holland Tunnel officially opened to vehicular traffic at 12:01 a.m. on November 13, the next day; over a thousand vehicles had gathered on the New Jersey side, ready to pay a toll. The first car to pay a toll was driven by the daughter of the chairman of New Jersey's Bridge and Tunnel Commission. The widows of Chief Engineers Holland and Freeman rode in the second vehicle that paid a toll. At the time, the Holland Tunnel was the world's longest continuous underwater vehicular tunnel, as well as the world's first tunnel designed specifically for vehicular traffic.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: Each passenger car paid a 50-cent toll (worth about $ in ). Tolls for other vehicular classes ranged from 25 cents for a motorcycle to two dollars for large trucks. Commuter bus routes, which paid a 50-cent-per-vehicle toll, began operating through the tunnel in December 1927. Truckers subsequently objected that these rates were too high, as the Holland Tunnel truck tolls were double the tolls that were charged on the trans-Hudson ferries; by contrast, the tunnel's passenger vehicle, motorcycle, and bus tolls were on par with those charged by the ferries. The toll revenues would be used to pay off the tunnel's cost (which was estimated at $48 million in 1927 dollars, or equivalent to $ in ). Within ten years of opening, it was expected that all construction costs would be paid off. Horsedrawn vehicles were banned from the tunnel from the start, since it was believed that horses' slow speeds would cause traffic congestion in the tubes. Pedestrian and bicycle traffic was also banned. A few months before the tunnel's opening, there were suggestions that pedestrians would be allowed to cross the tunnel if they paid a toll described as "not encouraging," but the idea was never seriously considered.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: The Holland Tunnel was expected to relieve congestion on the vehicular ferries across the Hudson River, since the capacity of the tunnel was similar to that of the vehicular ferries. Upon opening, it had been estimated that up to 15 million vehicles per year could use the tunnel in both directions, equating to a maximum daily capacity of 46,000 vehicles or an hourly capacity of 3,800 vehicles. Singstad stated that increasing freight traffic across the river would result in a corresponding increase in truck traffic, which would then cause the tunnel to reach its maximum traffic capacity shortly after its opening.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: The Holland Tunnel was immediately popular: on November 13, a Sunday, it saw 52,285 vehicles on the first day of operation, more than its projected maximum capacity. The lines to enter the tunnel stretched for miles on either end, although most of these vehicles were passenger cars who were making a round trip to tour the tunnel. On November 14, the Holland Tunnel's first weekday of operation, the tunnel carried 17,726 cars. Traffic counts in the Holland Tunnel remained relatively steady until the following weekend, when over 40,000 vehicles went through the tunnel. The first holiday rush period for the Holland Tunnel occurred two weeks after the tunnel's opening, when around 30,000 motorists used the tunnel over the Thanksgiving holiday; there were no major traffic disruptions. A half-million vehicles had passed through the Holland Tunnel within three weeks, and a million had used the tubes by New Year's Day. Within the tunnel's first year, 8.5 million vehicles had used it, and the toll revenue had grossed $4.7 million in profit; it was estimated that at this rate, the Holland Tunnel's construction costs might be paid off sooner than expected.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: Trans-Hudson ferries reported that their traffic counts had been halved in the two weeks since the tunnel opened, and at least one ferry route reduced service within one month of the opening. Another ferry cut its toll rates to half those of the Holland Tunnel in an effort to recover business. The Hudson & Manhattan Railroad (later PATH), which operated rapid transit services across the Hudson River through its Uptown and Downtown Hudson Tubes, also saw a decline in ridership after the Holland Tunnel opened. Even after the start of the Great Depression in 1929, when most transit in New York City saw declines, the Holland Tunnel saw an increase in traffic, as did ferry lines.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: In 1930, there was a disagreement between the Hudson River Tunnel Commission and the Port of New York Authority over who would construct the Lincoln Tunnel. The tunnel was to be located further north along the Hudson River, connecting nearby Weehawken to Manhattan. The two agencies merged that April, and the expanded Port Authority of New York and New Jersey took over operations of the Holland Tunnel, a role that it maintains to this day. Real property title was not passed however. A second vehicular link between New Jersey and Manhattan, the George Washington Bridge, opened in October 1931. The Lincoln Tunnel, the third and final vehicular connection between New Jersey and Manhattan, first opened in December 1937. Within the first 25 years of the Holland Tunnel's opening, it had carried 330 million vehicles in total, but a significant portion of Holland Tunnel traffic was diverted to the Lincoln Tunnel and George Washington Bridge after the opening of the latter two crossings.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: In 1945, the Port Authority approved the extension of a tunnel approach on the New Jersey side. A new viaduct for westbound traffic would connect the intersection of 14th Street and Jersey Avenue, outside the Holland Tunnel's exit portal, to Hoboken Avenue and Route 139, on top of the Palisades. This would supplement an existing bidirectional viaduct, which connected Hoboken Avenue with 12th Street and currently only carries eastbound traffic. The 14th Street viaduct was first opened for vehicular use in January 1951, although the road was not complete; it was officially completed that February. The 12th and 14th Street viaducts were later also connected to the NJ Turnpike Extension. The first part of the extension, the Newark Bay Bridge, opened between Bayonne and Newark Airport in April 1956; the connection between Bayonne and the 12th/14th Street viaducts was completed that September, providing direct highway connection between the Holland Tunnel and Newark Airport. The NJ Turnpike Extension, as well as the Holland Tunnel and the 12th/14th Street approaches, was designated as part of I-78 in 1958.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: The Port Authority voted in 1953 to replace the original tollbooths on the New Jersey side, which did not contain canopies, with an updated plaza that contained a canopy. The next year, the Port Authority also voted to refurbish the Holland Tunnel's administration building on the New Jersey side, as well as construct a new service building. The development of a one-man miniature electric car for tunnel police, to be installed on the tubes' catwalks, was announced in August 1954. The Port Authority tested the "catwalk car" along a stretch of the Holland Tunnel. After the car had passed its test, policemen could patrol the full length of the tubes using the catwalk car instead of having to walk the tubes' entire length. By use of a swivel seat the policemen could drive the car in either direction.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: Starting in the 1940s, New York City officials developed plans to connect the Holland Tunnel's Manhattan end to the Lower Manhattan Expressway, a proposed elevated highway connecting to both the Williamsburg Bridge and the Manhattan Bridge to Brooklyn. This connection would be part of I-78. In 1956, Robert Moses suggested adding a third tube to the Holland Tunnel, similar to the Lincoln Tunnel's third tube, so there would be sufficient capacity for the proposed expressway traffic. The route of the Lower Manhattan Expressway was approved in 1960, but quickly became controversial due to the large number of tenants who would have to be relocated. The Lower Manhattan Expressway project was ultimately canceled in March 1971.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: In 1970, the Port Authority stopped collecting tolls for New Jersey-bound drivers through the Holland Tunnel, who used the westbound tube, while doubling tolls to $1 for New York-bound drivers, who used the eastbound tube. This was done in an effort to speed up traffic, and it was the first toll increase in the tunnel's history. Although westbound drivers initially saved time by not paying tolls, the removal of westbound tolls ultimately had an adverse effect on traffic in the Holland Tunnel. In 1986, the Verrazzano-Narrows Bridge, between the New York City boroughs of Brooklyn and Staten Island, stopped collecting tolls for Brooklyn-bound drivers (who were generally headed eastbound) and doubled its tolls for Staten Island-bound drivers (who were generally headed westbound). This had the effect of increasing congestion along the New Jersey-bound tube of the Holland Tunnel, which drivers could use for free. Drivers would go through New Jersey and use the Bayonne Bridge, paying a lower toll to enter Staten Island. The amount of westbound traffic in the Holland Tunnel increased compared to eastbound traffic: by 1998, there were 50,110 daily westbound trips and 46,688 daily eastbound trips through the tunnel. Simultaneously, there was a decrease in westbound trips on the Verrazzano-Narrows Bridge compared to eastbound trips on the bridge. The Verrazzano-Narrows Bridge toll pattern also caused traffic gridlock around the Holland Tunnel, and Canal Street saw the most severe congestion because it served as the main entrance to the tunnel. Fatal accidents involving pedestrians in Lower Manhattan also increased greatly as a result. Rush-hour congestion within the Holland Tunnel has persisted for more than thirty years due to the Verrazzano-Narrows Bridge's one-way westbound toll.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: A renovation of the Holland Tunnel's tiled ceilings, which were deteriorating due to water damage, started in 1983. The ceilings were replaced at a total cost of $78 million, and the south tube's ceiling was renovated first. Since the Holland Tunnel had to remain open during the renovation, 4,000 modular concrete ceiling panels were made offsite, and narrow lift trucks parked in one of the tube's two lanes installed the panels while traffic continued to move through the tube's other lane. The panels were each designed to the specifications of a certain section of tube, such that none of the ceiling panels were identical; the Port Authority stated that the ceiling-replacement project was the first one of its kind in the world. In 1988, after the ceiling renovations had been completed, work started on replacing the 8-lane tollbooth, which consisted of six lanes built in the 1950s and two additional lanes built in the 1980s. The new $54 million tollbooth contained 9 lanes and a central control center.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: The Holland Tunnel was listed as a National Historic Landmark on June 27, 1993, becoming part of the National Register of Historic Places. With this designation, it became the 92nd National Historic Landmark in New York City, as well as the sixth such landmark that was a tunnel. According to M. Ann Belkov, the National Park Service superintendent for Ellis Island, the tunnel had been granted landmark status because it had been the first "mechanically ventilated underwater vehicular tunnel" in the world. Between 2003 and 2006, the fire protection system in both tunnels was modernized. Fire extinguishers were placed in alcoves along the tunnel walls. Although the water supply was turned off, it remained in place during the renovation.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: The Holland Tunnel was closed on October 29, 2012, as Hurricane Sandy approached. The tunnel, like many other New York City tunnels, was flooded by the high storm surge. It remained closed for several days, opening for buses only on November 2 and to all traffic on November 7.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: The first fatal vehicular crash in the Holland Tunnel happened in March 1932, four and a half years after it opened. One person died and two others were injured.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: The 1949 Holland Tunnel fire, which started aboard a chemical truck, caused severe damage to the south tube of the tunnel. The fire resulted in 69 injuries and nearly $600,000 worth of damage to the structure. In addition, two first responders, a FDNY battalion chief and a Port Authority patrolman, died as a result of injuries sustained in fighting the fire.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: Due to its status as one of the few connections between Manhattan and New Jersey, the Holland Tunnel is considered to be one of the most high-risk terrorist target sites in the United States. Other such sites in New Jersey include the Lincoln Tunnel in Weehawken, the PATH station at Exchange Place in Jersey City, and the Port of Newark in Elizabeth. In 1995, Sheik Omar Abdel Rahman and nine other men were convicted of a bombing plot in which a radical Islamic group plotted to blow up five or six sites in New York City, including the Holland and Lincoln Tunnels and the George Washington Bridge.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: Following the September 11, 2001, attacks on the World Trade Center, the Holland Tunnel remained closed to all but emergency traffic for over a month, due to the Manhattan portal's proximity to the World Trade Center site. When the tunnel reopened on October 15, 2001, strict new regulations were enacted, and single-occupancy vehicles and trucks were banned from entering the tunnel. In March 2002, before all of the post-9/11 restrictions were lifted, a warehouse fire near the eastbound tube's New Jersey portal caused the tunnel to be closed entirely for five days; the fire continued for over a week. That April, all trucks were banned from the westbound tube, and trucks with more than three axles were also banned from the eastbound tube. Single-occupant vehicles were prohibited in the tunnel on weekday mornings between 6:00 am and 10:00 am until November 17, 2003, when the restrictions were lifted.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: In 2006, a plot to detonate explosives in a Hudson River tunnel was uncovered by the Federal Bureau of Investigation. It was originally reported that the Holland Tunnel was the target, but in a later update of the source, the plot was clarified to be aimed at the PATH's tubes instead of the Holland Tunnel.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: , the tolls-by-mail rate going from New Jersey to New York are $16 for cars and motorcycles; there is no toll for passenger vehicles going from New York to New Jersey. New Jersey and New York–issued E-ZPass users are charged $11.75 for cars and $10.75 for motorcycles during non-peak hours, and $13.75 for cars and $12.75 for motorcycles during peak hours. Users with E-ZPass issued from agencies outside of New Jersey and New York are charged the cash rate.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: Tolls are collected at a tollbooth on the New Jersey side. Originally, tolls were collected in both directions. In August 1970, the toll was abolished for westbound drivers, and at the same time, eastbound drivers saw their tolls doubled. The tolls of eleven other New York–New Jersey and Hudson River crossings along a stretch, from the Outerbridge Crossing in the south to the Rip Van Winkle Bridge in the north, were also changed to south- or eastbound-only at that time. E-ZPass was first made available at the Holland Tunnel in October 1997.


title: Holland Tunnel

text: In March 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, all-electronic tolling was temporarily placed in effect for all Port Authority crossings, including the Holland Tunnel. Open road tolling began on December 23, 2020. The tollbooths were dismantled, and drivers were no longer able to pay cash at the tunnel. Instead, there will be cameras mounted onto new overhead gantries at the New Jersey side going to New York. A vehicle without E-ZPass will have a picture taken of its license plate and a bill for the toll will be mailed to its owner. For E-ZPass users, sensors will detect their transponders wirelessly. The carpool discount plan was eliminated because the discount required a manual count of passengers.


title: Thomas Grey, 1st Marquess of Dorset

text: Thomas Grey, 1st Marquess of Dorset, 1st Earl of Huntingdon, 7th Baron Ferrers of Groby, (145520 September 1501) was an English nobleman, courtier and the eldest son of Elizabeth Woodville and her first husband Sir John Grey of Groby. Her second marriage to King Edward IV made her Queen of England, thus elevating Grey's status at court and in the realm as the stepson of the King. Through his mother's assiduous endeavours, he made two materially advantageous marriages to wealthy heiresses, the King's niece Anne Holland and Cecily Bonville, 7th Baroness Harington. By the latter, he had 14 children.


title: Thomas Grey, 1st Marquess of Dorset

text: Thomas Grey was born in 1455 close to the Palace of Westminster, near the City of London. He was the elder son of John Grey (c.1432-1461) of Groby in Leicestershire, by his wife Elizabeth Woodville, who later became queen consort to King Edward IV.


title: Thomas Grey, 1st Marquess of Dorset

text: His mother endeavoured to improve his estates by the conventional methods of their class and time, through his marriages and purchase of wardships. He also found favour with Edward, fighting in the Battle of Tewkesbury in 1471. Grey became Lord Harington and Bonville by right of his second wife Cecily Bonville. In 1475 he was created marquess of Dorset, and he was also a knight of the Garter and a privy councillor.


title: Thomas Grey, 1st Marquess of Dorset

text: On the death of his stepfather, Edward IV, Grey proved unable to maintain his family's position. It was not possible to arrange a Woodville regency. Internal fighting, particularly the long-established battle for ascendancy in Leicestershire between the Grey and Hastings families, was now on the national stage. Richard III came to the throne when the sons of Edward IV's bastardy were declared; the Grey family was aligned with Edward.


title: Thomas Grey, 1st Marquess of Dorset

text: On 25 June 1483, an assembly of Parliament declared Richard III to be the legitimate king, and Thomas's uncle, Anthony Woodville, 2nd Earl Rivers, and brother, Richard Grey, were executed. Later in the summer, learning of the apparent murder of both his young half-brothers, Grey joined the Duke of Buckingham's rebellion against Richard III. When the rebellion failed he fled to Brittany to join Henry Tudor, who pledged to marry Grey's half-sister Elizabeth of York and heal the division between the Yorkists and the Lancastrians.


title: Thomas Grey, 1st Marquess of Dorset

text: However, just before Henry and the Lancastrian army left to launch their ultimately successful invasion of England in August 1485, Grey heard rumours from England that his mother had come to terms with Richard III, and he was persuaded to desert Henry Tudor. He was intercepted at Compiègne on his way to England, and played no part in the invasion or subsequent overthrow of Richard III. Grey was instead confined to Paris, as security for the repayment of a loan made to Henry Tudor by the French government, unable to return home until Henry VII was safely installed as king of England.


title: Thomas Grey, 1st Marquess of Dorset

text: Thereafter Henry VII took good care to keep his half-brother-in-law under control and Grey was not permitted to recover his former influence, although his attainder was reversed. Thomas Grey was confined in the Tower in 1487 during Lambert Simnel's rising and not released until after the House of Tudor victory in the Battle of Stoke Field. Though he accompanied the King on his expedition to France in 1492, he was obliged to commit himself in writing to ensure he did not commit treason. He was permitted to assist in the suppression of the Cornish rising in 1497.


title: Thomas Grey, 1st Marquess of Dorset

text: Thomas Grey, Marquess of Dorset, died in London on 20 September 1501, aged about 46, and was buried in the collegiate church of Astley, Warwickshire. His widow married Grey's cousin, Henry Stafford, later Earl of Wiltshire.


title: Thomas Grey, 1st Marquess of Dorset

text: His mother sought to make provision for him by marriage to wealthy heiresses. He married firstly, at Greenwich in October 1466, Lady Anne Holland (1461c. 1474), the only daughter of Henry Holland, 3rd Duke of Exeter, and Anne of York. His mother-in-law was the second child and eldest surviving daughter of Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York, and Cecily Neville, thus sister to his mother's second husband King Edward IV.


title: Thomas Grey, 1st Marquess of Dorset

text: After Anne Holland died young without issue, Thomas married secondly, by papal dispensation 5 September 1474, Cecily Bonville, 7th Baroness Harington of Aldingham and 2nd Baroness Bonville, the wealthiest heiress in England. Cecily Bonville, born in 1461, was the daughter and heiress of William Bonville, 6th Baron Harington, by his wife Katherine Neville, daughter of Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury. Katherine was sister to the late Earl of Warwick and thus aunt to his daughters.


title: Thomas Grey, 1st Marquess of Dorset

text: The arms of the head of the Grey family are blazoned "Barry of six argent and azure in chief three torteaux gules".


title: Trametes versicolor

text: Trametes versicoloralso known as "Coriolus versicolor" and "Polyporus versicolor"is a common polypore mushroom found throughout the world. Meaning 'of several colors', "versicolor" reliably describes this fungus that displays a variety of colors. For example, because its shape and multiple colors are similar to those of a wild turkey, "T. versicolor" is commonly called turkey tail. A similar looking mushroom, commonly called false turkey tail, which is from a different order, may sometimes be confused with the turkey tail mushroom due to appearance. Another lookalike is the multicolor gill polypore.


title: Trametes versicolor

text: The top surface of the cap shows typical concentric zones of different colors, and the margin is always the lightest. Underneath a layer of tomentum is a black layer, topping the whitish flesh. The flesh itself is 1–3 mm thick and has a leathery texture. Older specimens, such as the one pictured, can have zones with green algae growing on them, thus appearing green. It commonly grows in tiled layers in groups or rows on logs and stumps of deciduous trees, and is common in North America. The mushroom is stalkless and the cap is rust-brown or darker brown, sometimes with black zones. The cap is flat, up to 8 × 5 x 0.5–1 cm in area. It is often triangular or round, with zones of fine hairs. The pore surface is whitish to light brown, with pores round and with age twisted and labyrinthine. 3–8 pores per millimeter.


title: Trametes versicolor

text: "T. versicolor" is a white-rot fungi which degrades lignin from lignocellulosic materials, such as wood. It may be eaten by caterpillars of the fungus moth "Nemaxera betulinella", maggots of the Platypezid fly "Polyporivora picta", and the fungus gnat "Mycetophila luctuosa". It is considered inedible to humans.


title: Trametes versicolor

text: Similar species include "Trametes hirsuta", "T. ochracea", "T. suaveolens", "Bjerkandera adusta", "Cerrena unicolor", "Lenzites betulina", and "Stereum hirsutum". Other species of "Stereum" are similar, typically with a smooth undersurface, as well as some species of "Trichaptum".


title: Trametes versicolor

text: "Trametes versicolor" contains polysaccharides under basic research, including the protein-bound PSP and β-1,3 and β-1,4 glucans. The lipid fraction contains the lanostane-type tetracyclic triterpenoid sterol ergosta-7,22,dien-3β-ol as well as fungisterol and β-sitosterol. When extracting compounds from "Trametes versicolor," menthol extractions have the highest levels of polyphenols, and water extractions have the most flavonoids.


title: Trametes versicolor

text: Polysaccharide-K (PSK or "krestin"), extracted from "T. versicolor", is considered safe for use as an adjuvant therapy for cancer treatment in Japan where it is known as "kawaratake" (roof tile mushroom) and approved for clinical use. As a glycoprotein mixture, PSK has been studied in clinical research in people with various cancers and immune deficiencies, but its efficacy remains inconclusive, as of 2021.


title: Trametes versicolor

text: In some countries, PSK is sold as a dietary supplement. Use of PSK may cause adverse effects, such as diarrhea, darkened feces, or darkened finger nails.


title: Trametes versicolor

text: In 2020, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued warning letters to two manufacturers for advertising misbranded "T. versicolor" PSK supplements as anti-cancer or immune therapy drugs, stating such products "are not generally recognized as safe and effective for the above referenced uses and, therefore, these products are 'new drugs' under section 201(p) of the FD&C Act, 21 U.S.C. 321(p). New drugs may not be legally introduced or delivered for introduction into interstate commerce without prior approval from the FDA."


title: Violence Against Women Act

text: The Violence Against Women Act of 1994 (VAWA) is a United States federal law (Title IV of the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act, ) signed by President Bill Clinton on September 13, 1994. The Act provided $1.6 billion toward investigation and prosecution of violent crimes against women, imposed automatic and mandatory restitution on those convicted, and allowed civil redress when prosecutors chose to not prosecute cases. The Act also established the Office on Violence Against Women within the U.S. Department of Justice.


title: Violence Against Women Act

text: The bill was introduced by Representative Jack Brooks (D-TX) in 1994 and gained support from a broad coalition of advocacy groups. The Act passed through both houses of the U.S. Congress with bipartisan support in 1994, although the following year House Republicans attempted to cut the Act's funding. In the 2000 U.S. Supreme Court case "United States v. Morrison", a sharply divided Court struck down the VAWA provision allowing women the right to sue the accused in federal court. By a 5–4 majority, the Court overturned the provision as exceeding the federal government's powers under the Commerce Clause.


title: Violence Against Women Act

text: VAWA was reauthorized by bipartisan majorities in Congress in 2000 and again in December 2005. The Act's 2012 renewal was opposed by conservative Republicans, who objected to extending the Act's protections to same-sex couples and to provisions allowing battered undocumented immigrants to claim temporary visas, but it was reauthorized in 2013 after a long legislative battle. As a result of the United States federal government shutdown of 2018–2019, the Act expired on December 21, 2018. It was temporarily reinstated via a short-term spending bill on January 25, 2019, but expired again on February 15, 2019. The U.S. House of Representatives passed a bill reauthorizing VAWA in April 2019 that includes new provisions protecting transgender victims and banning individuals convicted of domestic abuse from purchasing firearms. In an attempt to reach a bipartisan agreement, Senators Joni Ernst (R-IA) and Dianne Feinstein (D-CA) led months of negotiation talks that came to a halt in November 2019. Senator Ernst has said she plans to introduce a new version of the bill and hopes it will pass in the Senate.


title: Violence Against Women Act

text: The Independent Women's Forum has urged Congress to include provisions enhancing penalties for female genital mutilation (FGM) and funding to combat FGM. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, an estimated 513,000 women and girls in the U.S. are at risk of FGM or have already been subjected to such abuse. The 2019 House version of VAWA, H.R. 1585, does not include any additional federal penalties for FGM. VAWA was reauthorized on March 15, 2022, by President Joe Biden.


title: Violence Against Women Act

text: The World Conference on Human Rights, held in Vienna, Austria, in 1993, and the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women in the same year, concluded that civil society and governments have acknowledged that domestic violence is a public health policy and human rights concern. In the United States, according to the National Intimate Partner Sexual Violence Survey of 2010 1 in 6 women suffered some kind of sexual violence induced by their intimate partner during the course of their lives.


title: Violence Against Women Act

text: However, during the early period of 1970-1990, domestic violence was regarded as a private matter and sometimes was even ignored by the police. According to Zorza in Criminal Law of Misdemeanor Domestic Violence, 1970-1990, "throughout the 1970s and early 1980s, officers believed and were taught that domestic violence was a private matter, ill suited to public intervention." Unfortunately, the arrest did not deter and punish abusers. The results of three studies, conducted in Omaha, Charlotte, and Milwaukee, indicated that arrest alone did not deter abusers."


title: Violence Against Women Act

text: The Violence Against Women Act was developed and passed as a result of extensive grassroots efforts in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Advocates for the battered women's movement included sexual assault advocates, individuals from victim services, law enforcement agencies, prosecutors' offices, the courts, and the private bar. They urged Congress to adopt significant legislation to address domestic and sexual violence.


title: Violence Against Women Act

text: The Violence Against Women Act established new offenses and penalties for the violation of a protection order or stalking in which an abuser crossed a state line to injure or harass another, or forced a victim to cross a state line under duress and then physically harmed the victim in the course of a violent crime. Therefore, VAWA-I's efforts in legislation and prosecution increased the criminal costs, posing harsher punishment and higher costs to criminals. Although it's hard to calculate the increase in criminal costs, its influence on social welfare should be negligent regarding the huge amount of decrease in victimization costs.