title: Paul Ehrlich

text: On 24 March 1882, Ehrlich was present when Robert Koch, working since 1880 at the Imperial Public Health Office ("Kaiserliches Gesundheitsamt") in Berlin, presented the lecture in which he reported how he was able to identify the tuberculosis pathogen. Ehrlich later described this lecture as his "greatest experience in science". The day after Koch's lecture, Ehrlich had already made an improvement to Koch's staining method, which Koch unreservedly welcomed. From this date on, the two men were bound in friendship.


title: Paul Ehrlich

text: In 1887 Ehrlich became an unsalaried lecturer in internal medicine ("Privatdozent für Innere Medizin") at Berlin University, and in 1890 took over the tuberculosis station at a public hospital in Berlin-Moabit at Koch's request. This was where Koch's hoped-for tuberculosis therapeutic agent tuberculin was under study; and Ehrlich had even injected himself with it. In the ensuing tuberculin scandal, Ehrlich tried to support Koch and stressed the value of tuberculin for diagnostic purposes. In 1891 Koch invited Ehrlich to work at the newly founded Institute of Infectious Diseases ("Institut für Infektionskrankheiten" – now the Robert Koch Institute) at "Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität" (now Humboldt University) in Berlin. Koch was unable to give him any remuneration, but did offer him full access to laboratory staff, patients, chemicals and laboratory animals, which Ehrlich always remembered with gratitude.


title: Paul Ehrlich

text: Ehrlich had started his first experiments on immunization already in his private laboratory. He accustomed mice to the poisons ricin and abrin. After feeding them with small but increasing dosages of ricin he ascertained that they had become "ricin-proof". Ehrlich interpreted this as immunization and observed that it was abruptly initiated after a few days and was still in existence after several months, but mice immunized against ricin were just as sensitive to abrin as untreated animals.


title: Paul Ehrlich

text: This was followed by investigations on the "inheritance" of acquired immunity. It was already known that in some cases after a smallpox or syphilis infection, specific immunity was transmitted from the parents to their offspring. Ehrlich rejected inheritance in the genetic sense because the offspring of a male mouse immunized against abrin and an untreated female mouse were not immune to abrin. He concluded that the fetus was supplied with antibodies via the pulmonary circulation of the mother. This idea was supported by the fact that this "inherited immunity" decreased after a few months. In another experiment he exchanged the offspring of treated and untreated female mice. The mice which were nursed by the treated females were protected from the poison, providing the proof that antibodies can also be conveyed in milk.


title: Paul Ehrlich

text: Ehrlich also researched autoimmunity, but he specifically rejected the possibility that an organism's immune system could attack the organism's own tissue calling it "horror autotoxicus". It was Ehrlich's student, Ernest Witebsky, who demonstrated that autoimmunity could cause disease in humans. Ehrlich was the first to propose that regulatory mechanisms existed to protect an organism from autoimmunity, saying in 1906 that "the organism possesses certain contrivances by means of which the immunity reaction, so easily produced by all kinds of cells, is prevented from acting against the organism's own elements".


title: Paul Ehrlich

text: Emil Behring had worked at the Berlin Institute of Infectious Diseases until 1893 on developing an antiserum for treating diphtheria and tetanus but with inconsistent results. Koch suggested that Behring and Ehrlich cooperate on the project. This joint work was successful to the extent that Ehrlich was quickly able to increase the level of immunity of the laboratory animals based on his experience with mice. Clinical tests with diphtheria serum early in 1894 were successful and in August the chemical company Hoechst started to market Behring's "Diphtheria Remedy synthesized by Behring-Ehrlich". The two discoverers had originally agreed to share any profits after the Hoechst share had been subtracted. Their contract was changed several times and finally Ehrlich was eventually pressured into accepting a profit share of only eight percent. Ehrlich resented what he considered as unfair treatment, and his relationship with Behring was thereafter problematic, a situation which later escalated over the issue of the valency of tetanus serum. Ehrlich recognized that the principle of serum therapy had been developed by Behring and Kitasato. But he was of the opinion that he had been the first to develop a serum which could also be used on humans, and that his role in developing the diphtheria serum had been insufficiently acknowledged. Behring, for his part, schemed against Ehrlich at the Prussian Ministry of Culture, and from 1900 on Ehrlich refused to collaborate with him. von Behring was the sole recipient of the first Nobel Prize in Medicine, in 1901, for contributions to research on diphtheria.


title: Paul Ehrlich

text: Since antiserums were an entirely new type of medicine whose quality was highly variable, a government system was established to guarantee their safety and effectiveness. Beginning 1 April 1895, only government-approved serum could be sold in the German Reich. The testing station for diphtheria serum was provisionally housed at the Institute of Infectious Diseases. At the initiative of Friedrich Althoff, an Institute of Serum Research and Testing ("Institut für Serumforschung und Serumprüfung") was established in 1896 in Berlin-Steglitz, with Paul Ehrlich as director (which required him to cancel all his contracts with Hoechst). In this function and as honorary professor at Berliner University he had annual earnings of 6,000 marks, approximately the salary of a university professor. In addition to a testing department the institute also had a research department.


title: Paul Ehrlich

text: In order to determine the effectiveness of diphtheria antiserum, a stable concentration of diphtheria toxin was required. Ehrlich discovered that the toxin being used was perishable, in contrast to what had been assumed, which for him led to two consequences: He did not use the toxin as a standard, but instead a serum powder developed by Behring, which had to be dissolved in liquid shortly before use. The strength of a test toxin was first determined in comparison with this standard. The test toxin could then be used as a reference for testing other serums. For the test itself, toxin and serum were mixed in a ratio so that their effects just cancelled each other when injected into a guinea pig. But since there was a large margin in determining whether symptoms of illness were present, Ehrlich established an unambiguous target: the death of the animal. The mixture was to be such that the test animal would die after four days. If it died earlier, the serum was too weak and was rejected. Ehrlich claimed to have made the determination of the valency of serum as accurate as it would be with chemical titration. This again demonstrates his tendency to quantify the life sciences.


title: Paul Ehrlich

text: Influenced by the mayor of Frankfurt am Main, Franz Adickes, who endeavored to establish science institutions in Frankfurt in preparation of the founding of a university, Ehrlich's institute moved to Frankfurt in 1899 and was renamed the Royal Prussian Institute of Experimental Therapy ("Königlich Preußisches Institut für Experimentelle Therapie"). The German quality-control methodology was copied by government serum institutes all over the world, and they also obtained the standard serum from Frankfurt. After diphtheria antiserum, tetanus serum and various bactericide serums for use in veterinary medicine were developed in rapid sequence. These were also evaluated at the institute, as was tuberculin and later on various vaccines. Ehrlich's most important colleague at the institute was the Jewish doctor and biologist Julius Morgenroth.


title: Paul Ehrlich

text: He postulated that cell protoplasm contains special structures which have chemical "side chains" (today's term is macromolecules) to which the toxin binds, affecting function. If the organism survives the effects of the toxin, the blocked side-chains are replaced by new ones. This regeneration can be trained, the name for this phenomenon being "immunization." If the cell produces a surplus of side chains, these might also be released into the blood as antibodies.


title: Paul Ehrlich

text: In the following years Ehrlich expanded his side chain theory using concepts ("amboceptors", "receptors of the first, second and third order", etc.) which are no longer customary. Between the antigen and the antibody he assumed there was an additional immune molecule, which he called an "additive" or a "complement". For him, the side chain contained at least two functional groups.


title: Paul Ehrlich

text: For providing a theoretical basis for immunology as well as for his work on serum valency, Ehrlich was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1908 together with Élie Metchnikoff. Metchnikoff, who had researched the cellular branch of immunity, Phagocytosis, at the Pasteur Institute had previously sharply attacked Ehrlich.


title: Paul Ehrlich

text: In 1901, the Prussian Ministry of Finance criticized Ehrlich for exceeding his budget and as a consequence reduced his income. In this situation Althoff arranged a contact with Georg Speyer, a Jewish philanthropist and joint owner of the bank house Lazard Speyer-Ellissen. The cancerous disease of Princess Victoria, the widow of the German Emperor Friedrich II, had received much public attention and prompted a collection among wealthy Frankfurt citizens, including Speyer, in support of cancer research. Ehrlich had also received from the German Emperor Wilhelm II a personal request to devote all his energy to cancer research. Such efforts led to the founding of a department for cancer research affiliated with the Institute of Experimental Therapy. The chemist Gustav Embden, among others, worked there. Ehrlich informed his sponsors that cancer research meant basic research, and that a cure could not be expected soon.


title: Paul Ehrlich

text: Among the results achieved by Ehrlich and his research colleagues was the insight that when tumors are cultivated by transplanting tumor cells, their malignancy increases from generation to generation. If the primary tumor is removed, then metastasis precipitously increases. Ehrlich applied bacteriological methods to cancer research. In analogy to vaccination, he attempted to generate immunity to cancer by injecting weakened cancer cells. Both in cancer research and chemotherapy research (see below) he introduced the methodologies of Big Science.


title: Paul Ehrlich

text: In 1885 Ehrlich's monograph "The Need of the Organism for Oxygen" ("Das Sauerstoffbedürfnis des Organismus – Eine farbenanalytische Studie") appeared, which he also submitted as a habilitation thesis. In it he introduced the new technology of in vivo staining. One of his findings was that pigments can only be easily assimilated by living organisms if they are in granular form. He injected the dyes alizarin blue and indophenol blue into laboratory animals and established after their death that various organs had been colored to different degrees. In organs with high oxygen saturation, indophenol was retained; in organs with medium saturation, indophenol was reduced, but not alizarin blue. And in areas with low oxygen saturation, both pigments were reduced. With this work, Ehrlich also formulated the conviction which guided his research: that all life processes can be traced to processes of physical chemistry occurring in the cell.


title: Paul Ehrlich

text: In the course of his investigations Ehrlich came across methylene blue, which he regarded as particularly suitable for staining bacteria. Later, Robert Koch also used methylene blue as a dye in his research on the tuberculosis pathogen. In Ehrlich's view, an added benefit was that methylene blue also stained the long appendages of nerve cells, the axons. He initiated a doctoral dissertation on the subject, but did not follow up the topic himself. It was the opinion of the neurologist Ludwig Edinger that Ehrlich had thereby opened up a major new topic in the field of neurology.


title: Paul Ehrlich

text: After mid-1889, when Ehrlich was unemployed, he privately continued his research on methylene blue. His work on in vivo staining gave him the idea of using it therapeutically. Since the parasite family of "Plasmodiidae" – which includes the malaria pathogen – can be stained with methylene blue, he thought it could possibly be used in the treatment of malaria. In the case of two patients so treated at the city hospital in Berlin-Moabit, their fever indeed subsided and the malaria plasmodia disappeared from their blood. Ehrlich obtained methylene blue from the company Meister Lucius & Brüning AG (later renamed Hoechst AG), which started a long collaboration with this company.


title: Paul Ehrlich

text: Before the Institute of Experimental Therapy had moved to Frankfurt, Ehrlich had already resumed work on methylene blue. After the death of Georg Speyer, his widow Franziska Speyer endowed the Georg-Speyer House in his memory which was erected next door to Ehrlich's institute. As director of the Georg-Speyer House, Ehrlich transferred his chemotherapeutic research there. He was looking for an agent which was as effective as methylene blue, but without its side effects. His model was on the one hand the impact of quinine on malaria, and on the other hand, in analogy to serum therapy, he thought there must also be chemical pharmaceuticals which would have just as specific an effect on individual diseases. His goal was to find a "Therapia sterilisans magna", in other words a treatment that could kill all disease pathogens.


title: Paul Ehrlich

text: As a model for experimental therapy Ehrlich used a guinea pig disease trypanosoma and tested out various chemical substances on laboratory animals. The trypanosomes could indeed be successfully killed with the dye trypan red. Beginning in 1906, he intensively investigated atoxyl and had it tested by Robert Koch along with other arsenic compounds during Koch's sleeping sickness expedition of 1906/07. Although the name literally means "nonpoisonous", atoxyl does cause damage, especially to the optic nerve. Ehrlich elaborated the systematic testing of chemical compounds in the sense of screening as now practiced in the pharmaceutical industry. He discovered that Compound 418 - Arsenophenylglycine - had an impressive therapeutic effect and had it tested in Africa.


title: Paul Ehrlich

text: With the support of his assistant Sahachiro Hata Ehrlich discovered in 1909 that Compound 606, Arsphenamine, effectively combatted "spirillum" spirochaetes bacteria, one of whose subspecies causes syphilis. The compound proved to have few side effects in human trials, and the spirochetes disappeared in seven syphilis patients after this treatment.


title: Paul Ehrlich

text: After extensive clinical testing (all the research participants had the negative example of tuberculin in mind) the Hoechst company began to market the compound toward the end of 1910 under the name Salvarsan. This was the first agent with a specific therapeutic effect to be created on the basis of theoretical considerations. Salvarsan proved to be amazingly effective, particularly when compared with the conventional therapy of mercury salts. Manufactured by Hoechst AG, Salvarsan became the most widely prescribed drug in the world. It was the most effective drug for treating syphilis until penicillin became available in the 1940s. Salvarsan required improvement as to side effects and solubility and was replaced in 1911 with Neosalvarsan. Ehrlich's work illuminated the existence of the blood-brain barrier, although he himself never believed in such a barrier, with Lina Stern later coining the phrase.


title: Paul Ehrlich

text: The medication triggered the so-called "Salvarsan war". On one side there was hostility on the part of those who feared a resulting moral breakdown of sexual inhibitions. Ehrlich was also accused, with clearly anti-Semitic undertones, of excessively enriching himself. In addition, Ehrlich's associate, Paul Uhlenhuth claimed priority in discovering the drug.


title: Paul Ehrlich

text: Because some people died during the clinical testing, Ehrlich was accused of "stopping at nothing." In 1914, one of the most prominent accusers was convicted of criminal libel at a trial for which Ehrlich was called to testify. Though Ehrlich was thereby exonerated, the ordeal threw him into a depression from which he never fully recovered.


title: Paul Ehrlich

text: Ehrlich reasoned that if a compound could be made that selectively targeted a disease-causing organism, then a toxin for that organism could be delivered along with the agent of selectivity. Hence, a "magic bullet" ("Zauberkugel", his term for an ideal therapeutic agent) would be created that killed only the organism targeted. The concept of a "magic bullet" has to some extent been realized by the development of antibody-drug conjugates (a monoclonal antibody linked to a cytotoxic biologically active drug), as they enable cytotoxic drugs to be selectively delivered to their designated targets (e.g. cancer cells).


title: Paul Ehrlich

text: In 1910, a street was named after Ehrlich in Frankfurt-Sachsenhausen. In Nazi Germany, Ehrlich's achievements were ignored while Emil Adolf von Behring was stylized as the ideal Aryan scientist, and the street named after Ehrlich was given another name. Shortly after the end of the war the name Paul-Ehrlich-Strasse was reinstated, and today numerous German cities have streets named after Paul Ehrlich.


title: Paul Ehrlich

text: West Germany issued a postage stamp in 1954 on the 100th anniversary of the births of Paul Ehrlich (14 March 1854) and Emil von Behring (15 March 1854).


title: Paul Ehrlich

text: The German Paul Ehrlich Institute, the successor to the Steglitz Institute for Serum Research and Serum Testing and the Frankfurt Royal Institute for Experimental Therapy, was named in 1947 after its first director, Paul Ehrlich.


title: Paul Ehrlich

text: His name is also borne by many schools and pharmacies, by the Paul-Ehrlich-Gesellschaft für Chemotherapie e. V. (PEG) in Frankfurt am Main, and the Paul-Ehrlich-Klinik in Bad Homburg vor der Höhe. The Paul Ehrlich and Ludwig Darmstaedter Prize is the most distinguished German award for biomedical research. A European network of PhD studies in Medicinal Chemistry has been named after him (Paul Ehrlich MedChem Euro PhD Network).


title: Paul Ehrlich

text: Ehrlich's life and work was featured in the 1940 U.S. film "Dr. Ehrlich's Magic Bullet" with Edward G. Robinson in the title role. It focused on Salvarsan (arsphenamine, "compound 606"), his cure for syphilis. Since the Nazi government was opposed to this tribute to a Jewish scientist, attempts were made to keep the film a secret in Germany.


title: Genocide Convention

text: The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG), or the Genocide Convention, is an international treaty that criminalizes genocide and obligates state parties to pursue the enforcement of its prohibition. It was the first legal instrument to codify genocide as a crime, and the first human rights treaty unanimously adopted by the United Nations General Assembly, on 9 December 1948, during the third session of the United Nations General Assembly. The Convention entered into force on 12 January 1951 and has 152 state parties .


title: Genocide Convention

text: The Genocide Convention was conceived largely in response to World War II, which saw such as the Holocaust that lacked an adequate description or legal definition. Polish-Jewish lawyer Raphael Lemkin, who had coined the term genocide in 1944 to describe Nazi policies in occupied Europe and the Armenian genocide, campaigned for its recognition as a crime under international law. This culminated in 1946 in a landmark resolution by the General Assembly that recognized genocide as an international crime and called for the creation of a binding treaty to prevent and punish its perpetration. Subsequent discussions and negotiations among UN member states resulted in the CPPCG.


title: Genocide Convention

text: The Convention defines genocide as any of five "acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group." These five acts were: killing members of the group, causing them serious bodily or mental harm, imposing living conditions intended to destroy the group, preventing births, and forcibly transferring children out of the group. Victims are targeted because of their real or perceived membership of a group, not randomly. The convention further criminalizes complicity, attempt, or incitement of its commission'. Member states are prohibited from engaging in genocide and obligated to pursue the enforcement of this prohibition. All perpetrators are to be tried regardless of whether they are private individuals, public officials, or political leaders with sovereign immunity.


title: Genocide Convention

text: The CPPCG has influenced law at both the national and international level. Its definition of genocide has been adopted by international and hybrid tribunals, such as the International Criminal Court, and incorporated into the domestic law of several countries. Its provisions are widely considered to be reflective of customary law and therefore binding on all nations whether or not they are parties. The International Court of Justice (ICJ) has likewise ruled that the principles underlying the Convention represent a peremptory norm against genocide that no government can derogate. The Genocide Convention authorizes the mandatory jurisdiction of the ICJ to adjudicate disputes, leading to international litigation such as the Rohingya genocide case and dispute over the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.


title: Genocide Convention

text: The first draft of the Convention included political killing, but the USSR along with some other nations would not accept that actions against groups identified as holding similar political opinions or social status would constitute genocide, so these stipulations were subsequently removed in a political and diplomatic compromise.


title: Genocide Convention

text: Early drafts also included acts of cultural destruction in the concept of genocide, but these were opposed by former colonial powers. Such acts, which Lemkin saw as part and parcel of the concept of genocide, have since often been discussed as cultural genocide (a term also not enshrined in international law). In June, 2021, the International Criminal Court issued new guidelines for how cultural destruction, when occurring alongside other recognized acts of genocide, can potentially be corroborating evidence for the intent of the crime of genocide.


title: Genocide Convention

text: , there are 152 state parties to the Genocide Convention—representing the vast majority of sovereign nations—with the most recent being Mauritius, on 8 July 2019; one state, the Dominican Republic, has signed but not ratified the treaty. Forty-four states have neither signed nor ratified the convention.


title: Genocide Convention

text: Despite its delegates playing a key role in drafting the convention, the United States did not become a party until 1988—a full forty years after it was opened for signature—and did so only with reservations precluding punishment of the country if it were ever accused of genocide. These were due to traditional American suspicion of any international authority that could override US law. U.S. ratification of the convention was owed in large party to campaigning by Senator William Proxmire, who addressed the Senate in support of the treaty every day it was in session between 1967 and 1986.


title: Genocide Convention

text: Several parties conditioned their ratification of the Convention on reservations that grant immunity from prosecution for genocide without the consent of the national government:


title: Genocide Convention

text: Several countries opposed this article, considering that the convention should apply to Non-Self-Governing Territories:


title: Genocide Convention

text: One of the first accusations of genocide submitted to the UN after the Convention entered into force concerned the treatment of Black Americans. The Civil Rights Congress drafted a 237-page petition arguing that even after 1945, the United States had been responsible for hundreds of wrongful deaths, both legal and extra-legal, as well as numerous other supposedly genocidal abuses. Leaders from the Black community and left activists William Patterson, Paul Robeson, and W. E. B. Du Bois presented this petition to the UN in December 1951. It was rejected as a misuse of the intent of the treaty. Charges under We Charge Genocide entailed of Lynching of more than 10,000 African Americans with an average of more than 100 per year- with full number could not be confirmed at the time due to unreported murder cases.


title: Genocide Convention

text: The first state and parties to be found in breach of the Genocide convention were Serbia and Montenegro, and numerous Bosnian Serb leaders. In "Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro," the International Court of Justice presented its judgment on 26 February 2007. It cleared Serbia of direct involvement in genocide during the Bosnian war. International Tribunal findings have addressed two allegations of genocidal events, including the 1992 Ethnic Cleansing Campaign in municipalities throughout Bosnia, as well as the convictions found in regards to the Srebrenica Massacre of 1995 in which the tribunal found, "Bosnian Serb forces committed genocide, they targeted for extinction, the 40,000 Bosnian Muslims of Srebrenica ... the trial chamber refers to the crimes by their appropriate name, genocide ...". Individual convictions applicable to the 1992 Ethnic Cleansings have not been secured however. A number of domestic courts and legislatures have found these events to have met the criteria of genocide, and the ICTY found the acts of, and intent to destroy to have been satisfied, the "Dolus Specialis" still in question and before the MICT, UN war crimes court, but ruled that Belgrade did breach international law by failing to prevent the 1995 Srebrenica genocide, and for failing to try or transfer the persons accused of genocide to the ICTY, in order to comply with its obligations under Articles I and VI of the Genocide Convention, in particular in respect of General Ratko Mladić.


title: Genocide Convention

text: Myanmar has been accused of Genocide against its Rohingya community in Rakhine State after around 800,000 Rohingya fled at gunpoint to neighbouring Bangladesh in 2016 and 2017, while their home villages were systematically burned. The International Court of Justice has given its first circular in 2018 asking Myanmar to protect its Rohingya from genocide. Myanmar's civilian government was overthrown by the military on 1 February 2021; since the military is widely seen as the main culprit of the genocide, the coup presents a further challenge to the ICJ.


title: Genocide Convention

text: In February 2022, Russia invaded Ukraine, claiming that it acted, among other reasons, in order to protect Russian-speaking Ukrainians from genocide. In response, Ukraine filed a lawsuit under the Genocide Convention, alleging that Russia was misusing an allegation of genocide in order to justify an illegal invasion. On 16 March, the ICJ issued an interim order, ruling that Russia must immediately cease its military operations in Ukraine.


title: Ha Seok-jin

text: Ha Seok-jin (born March 4, 1982) is a South Korean actor. He is best known for his roles in TV drama series: "Radiant Office" (2017), "Drinking Solo" (2016), "Shark" (2013) and "4 Legendary Witches" (2014), for which he received two nominations for the Excellence Award.


title: Ha Seok-jin

text: Ha Seok-jin was born in Seoul in 1982. Ha Seok-jin, the eldest of one son and one daughter, entered the Department of Mechanical Engineering at Hanyang University after graduating from middle and high school, and after completing his first year, he enlisted in the military.


title: Ha Seok-jin

text: When he returned to school after he was discharged, a friend who was attending another school got a job at an entertainment production, and Ha Seok-jin was offered to apply for recruiting new actors. At first he refused because of his studies, but he dreamed of a new challenge in his boring daily life, and thus made his debut in the entertainment industry through an advertisement for Korean Air in 2005. Initially, he didn't intend to continue pursuing his acting career, but is said to have gradually grown attracted to it and found it to be fun.


title: Ha Seok-jin

text: In 2021, his contract with C-JeS Entertainment expired and was looking for a new agency to sign with. In July 2021, Ha signed a contract with Management Koo after his contract with the former agency expired.


Princess Sibylla of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (Sibylla Calma Marie Alice Bathildis Feodora; 18 January 1908 – 28 November 1972) was a member of the Swedish royal family and the mother of the current king of Sweden, Carl XVI Gustaf.


title: Princess Sibylla of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha

text: Born into the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, Sibylla was the daughter of Charles Edward, the last duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. She became a Swedish princess when she married Prince Gustaf Adolf, Duke of Västerbotten in 1932. She thus had the prospect of one day becoming queen, but the prince was killed in an airplane crash in 1947 and did not live to ascend the Swedish throne. Her son became king the year after her death.


text: Princess Sibylla (then Sibylle) was born on 18 January 1908 at Schloss Friedenstein in the city of Gotha, one of the two capitals in the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha in central Germany. She was the elder daughter and second child of Charles Edward, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, and Princess Victoria Adelaide of Schleswig-Holstein. Her father was a posthumous son of Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany, the youngest son of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Prince Charles Edward had, at the urging of his grandmother, inherited the position of duke after his uncle in 1900. The same year he had married Princess Victoria Adelaide, who was a daughter of Friedrich Ferdinand, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein and Princess Karoline Mathilde of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg, and descended from an older Scandinavian royal house.


text: Like the other princes of the German Empire, her father was forced to abdicate in November 1918, just before the end of World War I, when the German monarchies were abolished amidst the tumults of the German Revolution of 1918–19. This also affected Princess Sibylla's position. In 1919, her father was deprived of his British peerages, as a consequence of the Titles Deprivation Act of 1917, which authorized enemies of the United Kingdom during the First World War to be deprived of their British peerages and royal titles. He and his children also lost their entitlement to the titles of Prince and Princess of the United Kingdom and the styles of "Royal Highness" and "Highness".


text: Princess Sibylla grew up in Coburg with her siblings Hereditary Prince Johann Leopold, Prince Hubertus, Princess Caroline-Mathilde and Prince Friedrich Josias. The children received, as was common in aristocratic circles at the time, their initial schooling by private tutors and governesses. Later, Princess Sibylla attended the "Gymnasium Alexandrinum" in Coburg and the "Kunstgewerbeschule" in Weimar.


text: In November 1931, Sibylla was in London to attend the wedding of her paternal first cousin Lady May Cambridge as a bridesmaid. One of the other bridesmaids was her second cousin Princess Ingrid of Sweden, who introduced Sibylla to her brother, Prince Gustaf Adolf, Duke of Västerbotten. Their engagement was announced at Callenberg Castle in Coburg 16 June 1932. Prince Gustaf Adolf was the eldest son of Crown Prince Gustav Adolf of Sweden (later King Gustaf VI Adolf) and Princess Margaret of Connaught, a granddaughter of Queen Victoria. Sibylla and Gustaf Adolf were thus second cousins, as they were both great-grandchildren of Queen Victoria.


text: The wedding took place in Coburg in October of the same year - known as the "Sweden Year", as in the same year the 300th-anniversary of the death of the great Swedish King Gustavus II Adolphus was marked. Although the monarchy had been abolished, the wedding was still celebrated in an official manner in Coburg, with, among other things, military honors and a public procession, as the German President Paul von Hindenburg had ordered that no honours should be spared. However, as the city of Coburg was already strongly dominated by the Nazi party at the time, the official celebrations there were Nazi influenced, which made a very bad impression in Sweden. On 19 October, Princess Sibylla married Prince Gustaf Adolf in a civil ceremony at the Veste Coburg, followed by a church wedding the following day after, at the St. Moriz Church. The couple spent their honeymoon in Italy before arriving in Stockholm on 25 November 1932.


text: The couple settled at Haga Palace, and their four daughters were to be commonly known during their childhood as the "Hagaprinsessorna" (English: "The Haga Princesses"). Sibylla shared her husband's enthusiasm for sport and outdoor activities, and the couple owned a cottage in Ingarö and another one in Storlien.


text: During her lifetime, she was appointed chairman of various organisations such as Sällskapet Barnavård (English: "The Childcare Society") in 1948 and the honorary chairmanship of the Hörselfrämjandet (English: "The Hearing Society") in 1935; the Sveriges flickscoutråd (English: "The Swedish Girls Scouts") in 1939; Kvinnliga bilkåren (English: "The Women's Automobile Force") in 1939; the Stiftelsen Solstickan (English: "The Solstickan Society") in 1941; and the Stiftelsen Drottning Victorias Vilohem på Öland (English: "The Queen Victoria Resting Home in Öland") in 1951. In 1938, she founded the Prinsessan Sibyllas S:t Martin-stiftelse (English: "The Princess Sibylla Foundation of St Martin").


text: Sibylla became a widow in 1947 when Gustaf Adolf died in an airplane crash at the Copenhagen Airport in Denmark. Their only son, Carl Gustaf, became second-in-line to the throne at the age of nine months and, later, Crown Prince at the age of four. In 1950, Sibylla moved from Haga to the Royal Palace of Stockholm. During the summers, she stayed at Solliden. During these years, she developed an interest in environmental issues.


text: After her stepmother-in-law, Queen Louise, died in 1965, Princess Sibylla became the highest ranking woman in the royal family. She took over her duties in support of her father-in-law, King Gustaf VI Adolf. During these years, she enjoyed somewhat more popularity, as she was more exposed, and as her humour and sense of self-irony became more known and appreciated. She continued with the so-called "Democratic ladies lunches" for career women initiated by Queen Louise in 1962 as a replacement for the court presentation.


title: Jeannie Berlin

text: Jeannie Berlin (born Jeannie Brette May; November 1, 1949) is an American film, television and stage actress and screenwriter, the daughter of Elaine May. She is best-known for her role in the 1972 comedy film "The Heartbreak Kid", for which she received Academy Award and Golden Globe nominations for Best Supporting Actress. She later played the leading role in "Sheila Levine Is Dead and Living in New York" (1975), and in the 2010s returned to screen appearing in films such as "Margaret" (2011), "Inherent Vice" (2014) and "Café Society" (2016), as well as the HBO miniseries "The Night Of" (2016).


title: Jeannie Berlin

text: Born in Los Angeles, California, Berlin is the daughter of actress, comedienne, screenwriter, and director Elaine May (née Berlin) and inventor Marvin May. Elaine May directed Berlin in the 1972 film "The Heartbreak Kid", which garnered her Golden Globe and Academy Award nominations for Best Supporting Actress. Berlin chose to use her mother's maiden name for her stage name.


title: Jeannie Berlin

text: Berlin made her screen debut appearing in an supporting role in the made-for-television film "In Name Only" starring Eve Arden. She acted on the New York stage and began appearing in a number of films, include "Getting Straight" (1970), "The Strawberry Statement" (1970), "Move" (1970), "The Baby Maker" (1970), "Portnoy's Complaint" (1971), and "Bone" (1972).


title: Jeannie Berlin

text: In 1972, Berlin's performance in the comedy film "The Heartbreak Kid" directed by her mother with a screenplay by Neil Simon, garnered her Golden Globe and Academy Award nominations for Best Supporting Actress. She also won National Society of Film Critics Award for Best Supporting Actress. In article for "The New York Times" by John Gruen he wrote: "What is more, every critic said that Jeannie looks, sounds and acts exactly like her mother. One critic even said that she is a much better actress than her mother . . . 'with real blood coursing through her.' Anyway, this piece will set out to prove that Jeannie Berlin, who looks, talks, and acts exactly like Elaine May, is, in fact, Elaine May's 23‐year‐old daughter, and a person in her own right, even though . . . well, there's just no denying it, she looks, sounds, and acts exactly like her mother."


title: Jeannie Berlin

text: In 1975, Berlin played a leading role in the romantic comedy film "Sheila Levine Is Dead and Living in New York". The film was not well received by critics: Stanley Eichelbaum from "San Francisco Examiner" noted that "Jeannie is cold and hasn't the inner glow the appeal and magnetism that an actress needs to carry a film." The following year, she had a leading role in "Old Fashioned Murder", an episode of the NBC detective drama series "Columbo". Berlin did not act on film or television again until 1990, when she appeared in and co-wrote the screenplay for the comedy-drama film "In the Spirit" starring her mother alongside Marlo Thomas and Olympia Dukakis.


title: Jeannie Berlin

text: Berlin appeared in a number of off-Broadway productions in 1990s. She made her Broadway theatre debut in May's play "After the Night and the Music" in 2005. In 2012, she appeared in the play "Other Desert Cities" at the Mark Taper Forum in Los Angeles. After an extended absence of more than a decade from acting in films, in 2011 she co-starred in "Margaret", a psychological drama film starring Anna Paquin. She received positive reviews from film critics and was nominated for National Society of Film Critics and Boston Society of Film Critics Award for Best Supporting Actress. She later appeared in Paul Thomas Anderson's crime film "Inherent Vice" (2014), and Woody Allen's romantic comedy-drama "Café Society" (2016).


title: Jeannie Berlin

text: In 2016, Berlin received positive reviews for her performance as prosecutor Helen Weiss in the HBO miniseries "The Night Of". She was a promising contender for an Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Limited or Anthology Series or Movie category, but she did not receive a nomination. In 2018 she played the President of the United States in the Hulu drama series "The First", and the following year was cast as Cyd Peach, the head of the Roys’ Fox News–esque TV station in the HBO drama series, "Succession". In 2020, she had a recurring role in the Amazon Prime Video drama series, "Hunters" playing the grandmother of lead character. In 2022, she starred in the coming-of-age drama film "The Fabelmans" directed by Steven Spielberg.


title: Tej Lalvani

text: Tej Lalvani (born 13 July 1974) is a British businessman and the CEO of the UK's largest vitamin company Vitabiotics, founded by his father Kartar Lalvani. He is best known for being one of the "dragons" on the BBC television series "Dragons' Den" from 2017 to 2021.


title: Tej Lalvani

text: Lalvani grew up in Bangalore, Karnataka Southern India, and spent his childhood between India and the United Kingdom before settling in London when he was 16. He graduated with a bachelor's degree from Westminster Business School at the University of Westminster in 1996, and started his career working in the warehouse of his father's company Vitabiotics, before succeeding him as CEO.


title: Tej Lalvani

text: In 2012, Lalvani was named Young Entrepreneur at the Asian Business Awards as well as Young Entrepreneur of the Year by TiE in 2013. In October 2017, he ranked at number 48 on the GG2 Power List of the most influential Asian people in Britain.


title: Tej Lalvani

text: In November 2020, Lalvani was included on The Grocer's NPD Power List. He was awarded this based on his contribution to and innovation in the UK grocery industry during the pandemic.


title: Tej Lalvani

text: Lalvani shares his business insight and experience across various social platforms - most notably, LinkedIn. In 2020, he was named one of LinkedIn’s ‘Top UK Voices’.


title: Tej Lalvani

text: In November 2021, the University of Westminster awarded him with an honorary doctorate. In May 2022, the University of Westminster appointed Lalvani as a visiting professor at Westminster Business School.


title: Tej Lalvani

text: In January 2021, Lalvani announced his departure from the show to focus on the expansion of his business. Series 18, which will be his final series, started in spring 2021.


title: Tej Lalvani

text: Lalvani is of Indian descent. The Lalvani family is of Sindhi heritage. In 2011, Lalvani married Tara Ruby in London. His mother is a former Miss India and a Miss World runner-up.


title: Tej Lalvani

text: Lalvani lives in London and aside from his business interests, he composes music and plays drums, keyboard and guitar.


title: Kernel-based Virtual Machine

text: Kernel-based Virtual Machine (KVM) is a virtualization module in the Linux kernel that allows the kernel to function as a hypervisor. It was merged into the mainline Linux kernel in version 2.6.20, which was released on February 5, 2007. KVM requires a processor with hardware virtualization extensions, such as Intel VT or AMD-V. KVM has also been ported to other operating systems such as FreeBSD and illumos in the form of loadable kernel modules.


title: Kernel-based Virtual Machine

text: KVM was originally designed for x86 processors but has since been ported to S/390, PowerPC, IA-64, and ARM.


title: Kernel-based Virtual Machine

text: KVM provides hardware-assisted virtualization for a wide variety of guest operating systems including Linux, BSD, Solaris, Windows, Haiku, ReactOS, Plan 9, AROS Research Operating System and macOS. In addition, Android 2.2, GNU/Hurd (Debian K16), Minix 3.1.2a, Solaris 10 U3 and Darwin 8.0.1, together with other operating systems and some newer versions of these listed, are known to work with certain limitations.


title: Kernel-based Virtual Machine

text: Additionally, KVM provides paravirtualization support for Linux, OpenBSD, FreeBSD, NetBSD, Plan 9 and Windows guests using the VirtIO API. This includes a paravirtual Ethernet card, disk I/O controller, balloon driver, and a VGA graphics interface using SPICE or VMware drivers.


title: Kernel-based Virtual Machine

text: Avi Kivity began the development of KVM in mid-2006 at Qumranet, a technology startup company that was acquired by Red Hat in 2008.


title: Kernel-based Virtual Machine

text: KVM surfaced in October, 2006 and was merged into the Linux kernel mainline in kernel version 2.6.20, which was released on 5 February 2007.


title: Kernel-based Virtual Machine

text: KVM provides device abstraction but no processor emulation. It exposes the interface, which a user mode host can then use to:


title: Kernel-based Virtual Machine

text: Originally a forked version of QEMU was provided to launch guests and deal with hardware emulation that isn't handled by the kernel. That support was eventually merged into the upstream project. There are now numerous Virtual Machine Monitors (VMMs) which can utilise the KVM interface including kvmtool, crosvm and Firecracker and numerous specialised VMMs build with frameworks such as rust-vmm.


title: Kernel-based Virtual Machine

text: KVM has had support for hot swappable vCPUs, dynamic memory management, and Live Migration since February 2007. Memory write intensive workload impact in migration process


title: Kernel-based Virtual Machine

text: KVM itself emulates very little hardware, instead deferring to a higher level client application such as QEMU, crosvm, or Firecracker for device emulation.


title: Kernel-based Virtual Machine

text: The kernel-mode component of KVM is a part of Linux kernel, itself licensed under GNU General Public License, version 2.


title: Daewoo Precision Industries K2

text: Daewoo Precision Industries K2 assault rifle is the standard service rifle of the South Korean military. It was developed by the South Korean Agency for Defense Development and manufactured by S&T Motiv (formerly Daewoo Precision Industries) and Dasan Machineries (since 2016). Shoulder-fired and gas-operated, the K2 is capable of firing both 5.56×45mm NATO and .223 Remington ammunition; however, using .223 Remington is only recommended for practicing for short distance.


title: Daewoo Precision Industries K2

text: The K2 supplanted the M16A1 assault rifle as the primary infantry weapon for the South Korean military since its adoption in 1985.


title: Daewoo Precision Industries K2

text: In the 1960s, the South Korean armed forces relied completely upon military support from the United States to supply its small arms, consisting mostly of M1 Garands and M1/M2 carbines. Attempts at the time to develop an indigenous rifle were hampered by the country's economic, technological, and industrial shortcomings, and initial attempts never went into production. During South Korean involvement in the Vietnam War, South Korean army soldiers and marines received the more modern M16A1 assault rifle from U.S. military aid, though not enough to arm all active military personnel. With a modern rifle design and rapid economic growth in the 1970s, South Korea began to build the M16A1 under license in 1974.


title: Daewoo Precision Industries K2

text: Despite being able to produce their own service rifle, it was not an ideal arrangement; the original license agreement did not cover enough weapons to equip their forces including millions of reserves, and having to pay license fees to manufacture the design was too expensive at a time when the country was short on foreign currency. Geopolitical considerations played a factor, as the Nixon Doctrine and Carter administration's use of the U.S. military presence on the Korean peninsula as leverage to force change against South Korea's human rights practices. Under such influences, South Korea felt it necessary to be able to control their own basic weapon needs. Facing the eventual expiration of the Republic of Korea's license to produce the M16A1 (Colt Model 603K), president Park Chung-hee, who strongly believed in self-reliance in national defense, ordered the development of an indigenous standard military firearm.


title: Daewoo Precision Industries K2

text: An indigenous rifle program started in 1972. Initial requirements were for prototypes to be chambered in 7.62×51mm NATO as it was the only standardized ammunition for the Western Bloc. Prototypes XB-1 through XB-5 were akin to AR-15-series rifles with some exterior changes; designers attempted to use as many M16 components as possible to save time and money, such as the direct gas impingement operation, sights, and handguards. In 1975, the XB-6 prototype with long-stroke gas piston was created, and converted into 5.56×45mm NATO chambered XB-7 in 1977.


title: Daewoo Precision Industries K2

text: By 1982, the final prototype model XB-7C (XK2) was completed, and small amount was handed for field tests. It went into full-scale production and was officially fielded to the Republic of Korea Armed Forces in 1985.


title: Daewoo Precision Industries K2

text: After the K2 was adopted, hardly any changes were made to the gun for nearly 30 years. There were several reasons for this: the ROK Army maintained a Cold War-style mentality that favored tanks and artillery against an outdated North Korean threat, leaving less money and urgency to modernize infantry weapons and tactics; the manufacturer had been producing tens of thousands of rifles each year since the 1970s without competition for domestic customers that didn't request upgrades, leaving no motivation to make changes; and various management and ownership changes created internal chaos making it difficult to conduct research and development. Special forces units had more of a need to upgrade K-series weapons with new optics and accessories, so they turned to private companies to develop add-on rail systems. Because they were being supplied many non-standard rails from various companies, the regular ROK Army standardized the MIL-STD-1913 rail in 2013 for the PVS-11K red dot sight, which on the K2 is only a short rail on the upper receiver, since it is made with an optics mount on the receiver to attach it and regular troops have less of a need for additional rails.


title: Daewoo Precision Industries K2

text: The K2 and K1A had become outdated for international markets after 2000; in addition to lack of ability to add accessories, the K1A had become too large, underpowered, and un-ergonomic as a personal defense weapon or special operation carbine, and the K2 was too long. In 2012, S&T Motiv introduced the K2C, or K2 Carbine. It has a shortened barrel with adjusted gas piston, upper receiver/handguard Picatinny rail, and right side-folding M4-style retractable stock; it weighs , is long with stock extended and with stock folded. In 2013, a new tan-painted K2C with Magpul CTR stock and detachable rear sight was unveiled, but not actually produced. In 2017, The New K2C-1/2 variants with a foldable front sight and ambidextrous selector switches were unveiled. In 2018, The New K2C-1 variant was renamed K2C CQB.


title: Daewoo Precision Industries K2

text: To enhance the domestic appeal, S&T Motiv developed the K2A, which retains the full-length K2's features (including bayonet lug) while utilizing the upgrades of K2C including the upper receiver/handguard Picatinny rail, M4-style adjustable stock. Later, it was renamed K2C1 (C="Exterior design changed without performance improvements", by the South Korean Defense Specification) and adopted by ROK forces. K2C1 had several changes compared to K2A, including a new extended handguard rail with optional lower/side pictinny rail sections, flattop upper receiver with a detachable rear backup sight, and a new Magpul CTR-like adjustable stock. As of 2016, 200,000 K2C1s are in service with frontline troops. Partially due to the rail's screw attachment method, the K2C1 is slightly heavier than the original model. ( vs. )


title: Daewoo Precision Industries K2

text: Six different prototypes were made during the XB development. Of the 6 designs, the XB6 was selected. Some parts of the XB6 resembled FN FNC such as the suppressor and sights. Further development of the XB6 evolved into the XB7 and finally the XB7C, also known as the XK2. Externally similar in appearance to the AR18, the K2 uses polymer for the forearm, pistol-grip and side-foldable buttstock. The fire control system and bolt carrier group are derived from the American M16 rifle, but few of the parts, including the bolt and carrier, are interchangeable with the M16. The gas operating system is derived from the AKM. The K2 uses the same magazine as the M16. The barrel rifling has 6 grooves, 185 mm (1-in-7.3) right hand twist. The K2 has 3 selective firing modes: semi-auto, 3-round burst, and full automatic.


title: Daewoo Precision Industries K2

text: The K2 can be equipped with the DPI K201, an undercarried 40×46mm single shot grenade launcher patterned after the American M203. The Republic of Korea Armed Forces originally planned to replace the entire K2 with new S&T Daewoo K11 dual-barrel air-burst weapon. However, high cost and skepticism over the effective firepower of the 20mm grenade led to the decision to provide 2 K11s to each squad, keeping 2 grenadiers as well. Consequently, the standard 9-person infantry squad of the Republic of Korea Armed Forces is currently equipped with 2 K2 rifles, 2 K2 rifles with K201 grenade launcher, 2 K11 DAWs, 1 K3 light machine gun, and the rest with either K1 or K2.


title: Daewoo Precision Industries K2

text: The K2 is also sometimes used with bipods and 4× magnification scopes, in a role similar to the Designated Marksman Rifle.


title: Daewoo Precision Industries K2

text: A more modern way to accessorize the K2 and K1 is to mount a now (limited) standard issue PVS-4K Rail Integration System. It consists of an aluminum body with a long, uninterrupted rail for optical/red-dot and night-vision sights and three other rails located on the bottom and both sides. The rails are of the Picatinny-type.


title: Daewoo Precision Industries K2

text: Despite the shortest handguard ever seen on any assault rifles, the K2C variants have had issues with overheating, and thus most of the K2's around the world are the original K2, with the barrel mostly exposed, unlike the K2C.


title: Daewoo Precision Industries K2

text: The K2 is also able to accept a brass catcher basket, as the South Korean army requires its soldiers to pick up and return empty cartridge cases after training sessions, both for financial reasons (the brass cases are recyclable) and for security reasons, as the soldier must prove he or she has actually expended the issued ammunition. This minimizes the risk of a soldier keeping unauthorized live ammunition which could be used in criminal activities.


title: Daewoo Precision Industries K2

text: When personnel from the South Korean army special command were invited to see the XB-series prototypes, they requested the development of a new submachine gun to quickly replace a series of different weapons in their use. With no time to develop a new weapon, ADD made one based on the XB rifle prototypes called XB-S (short). It used a direct impingement gas tube rather than a piston to achieve the required short length, which was faster to make since they had short-barrel CAR-15 designs to work off of and no time to redesign a new short gas piston. The barrel used 1:12 inch rifling to fire M193 rounds, as during its development there were no plans to adopt SS109 ammunition in the South Korean army. The shortened design was adopted as the K1A SMG in 1981 and issued to special forces, commanders, radio operators, and others who needed a short SMG-like weapon.


title: Daewoo Precision Industries K2

text: While the K1A SMG is commonly regarded as an SMG version of the K2, the K1 is a separate weapon altogether. The primary differences between the two weapons include: development time and intent (the K1 took less time to develop and entered service sooner than the K2, and was developed originally as a submachine gun because it was intended to replace the M3 Grease Gun; the K2 was developed from the start as a service rifle); rifling (K1: 1-in-12 twist; K2: 1-in-7.3 twist); and gas system (the K1 uses a direct impingement gas system, while the K2 uses a long stroke gas piston system). In addition, some parts are not interchangeable between the two weapons even though they can use the same cartridge (KM193 (.223 Remington) 5.56 caliber; the K2 can also utilize the K100 (SS109) 5.56 caliber round).


title: Daewoo Precision Industries K2

text: K2C (C="Carbine"): Carbine version of K2 rifle with Picatinny rail, M4-type buttstock, barrel reduced to . Exports started in 2012.


title: Daewoo Precision Industries K2

text: (C="Exterior design changed without performance improvements", by the South Korean Defense Specification) : New variant featuring a quad accessory rail, full-length 1913 Picatinny optics rail, an AR-15-style six position collapsing and a Magpul-based foldable stock. Comes in two barrel lengths, 305 mm (12 in) and 465 mm (18.3 in). It was officially sent into production in March 2016 with first deliveries in June 2016.


title: Daewoo Precision Industries K2

text: S&T Daewoo (now S&T Motiv) proposed the XK8, a 5.56×45mm NATO bullpup version of the K2 in early 2000. After a series of field tests, the XK8 was rejected by the South Korean military and was never mass-produced.


title: Daewoo Precision Industries K2

text: More recently, the development of the S&T Daewoo K11 dual-barrel air-burst weapon, which uses 5.56×45mm NATO and 20×30mm air-burst grenade, prompted the South Korean military to plan for the replacements of all K2 rifles in service with the K11, making K11 the standard service rifle for the armed forces. However, due to the K11's extremely high cost and weight for a standard rifle, the armed forces scrapped its original plan and decided to provide 2 K11 per squad in order to increase firepower. As of 2019, the K11 project is in a state of complete suspension. As a result, The K2 was retained as the standard service rifle.


title: Daewoo Precision Industries K2

text: In 2014, an upgraded K2 rifle, the K2C1 was introduced, and the South Korean Army performed field tests which were successful. K2C1 mass production began in 2015 to replace the K2 as the standard issue rifle for the ROK armed forces. Additional production of K2C1 rifles will push out K2 in active service, and eventually replace the reserve forces' M16A1s with K2 in the near future.


title: Type 81 assault rifle

text: The Type 81 (; literally; "Type 81 Automatic Rifle") is a Chinese-designed second-generation, selective-fire, gas-operated 7.62×39mm assault rifle based on Kalashnikov and SKS actions adopted by the People's Liberation Army (PLA) and has been in service since the mid-1980s. It is a small arms family that consist of the Type 81, the Type 81-1 and the Type 81 LMG.


title: Type 81 assault rifle

text: The PLA's first attempt to replace their aging SKS and Type 56 assault rifle (a Chinese license produced AK-47) was the Type 63 assault rifle. This weapon, however, ended in failure due to a variety of issues resulting in a switch back to the weapons it intended to replace. The beginning of the Sino-Vietnamese border conflicts showed the PLA that their SKS and Type 56s were not as effective as they thought, causing their small arms development program to spring back to life.


title: Type 81 assault rifle

text: The weapon was introduced into PLA service in 1981 but did not become widely distributed until the late 1980s. It replaced the SKS, the Type 56 and the RPD, succeeding where the Type 63 failed. Its first combat use came during the latter part of the Sino-Vietnamese border conflicts of the mid-1980s. The PLA has replaced most of its Type 81s with the Type 95 or Type 03 series of weapons, though it is still in service in the reserves and armed police.


title: Type 81 assault rifle

text: The Type 81 incorporates elements of the Dragunov, SKS, and AK series of rifles. The design criteria it met included accuracy of 1.78 inch R, 50% of the hits within a 1.78 inch diameter at 100 meters; improved controllability in full-automatic; the same reliability of the AK but a longer service life to approximately 20,000 rounds; and the ability to use AK and SKS production tooling at the time. Development was placed under Wang Zi Jun after the end of the Sino-Vietnamese border clashes in 1979.


title: Type 81 assault rifle

text: The rifle retains the general layout of the Chinese Type 56, but it has an SKS-like short-stroke gas-piston design and other improvements to reduce recoil and muzzle jump, giving better firing accuracy. Notable physical differences from the Type 56 include the stock of the rifle, the length of the action, bayonet, and the positioning of the front sight. The most easily distinguishable feature of the Type 81 is the more exposed muzzle part of the barrel. The front sight has been moved back as a modification to be able to fire 22mm rifle grenades, which are slid over the unobstructed barrel muzzle now formed into a spigot-type rifle grenade launcher.


title: Type 81 assault rifle

text: There is a significant gap between the trigger guard and the magazine on Type 81 rifles, while on the Type 56 rifle series the magazine is adjacent to the front of the trigger guard.


title: Type 81 assault rifle

text: The non-detachable swing-out spike-shaped bayonet of the Type 56 rifle was also replaced on Type 81 rifles with the detachable Type 81 knife-bayonet.


title: Type 81 assault rifle

text: Like its predecessors, the Type 81 is a series of weapons. The Type 81 (fixed stock) and Type 81-1 (folding stock) are 7.62×39mm caliber assault rifles with 30-round magazines, and the heavier Type 81 light machine gun (LMG) fitted with a 75-round drum magazine is used in the squad automatic weapon (SAW) role. Its sight remains at the front of the LMG barrel.


title: Type 81 assault rifle

text: The Type 81 can be fitted with a Picatinny rail, bipod, foregrip, and flashlight. One such attempt to market Picatinny rails for the Type 81 came from Bao Wa, a Hong Kong-based law enforcement supplier.


title: Barbara Parkins

text: Barbara Parkins (born May 22, 1942) is a Canadian-American former actress, singer, dancer and photographer.


title: Barbara Parkins

text: Parkins was born in Vancouver, British Columbia. At the age of 16, she and her adoptive mother moved to Los Angeles, where she enrolled at Hollywood High School and studied acting, tap, ballet and fencing at the Falcon School, where her mother played the piano.


title: Barbara Parkins

text: Parkins began her career as a backup singer and dancer in the nightclub acts of stars like comedian George Burns. She made her film debut in the 1961 low-budget crime caper "20,000 Eyes", and guest-starred in television series such as "Leave It to Beaver", "The Untouchables", "Perry Mason" and "The Wide Country".


title: Barbara Parkins

text: Parkins was involved in two of the most highly publicized projects of the 1960s, the ABC primetime serial "Peyton Place", and the film adaptation of Jacqueline Susann's best-selling novel, "Valley of the Dolls".


title: Barbara Parkins

text: In "Peyton Place", Parkins received lead billing for her role as small-town bad girl Betty Anderson. The character was scripted to die in a car crash six weeks into the season, but audience reaction to Parkins was overwhelmingly favorable and her character was kept in the story line. In a late-1965 interview, the actress said she was lucky to have the role of Anderson, calling her character the "salt and pepper in the stew."


title: Barbara Parkins

text: Parkins was the only female star nominated for an award throughout the run of the series (1964–1969). In 1966, she was nominated for an Emmy Award as Lead Actress in a Drama Series, but lost to Barbara Stanwyck for "The Big Valley". Parkins said while losing the award was painful, she was glad to have lost it to Stanwyck instead of Anne Francis, who was also nominated and whose work Parkins thought was “unfeminine.”


title: Barbara Parkins

text: Following the close of "Peyton Place", producer Paul Monash developed a spin-off series, "The Girl from Peyton Place", for Parkins. However, when co-star Ryan O'Neal, who played her husband, declined to participate, the project was shelved.


title: Barbara Parkins

text: In "Valley of the Dolls", Parkins played Anne Welles, a character based on author Susann. The Welles character was described as "the good girl with a million-dollar face and all the bad breaks." Although the film was trashed by the critics, it was a commercial success and became a cult classic.


title: Barbara Parkins

text: After visiting London in 1968 to be a bridesmaid in the wedding of "Valley of the Dolls" co-star Sharon Tate and director Roman Polanski, Parkins moved to England, where she starred in several productions, including "Puppet on a Chain", "Shout at the Devil", and "The Mephisto Waltz". Parkins said she moved to London because it was relaxed and simple, and she loved its traditions.


title: Barbara Parkins

text: Parkins posed for nude pictorials in the May 1967, February 1970 and May 1976 editions of "Playboy" magazine.


title: Barbara Parkins

text: In the 1970s and 1980s, Parkins appeared on American television in series that included "", "Captains and the Kings" and "The Testimony of Two Men," "Fantasy Island", "The Love Boat", "Hotel", and "Vega$". She also appeared in television movies, including "To Catch a King", in which she portrayed the Duchess of Windsor, and opposite Sharon Stone in "Calendar Girl Murders".


title: Barbara Parkins

text: In 1991, Parkins starred in Canadian mystery series "Scene of the Crime". She appeared in two Susann-inspired projects, the biography "Scandalous Me" and a segment of the Lifetime series "Intimate Portrait".


title: Barbara Parkins

text: In 2006, Parkins participated with Ted Casablanca on the audio commentary for the DVD release of "Valley of the Dolls".


title: Barbara Parkins

text: While filming "Valley of the Dolls", Parkins met photographer Edward Steichen, a friend of the movie's cinematographer, and was influenced to begin a lifetime career in photography. She is also an advocate for endangered wildlife.


title: Barbara Parkins

text: In the late 1960s, Parkins was linked to several men, including Omar Sharif, Adam West, David Hedison and Marcel Marceau, but insisted most of the stories were made up by gossip magazines.


title: Barbara Parkins

text: Parkins moved to France in the 1970s where she married, and in the late 1980s adopted her only child. Parkins and her husband divorced.


title: Westminster Confession of Faith

text: The Westminster Confession of Faith is a Reformed confession of faith. Drawn up by the 1646 Westminster Assembly as part of the Westminster Standards to be a confession of the Church of England, it became and remains the "subordinate standard" of doctrine in the Church of Scotland and has been influential within Presbyterian churches worldwide.


title: Westminster Confession of Faith

text: In 1643, the English Parliament called upon "learned, godly and judicious Divines" to meet at Westminster Abbey in order to provide advice on issues of worship, doctrine, government and discipline of the Church of England. Their meetings, over a period of five years, produced the confession of faith, as well as a Larger Catechism and a Shorter Catechism. For more than three hundred years, various churches around the world have adopted the confession and the catechisms as their standards of doctrine, subordinate to the Bible.


title: Westminster Confession of Faith

text: The Westminster Confession of Faith was modified and adopted by Congregationalists in England in the form of the Savoy Declaration (1658) and by Particular Baptists in the form of the Second London Baptist Confession (1677/1689). English Presbyterians, Congregationalists, and some others, would together come to be known as Nonconformists, because they did not conform to the Act of Uniformity (1662) establishing the Church of England as the only legally approved church, though they were in many ways united by their common confessions, built on the Westminster Confession.


title: Westminster Confession of Faith

text: During the English Civil War (1642–1649), the English Parliament raised armies in an alliance with the Covenanters who by then were the de facto government of Scotland, against the forces of Charles I, King of England, Scotland and Ireland. The purpose of the Westminster Assembly, in which 121 Puritan clergymen participated, was to provide official documents for the reformation of the Church of England. The Church of Scotland had recently overthrown the bishops imposed by the King and reinstated presbyterianism (see Bishops' Wars). For this reason, as a condition for entering into the alliance with the English Parliament, the Scottish Parliament formed the Solemn League and Covenant with the English Parliament, which meant that the Church of England would abandon episcopalianism and consistently adhere to reformed standards of doctrine and worship. The Confession and Catechisms were produced in order to secure the help of the Scots against the king.


title: Westminster Confession of Faith

text: The Scottish Commissioners who were present at the Assembly were satisfied with the Confession of Faith, and in 1646, the document was sent to the English parliament to be ratified, and submitted to the General Assembly of the Scottish Kirk. The Church of Scotland adopted the document, without amendment, in 1647. In England, the House of Commons returned the document to the Assembly with the requirement to compile a list of proof texts from Scripture. After vigorous debate, the Confession was then in part adopted as the Articles of Christian Religion in 1648, by act of the English parliament, omitting section 4 of chapter 20 (Of Christian Liberty), sections 4–6 of chapter 24 (Of Marriage and Divorce), and chapters 30 and 31 (Of Church Censures and Of Synods and Councils). The next year, the Scottish parliament ratified the Confession without amendment.


title: Westminster Confession of Faith

text: In 1660, the Restoration of the British monarchy and Anglican episcopacy resulted in the nullification of these acts of the two parliaments. However, when William of Orange replaced the Catholic King James VII of Scotland and II of England on the thrones of Scotland, England and Ireland, he gave royal assent to the Scottish parliament's ratification of the Confession, again without change, in 1690.


title: Westminster Confession of Faith

text: The confession is a systematic exposition of Calvinist theology (which neo-orthodox scholars refer to as "scholastic Calvinism"), influenced by Puritan and covenant theology. It includes doctrines common to most of Christendom such as the Trinity and Jesus' sacrificial death and resurrection, and it contains doctrines specific to Protestantism such as "sola scriptura" and "sola fide". Its more controversial features include the covenant of works with Adam, the Puritan doctrine that assurance of salvation is not a necessary consequence of faith, a minimalist conception of worship, and Puritan Sabbatarianism.


title: Westminster Confession of Faith

text: It states that the Pope is the Antichrist, which was a very common belief in seventeenth-century England. It also stated that the Catholic mass is a form of idolatry, that the civil magistrates have divine authority to punish heresy, and rules out marriage with non-Christians.


title: Westminster Confession of Faith

text: The confession begins with a definition of the Bible's content as well as an explication of its role within the church. Chapter 1 declares that the Bible, both Old and New Testaments, is the inspired, written Word of God. As the Word of God, the Bible is considered "the rule of faith and life." The Holy Scriptures are said to possess infallible truth and divine authority, containing "all things necessary for [God's] own glory, man's salvation, faith, and life", so that no new revelations or human traditions can be added to it. The Confession of Faith states that, in the original languages, the Bible was kept pure and authentic. Because of this, the Scriptures alone are the church's final authority in all religious disputes. The confession states that "the Holy Spirit speaking in the Scripture" is "the supreme judge" of councils, ancient writers, doctrines, and private revelation.


title: Westminster Confession of Faith

text: After describing the attributes of God, chapter 2 of the confession endorses the traditional doctrine of the Trinity, which holds that the one and only God exists as three persons, "of one substance, power, and eternity", namely, God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit.


title: Westminster Confession of Faith

text: Chapter 3 affirms the Calvinist doctrine of predestination: that God foreordained who would be among the elect (and therefore saved), while he passed by those who would be damned for their sins. The confession states that from eternity God did "freely, and unchangeably ordain whatsoever comes to pass". By God's decree, "some men and angels are predestinated unto everlasting life; and others foreordained to everlasting death."


title: Westminster Confession of Faith

text: Chapter 4 recounts the Genesis creation narrative and affirms that human beings were created in the image of God with immortal souls, having fellowship with God and dominion over other creatures. Chapter 6 recounts the Fall of Man whereby humans committed original sin and became subject to total depravity. According to the confession, the consequence of the fall and sin is that sinners are guilty before God, under divine wrath and the curse of the law, and, ultimately, subject to spiritual death. The confession states that the fall and all other sins were foreordained by divine providence; however, the confession also teaches that sin "proceedeth only from the creature, and not from God". God cannot be the author of sin because he is entirely holy and righteous.


title: Westminster Confession of Faith

text: Chapter 7 is a description of covenant theology, which holds that God has dealt with humans through various covenants. In the first covenant, a covenant of works, Adam and his descendants were promised life on the condition of perfect obedience. The fall made it impossible for man to keep this covenant, so God made another covenant, this one called the covenant of grace. In the covenant of grace, God freely offered sinners life and salvation by Jesus Christ. As part of this covenant, God promises to give the elect the Holy Spirit to make them willing and able to believe.


title: Westminster Confession of Faith

text: According to the confession, the covenant of grace was administered differently in the time of the law (during Old Testament times) and in the time of the gospel (during and after New Testament times). Under the law, the covenant was administered by promises, prophecies, sacrifices, circumcision, the paschal lamb, and other types and ordinances instituted among the Jewish people. These all anticipated Jesus Christ, the promised Messiah, and were sufficient to give the elect of that time forgiveness of sins and eternal salvation. The confession teaches that under the gospel, the covenant of grace is dispensed more fully through the preaching of the Bible and the administration of the sacraments of baptism and the Lord's Supper.


title: Westminster Confession of Faith

text: Chapter 8 declares that Jesus Christ, the second person of the Trinity, was chosen by God the Father to be the mediator between God and man and hold the threefold office of prophet, priest, and king. It affirms his incarnation, virgin birth, and dual nature as both God and man. In his human nature, Christ was without sin. He was crucified and buried, and the confession teaches that he was bodily resurrected and afterward ascended into heaven where he intercedes on behalf of the living. It also teaches that Christ will return to earth to judge the world.


title: Westminster Confession of Faith

text: Chapter 8 also describes Christ's sacrificial death as satisfying God's justice and attaining both humanity's reconciliation with God and everlasting life for the elect. Salvation is granted to individuals by means of the word of God and the Holy Spirit, who persuades them to believe and obey. Chapter 9 teaches that man's will is free, and that because of the fall, man lost the ability to do anything spiritually pleasing to God, and man's will became enslaved to his sinful nature. Man, after conversion, regains the ability to please God and to choose good, but sin remains within. Complete sinless perfection is only attainable after death in the state of glorification.


title: Westminster Confession of Faith

text: Chapters 10 through 18 describe various phases or aspects of salvation. The confession teaches that—by the Holy Spirit and the preaching of the word—God effectually calls the elect out of the state of sin and death toward faith in Jesus Christ and spiritual life. It teaches that "elect infants" and "all other elect persons who are uncapable of being outwardly called by the ministry of the Word" are regenerated and saved.


title: Westminster Confession of Faith

text: Chapter 11 covers the doctrine of justification. It affirms the Reformation doctrines of justification by faith alone and the imputation of Christ's righteousness to the elect (the Catholic teaching of infused righteousness is specifically rejected). Justification can never be lost, but the justified are still able to sin and, as a result, confession and repentance must be ongoing. Chapter 12 states that all who are justified also partake in the grace of adoption and become children of God. In addition, those who are effectually called and regenerated are also sanctified. In sanctification, the dominion of sin is eliminated and lust is weakened and suppressed as the individual grows in holiness.


title: Westminster Confession of Faith

text: Chapter 14 defines saving faith as that which enables people to believe to the saving of their souls. The confession states that it is the work of the Holy Spirit and is ordinarily accomplished by the preaching of the word. Saving faith is strengthened and increased by the preaching of the word, the sacraments, and prayer. This faith enables a person to believe that whatever is revealed in the Bible is true and to rest on Christ alone for eternal life.


title: Westminster Confession of Faith

text: Chapter 15 stresses the need for repentance alongside saving faith. While repentance (rejecting sin and committing to obey God's commandments) does not earn forgiveness (which is the result of divine grace), the confession states that no sinner "may expect pardon without it." The confession also describes the role of private and public confession of sin in the life of a Christian. Chapter 16 explains the role of good works (actions done in obedience to God's commandments) in the Christian life and their relationship to salvation. Good works are said to be the result of the Holy Spirit's influence and are evidence of true faith; however, good works cannot earn or merit salvation or forgiveness of sins.


title: Westminster Confession of Faith

text: Chapter 17 presents the doctrine of the perseverance of the saints, which holds that it is impossible for those effectually called to "fall away" from the state of grace or, in other words, lose their salvation. Chapter 18 states that believers can receive assurance of faith. This assurance is based on "the promises of salvation, the inward evidence of those graces unto which these promises are made, the testimony of the Spirit of adoption witnessing with our spirits that we are the children of God". The confession does not teach that assurance is instantaneous upon conversion; rather, it states that "a true believer may wait long, and conflict with many difficulties, before he be partaker of it".


title: Westminster Confession of Faith

text: Chapter 19 discusses God's law and Christian ethics. The confession states that while the ceremonial parts of biblical law have been abrogated under the New Covenant, the moral law as described in the Ten Commandments and the "general equity" of the civil law in the Old Testament remains binding to all people and nations. While true believers are neither "justified, or condemned" by the law, it serves "as a rule of life informing them of the will of God, and their duty". The confession also teaches that the Holy Spirit enables "the will of man to do that freely, and cheerfully, which the will of God, revealed in the law, requireth to be done."


title: Westminster Confession of Faith

text: Chapter 20 states that "God alone is Lord of the conscience, and hath left it free from the doctrines and commandments of men." The purpose of Christian liberty is to enable Christians to "serve the Lord without fear, in holiness and righteousness before Him." The confession warns that Christian liberty cannot be used to justify sinful behavior or to resist lawful secular and church authority.


title: Westminster Confession of Faith

text: Chapter 21 describes the acceptable parameters of Reformed worship as governed by the regulative principle of worship. It also outlines a Puritan Sabbatarian position in regards to Christian behavior on Sunday, the Christian Sabbath. Chapter 22 describes the appropriate use of oaths and solemn vows, which are part of religious worship because the person calls upon God.


title: Westminster Confession of Faith

text: Chapter 23 describes the role of the civil authorities in relation to the church. Governments are ordained by God to maintain justice and peace and to punish evil doers. The civil magistrate has no right to interfere with the preaching of the word of God or administration of the sacraments. The power of the keys is reserved exclusively to church authorities. Nevertheless, the civil magistrate has a duty to preserve church unity, suppress heresy, and prevent corruption and abuse within the church. To fulfill these obligations, the magistrate has authority to convene synods and ensure that its deliberations are agreeable to "the mind of God."


title: Westminster Confession of Faith

text: Chapter 23 also teaches that Christians are obligated to pray for civil authorities and to obey lawful commands. A magistrate's legal authority is not lost because of unbelief or religious differences. The confession denies that the Pope has any jurisdiction over civil magistrates or authority to deprive magistrates of their office if he determines them to be heretics.


title: Westminster Confession of Faith

text: Chapter 24 covers Reformed teaching on marriage and divorce. Marriage is to be heterosexual and monogamous. The purpose of marriage is to provide for the mutual help of husband and wife, the birth of legitimate children, the growth of the church, and the prevention of "uncleanness." The confession discourages interfaith marriage with non-Christians, Roman Catholics, or "other idolaters". In addition, godly persons should not be "unequally yoked" in marriage to "notoriously wicked" persons. Incestuous marriage, defined according to biblical guidelines, is also prohibited. The only grounds for divorce are adultery and willful abandonment by a spouse.


title: Westminster Confession of Faith

text: Chapter 25 addresses Reformed ecclesiology or the teachings about the Christian Church. The confession teaches that the church is catholic (or universal) and both invisible and visible. The invisible church is made up of all the elect who will ever live. Christ is the head of the church, and the church is the body of Christ and the bride of Christ. The visible church includes all people alive throughout the world who "profess the true religion" and their children. It is described as the kingdom of Christ and the house and family of God. The confession teaches that there is no ordinary possibility of salvation outside of the visible church. It is said that Christ gave to the visible church "the ministry, oracles, and ordinances of God" for the perfecting of the saints.


title: Westminster Confession of Faith

text: The confession teaches that local churches can be more or less pure depending on how faithfully they adhere to correct doctrine and worship. Yet, it acknowledges that even the purest churches might contain some theological error, while other churches have become so corrupted that they can no longer be called churches of Christ but instead are of Satan. The confession affirms that only Jesus Christ can be head of the church. It states that the pope is an Antichrist who "exalteth himself, in the Church, against Christ and all that is called God."


title: Westminster Confession of Faith

text: Chapter 26 presents Reformed teaching on the communion of saints. This is the spiritual union that Christians have with Christ and with one another that allows them to share in the grace, suffering, death, resurrection, and glory of Christ.


title: Westminster Confession of Faith

text: Chapter 27 summarizes Reformed sacramental theology. It states that sacraments were established by God as "signs and seals" of the covenant of grace to represent Christ and his benefits, to visibly differentiate members of the church from the rest of world and draw them to God's service. The confession teaches that in every sacrament there is a spiritual relation between the sign and what is being signified; because of this, the names and effects of one are attributed to the other. The effectiveness of a sacrament depends upon the work of the Holy Spirit and the words of institution, which contains a promise of benefit to worthy receivers. The confession teaches that only ordained ministers can provide the sacraments, of which there are only two: baptism and the Lord's Supper.


title: Westminster Confession of Faith

text: Chapter 28 presents a summary of Reformed baptismal theology. Baptism joins a person to the visible church and signifies the person's union with Christ, regeneration, forgiveness of sin and newness of life. Individuals should be baptized in water using the Trinitarian formula ("in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost"). Baptism by immersion is not necessary; affusion and aspersion are acceptable modes. The confession approves of infant baptism if one or both parents are Christians. While it teaches that neglecting baptism is a "great sin", the confession does not endorse baptismal regeneration. It states that it is possible to be regenerated without baptism, and unregenerated with baptism. This is because the effectiveness of baptism is not tied to the moment in time it is administered; the grace promised is granted by the Holy Spirit to the elect according to God's own will and at the time of his choosing. According to the confession, baptism is to be received only once.


title: Westminster Confession of Faith

text: Chapter 29 summarizes Presbyterian beliefs about the Lord's Supper. It states that the sacrament is to be observed in the church until the end of the world "for the perpetual remembrance of the sacrifice of Himself in His death; the sealing all benefits thereof, unto true believers, their spiritual nourishment and growth in Him, their further engagement in and to all duties which they owe unto Him; and, to be a bond and pledge of their communion with Him, and with each other, as members of His mystical body."


title: Westminster Confession of Faith

text: The confession states that the Lord's Supper is not the actual sacrifice of Christ but rather a commemoration of Christ's one sacrifice for the remission of sins and an offering of praise to God. It explicitly condemns the Roman Catholic Church's teaching of "the popish sacrifice of the mass". It also rejects the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, which states that after consecration by a priest the bread and wine miraculously become the body and blood of Christ. Rather, the confession teaches that communicants receive the body and blood of Christ and all the benefits of his death spiritually by faith, while the bread and wine remain physically unchanged. Ignorant, wicked and ungodly persons may eat the bread and wine, but they do not receive Christ. Instead, these unworthy persons are "guilty of the body and blood of the Lord" and commit great sin; for this reason, such persons should not be admitted to the sacrament.


title: Westminster Confession of Faith

text: Chapter 30 describes the role of church officers, who are appointed by Christ to govern the church. These officers hold the keys of the kingdom, giving them power to discipline church members through admonition, suspension from the Lord's Supper for a period of time, and excommunication, according to the severity of the offense. Church discipline is for the purpose of leading sinful church members to repentance, deterring others from similar behavior, vindicating the honor of Christ, and preventing the wrath of God from falling on the entire church.


title: Westminster Confession of Faith

text: Chapter 31 states that synods and church councils have authority to settle religious controversies, make rules for the church and public worship, and judge cases of misconduct in the church. While synods may be called by civil authorities, they only have jurisdiction over ecclesiastical affairs and are not to intervene in civil affairs except "by way of humble petition in cases extraordinary; or, by way of advice".


title: Westminster Confession of Faith

text: Chapters 32 and 33 concern Christian eschatology. Chapter 32 describes what occurs after death—while the body decomposes, the immortal soul immediately returns to God. The souls of the righteous are then made perfect in holiness and received into heaven where they "behold the face of God" and wait for the redemption of their bodies. The souls of the wicked are sent to hell where they remain in torment until the judgment. The confession rejects the idea of purgatory because it is not present in scripture. The confession teaches that on the last day, those alive will not die but will be changed, and all the dead will be resurrected with the same bodies they had when alive. The bodies of the unjust will be "raised to dishonour", but the bodies of the just will be raised "unto honour" .


title: Westminster Confession of Faith

text: Chapter 33 describes the Last Judgment in which the Father will give Christ authority to judge all apostate angels and every person that has lived on earth. Those judged will "give an account of their thoughts, words, and deeds" and will "receive according to what they have done in the body, whether good or evil." God's purpose in dispensing judgment is to show the glory of his mercy—by saving the elect—and of his justice—by the damnation of the reprobate. The righteous will receive eternal life in the presence of God, and the wicked will receive eternal torment and destruction. The date and time of the Last Judgment is unknown.


title: Westminster Confession of Faith

text: The Westminster Confession was adopted as a doctrinal standard by various Presbyterian churches around the world. These churches have at times repudiated or changed different parts of the confession over the years.


title: Westminster Confession of Faith

text: The Presbyterian Church of Australia holds to the Westminster Confession of Faith as its standard, subordinate to the Word of God, and read in the light of a declaratory statement.


title: Westminster Confession of Faith

text: The Reformed Presbyterian Church of Australia holds to the Westminster Confession of Faith as a subordinate standard.


title: Westminster Confession of Faith

text: The Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster retains the Confession as its “subordinate standard” of doctrine.


title: Westminster Confession of Faith

text: With the Adopting Act of 1729, the Synod of Philadelphia officially adopted the Westminster Confession as the doctrinal standard for American Presbyterians. All ministerial candidates were required to subscribe to it but were allowed to declare scruples to those parts considered nonessential. This compromise left a permanent legacy to following generations of Presbyterians in America resulting in permanent controversies over the manner in which a minister is bound to accept the document; and it has left the American versions of the Westminster Confession more amenable to the will of the church to amend it.


title: Westminster Confession of Faith

text: When the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America was formed in 1789, it adopted the Westminster standards, as containing the system of doctrine taught in the Holy Scriptures. However, it revised chapters 20.4, 23.3, and 31.2 of the Confession, basically removing the civil magistrate (i.e., the state) from involvement in ecclesiastical matters. It also removed the phrase "tolerating a false religion" from the list of sins forbidden in Answer 109 of the Larger Catechism, and replaced "depopulations" in Answer 142 with "depredation." The Confession was amended again in 1887, when the final sentence of chapter 24.4, which forbade the marrying of the close kindred of one's deceased spouse, was removed.


title: Westminster Confession of Faith

text: The Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A. adopted more sweeping revisions of its Confession in 1903. Chapter 16.7, on the works of unregenerate men, was rewritten. The last sentence of chapter 22.3, which forbade the refusing of a proper oath when imposed by lawful authority, was removed. Chapter 25.6, on the head of the church, was rewritten, and the identification of the Roman Catholic pope as the Antichrist was removed.


title: Kingdom of Iberia

text: In Greco-Roman geography, Iberia (Ancient Greek: "Iberia"; ) was an exonym for the Georgian kingdom of Kartli (), known after its core province, which during Classical Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages was a significant monarchy in the Caucasus, either as an independent state or as a dependent of larger empires, notably the Sassanid and Roman empires. Iberia, centered on present-day Eastern Georgia, was bordered by Colchis in the west, Caucasian Albania in the east and Armenia in the south.


title: Kingdom of Iberia

text: Its population, the Iberians, formed the nucleus of the Kartvelians (i.e. Georgians). Iberia, ruled by the Pharnavazid, Artaxiad, Arsacid and Chosroid royal dynasties, together with Colchis to its west, would form the nucleus of the unified medieval Kingdom of Georgia under the Bagrationi dynasty.


title: Kingdom of Iberia

text: In the 4th century, after the Christianization of Iberia by Saint Nino during the reign of King Mirian III, Christianity was made the state religion of the kingdom. Starting in the early 6th century AD, the kingdom's position as a Sassanian vassal state was changed into direct Persian rule. In 580, king Hormizd IV (578-590) abolished the monarchy after the death of King Bakur III, and Iberia became a Persian province ruled by a "marzpan" (governor).


title: Kingdom of Iberia

text: The term "Caucasian Iberia" is also used to distinguish it from the Iberian Peninsula in Southwestern Europe.


title: Kingdom of Iberia

text: The provenance of the name "Iberia" is unclear. One theory on the etymology of the name Iberia, proposed by Giorgi Melikishvili, was that it was derived from the contemporary Armenian designation for Georgia, "Virkʿ" (, and Ivirkʿ [Իվիրք] and Iverkʿ [Իվերք]), which itself was connected to the word Sver (or Svir), the Kartvelian designation for Georgians. The letter "s" in this instance served as a prefix for the root word "Ver" (or "Vir"). Accordingly, in following Ivane Javakhishvili's theory, the ethnic designation of "Sber", a variant of Sver, was derived from the word "Hber" ("Hver") (and thus Iberia) and the Armenian variants, Veria and Viria.


title: Kingdom of Iberia

text: Historian argues that the name "Iberian" was given by Ancient Greeks to two different peoples located at the extremities of their world (in the Iberian Peninsula and the Caucasus) due to the mythical wealth associated with them (Tartessos and the Golden Fleece of Colchis).


title: Kingdom of Iberia

text: In earliest times, the area of Caucasian Iberia was inhabited by several related tribes stemming from the Kura-Araxes culture.


title: Kingdom of Iberia

text: The Saspers (who were mentioned by Herodotus), may have played a crucial role in the consolidation of the tribes inhabiting the area. The Moschoi may have moved slowly to the northeast forming settlements as they traveled. One of these was Mtskheta, the future capital of the Kingdom of Iberia. The Mtskheta tribe was later ruled by a prince locally known as "mamasakhlisi" (“father of the household” in Georgian).


title: Kingdom of Iberia

text: The written sources for the early periods of Iberia's history are mostly medieval Georgian chronicles, that modern scholarship interpret as a semi-legendary narrative. One such chronicle, "Moktsevay Kartlisay" (“Conversion of Kartli”) mentions that a ruler named Azo and his people came from Arian-Kartli – the initial home of the proto-Iberians, which had been under Achaemenid rule until the fall of the Persian Empire – and settled on the site where Mtskheta was to be founded. Another Georgian chronicle, "Kartlis Tskhovreba" (“History of Kartli”) claims Azo to be an officer of Alexander’s, who massacred a local ruling family and conquered the area, until being defeated at the end of the 4th century BC by Prince Pharnavaz, at that time a local chief.


title: Kingdom of Iberia

text: The story of Alexander's invasion of Kartli, although legendary, nevertheless reflects the establishment of Georgian monarchy in the Hellenistic period and the desire of later Georgian literati to connect this event to the celebrated conqueror.


title: Kingdom of Iberia

text: Pharnavaz, victorious in a power struggle, became the first king of Iberia (c. 302 – c. 237 BC). According to the later Georgian chronicles, after driving back an invasion, he subjugated the neighboring areas, including a significant part of the western Georgian state of Colchis (locally known as Egrisi), and seems to have secured recognition of the newly founded state by the Seleucids of Syria. Pharnavaz is also said to have built a major citadel, the Armaztsikhe, and a temple to the god Armazi, and to have created a new system of administration, subdividing the country into several counties called "saeristavos".


title: Kingdom of Iberia

text: His successors controlled the mountain passes of the Caucasus, with the Daryal (also known as the Iberian Gates) being the most important of them.


title: Kingdom of Iberia

text: The period following this time of prosperity was one of incessant warfare as Iberia was forced to defend against numerous invasions into its territories. Some southern parts of Iberia, that were conquered from the Kingdom of Armenia, in the 2nd century BC were reunited to Armenia and the Colchian lands seceded to form separate princedoms ("sceptuchoi"). At the end of the 2nd century BC, the Pharnavazid king Pharnajom was dethroned by his own subjects and the crown given to the Armenian prince Artaxias who ascended the Iberian throne in 93 BC, establishing the Artaxiad dynasty of Iberia.