text: During a meeting of the State Anti-fascist Council for the National Liberation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (ZAVNOBiH) in Mrkonjić Grad on 25 November 1943. In April 1945 its name was formalized as the Federal State of Bosnia and Herzegovina (), a constituent unit of the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia. With DF Yugoslavia changing its name to the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia on 29 November 1945 as well as the promulgation of the 1946 Yugoslav Constitution two months later in January, its constituent units also changed their respective names. FS Bosnia and Herzegovina thus became known as the People's Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina ("Narodna Republika Bosna i Hercegovina" / Народна Република Босна и Херцеговина).


This constitutional system lasted until the 1963 Yugoslav Constitution. On 7 April 1963, Yugoslavia was reconstituted as the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, and PR Bosnia and Herzegovina changed its name to the Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina ("Socijalistička Republika Bosna i Hercegovina" / Социјалистичка Република Босна и Херцеговина).


title: Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina

text: After independence on 1 March 1992, the country was renamed to the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Following the Dayton Agreement that was in force, it became simply a federated state known as Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1997.


text: Because of its central geographic position within the Yugoslav federation, post-war Bosnia was strategically selected as a base for the development of the military defense industry. This contributed to a large concentration of arms and military personnel in Bosnia; a significant factor in the war that followed the break-up of Yugoslavia in the 1990s. However, Bosnia's existence within Yugoslavia, for the large part, was peaceful and prosperous. Being one of the poorer republics in the early 1950s it quickly recovered economically, taking advantage of its extensive natural resources to stimulate industrial development. The Yugoslavian communist doctrine of "brotherhood and unity" particularly suited Bosnia's diverse and multi-ethnic society that, because of such an imposed system of tolerance, thrived culturally and socially. The improvements to cultural tolerance throughout Bosnia and Herzegovina culminated with the selection of Sarajevo to host the 1984 Winter Olympics.


text: Though considered a political backwater of the federation for much of the 50s and 60s, the 70s saw the ascension of a strong Bosnian political elite. While working within the communist system, politicians such as Džemal Bijedić, Branko Mikulić and Hamdija Pozderac reinforced and protected the sovereignty of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Their efforts proved key during the turbulent period following Tito's death in 1980, and are today considered some of the early steps towards Bosnian independence. However, the republic hardly escaped the increasingly nationalistic climate of the time unscathed.


text: Following the death of Tito in 1980, rising nationalist ideas primarily noted in Serbian academia, pressured Bosnia to deal with allegations of rising nationalism in their own society. One of the most controversial events that were taken by a Bosnian political leadership was a so-called Sarajevo process in 1983 where, under significant pressure from Serbia's political leadership, Bosnian political elite used their influence to secure convictions for several Bosniak nationalists as a type of a political sacrifice to gain political points in the fight against Serbian nationalists.


text: The Sarajevo process centered on convicting Alija Izetbegović for writing "The Islamic Declaration", a literary work which was in the Yugoslav communist regime considered a radical approach towards socialist ideals of former Yugoslavia that were based on suppression of nationalism and any violation of that doctrine was punishable by law. Such trials in the communist regime were quite common and a typical practice of suppressing the right to free speech. Bosnian politicians used this practice to reaffirm their political opposition to Serbian nationalist tendencies and in particular opposition to the politics of Slobodan Milošević who was trying to revert the constitutional amendments of the 1970s that awarded the Bosniaks the status of a constituent ethnicity.


text: The process also backfired as the Serbian lobby insisted that Bosnia was a "dark nation" where all those who oppose the government will be prosecuted, where Bosnian Muslim communists were prosecuting Muslim believers. That kind of propaganda attracted many Bosnian Muslims to their way of thinking. Others were interpreting the Sarajevo process as a way of removing the political amateurs who could end up disrupting the process of Bosnian independence.


text: With the fall of communism and the start of the break-up of Yugoslavia, the old communist doctrine of tolerance began to lose its strength, creating an opportunity for nationalist elements in the society to spread their influence.


text: On the first multi-party elections that took place in November 1990 in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the three largest ethnic parties in the country won: the Bosniak Party of Democratic Action, the Serbian Democratic Party and the Croatian Democratic Union of Bosnia and Herzegovina. After the elections, they formed a coalition government.


text: Parties shared power along the ethnic lines so that the President of the Presidency of the Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina was a Bosniak, president of the Parliament was a Bosnian Serb and the prime minister a Bosnian Croat.


text: After Slovenia and Croatia declared independence from the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in 1991, Bosnia and Herzegovina declared its sovereignty in October 1991 and organized a referendum on independence in March 1992. The decision of the Parliament of the Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina on holding the referendum was taken after the majority of Bosnian Serb members had left the assembly in protest.


text: These Bosnian Serb assembly members invited the Bosnian Serb population to boycott the referendum held on 29 February and 1 March 1992. The turnout in the referendum was 64-67% and the vote was 98% in favor of independence. Independence was declared on 5 March 1992 by the parliament. The referendum and the murder of two Bosnian Serb members of a wedding procession in Sarajevo the day prior to the referendum was utilized by the Bosnian Serb political leadership as a reason to start road blockades in protest. Further political and social deterioration, leading to the Bosnian War followed.


text: The Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina was renamed the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 8 April 1992, losing the adjective "Socialist". It began moving toward a fully capitalist economic system. The republic retained socialist realist symbols pending the end of the Yugoslav Wars. The republic was led by Alija Izetbegović in a fractious political environment. In 1992, the Republic declared independence from the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.


title: Spider mite

text: Spider mites are members of the Tetranychidae family, which includes about 1,200 species. They are part of the subclass Acari (mites). Spider mites generally live on the undersides of leaves of plants, where they may spin protective silk webs, and they can cause damage by puncturing the plant cells to feed. Spider mites are known to feed on several hundred species of plants.


title: Spider mite

text: Spider mites are less than in size and vary in color. They lay small, spherical, initially transparent eggs and many species spin silk webbing to help protect the colony from predators; they get the "spider" part of their common name from this webbing.


title: Spider mite

text: Hot, dry conditions are often associated with population build-up of spider mites. Under optimal conditions (approximately 27 °C), the two-spotted spider mite can hatch in as little as 3 days, and become sexually mature in as little as 5 days. One female can lay up to 20 eggs per day and can live for 2 to 4 weeks, laying hundreds of eggs. This accelerated reproductive rate allows spider mite populations to adapt quickly to resist pesticides, so chemical control methods can become somewhat ineffectual when the same pesticide is used over a prolonged period.


title: Spider mite

text: Spider mites, like hymenopterans and some scale insects, are haplodiploid and therefore arrhenotochous: females are diploid and males are haploid. When mated, females avoid the fecundation of some eggs to produce males. Fertilized eggs produce diploid females. Unmated, unfertilized females still lay eggs that originate exclusively haploid males.


title: Spider mite

text: The best known member of the group is "Tetranychus urticae", which has a cosmopolitan distribution, and attacks a wide range of plants, including peppers, tomatoes, potatoes, beans, corn, cannabis, and strawberries. Other species which can be important pests of commercial plants include "Panonychus ulmi" (fruit tree red spider mite) and "Panonychus citri" (citrus red mite).


title: Spider mite

text: Neem oil may provide control, when combined with a suitable surfactant and diluted with water. As with chemical control, repeated applications are required.


title: Spider mite

text: Predatory mites of the Phytoseiidae family, including "Phytoseiulus persimilis", eat adult mites, their eggs, and all developmental stages between. Predatory mites can consume as many as 5 adult spider mites per day, or 20 eggs per day.


title: Spider mite

text: Insecticidal soap spray is effective against spider mites. It is commercially available or can be made of certain types of household soap. However, since it will also kill predatory mites, its use is not recommended if the latter are present.


title: Spider mite

text: In some cases, the application of Harpin Alpha Beta protein may help in the treatment and prevention of infestation by stimulating the plant's natural defenses, restoring sap sugar levels and encouraging replacement of damaged tissues. This affects the spider mites' ability to down-regulate the immune response of a plant.


title: Spider mite

text: Acaricides are applied to crops to control spider mites. They can be either systemic or non-systemic in nature and can be persistent by providing residual activity for over a month. Drawbacks include high potential for development of resistance in mite populations, as has been observed in previous generations of miticides, and toxicity of some miticides towards fish. Thus proper selection, precautions and application are required to minimize risks.


title: Spider mite

text: Temporarily modifying environmental conditions has proven an effective method for insect pest control including spider mites. Generally dramatically decreased oxygen and increased carbon dioxide concentrations at elevated temperatures can lead to mortality at all developmental stages. However mild CO enrichment has been shown to in fact increase mite reproduction. One study determined a concentration of 0.4% O and 20% CO gave a LT (time to 99% mortality) of 113h at 20 °C and 15.5h at 40 °C. Another study reported 100% mortality of various stages of the two spotted spidermite using 60% CO and 20% O at 30 °C for 16h.


title: Spider mite

text: Advantages would include decreased ability for resistance development compared to miticides and potential ease of application while drawbacks might include sensitivity of the plant to the conditions, feasibility of application, and human safety.


title: March for Our Lives

text: March for Our Lives (MFOL) was a student-led demonstration in support of gun control legislation. It took place in Washington, D.C., on March 24, 2018, with over 880 sibling events throughout the United States and around the world, and was planned by Never Again MSD in collaboration with the nonprofit organization Everytown for Gun Safety. The event followed the Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School shooting a month earlier, which was described by several media outlets as a possible tipping point for gun control legislation.


title: March for Our Lives

text: Protesters urged for universal background checks on all gun sales, closing of the gun show loophole, a restoration of the 1994 Federal Assault Weapons Ban, and a ban on the sale of high-capacity magazines and bump stocks in the United States. Turnout was estimated to be between 1.2 and 2 million people in the United States, making it one of the largest protests in American history.


title: March for Our Lives

text: After the Robb Elementary School Shooting in Uvalde, Texas, MFOL Action Fund organized another nationwide protest on June 11, 2022. The main protest took place in Washington, DC, with hundreds of sibling events taking place across the United States.


title: March for Our Lives

text: Cameron Kasky, a junior at Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School in Parkland, Florida, and his classmates, announced the march on February 18, four days after the shooting at the school. Also joining the march efforts were Alex Wind of Stoneman Douglas High School, who along with four friends created the "Never Again" campaign. X González and David Hogg, also survivors of the shooting, have been vocal supporters of the march.


title: March for Our Lives

text: The date was chosen in order to give students, families and others a chance to mourn first, and then on March 24, talk about gun control. Organizers filed a permit application with the National Park Service during the week of February 23, and expected as many as 500,000 people to attend. However, the National Mall, which was the planned site of the main march in Washington, D.C., was reportedly already booked for March 24; the application, filed by an unidentified local student group, claimed it was for a talent show. A permit was later obtained for Pennsylvania Avenue. The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority announced it would operate extra trains for the march.


title: March for Our Lives

text: The Enough! National School Walkout was held on the one month anniversary of the Stoneman Douglas shooting. It involved students walking out from their classes for exactly 17 minutes (one for each of the victims of the massacre) and involved more than 3,000 schools across the United States and nearly one million students. Thousands of students also gathered and staged a rally in Washington, D.C., after observing 17 minutes of silence with their backs to the White House. After the success of the walkout, Hogg posted a tweet that included a provocative, NRA-style advertisement calling out lawmakers for their inaction on or opposition to gun control efforts, asking "What if our politicians weren't the bitch of the NRA?", and ending with a promotion for the upcoming March.


title: March for Our Lives

text: George Clooney and Scooter Braun were major forces behind the organization of the march, and aided in fundraising efforts behind the scenes. Amal and George Clooney donated $500,000 to support the march and announced they would attend. Oprah Winfrey matched the Clooney donation to support the march. Jeffrey Katzenberg and his wife Marilyn also contributed $500,000. Film director and producer Steven Spielberg and actress Kate Capshaw Spielberg donated $500,000, also matching the donation of the Clooneys. On February 23, Gucci announced they were also donating $500,000 towards the march. Other people and organizations offering support have included Selena Gomez, Justin Bieber, Gabby Giffords, Lauren Jauregui, Alyssa Milano, Moms Demand Action, Amy Schumer, St. Vincent, Harry Styles, Hayley Williams, Paul McCartney, Kanye West, and Kim Kardashian. John Legend and Chrissy Teigen donated $25,000. Jimmy Fallon pledged to attend an event with his family. Samantha Bee interviewed kids. Jim Jefferies interviewed participants in San Diego. Other celebrities including Taylor Swift have donated an undisclosed amount of money toward the campaign. Justin Timberlake, Will Smith, Cher and Amy Poehler also participated in the march.


title: March for Our Lives

text: James Corden promoted the March for Our Lives event. John Zimmer and Logan Green, the co-founders of Lyft, announced their support of the rallies and stated that their company would provide free rides for those attending demonstrations. Dating app Bumble CEO Whitney Wolfe Herd subsequently announced that they were supporting the NeverAgain movement by banning all images of firearms on their dating application.


title: March for Our Lives

text: The founding members of MFOL were awarded "Smithsonian" magazine's 2018 American Ingenuity Award in the Youth category.


title: March for Our Lives

text: In Washington, D.C., a prayer and vigil was held at the Washington National Cathedral on the eve of the rally, as a memorial for the victims of gun violence, and to declare the church's belief, "This work is rooted in our commitment to Jesus' command to love our neighbors as ourselves... We gather out of a conviction that the right to bear arms does not trump the right to life."


title: March for Our Lives

text: Guest speakers included Philip and April Schentrup, parents of 16-year-old Carmen Schentrup, who was killed in the shooting in Parkland, Florida.


title: March for Our Lives

text: March for Our Lives was among the biggest youth-led protests since the Vietnam War era. Estimates of participation at the main event in Washington, D.C., range from 200,000 to 800,000.


title: March for Our Lives

text: The speakers—all of whom were high schoolers or younger—included Marjory Stoneman Douglas students Cameron Kasky, David Hogg, Delaney Tarr, Sarah Chadwick, Alex Wind, Jaclyn Corin, Ryan Deitsch, Aalayah Eastmond, Samantha Fuentes, and X González. Hunter Pollack, brother of victim Meadow, was scheduled to speak, but did not attend due to a logistical issue, which he contended was a result of being misled by event officials. David Hogg tweeted out a video of Hunter's speech from a later event.


title: March for Our Lives

text: Other participants included Naomi Wadler, who is an elementary school student in Alexandria, Virginia, Trevon Bosley from Chicago whose brother was shot and killed leaving church, Edna Lizbeth Chávez, a high school student from Los Angeles, and Zion Kelly, whose twin brother was shot and killed during an armed robbery. Yolanda Renee King, granddaughter of Martin Luther King Jr., also made an appearance along with Mya Middleton, a student from Chicago representing After School Matters, Matt Post, a senior from Montgomery County, Christopher Underwood, an 11-year old from New York, Alex King and D'Angelo McDade from Chicago, and Matthew Soto, brother of Sandy Hook victim Victoria Soto, and Parkland parents Lori Alhadeff, who lost her daughter Alyssa in the school incident and Manuel & Patricia Oliver, whose lost their son Joaquin and launched a campaign titled "Change The Ref" to honor their son and push for new restrictions on any form of weapon violence.


title: March for Our Lives

text: González, after speaking and naming the seventeen victims, stood silent for over four minutes, after which a cellphone alarm went off and they announced that it was the six minute and twenty second point in her speech, equal to the length of the Parkland shooting. González ended their speech saying,


title: March for Our Lives

text: then walked off stage as the entire crowd along Pennsylvania Avenue applauded loudly. Their speech and emotional moment of silence was praised by media organizations as one of the "most memorable" and "powerful" moments in the day's events.


title: March for Our Lives

text: Singers Ariana Grande, Lin-Manuel Miranda, Ben Platt, Miley Cyrus, Jennifer Hudson, Andra Day, Common, Selena Gomez, Demi Lovato and Vic Mensa joined student-led marchers in Washington, D.C.


title: March for Our Lives

text: Throughout the nation, other participators who took to the stage or in the crowd in D.C. included Kanye West & Kim Kardashian, George & Amal Clooney, Glenn Close, Cher, Miley Cyrus' sister Noah, Steven Spielberg, Julianne Moore, and Lauren Jauregui of Fifth Harmony in D.C. as well as Arizona Representative Gabby Giffords, who survived weapon violence in the 2011 Tucson shooting and marching and paying tribute for the six victims who died at her Congressional Rally back then in 2011.


title: March for Our Lives

text: Celebs who took part in the rally in Los Angeles included Laura Dern, Reese Witherspoon, Olivia Wilde with Jason Sudeikis, Mason Cook, Jaden & Willow Smith, Yara Shahidi, Meg Donnelly, Roots Drummer Questlove, Amy Schumer, Lady Gaga, Charlie Puth, Mae Whitman, Connie Britton, Rita Ora, Ta'Rhonda Jones, Miles Heizer, Kendall & Kylie Jenner, Hailey Baldwin, Leona Lewis, Angelica Houston, and singer and music executive Diane Warren along with city's mayor Eric Garcetti and State Senator Kamala Harris.


title: March for Our Lives

text: During the rally in Miami Beach, musicians Flo Rida and Gloria & Emilio Estefan's daughter Emily took part in a Miami Beach rally with Mayor Dan Gelber.


title: March for Our Lives

text: Actor Matthew McConaughey took part in the march in Austin, Texas, and other singer-songwriters included Paul Simon, who performed "Sound of Silence" in Stamford, Connecticut, and Brandi Carlile who sung "Hold Out Your Hand", following the release of her sixth studio album "By the Way, I Forgive You", which was released two days after the Parkland tragedy. (The song later became a music video on June 1, 2018, showing montage recap clips of protestors being guided by officers on motorcycle while Brandi is blending in with the crowd and is later seen performing on the front lawn of the Seattle Center.)


title: March for Our Lives

text: Politicians included Andrew Yang, who took part in Annapolis along with Mayor Gavin Buckley, Maryland, Nashville Mayor David Briley, Washington, D.C. Mayor Muriel Bowser, Georgia Congressman John Lewis (who took part in Atlanta and paid tribute for his colleague Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., John Fitzgerald and Robert Francis Kennedy, all of whom died from weapon violence), Representative Joseph Kennedy III in the event in Boston, Massachusetts Senator Elizabeth Warren, who snapped a few selfies during a march in Springfield, and New York Governor Andrew Cuomo during the New York City event along with Mayor Bill De Blasio and Black Lives Matter President, Hawk Newsome as well as TV Host Nick Cannon.


title: March for Our Lives

text: Other advocates/activists included Malala Yousafzai, who gave a warm introduction via a video monitor during the Washington March.


title: March for Our Lives

text: On March 21, NRATV host Grant Stinchfield stated that "March for Our Lives is backed by radicals with a history of violent threats, language and actions"; fact-checker PolitiFact has rated this statement as being "without merit" and "Pants on Fire" indicating that it is a "ridiculous claim".


title: March for Our Lives

text: While the march was occurring, the NRA posted a membership drive video on their Facebook page, declaring that the "protests aren't spontaneous. Gun-hating billionaires and Hollywood elites are manipulating and exploiting children as part of their plan to DESTROY the Second Amendment". Another video dubbed "A March for Their Lies" was uploaded to YouTube featuring Colion Noir, in which he described the planned rally as a "carnival of a march". Noir also said in the video that there is an "agenda that's a million times bigger than the guns".


title: March for Our Lives

text: "The Washington Post" reported that there were many Democrats encouraging the marchers, and many of them, including candidates for office, participated from the sidelines in the march, but few Republicans did similarly. The White House said in a response that they "applaud the many courageous young Americans exercising their first amendment rights".


title: March for Our Lives

text: On the day of the protests, Florida Republican senator Marco Rubio responded by stating: "However, many other Americans do not support a gun ban" and "view banning guns as an infringement on the Second Amendment rights of law abiding citizens that ultimately will not prevent these tragedies". He called for protesters to find "common ground with those who hold opposing views" for change to happen. However, a blanket gun ban was not called for by the protests.


title: March for Our Lives

text: Former Republican senator and presidential candidate Rick Santorum criticized the Parkland activists, suggesting during an interview with CNN that students should be learning ways to respond to a shooter rather than asking lawmakers "to solve their problem"; Santorum advised students to take classes in CPR rather than marching in Washington. "The Washington Post" quoted several doctors responding to Santorum that CPR would not be at all effective on gunshot victims as they were suffering from blood loss.


title: March for Our Lives

text: A report in "The New Yorker" praised the leaders of the march for their "extraordinary inclusiveness" in that they expanded the locus of concern from suburban schools to those of urban neighborhoods as well.


title: March for Our Lives

text: Libertarian magazine "Reason" criticized the march, saying that "Gun violence has declined precipitously over the past 25 years, and most Americans are much safer today than they were a generation ago." and that "mass shootings are not the norm, and kids don't need to be terrified of going to school."


title: March for Our Lives

text: On social media, fake pictures and GIFs of X González tearing up a copy of the U.S. Constitution were circulated in an effort to discredit the march. The images were doctored from originals of González tearing up a shooting target sign. Actor and conservative commentator Adam Baldwin defended circulating the doctored images as "political satire".


title: March for Our Lives

text: Previously, protests had occurred for multiple shootings in the United States, such as the 2015 Charleston church shooting, but never had they amassed more than several hundred participants. With social media, more information was relayed to a larger audience in quicker time, giving more people awareness of what was happening across the nation. By National Walkout Day on April 20, 2018, the social medias had followings over 1.3 million people and in Washington, D.C., alone, 200,000 people attended the March For Our Lives protest, whom many younger adults attributed to the big social media presence. The hashtag #MarchForOurLives was used 3.6 million times, and over 7.5 thousand tweets were directed at the NRA social media account.


title: March for Our Lives

text: The use of Twitter started when this movement originated after the Parkland shooting in Florida, where 17 individuals died. During the shooting, multiple students used Twitter, including freshman Aidan Minoff, who tweeted, "I am in a school shooting right now..." Twitter allowed others around the world to suddenly be aware of what was happening in real time and showing the raw emotion of these students. Twitter was a more "formal" news platform that supported greater two-way communication between the organization and the audience.


title: March for Our Lives

text: The March For Our Lives Twitter started in February 2018, with the Twitter handle, @AMarch4OurLives. Up to date, the Twitter account has 450,000 followers and are a student-run organization with a large social media presence. The March For Our Lives Twitter has real time, up to date tweets about the movement. It includes tweets about the red flag bill being signed in from other March For Our Lives accounts based in different locations, such as NYC. In addition, the March For Our Lives Twitter account also alerts their followers about the events that are happening, such as meetings at Town Halls or when certain protests are happening. All of their posts follow certain guidelines and relevance, and they also continue to retweet their own tweets too.


title: March for Our Lives

text: In March 2018, Selena Gomez shared the march's hashtag #MarchForOurLives with the message: "Protect kids, not guns!" and this post had received 2 million likes. Lady Gaga also documented the march, releasing a series of Instagram videos calling for action from politicians to enforce stricter gun laws. The march has drawn support from Taylor Swift, Miley Cyrus, Kim Kardashian, Ariana Grande, and they have pledged to join and perform at the march.


title: March for Our Lives

text: The students who survived the Stoneman Douglas High School shooting and millions of students worldwide participated in March for Our Lives, emerging as more influential on Instagram than celebrities on the gun control. One of the tools they used were the hashtags. Top hashtags such as #MarchForOurLives #NeverAgain, #GunControlNow, and #EnoughIsEnough are used to spread the word and call on the public's attention. Instagram becomes an 'informal' narrative platform that promoted a 'clicktivism' type of responses from the audience for the march. Besides, students collaborate with Bartle Bogle Hegarty(BBH) to create the first Instagram coloring book. BBH L.A. executive creative director Zach Hilder said, "we wanted to give them tools to elevate their voices, create a way to unify their message and allow everyone to participate in the march. That's the inspiration for Color for Our Lives."


title: March for Our Lives

text: The March For Our Lives movement employs Facebook as another social media platform to spread awareness of its campaigns and messages to people around the world. As of March 5 2019, nineteen days before the one year anniversary of the protests, the MFOL Facebook page has garnered more than 300,000 followers. The page is mainly used to provide updates on national policies regarding gun laws, as well as coverage of various politicians who advocate for more gun safety. Similar to other media platforms, the Facebook page frequently employs popular hashtags such as #MarchForOurLives and #NeverAgain in its posts. Although other social media platforms such as Twitter and Instagram often make posts to increase awareness, Facebook is more often used to organize people in nearby marches or demonstrations in major cities, and this has seen great success. For example, Facebook played a role in the March 24, 2018 March For Our Lives and Never Again collaboration gathering in Washington, D.C., where more than 47,000 people marked themselves as "going," and where more than 90,000 people from across the nation and world marked themselves as "interested" on the Facebook events posting. This shows the magnitude of Facebook as a platform for organizing unrelated people to gather together for the same cause.


title: March for Our Lives

text: The March For Our Lives movement leveraged Snapchat to gain momentum, spread the word and draw attention to what students and supporters were doing around the United States in response to recent shootings on school campuses. Unique from other social media platforms, Snapchat contains a map feature that allowed the world to see when and where activities by its users is taking place. This allowed the student walkouts to be easily tracked around the US. Video shows thousands of students and supporters walking the streets, protesting gun violence and current gun laws. Snapchat created a "March For Our Lives" Sticker that could be used by the platform's users to document the walkouts around the US.


title: March for Our Lives

text: Jesse Hughes, a survivor of the Bataclan terrorist attack, called the march "pathetic", but after being criticized for his comment, later apologized saying, "I was not attempting to impugn the youth of America and this beautiful thing that they accomplished. I truly am sorry, I did not mean to hurt anyone or cause any harm."


title: March for Our Lives

text: In anticipation and planning of the day's events, many streets in the nation's capital were closed to vehicle traffic. Several blocks of streets encompassing much of the National Mall, stretching from the Washington Monument to the United States Capitol and from Independence Avenue to E Street, were closed to vehicle traffic. Some of the rally-goers grouped at Trump Hotel, expressing displeasure that the Trump administration has not addressed school safety nor gun control in a meaningful way.


title: March for Our Lives

text: In Connecticut, marches took place in Hartford, East Haddam, Enfield, Guilford, Middlebury, New Haven, Old Saybrook, Pawcatuck, Roxbury, Salisbury, Shelton, Stamford and Westport.


title: March for Our Lives

text: In Maine, demonstrations took place in at least fifteen communities throughout the state, the largest demonstration occurring in the city of Portland, with smaller marches in the cities of Bangor, Orono, Lewiston and Presque Isle.


title: March for Our Lives

text: In Massachusetts, demonstrations were held in Boston (Boston Common), Cape Ann and Martha's Vineyard. WGBH reported that marches took place in Beverly, Hyannis (1,500 participants), Worcester (1,000 participants), Springfield (several hundred), Falmouth (500 participants). Boston Police estimate 80,000 people joined the demonstration.


title: March for Our Lives

text: In New Hampshire, marches took place in Concord and Portsmouth and Jackson. The Concord event was organized by Eve Caplan, a sophomore at John Stark Regional High School, and another high school student in Plymouth, New Hampshire. Portsmouth had a demonstration in Market Square, and was organized Sarah Mae Brown, a leader of The Resistance Seacoast.


title: March for Our Lives

text: In New Jersey, demonstrations took place in Trenton, Newark, Asbury Park, Hackensack, Haddon Heights, Hoboken, Jersey City, Montclair, Morristown, Ocean City, Somerset County Somerville, Union and Westfield.


title: March for Our Lives

text: In New York, demonstrations were held in Albany, Binghamton, Buffalo, Cobleskill, Ithaca, Oneonta, Rochester (Washington Square Park), and White Plains. In New York City, where an estimated 200,000 people marched, the musician Paul McCartney cited the murder of John Lennon as motivation for joining the protests when he told a CNN journalist, "One of my best friends was killed in gun violence."


title: March for Our Lives

text: In Pennsylvania, marches took place in Allentown, Bloomsburg, Doylestown, Easton, Erie, Lancaster, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Reading, Scranton and State College. Jay Leno made an appearance in West Chester.


title: March for Our Lives

text: A march took place in Providence, Rhode Island. Thousands of people gathered on the lawn of the Rhode Island State House.


title: March for Our Lives

text: In Montpelier, Vermont, city officials estimated that 2,500 people participated in the demonstration on the State House lawn. Elsewhere, demonstrations took place in Bennington, Putney, Rutland, Manchester and Middlebury.


title: March for Our Lives

text: In Illinois, demonstrations were held in Chicago, Glen Ellyn, Springfield, Vernon Hills, and Downers Grove.


title: March for Our Lives

text: In Minnesota, 20,000 people attended a march in Saint Paul Other marches were held in Rochester, Grand Marais, Duluth, Aitkin, Karlstad, Ely, Brainerd, Starbuck, Sartell, North Branch, Willmar, Mankato.


title: March for Our Lives

text: In Missouri, marches took place in Kansas City, O'Fallon, Springfield and St. Louis. The St. Louis march was scheduled to begin at 10:00am at Union Station and culminate at the Gateway Arch. Initial estimates anticipate 10,000 attendees. The Kansas City rally held at Theis (Volker) Park, just south of the Nelson-Atkins Art Gallery, drew 6,000 participants. The KC March was organized by students from area-wide high schools, who set up a Facebook page chronicling the event. Twenty-one Kansas and Missouri organizations hosted the event. The rally culminated in a march through the nearby Country Club Plaza upscale shopping district. Organizers partnered with the Poor People's Campaign to promote their Faith Assembly at Community Christian Church—planned by Kansas and Missouri organizers together.


title: March for Our Lives

text: In Ohio there was a rally in Cleveland in Public Square followed by a march through the streets of downtown. In Cincinnati a rally took place at City Hall, which followed a performance with seventeen flutes made from shotgun barrels, as a memorial to the victims of the Parkland shooting. Another march occurred in Columbus at the Ohio Statehouse, and other rallies took place in Athens and Dayton, each drawing hundreds of protesters.


title: March for Our Lives

text: In South Dakota, hundreds attended a march in Sioux Falls. Sister marches were held in Rapid City and Vermillion.


title: March for Our Lives

text: In Kansas, demonstrations were planned in Wichita, Topeka, Lawrence, and Kansas City's Theis Park. Police estimated 5,000 to 6,000 participants in Kansas City's event.


title: March for Our Lives

text: In Alabama, marches took place in Birmingham, Mobile, Dothan, Montgomery, Selma, Jasper, and Florence. The largest of these, the Birmingham march, drew over 5,000 attendees.


title: March for Our Lives

text: In Florida, demonstrations took place in Gulf Breeze, Miami Beach, Orlando and West Palm Beach, Naples where 3,000 people gathered at Cambier Park for the march and a rally. The Orlando march was organized by students of UCF, and was held at Lake Eola Park in downtown Orlando with 35,000 people in attendance. The city where the school shooting occurred, Parkland, also had a march. Similar marches were also held in northeast Florida in Jacksonville, Fernandina Beach, and Saint Augustine.


title: March for Our Lives

text: A rally in Jacksonville had a turnout of over 1,000 people in Hemming Park. Hundreds of people marched from Hemming Park to the Duval County Courthouse with signs including: "Grab them by the mid-terms" and "#neveragain". Notable speakers included John Phillips, the civil attorney of Jordan Davis, the seventeen year old who was shot and killed at a gas station in 2012 and "Stranger Things" actor Chester Rushing. In Saint Augustine, the march began by walking over the Bridge of Lions, down Avenida Menenedez, ending at Fort Castillo. The event was organized by Flagler college students with assistance from Indivisible St. Johns, St. Johns DEC, Women's March St.Augustine, and Ponte Vedra United Progress.


title: March for Our Lives

text: The Fernandina march saw a turnout of around 1,200, and began north on 6th Street and then down Centre Street. One sign read: "Let's be responsible adults"; another stated: "Organizing, An Active Form of Grieving".


title: March for Our Lives

text: In Georgia, rallies were held at the Georgia State Capitol in Atlanta. Athens, Augusta, and Dahlonega.


title: March for Our Lives

text: In Kentucky, marches were held in Bowling Green, Calvert City, Lexington, Louisville and Marshall County.


title: March for Our Lives

text: In Maryland, students from Severna Park High School and other Anne Arundel County Public Schools planned a demonstration to be held at Lawyer's Mall in Annapolis. They invited 188 state legislators. Students, teachers, Mayor Gavin Buckley along with Andrew Yang and Moms Demand Action were scheduled to speak. In Baltimore, student members of the Student Activist Association at Baltimore Polytechnic Institute organized a march to begin at War Memorial Plaza in front of City Hall and ending near the Inner Harbor. The Mayor of Baltimore, Catherine Pugh also announced that she was organizing 60 free buses to take students to the demonstrations in Washington, D.C.


title: March for Our Lives

text: In North Carolina, marches were held in Asheville, Charlotte, Durham, Raleigh, Hendersonville, and Wilmington.


title: March for Our Lives

text: In Tennessee, demonstrations were held in Chattanooga, Knoxville, Memphis, Cookeville, and Nashville.


title: March for Our Lives

text: In Texas, demonstrations were held in Austin, Corpus Christi, Dallas, El Paso, Fort Worth, Houston, and San Antonio. In Corpus Christi, students from W. B. Ray High School were scheduled to lead a march at 3 p.m. in Sherill Veterans Memorial Park.


title: March for Our Lives

text: In Virginia, Richmond Public Schools planned a march to take place at the Virginia State Capitol at 10 a.m. A march was also scheduled in downtown Norfolk as well as both Portsmouth and Virginia Beach.


title: March for Our Lives

text: In Alaska, a march attended by hundreds of people occurred in Anchorage. Marches also took place in Fairbanks, Homer, Juneau and Ketchikan.


title: March for Our Lives

text: In California, marches were held in Encinitas, Escondido, Fresno, Los Angeles, Orange County, Sacramento, San Diego, San Luis Obispo, San Jose, Oakland, and San Francisco. The San Francisco march and rally was held in Civic Center Plaza and planned by physician, Shoshana R. Ungerleider.


title: March for Our Lives

text: A march was held in each of the cities of Denver, Colorado; Boise, Idaho; Idaho Falls; and Helena, Montana;


title: March for Our Lives

text: In Oregon, marches happened in Corvallis, Bend, Eugene, Salem, Florence, Coos Bay and Portland. The Portland event included a march from the North Park Blocks to Pioneer Courthouse Square, where Portugal. The Man performed.


title: March for Our Lives

text: In Utah, there were several marches planned including in Logan, Salt Lake City, Park City, Provo, Cedar City and St. George.


title: March for Our Lives

text: In the state of Washington, marches attended by hundreds took place in Spokane, and Yakima. Thousands marched in Seattle and Bellingham.


title: March for Our Lives

text: In an official announcement to the state, Governor Ricardo Rosselló announced that he commissioned the Secretary of State, Luis G. Rivera Marín, to begin preparations for the march in San Juan. Rosselló called for all citizens and civic, religious, and private sector organizations to stand united in solidarity for improved gun control. He also remarked that Puerto Rico has the strictest gun control regulations of all jurisdictions in the country. Rivera Marín stated that "our communities need to be a place where our people have peace, not fear". He announced that the march would begin at Condado Lagoon and culminate at the Peace Pavilion in Luis Muñoz Rivera Park.


title: March for Our Lives

text: At the end of November 2020, Kemuel Delgado established the first March for Our Lives chapter in Puerto Rico.


title: March for Our Lives

text: Throughout Canada, in the province of British Columbia, marches were planned in Vancouver and Victoria.


title: March for Our Lives

text: Marches were planned in Cairo, Egypt, Pretoria, Cape Town and Johannesburg, South Africa, Accra, Ghana; and Mozambique.


title: March for Our Lives

text: Survivors from the Parkland shooting spoke at rallies in Jerusalem and Tel Aviv, Israel. The event in Tel Aviv took place at the country's U.S. Embassy.


title: March for Our Lives

text: Marches were planned for Shanghai and Hong Kong China, Mumbai and New Delhi, Tokyo and Okinawa, Mingora (Malala Yousafzai's hometown), Karachi and Islamabad, Pakistan as well as Kabul, Jakarta, Kuala Lumpur, Abu Dhabi, Dubai, and Manila.


title: March for Our Lives

text: Students from the International School of Geneva in Switzerland organized a rally outside the European headquarters of the United Nations, attracting hundreds of students.


title: March for Our Lives

text: In Germany, protests were held in Berlin, Hamburg, Frankfurt, Friedrichshafen, Heidelberg, Munich, and Wiesbaden. Events also took place in Reykjavík, Barcelona, Oslo, Stockholm, and Geneva.


title: March for Our Lives

text: In the United Kingdom, hundreds marched outside the US embassy in London. Marchers also held a "die in" and lay on the ground outside the US embassy to show solidarity with the Parkland students. Demonstrations also took place in Belfast and London. In Scotland, relatives of the Dunblane massacre victims joined a demonstration outside the US consulate in Edinburgh.


title: March for Our Lives

text: International and American students rallied in Rome near the US embassy, some holding signs that read "Protect People, Not Guns", "Enough is Enough", and "Dress Codes Are More Regulated Than Guns", as they wanted to make their voice clear to America. The march in Rome was organized by the Rome chapter of American Expats for Positive Change (AEPC); the organizers stated their efforts to support America and safety in U.S. schools, even though gun violence was not solely an American issue.


title: March for Our Lives

text: In Amsterdam, hundreds participated in a demonstration near the US consulate on the Museumplein. The organizers and speakers included American and Dutch high school students, an alumna of Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School, and a Florida student walkout organizer who lost a friend in the Parkland shooting.


title: March for Our Lives

text: Protests were also held in Vienna, Paris, The Hague, Helsinki, Budapest, Bucharest, Sofia, Riga, Málaga, Lisbon, Warsaw, Minsk, Majorca, Copenhagen, and Brussels.


title: March for Our Lives

text: New Zealand planned marches in Albert Park, Auckland; Parliament House, Wellington; Cathedral Square, Christchurch; and Union Hall at the University of Otago, Dunedin.


title: March for Our Lives

text: Other protests took place in Lima, Bogota, Colombia and Georgetown, Guyana and Caracas, the city where Parkland victim Joaquin Oliver and his family escaped from and immigrated to the U.S. to live a better life because of the city's violence and poverty. They officially became American citizens last year at the time in November 2017.


title: Widow

text: The state of having lost one's spouse to death is termed "widowhood". An archaic term for a widow is "relict," literally "someone left over". This word can sometimes be found on older gravestones. The word "widow" comes from an Indo-European root meaning "widow" and has cognates across Indo-European languages. The male form, "widower", is first attested in the 14th century, by the 19th century supplanting "widow" with reference to men.


title: Widow

text: The term "widowhood" can be used for either sex, at least according to some dictionaries, but the word "widowerhood" is also listed in some dictionaries. Occasionally, the word "viduity" is used. The adjective for either sex is "widowed". These terms are not applied to a divorcé(e) following the death of an ex-spouse.


title: Widow

text: The phenomenon that refers to the increased mortality rate after the death of a spouse is called the "widowhood effect." It is "strongest during the first three months after a spouse's death, when they had a 66-percent increased chance of dying". There remains controversy over whether women or men are worse off, and studies have attempted to make each case, while others suggest there are no sex-based differences.


title: Widow

text: While it is disputed as to whether sex plays a part in the intensity of grief, sex often influences how a person's lifestyle changes after a spouse's death. Research has shown that the difference falls in the burden of care, expectations, and how they react after the spouse's death. For example, women often carry more of an emotional burden than men and are less willing to go through the death of another spouse. After being widowed, men and women may react very differently and frequently change their lifestyles. Women tend to miss their husbands more if they died suddenly; men tend to miss their wives more if they died after suffering a long terminal illness. In addition, both men and women have been observed to experience lifestyle habit changes after the death of a spouse. Both sexes tend to have a harder time looking after themselves without their spouse to help, though these changes may differ based on the sex of the widow and the role the spouse played in their life.


title: Widow

text: The older spouses grow, the more aware they are of being alone due to the death of their husband or wife. This negatively impacts the mental as well as physical well-being in both men and women.


title: Widow

text: In some parts of Europe, including Russia, Slovakia, the Czech Republic, Greece, Italy and Spain, widows used to wear black for the rest of their lives to signify their mourning, a practice that has since died out. Orthodox Christian immigrants may wear lifelong black in the United States to signify their widowhood and devotion to their deceased husband.


title: Widow

text: After the Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act, 1856 in India, the status of widowhood for Hindu women were accompanied by a body symbolism - The widow's head was shaved as part of her mourning, she could no longer wear a red dot sindur on her forehead and was forbidden to wear wedding jewellery and she has to keep her bosoms uncovered and


title: Widow

text: she was expected to walk barefoot. These customs are mostly considered backward but still prevalent among Hindus.


title: Widow

text: In some parts of South Asia, a woman is often accused of causing her husband's death and is not allowed to look at another person as her gaze is considered bad luck.


title: Widow

text: Some Nigerians prefer a widow to drink the water her dead husband's body was washed in, or otherwise sleep next to her husband's grave for three days.


title: Widow

text: In the folklore of Chiloé of southern Chile, widows and black cats are important elements that are needed when hunting for the treasure of the carbunclo.


title: Widow

text: In societies where the husband is the sole provider, his death can leave his family destitute. The tendency for women generally to outlive men can compound this.


title: Widow

text: The Bible has written several commandments about caring for the widow, the prohibition against harming her and the duty to make her happy during the holidays, for example:"Be joyful at your festival—you, your sons and daughters, your male and female servants, and the Levites, the foreigners, the fatherless and the widows who live in your towns".(Hebrew Bible, Book of Deuteronomy 16:14)


title: Widow

text: In 19th-century Britain, widows had greater opportunity for social mobility than in many other societies. Along with the ability to ascend socio-economically, widows—who were "presumably celibate"—were much more able (and likely) to challenge conventional sexual behaviour than married women in their society.


title: Widow

text: It may be necessary for a woman to comply with the social customs of her area because her fiscal stature depends on it, but this custom is also often abused by others as a way to keep money within the deceased spouse's family. It is also uncommon for widows to challenge their treatment because they are often "unaware of their rights under the modern law…because of their low status, and lack of education or legal representation.". Unequal benefits and treatment generally received by widows compared to those received by widowers globally has spurred an interest in the issue by human rights activists. During the HIV pandemic, which particularly hit gay communities, companions of deceased men had little recourse in estate court against the deceased family. Not yet able to have been legally married the term widower was not considered socially acceptable. This situation was usually blessed with an added stigma being attached to the surviving man.


title: Widow

text: As of 2004, women in United States who were widowed younger are at greater economic hardship risk. Married women who are in a financially unstable household are more likely to become widows "because of the strong relationship between mortality [of the male head] and wealth [of the household]." In underdeveloped and developing areas of the world, conditions for widows continue to be much more severe. The United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (ratified by 135 countries) while slow, is working on proposals which will make certain types of discrimination and treatment of widows (such as violence and withholding property rights) illegal in the countries that have joined CEDAW.


title: Widow

text: In the United States, Social Security offers a Survivor's Benefit to qualified people once for a loss through their 50th birthday after which a second marriage may be considered when applying for benefits. The maximum still remains the same but here the survivor has options between accessing their earned benefits or one of their qualifying late spouses at chosen intervals to maximize the increased benefits for delaying a filing (i.e. at age 63 claim husband one's reduced benefit, then husband two's full amount at 67 and your own enhanced benefit at 68).


title: Widow

text: In parts of Africa, such as Kenya, widows are viewed as impure and in need of cleansing. This often requires having sex with someone. Those refusing to be cleansed risk getting beaten by superstitious villagers, who may also harm the woman's children. It is argued that this notion arose from the idea that if a husband dies, the woman may have performed witchcraft against him.


title: Widow

text: Sati was a practice in South Asia where a woman would immolate herself upon her husband's death. These practices were outlawed in 1827 in British India and again in 1987 in independent India by the Sati Prevention Act, which made it illegal to support, glorify or attempt to commit sati. Support of sati, including coercing or forcing someone to commit sati, can be punished by death sentence or life imprisonment, while glorifying sati is punishable with one to seven years in prison.


title: Widow

text: The people of Fiji practised widow-strangling. When Fijians adopted Christianity, widow-strangling was abandoned.


title: Widow

text: Widow inheritance (also known as bride inheritance) is a cultural and social practice whereby a widow is required to marry a male relative of her late husband, often his brother.


title: Widow

text: The Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act, 1856, enacted in response to the campaign of the reformer Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, to encourage widow remarriage and provided legal safeguards against loss of certain forms of inheritance for remarrying a Hindu widow, though, under the Act, the widow forsook any inheritance due her from her deceased husband.


title: Widow

text: Social stigma in Joseon Korea required that widows remain unmarried after their husbands' death. In 1477, Seongjong of Joseon enacted the Widow Remarriage Law, which strengthened pre-existing social constraints by barring the sons of widows who remarried from holding public office. In 1489, Seongjong condemned a woman of the royal clan, Yi Guji, when it was discovered that she had cohabited with her slave after being widowed. More than 40 members of her household were arrested and her lover was tortured to death.


title: Widow

text: In some parts of the world, such as Zimbabwe, the property of widows, such as land, is often taken away by her in-laws. While illegal, since most marriages are conducted under customary law and not registered, redressing the issue of property grabbing is complicated.


title: South Bronx

text: The South Bronx is an area of the New York City borough of the Bronx. The area comprises neighborhoods in the southern part of the Bronx, such as Concourse, Mott Haven, Melrose, and Port Morris.


title: South Bronx

text: In the early 1900s, the South Bronx was originally known as the Manor of Morrisania, as it was the manor of Lewis Morris. As the Morris family continued to expand on the land, an influx of German and Irish immigrants started to populate the area, leading the Bronx to be considered the "Jewish Borough" in the 1930s. This soon changed as World War II caused rent to increase in many apartments, pushing people out. By the end of the 1950s, the South Bronx was two-thirds African American or Hispanic (of any race).


title: South Bronx

text: The South Bronx is known for its hip hop culture and graffiti. Graffiti became popular in the Bronx in the early 1970s, spreading through the New York City Subway system. The South Bronx then became musically notable as hip-hop music, rap, and other creative components started becoming common within the borough.


title: South Bronx

text: The geographic definitions of the South Bronx have evolved and are disputed but certainly include the neighborhoods of Mott Haven, Melrose and Port Morris. Originally referring to the industrial area below East 138th Street, the name "South Bronx" symbolically has had its northern boundary shift northward to East 149th Street, East 161st Street, the Cross Bronx Expressway, and Fordham Road over the years. The neighborhoods of Belmont, Castle Hill, Parkchester, Crotona Park East, Highbridge, Hunts Point, Longwood, Morrisania and Soundview are sometimes considered part of the South Bronx.


title: South Bronx

text: The South Bronx is part of New York's 15th Congressional District. The South Bronx is served by the NYPD's 40th, 41st, 42nd, 44th, and 48th Precincts.


title: South Bronx

text: The South Bronx was originally called the Manor of Morrisania, and later Morrisania. It was the private domain of the powerful and aristocratic Morris family, which includes Lewis Morris, signer of the Declaration of Independence, and Gouverneur Morris, the penman of the United States Constitution. The Morris memorial is at St. Ann's Church of Morrisania. Morris' descendants own land in the South Bronx to this day.


title: South Bronx

text: As the Morrises developed their landholdings, an influx of German and Irish immigrants populated the area. Later, the Bronx was considered the "Jewish Borough," and at its peak in 1930 was 49% Jewish. Jews in the South Bronx numbered 364,000 or 57.1% of the total population in the area. The term was first coined in the 1940s by a group of social workers who identified the Bronx's first pocket of poverty, in the Port Morris section, the southernmost section of the Bronx.


title: South Bronx

text: After World War II, as white flight accelerated and migration of ethnic and racial minorities continued, the South Bronx went from being two-thirds non-Hispanic white in 1950 to being two-thirds black or Puerto Rican in 1960. Originally denoting only Mott Haven and Melrose, the South Bronx extended up to the Cross Bronx Expressway by the 1960s, encompassing Hunts Point, Morrisania, and Highbridge.


title: South Bronx

text: The South Bronx was populated largely by working-class families. Its image as a poverty-ridden area developed in the latter part of the 20th century. There were several factors contributing to the decay of the South Bronx: white flight, landlord abandonment, economic changes, crime, demographics and also the construction of the Cross Bronx Expressway.


title: South Bronx

text: The Cross Bronx Expressway, completed in 1963, was a part of Robert Moses’s urban renewal project for New York City. The expressway is now known to have been a factor in the extreme urban decay seen by the borough in the 1970s and 1980s. Cutting through the heart of the South Bronx, the highway displaced thousands of residents from their homes, as well as several local businesses. The neighborhood of East Tremont, in particular, was completely destroyed by the Expressway. Others have argued that the construction of such highways has not harmed communities.


title: South Bronx

text: The already poor and working-class neighborhoods were further disadvantaged by the decreasing property value, in combination with increasing vacancy rates. Racially-charged tensions (coinciding with the Civil Rights Movement) further contributed to middle-class flight and the decline of many South Bronx neighborhoods. Following the implementation of desegregation busing policies, parents who worried about their children attending the demographically-adjusted schools began to relocate to the suburbs, where "de facto" segregation often persisted via restrictive housing covenants, selective lending and redlining.


title: South Bronx

text: As early as the late 1960s, some neighborhoods were considered undesirable by homeowners, precipitating a population decline. Postwar rent control policies have also been proposed by one author as a contributing factor; in this milieu, building owners had little motivation to keep up their properties.


title: South Bronx

text: New York City Mayor John Lindsay (who served from 1966 to 1973) suggested that socioeconomic factors (including low educational attainment and high unemployment) limited housing options for the remaining low-income tenants, prompting the reduced upkeep by landlords. In either case, while desirable housing options were scarce, vacancies further increased. In the late 1960s, by the time the city decided to consolidate welfare households in the South Bronx, its vacancy rate was already the highest of any place in the city.


title: South Bronx

text: By the 1970s, significant poverty reached as far north as Fordham Road. Around this time, the Bronx experienced some of its worst instances of urban decay, with the loss of 300,000 residents and the destruction of entire city blocks' worth of buildings. The media attention brought the South Bronx into common parlance nationwide.


title: South Bronx

text: The phrase "The Bronx is burning," attributed to Howard Cosell during Game 2 of the 1977 World Series featuring the New York Yankees and Los Angeles Dodgers, refers to the arson epidemic caused by the total economic collapse of the South Bronx during the 1970s. During the game, as ABC switched to a generic helicopter shot of the exterior of Yankee Stadium, an uncontrolled fire could clearly be seen burning in the ravaged South Bronx surrounding the park. Many believe Cosell intoned, "There it is, ladies and gentlemen, the Bronx is burning."


title: South Bronx

text: Review of the game footage shows that he did not say this. According to the "New York Post", the words used by the two broadcasters during the game were later "spun by credulous journalists" into the now ubiquitous phrase "Ladies and gentlemen, the Bronx is burning" without either of the two announcers actually having phrased it that way.


title: South Bronx

text: The early 1970s saw South Bronx property values continue to plummet to record lows. A progressively vicious cycle began where large numbers of tenements and multi-story, multi-family apartment buildings, left vacant by White flight, sat abandoned and unsaleable for long periods of time, which, coupled with a stagnant economy and an extremely high unemployment rate, produced a strong attraction for criminal elements such as street gangs, which were exploding in number and beginning to support themselves with large-scale drug dealing in the area. The abandoned property also attracted large numbers of squatters such as the poor and marginalized, drug addicts and the mentally ill, who further lowered the borough's quality of living.


title: South Bronx

text: As the crisis deepened, the nearly bankrupt city government of Abraham Beame placed most of the blame on unreasonably high rents levied by landlords. He began demanding they convert their rapidly emptying buildings into Section 8 housing. Section 8 paid a per capita stipend for low-income or indigent tenants from Federal HUD funds rather than from the cash-strapped city coffers. However, the HUD rate was not based on the property's actual value and was set so low by the city, it left little opportunity or incentive for honest landlords to maintain or improve their buildings while still making a profit.


title: South Bronx

text: The result was a disastrous acceleration of both the speed and northward spread of the cycle of decay in the South Bronx as formerly desirable and well-maintained middle-to-upper class apartments in midtown, most notably along the Grand Concourse, were progressively vacated by White flight and either abandoned altogether or converted into federally funded single room occupancy "welfare hotels" run by absentee slumlords.


title: South Bronx

text: The massive citywide spending cuts also left the few remaining building inspectors and fire marshals unable to enforce living standards or punish code violations. This encouraged slumlords and absentee landlords to neglect and ignore their property and allowed for gangs to set up protected enclaves and lay claim to entire buildings. This then spread crime and fear of crime to nearby unaffected apartments in a domino effect.


title: South Bronx

text: Police statistics show that as the crime wave moved north across the Bronx, the remaining White tenants in the South Bronx (mostly elderly Jews) were preferentially targeted for violent crime by the influx of young, minority criminals because they were seen as easy prey. This became so common that the street slang terms "crib job" (meaning how elderly residents were as helpless as infants) and "push in" (meaning what would now be called a home invasion robbery) were coined specifically in reference to them.


title: South Bronx

text: Property owners who had waited too long to try to sell their buildings found that almost all of the property in the South Bronx had already been redlined by the banks and insurance companies. Unable to sell their property at any price and facing default on back property taxes and mortgages, landlords began to burn their buildings for their insurance value. A type of sophisticated white collar criminal known as a "fixer" sprung up during this period, specializing in a form of insurance fraud that began with buying out the property of redlined landlords at or below cost, then selling and reselling the buildings multiple times on paper between several different fictitious shell companies under the fixer's control, artificially driving up the value incrementally each time.


title: South Bronx

text: Fraudulent "no questions asked" fire insurance policies would then be taken out on the overvalued buildings and the property stripped and burnt for the payoff. This scheme became so common that local gangs were hired by fixers for their expertise at the process of stripping buildings of wiring, plumbing, metal fixtures, and anything else of value and then effectively burning it down with gasoline. Many finishers became extremely rich buying properties from struggling landlords, artificially driving up the value, insuring them and then burning them.


title: South Bronx

text: Often, the properties were still occupied by subsidized tenants or squatters at the time, who were given short or no warning before the building was burnt down. They were forced to move to another slum building, where the process would usually repeat itself. The rate of unsolved fatalities due to fire multiplied sevenfold in the South Bronx during the 1970s, with many residents reporting being burnt out of numerous apartment blocks one after the other.


title: South Bronx

text: Other fires were caused by unsafe electrical wiring, fires set indoors for heating, and random vandalism associated with the general crime situation.


title: South Bronx

text: Flawed HUD and city policies also encouraged local South Bronx residents to burn down their own buildings. Under the regulations, Section 8 tenants who were burned out of their current housing were granted immediate priority status for another apartment, potentially in a better part of the city. After the establishment of the (then) state-of-the-art Co-op City, there was a spike in fires as tenants began burning down their Section 8 housing in an attempt to jump to the front of the 2–3 year long waiting list for the new units.


title: South Bronx

text: HUD regulations also authorized lump-sum aid payments of up to $1000 to those who could prove they had lost property due to a fire in their Section 8 housing; although these payments were supposed to be investigated for fraud by a HUD employee before being signed off on, very little investigation was done and some HUD employees and social services workers were accused of turning a blind eye to suspicious fires or even advising tenants on the best way to take advantage of the HUD policies. On multiple occasions, firefighters were reported to have shown up to tenement fires only to find all the residents at an address waiting calmly with their possessions already on the curb.


title: South Bronx

text: By the time of Cosell's 1977 commentary, dozens of buildings were being burnt in the South Bronx every day, sometimes whole blocks at a time and usually far more than the fire department could keep up with, leaving the area perpetually blanketed in a pall of smoke. Firefighters from the period reported responding to as many as 7 fully involved structure fires in a single shift, too many to even bother returning to the station house between calls ("Report from Engine Company 82"). The local police precincts—already struggling and failing to contain the massive wave of drug and gang crime invading the Bronx—had long since stopped bothering to investigate the fires, as there were simply too many to track.


title: South Bronx

text: During this period, the NYPD's 41st Precinct station house at 1086 Simpson Street became famously known as "Fort Apache, The Bronx" as it struggled to deal with the overwhelming surge of violent crime, which for the entirety of the 1970s and 1980s made South Bronx the murder, rape, robbery, aggravated assault and arson capital of America. By 1980, the 41st Precinct was renamed the "Little House on the Prairie", as fully of the 94,000 residents originally served by the precinct had fled, leaving the fortified building as one of the few structures in the neighborhood (and the sole building on Simpson Street) that had not been abandoned or burnt out.


title: South Bronx

text: In total, over 40% of the South Bronx was burned or abandoned between 1970 and 1980, with 44 census tracts losing more than 50% and seven more than 97% of their buildings to arson, abandonment, or both. The appearance was frequently compared to that of a bombed-out and evacuated European city following World War II.


title: South Bronx

text: On October 5, 1977, U.S. President Jimmy Carter paid an unscheduled visit to Charlotte Street while in New York City for a conference at the headquarters of the United Nations. Charlotte Street at the time was a three-block devastated area of vacant lots and burned-out and abandoned buildings. The street had been so ravaged that part of it had been taken off official city maps in 1974. Carter instructed Patricia Roberts Harris, head of the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, to take steps to salvage the area.


title: South Bronx

text: Progress did not come quickly. Three years later, in 1980, presidential candidate Ronald Reagan paid a visit to Charlotte Street, declaring that he had not "seen anything that looked like this since London after the Blitz". The 1987 novel "The Bonfire of the Vanities", by the American writer Tom Wolfe, presented the South Bronx as a nightmare world, not to be entered by middle or upper-class whites.


title: South Bronx

text: The PBS documentary show Independent Lens released an episode titled "Decade of Fire" on May 3, 2019. The episode was previewed at the Full Frame Film Festival the previous month.


title: South Bronx

text: Primarily beginning in the 1980s, parts of the South Bronx started to experience urban renewal with rehabilitated and new residential structures, including subsidized multifamily townhomes and apartment buildings. Between 1986 and 1994 over $1 billion were spent on rebuilding the area, with 19,000 apartments refurbished and more than 4,500 new houses built for the working class. More than fifty abandoned apartment buildings on the Major Deegan Expressway and the Cross Bronx Expressway were renovated for residential use. Over 26,500 people moved into the area. On Charlotte Street, prefabricated ranch-style houses were built in the area in 1985, and the area changed so significantly that a Bronx borough historian (Lloyd Ultan) could not locate where Carter had stopped to survey the scene. As of 2004, houses on the street were worth up to a million dollars.


title: South Bronx

text: The Bronx County Courthouse has secured landmark status, and efforts are underway to do the same for much of the Grand Concourse, in recognition of the area's Art Deco architecture. In June 2010, the city Landmarks Preservation Commission gave consideration to the establishment of a historic district on the Grand Concourse from 153rd to 167th Street. A final decision was expected in the coming months.


title: South Bronx

text: Construction of the new Yankee Stadium has stirred controversy over plans which, along with the new billion-dollar field, include new athletic fields, tennis courts, bicycle and walking paths, stores, restaurants, and a new Metro-North Railroad station at East 153rd Street. During baseball season, the station helps ease overcrowding on the subway.


title: South Bronx

text: There is hope that these developments also will help to generate residential construction. However, the new park came at a price: a total of in Macombs Dam and John Mullaly Parks were used to build it. In April 2012, Heritage Field, a $50.8 million ballpark, was built atop the grounds of the original Yankee Stadium. The population of the South Bronx is currently increasing.


title: South Bronx

text: Despite significant investment compared to the post war period, many exacerbated social problems remain including high rates of violent crime, substance abuse, and overcrowded and substandard housing conditions. Its precincts have recorded high violent crime rates and are all considered to be New York City Police Department "impact zones." The Bronx contains the highest rate of poverty in New York City, and the greater South Bronx is the poorest area.


title: South Bronx

text: Since the late 1970s, the South Bronx has been home to a renewed grassroots art scene. The arts scene that sprouted at the Fashion Moda Gallery, founded by a Viennese artist, Stefan Eins, helped ignite the careers of artists like Keith Haring and Jenny Holzer, and 1980s break dancers like the Rock Steady Crew. It generated enough enthusiasm in the mainstream media for a short while to draw the art world's attention. The Bronx Academy of Arts and Dance was located in the American Bank Note Company Building in the South Bronx neighborhood of Hunts Point before relocating to St. Peter's Episcopal Church in Westchester Square.


title: South Bronx

text: Modern graffiti is prominent in the South Bronx, and is home to many of the fathers of graffiti art such as Tats Cru. The Bronx has a very strong graffiti scene despite the city's crackdown on illegal graffiti. However, graffiti in the Bronx began to occur in the early 1970s and managed to travel to different boroughs via the New York City Subway system. The rise of hip-hop music, rap, breakdancing, and disc jockeying helped put the South Bronx on the musical map in the late 1970s. The South Bronx is also known worldwide as the birthplace of hip-hop culture. In addition, the Bronx Museum of the Arts is located on the Grand Concourse.


title: South Bronx

text: Hip hop is a broad conglomerate of artistic forms that originated as a specific street subculture within South Bronx communities during the 1970s in New York City. Hip hop as music and culture formed during the 1970s when block parties became increasingly popular in New York City, particularly among African American and Latin Americans residing in the Bronx. Block parties incorporated DJs who played popular genres of music, especially funk and soul music. For example, many DJs played music by the artist James Brown. Some songs played at these South Bronx house parties included "Give it Up or Turn it Loose" by James Brown and "Get Ready" by Rare Earth.


title: South Bronx

text: Due to the positive reception, DJs began isolating the percussive breaks, or small portions of a song, often without vocals, which were easy to dance to, of popular songs. DJ Kool Herc is known for generating the technique to produce these percussive breaks, which is known as merry-go-rounding. Merry-go-rounding when DJs would "use the two turntables in a typical DJ setup not as a way to make a smooth transition between two records, but as a way to switch back and forth repeatedly between two copies of the same record."


title: South Bronx

text: The technique of percussive breaks was then common in Jamaican dub music, and was largely introduced into New York by immigrants from Jamaica and elsewhere in the Caribbean, including DJ Kool Herc, who is generally considered the father of hip-hop. Upon this, a technique known as Jamaican toasting, or the act of speaking over a beat which later became rapping, was introduced by DJ Kool Herc in the South Bronx at this point of time as well.


title: South Bronx

text: 1520 Sedgwick Avenue, an apartment building in Morris Heights, is a long-time "haven for working-class families"; in 2010, "The New York Times" reported that it is the "accepted birthplace of hip hop." As hip-hop grew from throughout the Bronx, 1520 was a starting point where Clive Campbell, later known as DJ Kool Herc, presided over parties in the community room at a pivotal point in the genre's history. DJ Kool Herc is credited with helping to start hip hop and rap music at a house concert at 1520 Sedgwick Avenue on August 11, 1973. At the concert he was DJing and emceeing in the :recreation room of 1520 Sedgwick Avenue. Sources have noted that while 1520 Sedgwick Avenue was not the actual birthplace of hip-hop—the genre developed slowly in several places in the 1970s—it was verified to be the place where "one of" the pivotal and formative events occurred that spurred hip hop culture forward. During a rally to save the building, DJ Kool Herc said, "1520 Sedgwick is the Bethlehem of Hip-Hop culture."


title: South Bronx

text: Many dwellings in the South Bronx during the early 1970s lived in poverty or were part of gangs. One example of this is Afrika Bambaataa, a former member of the street gang, The Black Spades, who is now deemed as the god-father of hip-hop. As an effort to end the street violence within the South Bronx, Bambaataa created the Zulu Nation, which is a group founded on the concepts of "Peace, Love, Unity, Having Fun" instead of partaking in gang violence and unlawful activity. Jeff Chang quotes Bambaataa in his text "Can't Stop Won't Stop: A History of the Hip-Hop Generation" in a section where Chang is discussing why the Zulu Nation formed. The quote by Bambaataa on page 105 of the text states "we had to come up with something to get the order back." As seen within the film "The Hip Hop Years: Part 1", hip-hop aided in keeping violence from forming on the streets of the South Bronx and eased tensions with the police within the area. People were creating art such as hip-hop music and dances at the block parties within the South Bronx, so the police did not have issues with it.


title: South Bronx

text: Not only was music a major component of hip-hop culture being formulated within the South Bronx during the 1970s, a break dancing or B-boying movement was being generated as well. After DJ Kool Herc and other DJs kept utilizing the break beat within their music, an abundance of people who were dancing normally, eventually hit the floor and began what is known as breakdancing. According to the documentary, "The Freshest Kids: The History of the B-Boy", break dancing occurred "spontaneously" and consisted of more "sporadic" dance moves. Additionally, a Zulu king and hip-hop historian stated that the dance consisted of "bouncing around, pivoting, turning, twists frontsweeps...". Many who participated in this form of dance were members of crews, such as the Rock Steady Crew, the New York City Breakers and the Magnificent Force.


title: South Bronx

text: On July 5, 2007, 1520 Sedgwick Avenue was recognized by the New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation as the "Birthplace of Hip-Hop."


title: South Bronx

text: The New York City Department of Education operates district public schools. Community School Districts 7, 8, 9, and 12 are located in the South Bronx. Among the public schools are charter schools. Success Academies Bronx 1, 2, and 3 are part of Success Academy Charter Schools. An elementary charter school, Academic Leadership Charter School, opened on 141st Street and Cypress Avenue. Area private schools include Cardinal Hayes High School, located at 650 Grand Concourse and All Hallows High School, located at 111 East 164th Street. Among the institutions of higher education, Hostos Community College of the City University of New York is located in Grand Concourse and 149th Street, ten blocks from Yankee Stadium.


title: South Bronx

text: The South Bronx is also home to both for-profit and nonprofit organizations that offer a range of professional training and other educational programs. East Side House Settlement has been in the Mott Haven neighborhood since 1963, serving families and children. Their mission is to use education as a means of economic empowerment. Per Scholas, for example, is a nonprofit organization that offers free professional certification training directed towards successfully passing CompTIA A+ and Network+ certification exams as a route to securing jobs and building careers. Per Scholas also works with a growing number of Title One South Bronx middle schools, their students, and their families to provide computer training and access.


title: South Bronx

text: Major highways include the Major Deegan Expressway (I-87); Cross Bronx Expressway (I-95); Bruckner Expressway (I-278); Triborough Bridge; Grand Concourse. A variety of New York City Subway services run through the South Bronx. This includes the on the IRT Pelham Line, on the IRT White Plains Road Line, on the IRT Jerome Avenue Line, and on the IND Concourse Line.


title: South Bronx

text: A South Bronx Greenway currently connects the South Bronx over the Bronx Kill to Randalls Island on a bike and pedestrian pathway known as the Bronx Connector.


title: South Bronx

text: In 2000, 77.3% of all households in New York's 15th congressional district, covering the South Bronx, did not own automobiles. Citywide, the percentage is only 55%.


title: Michelle Ang

text: Michelle Ang (born 17 October 1983) is a New Zealand actress. She is best known for her role as Lori Lee in the Australian television soap opera "Neighbours", and for voicing the female Jango Fett clone Omega in the animated series "".


title: Michelle Ang

text: Ang was born in Christchurch and is of Malaysian Chinese descent. Ang was a talented ballet dancer when she was younger and performed in "The Nutcracker", "A Midsummer Night's Dream" and "Romeo and Juliet" with the Royal New Zealand Ballet. Later she completed studies at Victoria University of Wellington for a double degree: a Bachelor of Commerce and Administration (B.C.A.) in Accounting with Commercial Law and a Bachelor of Science in Chemistry.


title: Michelle Ang

text: Ang got her start in television at a young age through the family series "Young Entertainers". Here, she got to show her skills at singing and dancing, much like "The Mickey Mouse Club" show on US television. She played Tai-San in the New Zealand post-apocalyptic drama "The Tribe" as part of the core cast from 1999 to 2001, and featured in the final episodes of the 2002 series. Ang also guest starred in the final 2 episodes of "" as Akemi.


title: Michelle Ang

text: She played Lori Lee in the Australian television soap opera "Neighbours", in which she was a major character from 2002 to 2003; she left "Neighbours" to finish her university studies but returned briefly in 2004. Ang was nominated for a Logie Award for Most Popular New Female Talent for her role in "Neighbours". She played the role of Tracy Hong in the first two seasons of the New Zealand TV series "Outrageous Fortune" in 2005 and 2006. In 2007, Ang appeared in the American television drama "South of Nowhere".


title: Michelle Ang

text: In 2012, Ang featured in the MTV series "Underemployed" as an aspiring writer who has to settle for working at a donut shop.


title: Michelle Ang

text: In 2015, Ang starred in the web series "" as Alex, a passenger caught on a flight at the beginning of the zombie apocalypse, and went on to appear in the main series "Fear the Walking Dead". Ang received an Emmy nomination for her work on "Flight 462". In 2020 she had a recurring role on "The New Legends of Monkey".


title: Michelle Ang

text: In 2021, Ang starred in the Disney+ original animated series "" as Omega, a mysterious female clone of Jango Fett. She was invited to keep her native New Zealand accent for the role in homage to fellow New Zealander Temuera Morrison, who portrayed Jango Fett in the franchise.


title: Michelle Ang

text: Ang made her feature film debut in 2004's "Futile Attraction". Ang had also appeared in a series of low-budget New Zealand short films including "Forbidden Fury" and "Take 3". In 2006 she appeared in "No.2", directed by Toa Fraser. In 2011 Ang portrayed a nerdy Chinese New Zealander in the romantic comedy "My Wedding and Other Secrets", her first lead role in a feature. It won her the Best Lead Actress in a Feature Film award at the 2011 Aotearoa Film & Television Awards. Her other film credits include "" and "Triple 9".


title: Michelle Ang

text: Ang auditioned for the Cho Chang role in "Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire", but in the end the role was given to Katie Leung. Prior to her role in "The Bad Batch", Ang also had auditioned for a role in "".


title: Eunha (singer)

text: Jung Eun-bi (born May 30, 1997), better known by her stage name Eunha, is a South Korean singer and actress. She was the vocalist of the girl group GFriend, and a current member of the trio Viviz.


title: Eunha (singer)

text: Eunha was born May 30, 1997, in Seoul. She was a child actress, and had a role in the 2007 television drama "".


title: Eunha (singer)

text: When she was seven years old, she was diagnosed with langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH). She then took on treatment for the disease and had regular blood tests until she was in the sixth grade of primary school. It was successfully cured and it was said that there is no possibility of recurrence.


title: Eunha (singer)

text: Eunha debuted as a member of South Korean girl group GFriend in early 2015 with the song "Glass Bead". She was featured on Pro C's single "Han River at Night", released on October 21, 2015. Eunha's first solo release was the song "Don't Come to Farewell", recorded for the soundtrack of the television drama "Six Flying Dragons". It was released on March 7, 2016.


title: Eunha (singer)

text: She played a role in MBC MBig TV's web show "Oh My God! Tip" with Block B's Park Kyung. Eunha was then featured on Park Kyung's single "Inferiority Complex", released May 25, 2016.


title: Eunha (singer)

text: Her second solo release was the song "Love-ing", recorded for the soundtrack of the television drama "Temperature of Love". It was released on October 2, 2017.


title: Eunha (singer)

text: On October 6, 2021, it was announced that Eunha, along with former GFriend members SinB and Umji, have signed a contract with BPM Entertainment to debut as a trio. On October 8, 2021, it was announced their new group name would be Viviz. Viviz debuted on February 9, 2022, with the extended play "Beam of Prism".


title: Eunha (singer)

text: All song credits are adapted from the Korea Music Copyright Association's database unless stated otherwise.


title: Carbon-12

text: Carbon-12 (C) is the most abundant of the two stable isotopes of carbon (carbon-13 being the other), amounting to 98.93% of element carbon on Earth; its abundance is due to the triple-alpha process by which it is created in stars. Carbon-12 is of particular importance in its use as the standard from which atomic masses of all nuclides are measured, thus, its atomic mass is exactly 12 daltons by definition. Carbon-12 is composed of 6 protons, 6 neutrons, and 6 electrons.


title: Carbon-12

text: Before 1959, both the IUPAP and IUPAC used oxygen to define the mole; the chemists defining the mole as the number of atoms of oxygen which had mass 16 g, the physicists using a similar definition but with the oxygen-16 isotope only. The two organizations agreed in 1959/60 to define the mole as follows.


title: Carbon-12

text: "Mole is the amount of substance of a system which contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 12 gram of carbon 12; its symbol is "mol"."


title: Carbon-12

text: This was adopted by the CIPM (International Committee for Weights and Measures) in 1967, and in 1971, it was adopted by the 14th CGPM (General Conference on Weights and Measures).


title: Carbon-12

text: In 1961, the isotope carbon-12 was selected to replace oxygen as the standard relative to which the atomic weights of all the other elements are measured.


title: Carbon-12

text: In 1980, the CIPM clarified the above definition, defining that the carbon-12 atoms are unbound and in their ground state.


title: Carbon-12

text: In 2018, IUPAC specified the mole as exactly 6.022 140 76 × 10 "elementary entities". The number of moles in 12 grams of carbon-12 became a matter of experimental determination.


title: Carbon-12

text: The Hoyle state is an excited, spinless, resonant state of carbon-12. It is produced via the triple-alpha process and was predicted to exist by Fred Hoyle in 1954. The existence of the 7.7 MeV resonance Hoyle state is essential for the nucleosynthesis of carbon in helium-burning stars and predicts an amount of carbon production in a stellar environment which matches observations. The existence of the Hoyle state has been confirmed experimentally, but its precise properties are still being investigated.


title: Carbon-12

text: The Hoyle state is populated when a helium-4 nucleus fuses with a beryllium-8 nucleus in a high-temperature (10 K) environment with densely concentrated (10 g/cm) helium. This process must occur within 10 seconds as a consequence of the short half-life of Be. The Hoyle state also is a short-lived resonance with a half-life of ; it primarily decays back into its three constituent alpha particles, though 0.0413% of decays (or 1 in 2421.3) occur by internal conversion into the ground state of C.


title: Carbon-12

text: In 2011, an ab initio calculation of the low-lying states of carbon-12 found (in addition to the ground and excited spin-2 state) a resonance with all of the properties of the Hoyle state.


title: Carbon-12

text: The isotopes of carbon can be separated in the form of carbon dioxide gas by cascaded chemical exchange reactions with amine carbamate.


title: Kingdom of Tungning

text: The Kingdom of Tungning (), also known as Tywan by the British at the time, was a dynastic maritime state that ruled part of southwestern Taiwan and the Penghu islands between 1661 and 1683. It is the first predominantly Han Chinese state in Taiwanese history. At its zenith, the kingdom's maritime power dominated varying extents of coastal regions of southeastern China and controlled the major sea lanes across both China Seas, and its vast trade network stretched from Japan to Southeast Asia.


title: Kingdom of Tungning

text: The kingdom was founded by Koxinga (Zheng Chenggong) after seizing control of Taiwan, a foreign land at the time outside China's boundaries, from Dutch rule. Zheng hoped to restore the Ming dynasty in Mainland China, when the Ming remnants' rump state in southern China was progressively conquered by the Manchu-led Qing dynasty. The Zheng dynasty used the island of Taiwan as a military base for their Ming loyalist movement which aimed to reclaim mainland China from the Qing. Under Zheng rule, Taiwan underwent a process of sinicization in an effort to consolidate the last stronghold of Han Chinese resistance against the invading Manchus. Until its annexation by the Qing dynasty in 1683, the kingdom was ruled by Koxinga's heirs, the House of Koxinga, and the period of rule is sometimes referred to as the Koxinga dynasty or the Zheng dynasty.


title: Kingdom of Tungning

text: In reference to its reigning house of Koxinga, the Kingdom of Tungning is sometimes known as the Zheng dynasty (), Zheng clan Kingdom () or Yanping Kingdom (), named after Koxinga's hereditary title of "Prince of Yanping" () that bestowed by the Yongli emperor of the South Ming. Taiwan was initially referred to by Koxinga as Tungtu (, literally "eastern capital"). In 1664, his son and successor Zheng Jing renamed it Tungning (, literally "Eastern Pacification"). This name change reflects Jing's intention to permanently settle in Taiwan rather than an unattainable hope of becoming a temporary capital in the East awaiting Yongli Emperor, who was executed by the Qing forces two years earlier.


title: Kingdom of Tungning

text: In Britain, it was known as Tywan (Taiwan), named after the King's residence at the city of "Tywan" in present-day Tainan. The period of rule is sometimes referred to as the Koxinga dynasty.


title: Kingdom of Tungning

text: The Kingdom of Tungning started out as a Ming dynasty loyalist movement led by Zheng Chenggong, known in Dutch sources as Koxinga, the son of former pirate turned general, Zheng Zhilong. By 1640, Zhilong had become military commander of Fujian Province. He spent the first seven years of his life in Japan with his mother, Tagawa Matsu, and then went to school in Fujian, obtaining a county-level licentiate at the age of 15. Afterwards he left for Nanjing to study at the Imperial Academy.


title: Kingdom of Tungning

text: On mainland China, the Manchu-led Qing dynasty forces broke through Shanhai Pass in 1644 and rapidly overwhelmed the Ming. After Beijing fell in 1644 to rebels, Chenggong and his followers declared their loyalty to the Ming dynasty and he was bestowed the title Guoxingye, or Lord of the Imperial surname, pronounced "Kok seng ia" in southern Fujianese, from which Koxinga is derived. His father Zhilong aided the Longwu Emperor in a military expedition in 1646, but Longwu was captured and executed. The Qing offered several high-ranking Ming officials and military leaders positions in exchange for cessation of resistance activities. In November 1646, Zhilong declared his loyalty to the Qing and lived out the rest of his life under house arrest in Beijing.


title: Kingdom of Tungning

text: Zheng Chenggong continued the resistance against the Qing from Xiamen, which was named "Memorial Prefecture for the Ming" in 1654. In 1649, Chenggong gained control over Quanzhou but then lost it. Further attacks further afield resulted in even less success. In 1650 he planned a major northward offensive from Guangdong in conjunction with a Ming loyalist in Guangxi. The Qing deployed a large army to the area and Chenggong decided to take his chances by ferrying his army along the coast but a storm hindered his movements. The Qing launched a surprise attack on Xiamen, forcing him to return to protect it. From 1656 to 1658 he planned to take Nanjing. In the summer of 1658 he completed his preparations and set sail with his fleet but a storm turned him back. On July 7, 1659, Chenggong's fleet set sail again and his army encircled Nanjing on 24 August. Qing reinforcements arrived and broke Chenggong's army, forcing them to retreat to Xiamen with many of the veterans and thousands of soldiers killed or captured. In 1660 the Qing embarked on a coastal evacuation policy to starve Chenggong of his source of livelihood.


title: Kingdom of Tungning

text: Chenggong had cordial relations with the Dutch East India Company (VOC) during most of the 1640s and early 1650s. However some of the rebels during the Guo Huaiyi rebellion had expected Chenggong to come to their aid. Some company officials believed that the rebellion had been inciteded by Chenggong. A Jesuit priest told the Dutch that Chenggong was looking at Taiwan as a new base of operations. In 1654, he sent a letter to Taiwan to have a Dutch surgeon sent to Xiamen for medical assistance. In the spring of 1655 no silk junks arrived in Taiwan. Company officials suspected that this was caused by the Ming-Qing war but others felt it was a deliberate plan by Chenggong to cause them harm. The company sent a junk to Penghu to see whether Chenggong was preparing forces there but they found nothing. Defenses at Fort Zeelandia were strengthened. According to European and Chinese traders, Chenggong had 300,000 men and 3,000 junks. In 1655, the governor of Taiwan received a letter from Chenggong insulting the Dutch, calling them "more like animals than Christians," and referring to the Chinese in Taiwan as his subjects. He commanded them to stop trading with the Spanish. Chenggong sent a letter directly to the Chinese leaders in Taiwan, rather than Dutch authorities, stating that he would withhold his junks from trading in Taiwan if the Dutch would not guarantee his junks safety from Dutch depredations in Southeast Asia. To raise funds for his war effort, Chenggong had increased foreign trade by sending junks to Japan, Tonkin, Cambodia, Palembang, and Malaka. Batavia was wary of this competition and wrote that this would "undermine our profits." Batavia sent a small fleet to Southeast Asian ports to intercept Chenggong's junks. One junk was captured and its cargo of peppers confiscated but another junk managed to escape. The Dutch realized this would be received badly by Chenggong and thus offered an alliance with the Manchus in Beijing, however nothing came of the negotiations.