title: Hohenstaufen

text: The origin remains unclear, however, Staufer counts are mentioned in a document of emperor Otto III in 987 as descendants of counts of the region of "Riesgau" near Nördlingen in the Duchy of Swabia, who were related to the Bavarian "Sieghardinger" family. A local count Frederick (d. about 1075) is mentioned as progenitor in a pedigree drawn up by Abbot Wibald of Stavelot at the behest of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa in 1153. He held the office of a Swabian count palatine; his son Frederick of Buren (c.1020–1053) married Hildegard of Egisheim-Dagsburg (d. 1094/95), a niece of Pope Leo IX. Their son Frederick I was appointed Duke of Swabia at Hohenstaufen Castle by the Salian king Henry IV of Germany in 1079.


title: Hohenstaufen

text: At the same time, Duke Frederick I was engaged to the king's approximately seventeen-year-old daughter, Agnes. Nothing is known about Frederick's life before this event, but he proved to be an imperial ally throughout Henry's struggles against other Swabian lords, namely Rudolf of Rheinfelden, Frederick's predecessor, and the Zähringen and Welf lords. Frederick's brother Otto was elevated to the Strasbourg bishopric in 1082.


title: Hohenstaufen

text: Upon Frederick's death, he was succeeded by his son, Duke Frederick II, in 1105. Frederick II remained a close ally of the Salians, he and his younger brother Conrad were named the king's representatives in Germany when the king was in Italy. Around 1120, Frederick II married Judith of Bavaria from the rival House of Welf.


title: Hohenstaufen

text: When the last male member of the Salian dynasty, Emperor Henry V, died without heirs in 1125, a controversy arose about the succession. Duke Frederick II and Conrad, the two current male Staufers, by their mother Agnes, were grandsons of late Emperor Henry IV and nephews of Henry V. Frederick attempted to succeed to the throne of the Holy Roman Emperor (formally known as the King of the Romans) through a customary election, but lost to the Saxon duke Lothair of Supplinburg. A civil war between Frederick's dynasty and Lothair's ended with Frederick's submission in 1134. After Lothair's death in 1137, Frederick's brother Conrad was elected King as Conrad III.


title: Hohenstaufen

text: Because the Welf duke Henry the Proud, son-in-law and heir of Lothair and the most powerful prince in Germany, who had been passed over in the election, refused to acknowledge the new king, Conrad III deprived him of all his territories, giving the Duchy of Saxony to Albert the Bear and that of Bavaria to Leopold IV, Margrave of Austria. In 1147, Conrad heard Bernard of Clairvaux preach the Second Crusade at Speyer, and he agreed to join King Louis VII of France in a great expedition to the Holy Land which failed.


title: Hohenstaufen

text: Conrad's brother Duke Frederick II died in 1147, and was succeeded in Swabia by his son, Duke Frederick III. When King Conrad III died without adult heir in 1152, Frederick also succeeded him, taking both German royal and Imperial titles.


title: Hohenstaufen

text: Frederick I (Reign 2 January 1155 – 10 June 1190), known as Frederick Barbarossa because of his red beard, struggled throughout his reign to restore the power and prestige of the German monarchy against the dukes, whose power had grown both before and after the Investiture Controversy under his Salian predecessors. As royal access to the resources of the church in Germany was much reduced, Frederick was forced to go to Italy to find the finances needed to restore the king's power in Germany. He was soon crowned emperor in Italy, but decades of warfare on the peninsula yielded scant results. The Papacy and the prosperous city-states of the Lombard League in northern Italy were traditional enemies, but the fear of Imperial domination caused them to join ranks to fight Frederick. Under the skilled leadership of Pope Alexander III, the alliance suffered many defeats but ultimately was able to deny the emperor a complete victory in Italy. Frederick returned to Germany. He had vanquished one notable opponent, his Welf cousin, Duke Henry the Lion of Saxony and Bavaria in 1180, but his hopes of restoring the power and prestige of the monarchy seemed unlikely to be met by the end of his life.


title: Hohenstaufen

text: During Frederick's long stays in Italy, the German princes became stronger and began a successful colonization of Slavic lands. Offers of reduced taxes and manorial duties enticed many Germans to settle in the east in the course of the "Ostsiedlung". In 1163 Frederick waged a successful campaign against the Kingdom of Poland in order to re-install the Silesian dukes of the Piast dynasty. With the German colonization, the Empire increased in size and came to include the Duchy of Pomerania. A quickening economic life in Germany increased the number of towns and Imperial cities, and gave them greater importance. It was also during this period that castles and courts replaced monasteries as centers of culture. Growing out of this courtly culture, Middle High German literature reached its peak in lyrical love poetry, the Minnesang, and in narrative epic poems such as "Tristan", "Parzival", and the "Nibelungenlied".


title: Hohenstaufen

text: Frederick died in 1190 while on the Third Crusade and was succeeded by his son, Henry VI. Elected king even before his father's death, Henry went to Rome to be crowned emperor. He married Princess Constance of Sicily, and deaths in his wife's family gave him claim of succession and possession of the Kingdom of Sicily in 1189 and 1194 respectively, a source of vast wealth. Henry failed to make royal and Imperial succession hereditary, but in 1196 he succeeded in gaining a pledge that his infant son Frederick would receive the German crown. Faced with difficulties in Italy and confident that he would realize his wishes in Germany at a later date, Henry returned to the south, where it appeared he might unify the peninsula under the Hohenstaufen name. After a series of military victories, however, he fell ill and died of natural causes in Sicily in 1197. His underage son Frederick could only succeed him in Sicily and Malta, while in the Empire the struggle between the House of Staufen and the House of Welf erupted once again.


title: Hohenstaufen

text: Because the election of a three-year-old boy to be German king appeared likely to make orderly rule difficult, the boy's uncle, Duke Philip of Swabia, brother of late Henry VI, was designated to serve in his place. Other factions however favoured a Welf candidate. In 1198, two rival kings were chosen: the Hohenstaufen Philip of Swabia and the son of the deprived Duke Henry the Lion, the Welf Otto IV. A long civil war began; Philip was about to win when he was murdered by the Bavarian count palatine Otto VIII of Wittelsbach in 1208. Pope Innocent III initially had supported the Welfs, but when Otto, now sole elected monarch, moved to appropriate Sicily, Innocent changed sides and accepted young Frederick II and his ally, King Philip II of France, who defeated Otto at the 1214 Battle of Bouvines. Frederick had returned to Germany in 1212 from Sicily, where he had grown up, and was elected king in 1215. When Otto died in 1218, Frederick became the undisputed ruler, and in 1220 was crowned Holy Roman Emperor.


title: Hohenstaufen

text: Philip changed the coat of arms from a black lion on a gold shield to three leopards, probably derived from the arms of his Welf rival Otto IV.


title: Hohenstaufen

text: The conflict between the Staufer dynasty and the Welf had irrevocably weakened the Imperial authority and the Norman kingdom of Sicily became the base for Staufer rule.


title: Hohenstaufen

text: Emperor Frederick II spent little time in Germany as his main concerns lay in Southern Italy. He founded the University of Naples in 1224 to train future state officials and reigned over Germany primarily through the allocation of royal prerogatives, leaving the sovereign authority and imperial estates to the ecclesiastical and secular princes. He made significant concessions to the German nobles, such as those put forth in an imperial statute of 1232, which made princes virtually independent rulers within their territories. These measures favoured the further fragmentation of the Empire.


title: Hohenstaufen

text: By the 1226 Golden Bull of Rimini, Frederick had assigned the military order of the Teutonic Knights to complete the conquest and conversion of the Prussian lands. A reconciliation with the Welfs took place in 1235, whereby Otto the Child, grandson of the late Saxon duke Henry the Lion, was named Duke of Brunswick and Lüneburg. The power struggle with the popes continued and resulted in Frederick's excommunication in 1227. In 1239, Pope Gregory IX excommunicated Frederick again, and in 1245 he was condemned as a heretic by a church council. Although Frederick was one of the most energetic, imaginative, and capable rulers of the time, he was not concerned with drawing the disparate forces in Germany together. His legacy was thus that local rulers had more authority after his reign than before it. The clergy also had become more powerful.


title: Hohenstaufen

text: By the time of Frederick's death in 1250, little centralized power remained in Germany. The Great Interregnum, a period in which there were several elected rival kings, none of whom was able to achieve any position of authority, followed the death of Frederick's son King Conrad IV of Germany in 1254. The German princes vied for individual advantage and managed to strip many powers away from the diminished monarchy. Rather than establish sovereign states however, many nobles tended to look after their families. Their many male heirs created more and smaller estates, and from a largely free class of officials previously formed, many of these assumed or acquired hereditary rights to administrative and legal offices. These trends compounded political fragmentation within Germany. The period was ended in 1273 with the election of Rudolph of Habsburg, a godson of Frederick.


title: Hohenstaufen

text: Conrad IV was succeeded as duke of Swabia by his only son, two-year-old Conradin. By this time, the office of duke of Swabia had been fully subsumed into the office of the king, and without royal authority had become meaningless. In 1261, attempts to elect young Conradin king were unsuccessful. He also had to defend Sicily against an invasion, sponsored by Pope Urban IV (Jacques Pantaléon) and Pope Clement IV (Guy Folques), by Charles of Anjou, a brother of the French king. Charles had been promised by the popes the Kingdom of Sicily, where he would replace the relatives of Frederick II. Charles had defeated Conradin's uncle Manfred, King of Sicily, in the Battle of Benevento on 26 February 1266. The king himself, refusing to flee, rushed into the midst of his enemies and was killed. Conradin's campaign to retake control ended with his defeat in 1268 at the Battle of Tagliacozzo, after which he was handed over to Charles, who had him publicly executed at Naples. With Conradin, the direct line of the Dukes of Swabia finally ceased to exist, though most of the later emperors were descended from the Staufer dynasty indirectly.


title: Hohenstaufen

text: The last member of the dynasty was Manfred's son, Henry [Enrico], who died in captivity at Castel dell'Ovo on 31 October 1318.


title: Hohenstaufen

text: During the political decentralization of the late Staufer period, the population had grown from an estimated 8 million in 1200 to about 14 million in 1300, and the number of towns increased tenfold. The most heavily urbanized areas of Germany were in the south and the west. Towns often developed a degree of independence, but many were subordinate to local rulers if not immediate to the emperor. Colonization of the east also continued in the thirteenth century, most notably through the efforts of the Teutonic Knights. German merchants also began trading extensively on the Baltic.


title: Hohenstaufen

text: On October 29, 1968, the 700th anniversary of the death of Konradin, a society known as "Society for Staufer History" () was founded in Göppingen.


title: Hohenstaufen

text: The Castel del Monte, Apulia which was built during the 1240s by the Emperor Frederick II was designated as a World Heritage Site in 1996.


title: Hohenstaufen

text: The German artist, Hans Kloss, painted his "" depicting in great detail the history of the House of Hohenstaufen, in .


title: Hohenstaufen

text: From 2000 to 2018, the Committee of Staufer Friends () has built thirty-eight Staufer steles () in Germany, France, Italy, Austria, Czech Republic and the Netherlands.


title: Hohenstaufen

text: The first ruling Hohenstaufen, Conrad III, like the last one, Conrad IV, was never crowned emperor. After a 20-year period (Great interregnum 1254–1273), the first Habsburg was elected king.


title: Mitsubishi 4B1 engine

text: The Mitsubishi 4B1 engine is a range of all-alloy straight-4 piston engines built at Mitsubishi's Japanese "World Engine" powertrain plant in Shiga on the basis of the Global Engine Manufacturing Alliance (GEMA). Although the basic designs of the various engines are the same, their exact specifications are individually tailored for each partner (Chrysler, Mitsubishi, and Hyundai). The cylinder block and other basic structural parts of the engine were jointly developed by the GEMA companies, but the intake and exhaust manifolds, the cylinder head's intake and exhaust ports, and other elements related to engine tuning were independently developed by Mitsubishi.


title: Mitsubishi 4B1 engine

text: All engines developed within this family have aluminium cylinder block and head, 4 valves per cylinder, double overhead camshaft layouts, and "MIVEC" continuous variable valve timing. All variations of 4B1 engine share the same engine block with a 96 mm bore pitch. The difference in displacement is achieved by variance in bore and stroke.


title: Mitsubishi 4B1 engine

text: The 4B1 engine family is the first to have the continuously variable valve timing MIVEC system applied not only to its intake valves but also to its exhaust valves. The intake and exhaust cam timing is continuously independently controlled and provide four optimized engine operating modes.


title: Mitsubishi 4B1 engine

text: The bore and stroke of the engine both measure , which engineers refer to as square. According to Mitsubishi, the new cylinder dimensions contribute to a free-revving character (max power at 6500 rpm), linear power delivery and wide torque curve. Mitsubishi used a timing chain instead of a belt for better reliability and iridium spark plugs to lower emissions and to help extend major service intervals for lower cost of ownership. To reduce weight, Mitsubishi used a plastic cam cover and intake manifold and double-layer stainless steel exhaust manifold. The exhaust manifold has a rear location on the transverse engine, compared to the front location for the previous engine, yielding important benefits such as better emissions performance. To lower vibration, Mitsubishi used a 4-point inertial axis system with cylindrical hydraulic engine mounts on the left and right sides. A lightweight, high-rigidity squeeze-cast aluminium bracket on the right side mount (engine side) lowers engine noise under acceleration. A lightweight, high-rigidity steel plate bracket on the left side mount (transmission side) lowers gear noise. A custom-tuned insulator was developed for the front and rear mounts to help control both idle vibration and acceleration shock.


title: Mitsubishi 4B1 engine

text: For the Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV, a modified variant of the 4B11 is adopted. The MIVEC VVT system is only applied on the intake side, a balancer shaft derived from the 4B12 is adopted (in place of the standard oil pump), a linear Air/Fuel sensor fitted in place of the Oxygen sensor of front intake, unsymmetrical piston skirts, different pattern piston skirt resin coating & a unique resin coating crank shaft bearing is used. The PHEV 4B11 is restricted to a maximum operating speed of 4500 rpm to prevent damage to the electrical motors & generator from overspeeding.


title: Mitsubishi 4B1 engine

text: Peak power and torque figures of and are for Japanese market Lancer Evolution models and figures of and are for US market models.


title: Mitsubishi 4B1 engine

text: The 4B11T is the first engine in the Lancer Evolution series that uses a die-cast aluminium cylinder block versus the cast-iron block used in the previous turbocharged 4G63 engine that powered all previous models. The engine weight has been reduced by 12 kg (26 lb) compared to the 4G63, even with the addition of a timing chain instead of a belt and MIVEC continuous variable valve timing on both the intake and exhaust camshafts (the 4G63 had MIVEC valve timing & lift switching type on the intake only). A revised turbocharger offers up to 20-percent quicker response at lower engine speeds compared to previous 4G63. The 4B11T offers a broader torque curve, producing more torque than the 4G63 at all engine speeds, helped by the engine's square bore and stroke design, both measure . Redline tachometer hashes start at 7,000 rpm, with a fuel cutout (true redline) at 7600 rpm to protect the engine.


title: Mitsubishi 4B1 engine

text: A semi-closed deck structure, an integrated ladder frame and four-bolt main bearing caps contribute to engine strength, durability, and lower NVH levels. Unlike the 4G63, the 4B11T does not use a balancer shaft. The semi-floating pistons of the 4G63 have been replaced with fully floating pistons for the 4B11T. Aluminium is also used for the timing chain case and cylinder head cover. The engine features an electronically controlled throttle, an isometric short port aluminium intake manifold, and the stainless steel exhaust manifold is positioned at the rear of the engine. The use of a direct-acting valvetrain eliminates the need of the roller rocker arm configuration previously used in the 4G63. The 4B11T features built-up hollow camshafts and its valve stem seals are integrated with the spring seats. The internal components of the 4B11T engine have been reinforced to withstand high levels of boost.


title: Mitsubishi 4B1 engine

text: The cylinder head intake and exhaust ports and intake and exhaust manifolds are shape optimized for better volumetric efficiency. Mitsubishi lowered the friction of the engine by including elastic grinding of the valve stems, adopting a high-efficiency shroud equipped plastic impeller in the water pump and using 0W-20 low-viscosity oil. Mitsubishi increased the combustion efficiency by optimizing the design of the cylinder head intake and exhaust ports, by incorporating the MIVEC system on both intake and exhaust valves and by using injectors that give an ultra micro droplet fuel spray. To lower the engine's weight, Mitsubishi used die-cast aluminium for the cylinder block, plastic for the cylinder head cover and intake manifold, and stainless steel for the exhaust manifold. The engine features a compact balance shaft module with an integrated oil pump. A silent chain is used to drive the camshafts. The compact balancer module, the silent chain, the stable combustion yielded by the intake and exhaust MIVEC system, and high rigidity designs for the cylinder head and cylinder block realize low vibration and noise.


title: Villanelle

text: A villanelle, also known as villanesque, is a nineteen-line poetic form consisting of five tercets followed by a quatrain. There are two refrains and two repeating rhymes, with the first and third line of the first tercet repeated alternately at the end of each subsequent stanza until the last stanza, which includes both repeated lines. The villanelle is an example of a fixed verse form. The word derives from Latin, then Italian, and is related to the initial subject of the form being the pastoral.


title: Villanelle

text: The form started as a simple ballad-like song with no fixed form; this fixed quality would only come much later, from the poem "Villanelle (J'ay perdu ma Tourterelle)" (1606) by Jean Passerat. From this point, its evolution into the "fixed form" used in the present day is debated. Despite its French origins, the majority of villanelles have been written in English, a trend which began in the late nineteenth century. The villanelle has been noted as a form that frequently treats the subject of obsessions, and one which appeals to outsiders; its defining feature of repetition prevents it from having a conventional tone.


title: Villanelle

text: The word "villanelle" derives from the Italian "villanella", referring to a rustic song or dance, and which comes from "villano", meaning peasant or villein. "Villano" derives from the Medieval Latin , meaning a "farmhand". The etymology of the word relates to the fact that the form's initial distinguishing feature was the pastoral subject.


title: Villanelle

text: The villanelle originated as a simple ballad-like song—in imitation of peasant songs of an oral tradition—with no fixed poetic form. These poems were often of a rustic or pastoral subject matter and contained refrains.


title: Villanelle

text: Prior to the nineteenth century, the term would have simply meant "country song", with no particular form implied—a meaning it retains in the vocabulary of early music. According to Julie Kane, the refrain in each stanza indicates that the form descended from a "choral dance song" wherein a vocal soloist—frequently female—semi-improvised the "unique" lyrics of each stanza, while a ring of dancers—all female, or male and female mixed—chimed in with the repetitive words of the refrain as they danced around her in a circle."


title: Villanelle

text: The fixed-form villanelle, containing the nineteen-line dual-refrain, derives from Jean Passerat's poem "Villanelle (J'ay perdu ma Tourterelle)", published in 1606. The "New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics" (1993) suggests that this became the standard "villanelle" when prosodists such as César-Pierre Richelet based their definitions of the form on that poem. This conclusion is refuted by Kane, however, who argues that it was instead Pierre-Charles Berthelin's additions to Richelet's "Dictionnaire de rimes" that first fixed the form, followed a century later by the poet Théodore de Banville; his creation of a parody to Passerat's "J'ay perdu ..." would lead Wilhelm Ténint and others to think that the villanelle was an antique form.


title: Villanelle

text: Despite its classification and origin as a French poetic form, by far the majority of villanelles have been written in English. Subsequent to the publication of Théodore de Banville's treatise on prosody "Petit traité de poésie française" (1872), the form became popularised in England through Edmund Gosse and Austin Dobson. Gosse, Dobson, Oscar Wilde, Andrew Lang and John Payne were among the first English practitioners—theirs and other works were published in Gleeson White's "Ballades and Rondeaus, Chants Royal, Sestinas, Villanelles, &c. Selected" (1887), which contained thirty-two English-language villanelles composed by nineteen poets.


title: Villanelle

text: Most modernists disdained the villanelle, which became associated with the overwrought formal aestheticism of the 1890s, i.e., the decadent movement in England. In his 1914 novel "A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man", James Joyce includes a villanelle written by his protagonist Stephen Dedalus. William Empson revived the villanelle more seriously in the 1930s, and his contemporaries and friends W. H. Auden and Dylan Thomas also picked up the form. Dylan Thomas's "Do not go gentle into that good night" is perhaps the most renowned villanelle of all. Theodore Roethke and Sylvia Plath wrote villanelles in the 1950s and 1960s, and Elizabeth Bishop wrote a particularly famous and influential villanelle, "One Art," in 1976. The villanelle reached an unprecedented level of popularity in the 1980s and 1990s with the rise of the New Formalism. Since then, many contemporary poets have written villanelles, and they have often varied the form in innovative ways; in their anthology of villanelles ("Villanelles"), Annie Finch and Marie-Elizabeth Mali devote a section entitled "Variations on the Villanelle" to such innovations.


title: Villanelle

text: The villanelle consists of five stanzas of three lines (tercets) followed by a single stanza of four lines (a quatrain) for a total of nineteen lines. It is structured by two repeating rhymes and two refrains: the first line of the first stanza serves as the last line of the second and fourth stanzas, and the third line of the first stanza serves as the last line of the third and fifth stanzas. The rhyme-and-refrain pattern of the villanelle can be schematized as AbA abA abA abA abA abAA. Here, "a" and "A" lines rhyme, and A and A indicate two different refrains which are repeated exactly.


title: Villanelle

text: The villanelle has no established meter, although most 19th-century villanelles have used trimeter or tetrameter and most 20th-century villanelles have used pentameter. Slight alteration of the refrain line is permissible.


title: Villanelle

text: With reference to the form's repetition of lines, Philip K. Jason suggests that the "villanelle is often used, and properly used, to deal with one or another degree of obsession" citing Sylvia Plath's "Mad Girl's Love Song" amongst other examples. He notes the possibility for the form to evoke, through the relationship between the repeated lines, a feeling of dislocation and a "paradigm for schizophrenia". This repetition of lines has been considered to prevent villanelles from possessing a "conventional tone" and that instead they are closer in form to a song or lyric poetry. Stephen Fry opines that the villanelle "is a form that seems to appeal to outsiders, or those who might have cause to consider themselves as such", having a "playful artifice" which suits "rueful, ironic reiteration of pain or fatalism". (In spite of this, the villanelle has also often been used for light verse, as for instance Louis Untermeyer's "Lugubrious Villanelle of Platitudes".)


title: Villanelle

text: On the relationship between form and content, Anne Ridler notes in an introduction to her own poem "Villanelle for the Middle of the Way" a point made by T. S. Eliot, that "to use very strict form is a help, because you concentrate on the technical difficulties of mastering the form, and allow the content of the poem a more unconscious and freer release". In an introduction to his own take on the form, entitled "Missing Dates", William Empson suggests that while the villanelle is a "very rigid form", nonetheless W. H. Auden—in his long poem "The Sea and the Mirror"—had "made it sound absolutely natural like the innocent girl talking".


title: Gung ho

text: Gung ho () is an English term, with the current meaning of "overly enthusiastic or energetic". It originated during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) from a Chinese term, (), short for Chinese Industrial Cooperatives ().


title: Gung ho

text: The linguist Albert Moe concluded that the term is an "Americanism that is derived from the Chinese, but its several accepted American meanings have no resemblance whatsoever to the recognized meaning in the original language" and that its "various linguistic uses, as they have developed in the United States, have been peculiar to American speech." In Chinese, concludes Moe, "this is neither a slogan nor a battle cry; it is only a name for an organization."


title: Gung ho

text: The term was picked up by United States Marine Corps Major Evans Carlson from his New Zealand friend, Rewi Alley, one of the founders of the Chinese Industrial Cooperatives. Carlson explained in a 1943 interview: "I was trying to build up the same sort of working spirit I had seen in China where all the soldiers dedicated themselves to one idea and worked together to put that idea over. I told the boys about it again and again. I told them of the motto of the Chinese Cooperatives, "Gung Ho". It means Work Together — Work in Harmony."


title: Gung ho

text: Carlson used "gung ho" as a motto during his unconventional command of the 2nd Marine Raider Battalion, leading to other marines adopting the term to mean overly enthusiastic. From there, it spread throughout the U.S. Marine Corps, where it was used as an expression of spirit, and then into American society as a whole when the term was the title of a 1943 war film, "Gung Ho!", about the 2nd Raider Battalion's raid on Makin Island in 1942.


title: Gung ho

text: The artist Billy Joel used the expression in "Goodnight Saigon", his 1982 hit single about the Vietnam War, which had the lyric: "And we were sharp, as sharp as knives, and we were so gung ho to lay down our lives". Singer-poet Patti Smith released an album titled Gung Ho in March, 2000 with an epic, 11:45 closing track also entitled Gung Ho.


title: Hash House Harriers

text: The Hash House Harriers (HHH or H3) is an international group of non-competitive running social clubs. An event organized by a club is known as a Hash or Run, or a Hash Run. A common denominal verb for this activity is Hashing, with participants calling themselves Hashers. Male members are referred to as Harriers, which females are known as Hariettes.


title: Hash House Harriers

text: The Hash is humorously known as "A Drinking Club With A Running Problem," with the preferred beverage of consumption being beer.


title: Hash House Harriers

text: Hashing originated in December 1938 in Kuala Lumpur, Selangor, then in the Federated Malay States (now Malaysia). A group of British immigrants began meeting on Friday evenings prior to the war (1938-1941), but switched to Monday evenings (starting in 1946) to run, in a fashion patterned after the traditional British paper chase or "Hare & Hounds". Apart from the excitement of chasing the Hare and finding the trail, Harriers reaching the end of the trail would partake of beer, ginger beer, and cigarettes. With hash names in parentheses, the original members included Albert Stephen Ignatius Gispert ("G"), Cecil Lee, Frederick Thomson ("Horse"), Ronald Bennett ("Torch"), Eric Galvin, H.M. Doig, and John Woodrow.


title: Hash House Harriers

text: A. S. Gispert suggested the name "Hash House Harriers" after the Selangor Club Annex, where several of the original hashers lived and dined, known as the "Hash House". The "Hash House" got its name for "its hodgepodge of edible servings being passed off for food". The term hash was used as an old British slang for "bad food".


title: Hash House Harriers

text: Hashing died out during World War II, shortly after the Invasion of Malaya, but was restarted in 1946 after the war by several of the original group. A. S. Gispert was killed on 11 February 1942 in the Japanese invasion of Singapore, an event commemorated by many chapters by an annual Gispert Memorial Run.


title: Hash House Harriers

text: After World War II, in an attempt to reorganize in the city of Kuala Lumpur, hashers were informed by the Registrar of Societies that since they were a "group", they would require a constitution. The objectives of the Hash House Harriers as recorded on the club registration card dated 1950 are:


title: Hash House Harriers

text: In 1962, Ian Cumming founded the second chapter in Singapore. Chapters are commonly called Kennels, following in tradition to similar Hound & Hare clubs. The idea spread through the Far East and the South Pacific, Europe, and North America, expanding rapidly during the mid-1970s.


title: Hash House Harriers

text: At present, there are almost 1500 chapters in all parts of the world, with members distributing newsletters, directories, and magazines, and organizing regional and world hashing events. As of 2003, there are even two organized chapters operating in Antarctica.


title: Hash House Harriers

text: Most hashing clubs gather on a weekly or monthly basis. However, some events occur sporadically, e.g., February 29th, Friday the 13th, Typhoon 'T8' or a full moon.


title: Hash House Harriers

text: At a hash, one or more members ("hares") lay a trail, which is then followed by the remainder of the group (the "pack" or "hounds"). Paper, flour, or chalk are usually used to mark the trail. The trail periodically ends at a "check". The pack must find where it begins again; often, the trail includes false trails, short cuts, dead ends, check backs, and splits. These features are designed to keep the pack together despite differences in fitness level or running speed, as front-runners are forced to slow down to find the "true" trail, allowing stragglers to catch up.


title: Hash House Harriers

text: Members sometimes describe their group as "a drinking club with a running problem", indicating that the social element of an event is as important, if not more so than any athleticism involved. Beer remains an integral part of a hash. However, the balance between running and drinking differs between chapters, with some groups placing more focusing more on socializing and others on running.


title: Hash House Harriers

text: Generally, hash events are open to the public and require no reservation or membership, but most require a small fee, referred to as "hash cash", to cover the costs incurred, such as food or drink, and the club treasurer may also be nicknamed "Hash Cash".


title: Hash House Harriers

text: Some hash clubs have a hash home, which could be a bar, restaurant, resort, or a sports club. In that case, the hash always or almost always starts at the hash home. The club may then transport the hashers to some other location to start the run. Other clubs simply post the start on the internet, and the hashers drive their vehicles or take public transportation to that location. The run will then start and finish at that location.


title: Hash House Harriers

text: Many hash clubs are in college or university towns, in which case the hashers are probably young, and most will run the trails. Other clubs might be in areas with an older population, so they will probably walk the trails. In the United States, hash clubs tend to have a large number of armed forces veterans. Some hash clubs meet at night, which means that the runners might need a flashlight to find the marks. Some hash clubs are men only, some women only, but most are mixed. Some are very adult-oriented, which means bawdy drinking songs, etc. Others are family-oriented. There are many informal groups attached to various hash chapters. For example, the regular hash meets every Saturday, but there may be an informal group that meets on, say, Wednesday to research trails.


title: Hash House Harriers

text: The end of a trail is an opportunity to socialize, have a drink, and observe any traditions of the individual chapter (see Traditions). When the hash officially ends, many members may continue socializing at an "on-after," "on-down," "on-on-on," "apres," or "hash bash," an event held at a nearby house, pub, or restaurant.


title: Hash House Harriers

text: In addition to regularly scheduled hashes, a club or chapter may also organize other events or themed runs. Many also hold special events on their anniversaries or when they reach a milestone in the number of runs, e.g. for run number 100, 200, 777, 1000, etc. This may include a special weekend with several runs and evening celebrations


title: Hash House Harriers

text: An event held annually by some chapters is the "Red Dress Run". In 1987, Donna Rhinehart was taken to a hash in Long Beach, California, to be introduced to the sport. She was invited to "wait in the truck" until her host returned. Instead Rhinehart joined the hash in her red dress. The following year, the San Diego Hash House Harriers sent Rhinehart an airline ticket to attend the inaugural "Red Dress Run". Hundreds of hashers wore red dresses for the event which was widely covered by local media. In addressing the crowd, Rhinehart, or "The Lady in Red" as she became known, suggested that such hashes might be held to raise funds for local charities. The event quickly spread around the globe to places such as Beijing, Montreal, Helsinki, Osan/Yangsan Hashers, Moscow, Tokyo, New Orleans, Washington DC and Hobart in Australia. Over the years, it has raised millions of dollars for charity. The New Orleans Hash House Harriers attracted 7,000 participants to their Red Dress Run in 2010, raising more than $200,000 for 50 local charities.


title: Hash House Harriers

text: Today the Red Dress Run is another part of the Hash House Harriers' heritage. Rhinehart died in 2013 as the Hash House Harriers were celebrating the 25th anniversary of their Red Dress Run.


title: Hash House Harriers

text: Hashing has not strayed far from its roots in Kuala Lumpur (and before that as games 'Hare and Hounds' and 'paper chase'). The hares mark their trail with paper, chalk, sawdust, strings or coloured flour, depending on the environment and weather.


title: Hash House Harriers

text: Special marks may be used to indicate a false trail, a backtrack, a shortcut, or a turn. The most commonly used mark is a "check", indicating that hashers will have to search in any direction to find the continuation of the trail. Trails may contain a "beer check", where the pack stops to consume beer, water, or snacks, allowing any stragglers to catch up to the group.


title: Hash House Harriers

text: Trails may pass through any sort of terrain and hashers may run through back alleyways, residential areas, city streets, forests, swamps, deep mud ("shiggy") or shopping malls and may climb fences, ford streams, explore storm drains or scale cliffs in their pursuit of the hare.


title: Hash House Harriers

text: Hashers often carry horns or whistles to communicate with each other, in addition to verbal communication. Every hash house employs its own set of trail marks, and the names for these marks may vary widely, so newcomers or visitors will have the local markings explained to them before the run at a "chalk talk." The most common term is "on-on," shouted by runners to let others know they are on the right trail. A yell of "R-U?" (pronounced "are you") is a question to other hashers if they are on trail – it should be responded with either "On-On" or "Looking or Checking."


title: Hash House Harriers

text: Sometimes there is a call to "circle up" – this is a call from a leader for the hashers to form a circle, be quiet, and pay attention. Circles are called for the "chalk talk" to give news, or for some ceremony such as to thank the hare for the hash.


title: Hash House Harriers

text: Each hare should explain their markings at the start of the trail (see "Chalk Talk" above") as some marks like X or O may have completely different meanings depending on the local custom and can sometimes even vary from hare to hare within the same kennel. Many clubs around the world still use shredded or small squares of paper, but due to litter laws and other environmental concerns, most clubs have transitioned to chalk or flour, but other substances may be used too, e.g. saw dust, colored powder, or pieces of toilet paper.


title: Hash House Harriers

text: There are two types of trails. "Live trails" are laid by hares who are given a head start, while "dead trails" are pre-laid hours or days before the hash begins. Live trails and dead trails are also known as "live hare" and "dead hare" trails, respectively. Live trails are closer to the original "hare and hound" tradition, with the intent of the pack being to catch the hare rather than making it to the end, and are more common in the United States, while the rest of the world tends toward dead trails.


title: Hash House Harriers

text: A trail may be "A to A," where the trail returns to the start, or "A to B," where the beginning and end of the trail are widely separated. Some trails are referred to as "A to A′ (prime)," denoting an ending point that is close to (usually short walking distance), but not the same as the start. There is also "B to A," in which the participants are ferried to another location for the run back to the gathering point.


title: Hash House Harriers

text: The hash trail depends on the environment of the hash chapter. If there are hills or mountains nearby, that is always the preferred location. Many trails run through rural areas, such as forests, farm areas, jungle, along with or through rivers, etc. In densely populated areas, the hash will often start and finish in a public park, and the trails will run on city streets.


title: Hash House Harriers

text: Most hash events end with a group gathering known as "circle," or less commonly as "religion." Led by chapter leadership, the circle provides a time to socialize, sing drinking songs, recognize individuals, formally name members, or inform the group of pertinent news or upcoming events. Circles may be led by the chapter grandmaster (GM), the group's religious advisor (RA), or by a committee. Impromptu input is welcome and solicited.


title: Hash House Harriers

text: A "down-down" is a means of punishing, rewarding, or merely recognizing an individual for any action or behavior according to the customs or whims of the group. Generally, the individual in question is asked to consume without pause the contents of his or her drinking vessel or risk pouring the remaining contents on his or her head. Individuals may be recognized for outstanding service or their status as a visitor or newcomer. Down-downs also serve as punishment for misdemeanors real, imagined, or blatantly made up. Such transgressions may include: failing to stop at the beer check, pointing with a finger, pronouncing the letter "r," or using real names. Commonly, hashers who wear new shoes to an event can be required to drink from that shoe.


title: Hash House Harriers

text: Many chapters include an ice seat or throne as part of the down-down ceremony. Those who are to consume a down-down sit on a large block of ice while they await the completion of the down-down song. If the offense that resulted in the down-down is particularly egregious, the hasher may be subjected to a long song with many verses.


title: Hash House Harriers

text: In most chapters, the use of real names during an event is discouraged. Members are typically given a "hash name," usually in deference to a particularly notorious escapade, a personality trait, or their physical appearance. In some chapters, the name must be earned – that is, Hashers are not named until they have done something outstanding, unusual, or stupid enough to warrant one. In other chapters, the process is more mechanical, and Hashers are named after completing a certain number of events (5–10 being the most common) or setting their first run (sometimes referred to as a Virgin Hare).


title: Hash House Harriers

text: Naming conventions differ from Kennel to Kennel, with some focusing on "family-friendly" names (for example: Lost My Way), innuendo (for example, Purple Vein), and some go out of their way to make the name as bawdy, offensive, or politically incorrect as possible. But in general, once named, Hashers will refer to you by that name at the Hash irrespective of the Hash itself. For the more offensive names, it might be censored in comical ways to comply with the family-friendly tone of other Kennels, but typically it is kept as-is.


title: Hash House Harriers

text: Hashers who have not been named are generally referred to as "Just (Name)," "No Name (Name)" (e.g., "No Name John"), or simply "Virgin."


title: Hash House Harriers

text: Naming traditions are also differ based on Kennels. In some, the Grand Master (GM) has the responsibility, while others have the Religious Advisor (RA) do the ceremony. Others still allow the Hares themselves to name the Hasher. In some, the Circle gets to help and shout out suggestions. However, as a general rule, Hashers are not permitted to give themselves a Hash Name due to the obvious conflict of interest. Hashers who do so are often renamed by the chapter at the earliest opportunity and with a more offensive name. Hashers who do get named and do not like their name may be renamed by their Kennel or by another Kennel. Usually, this backfires as Hashers typically strive to give the complaining Hasher an even more offensive or further inappropriate name. Similarly, new Hashers who pursue a desire for an obviously offensive or inappropriate name may intentionally be given a weaker name, such as "Freckles," "Frog Butt," or "Mr. Poo Poo."


title: Hash House Harriers

text: Many Hashes have their own logo for their own Kennel. There are even custom logos made for special events like the [Interhash]. However, due to the running theme, there are many common symbols universally attributed to the Hash that can be seen across multiple items. One such traditional symbol is the outline of a human foot (or a pair), often including the phrase "On-On."


title: Hash House Harriers

text: Hash T-shirts are among the most common things to find at a Hash, and some consider them collection material. Unique Hashes and special events usually have a Hash T-shirt that comes from recognizing participation, and carry the symbols of various Kennels, dates, Hares of the run, event locations, sponsors, and more. A large sample is available in the Digital Hash T-shirt Museum


title: Hash House Harriers

text: Hashers occasionally wear specialized clothing on trail or to the closing circles. Common items include thick, knee-high socks (commonly referred to as "Shiggy" socks), kilts, or "happi" coats, while some chapters (aka "kennels" in hare-and-hound chapters) offer "earned" clothing such as bibs or sashes. Shiggy socks are worn to protect the shins and knees of the wearer from thorns, mud, branches, or whatever else they run through. The Hash has its own tartan for members' kilts. Custom happi coats, originating out of Japan, are also commonly seen and made to reflect the local kennel.


title: Hash House Harriers

text: Swing Low, Sweet Chariot is the Hash Hymn. All Hashers recognize the Hash Hymn, and it usually commands as much respect as possible. While humorous additions or renditions to the song itself exist, it is one of the few things that remain consistent throughout the Hashing world. There is some dispute to the song's origin; however, its persistence in the Hashing world would suggest it originated in the Singapore H3 or even from Mother H3 itself.


title: Hash House Harriers

text: There are several international events, where hashers from different groups get together to run and socialize. Still, the most famous is the biennial "Interhash", where hashers from around the world gather.


title: Hash House Harriers

text: The 2006 "Interhash—Chiang Mai" offered supporting runs in Thailand, Myanmar, Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia, and southwest China. The 2018 event was scheduled for the weekend of 27 May on the Fiji Islands.


title: Hash House Harriers

text: In addition to Interhash, there are also many regional and continental hash events, such as the Inter-Americas, InterAfrica, InterGulf, InterScandi, EuroHash, and PanAsia. National hash events or "nash hashes" primarily bring together hashers from one particular nation, although visitors from other countries are actively welcomed.


title: S. P. Hinduja

text: Srichand Parmanand Hinduja (born 28 November 1935) is an Indian-born British billionaire businessman, investor, and philanthropist. He is the primary shareholder and chairman of Hinduja Group of companies. As of May 2020, together with his brother Gopichand he is the UK's richest man. Since the 1990s, he has been consistently ranked among the UK and Asia's wealthiest people. In 2022, Hinduja topped the "Sunday Times" Rich List with an estimated wealth of £28.472 billion sterling. Based on the rich list compiled by Asian Media & Marketing Group, Hinduja's wealth is estimated at £25.2 billion (US$31.7 billion). The "Forbes" List in March 2019 ranked him and his brother Gopichand as the world's 65th richest billionaire family with an estimated wealth of $16.9 billion.


title: S. P. Hinduja

text: Srichand Parmanand Hinduja was born on 28 November 1935 in Karachi, Sindh province, British India. He is the second son of Parmanand Deepchand Hinduja and Jamuna Parmanand Hinduja. He was educated at Davar's College of Commerce and R. D. National College, both in Mumbai.


title: S. P. Hinduja

text: Alongside his younger brothers Gopichand, Prakash, and Ashok, Hinduja is known as the patriarch of India's "fab four".


title: S. P. Hinduja

text: Hinduja began his career in his father's textile and trading businesses in Bombay, India, and Tehran, Iran. His successful businesses in his early career included the sale of food commodities (onions and potatoes) and iron ore from India to Iran.


title: S. P. Hinduja

text: With the acquisition of Ashok Leyland (from British Leyland) and Gulf Oil (from Chevron) in the 1980s and the establishment of banks in Switzerland and India in the 1990s, Hinduja became one of India's best known business tycoons alongside such names as Tata, Birla, and Ambani. In 2012, the Group acquired the US firm Houghton International, the world's largest metal fluids manufacturer, for $1.045 billion forming a consortium with the help of Ghouse Mohammed Asif, JP Morgan ( Director of Private Equity ) and Hank Paulson , Former United States Secretary of the Treasury ( Ex - Goldman Sachs ) .


title: S. P. Hinduja

text: Hinduja's business approach is conservative and opportunistic, investing in diversified business sectors ranging from oil & gas, banking & finance, and IT to real estate, energy & chemicals, power, and media & entertainment.


title: S. P. Hinduja

text: In 2022, Hinduja was the UK's wealthiest person, with an estimated wealth of £28.5 billion according to the "Sunday Times" Rich List.


title: S. P. Hinduja

text: As of March 2019, "Forbes" ranks SP and GP Hinduja as the 65th richest in the world, with a net worth of $16.9 billion, with Forbes India estimating his net worth at $18 billion. This makes him the 4th wealthiest Indian-origin business magnate in the world.


title: S. P. Hinduja

text: The October 2013 issue of "Forbes Life" estimates the Hinduja home in London's Carlton House Terrace down the Mall from Buckingham Palace to be worth $500 million, making it the third most expensive private home in the world.


title: S. P. Hinduja

text: In 2001, Hinduja was involved in the UK’s "cash-for-passports" scandal, where he donated money for the Millennium Dome while applying for British citizenship, leading to resignation of Peter Mandelson.


title: S. P. Hinduja

text: Hinduja is married to Madhu Srichand Hinduja, and they have two daughters. Hinduja is a Sindhi Hindu.


title: S. P. Hinduja

text: In 1988, their daughter Shanu Srichand Hinduja married Suren Mukhi, the son of Narsi and Janki Mukhi, another London-based Sindhi trading family.


title: S. P. Hinduja

text: Their other daughter, Vinoo Srichand Hinduja is on the board of management for the P.D. Hinduja National Hospital and Medical Research Centre in Mumbai.


title: S. P. Hinduja

text: On 19 May 1992, their only son, Dharam Hinduja, died a few days after receiving 70% burns from self-immolation in a hotel room in Mauritius, as part of a suicide pact with his wife, who survived. He had secretly married Ninotchka Sargon, a Roman Catholic Australian, at Chelsea Register Office in January that year.


title: S. P. Hinduja

text: Hinduja is a teetotaler and a strict vegetarian. He is known to bring his own vegetarian food to the Queen's banquets at Buckingham Palace.


title: Lee Geung-young

text: Lee Geung-young (born December 12, 1960) is a South Korean actor. He graduated from the Department of Drama in Seoul. He debuted in 1977 and after completing his mandatory military service, he debuted in 1982 as the 10th public relations actor for the Korea Broadcasting Corporation (KBS), became a voice actor for a year, and re-entered his KBS 18th career in 1983. In 1983, he debuted as an actor in the KBS drama "Ordinary People". He also wrote and directed the films "The Gate of Destiny" (1996) and "The Beauty in Dream" (2002).


title: Lee Geung-young

text: Lee was arrested immediately with the charge of prostitution with a minor aged 17 with the promise of starring the girl in a movie in 2002. Out of three intercourses, only two were found to be for the purpose of prostitution. Lee was found guilty and was ordered 160 hours of social service and 10 months of prison time with two years of probation.


title: Heptagon

text: The heptagon is sometimes referred to as the septagon, using "sept-" (an elision of "", a Latin-derived numerical prefix, rather than "", a Greek-derived numerical prefix; both are cognate) together with the Greek suffix "-agon" meaning angle.


title: Heptagon

text: A regular heptagon, in which all sides and all angles are equal, has internal angles of 5π/7 radians (128 degrees). Its Schläfli symbol is {7}.


title: Heptagon

text: This can be seen by subdividing the unit-sided heptagon into seven triangular "pie slices" with vertices at the center and at the heptagon's vertices, and then halving each triangle using the apothem as the common side. The apothem is half the cotangent of formula_2 and the area of each of the 14 small triangles is one-fourth of the apothem.


title: Heptagon

text: The area of a regular heptagon inscribed in a circle of radius "R" is formula_3 while the area of the circle itself is formula_4 thus the regular heptagon fills approximately 0.8710 of its circumscribed circle.


title: Heptagon

text: As 7 is a Pierpont prime but not a Fermat prime, the regular heptagon is not constructible with compass and straightedge but is constructible with a marked ruler and compass. It is the smallest regular polygon with this property. This type of construction is called a neusis construction. It is also constructible with compass, straightedge and angle trisector. The impossibility of straightedge and compass construction follows from the observation that formula_5 is a zero of the irreducible cubic . Consequently, this polynomial is the minimal polynomial of whereas the degree of the minimal polynomial for a constructible number must be a power of 2.


title: Heptagon

text: An approximation for practical use with an error of about 0.2% is shown in the drawing. It is attributed to Albrecht Dürer. Let "A" lie on the circumference of the circumcircle. Draw arc "BOC". Then formula_6 gives an approximation for the edge of the heptagon.


title: Heptagon

text: This approximation uses formula_7 for the side of the heptagon inscribed in the unit circle while the exact value is formula_8.


title: Heptagon

text: At a circumscribed circle radius "r = 1 m", the absolute error of the 1st side would be "approximately -1.7 mm"


title: Heptagon

text: The "regular heptagon" belongs to the D point group (Schoenflies notation), order 28. The symmetry elements are: a 7-fold proper rotation axis C, a 7-fold improper rotation axis, S, 7 vertical mirror planes, σ, 7 2-fold rotation axes, C, in the plane of the heptagon and a horizontal mirror plane, σ, also in the heptagon's plane.


title: Heptagon

text: The regular heptagon's side "a", shorter diagonal "b", and longer diagonal "c", with "a"<"b"<"c", satisfy


title: Heptagon

text: Thus –"b"/"c", "c"/"a", and "a"/"b" all satisfy the cubic equation formula_17 However, no algebraic expressions with purely real terms exist for the solutions of this equation, because it is an example of casus irreducibilis.


title: Heptagon

text: A heptagonal triangle has vertices coinciding with the first, second, and fourth vertices of a regular heptagon (from an arbitrary starting vertex) and angles formula_23 and formula_24 Thus its sides coincide with one side and two particular diagonals of the regular heptagon.


title: Heptagon

text: Apart from the heptagonal prism and heptagonal antiprism, no convex polyhedron made entirely out of regular polygons contains a heptagon as a face.


title: Heptagon

text: Two kinds of star heptagons (heptagrams) can be constructed from regular heptagons, labeled by Schläfli symbols {7/2}, and {7/3}, with the divisor being the interval of connection.


title: Heptagon

text: A regular triangle, heptagon, and 42-gon can completely fill a plane vertex. However, there is no tiling of the plane with only these polygons, because there is no way to fit one of them onto the third side of the triangle without leaving a gap or creating an overlap. In the hyperbolic plane, tilings by regular heptagons are possible.


title: Heptagon

text: The regular heptagon has a double lattice packing of the Euclidean plane of packing density approximately 0.89269. This has been conjectured to be the lowest density possible for the optimal double lattice packing density of any convex set, and more generally for the optimal packing density of any convex set.


title: Heptagon

text: The United Kingdom currently, as of 2022, has two heptagonal coins, the 50p and 20p pieces, and the Barbados Dollar are also heptagonal. The 20-eurocent coin has cavities placed similarly. Strictly, the shape of the coins is a Reuleaux heptagon, a curvilinear heptagon which has curves of constant width; the sides are curved outwards to allow the coins to roll smoothly when they are inserted into a vending machine. Botswana pula coins in the denominations of 2 Pula, 1 Pula, 50 Thebe and 5 Thebe are also shaped as equilateral-curve heptagons. Coins in the shape of Reuleaux heptagons are also in circulation in Mauritius, U.A.E., Tanzania, Samoa, Papua New Guinea, São Tomé and Príncipe, Haiti, Jamaica, Liberia, Ghana, the Gambia, Jordan, Jersey, Guernsey, Isle of Man, Gibraltar, Guyana, Solomon Islands, Falkland Islands and Saint Helena. The 1000 Kwacha coin of Zambia is a true heptagon.


title: Heptagon

text: The Brazilian 25-cent coin has a heptagon inscribed in the coin's disk. Some old versions of the coat of arms of Georgia, including in Soviet days, used a {7/2} heptagram as an element.


title: Heptagon

text: In architecture, heptagonal floor plans are very rare. A remarkable example is the Mausoleum of Prince Ernst in Stadthagen, Germany.


title: Artur Axmann

text: Artur Axmann (18 February 1913 – 24 October 1996) was the German Nazi national leader ("Reichsjugendführer") of the Hitler Youth ("Hitlerjugend") from 1940 to 1945, when the war ended. He was the last living Nazi with a rank equivalent to "Reichsleiter".


title: Artur Axmann

text: Axmann was born in Hagen, Westphalia, the son of an insurance clerk. In 1916, his family moved to Berlin-Wedding, where his father died two years later. The young Axmann was a good student and received a scholarship to attend secondary school. He joined the Hitler Youth in November 1928 after he had heard Nazi "Gauleiter" Joseph Goebbels speak. Axmann became leader of the local cell in the Wedding district. He also joined the National Socialist Schoolchildren's League in which he distinguished himself as an orator.


title: Artur Axmann

text: In September 1931, Axmann joined the Nazi Party and the next year he was called to the NSDAP "Reichsjugendführung" to carry out a reorganisation of Hitler Youth factory and vocational school cells. After the Nazi seizure of power in 1933, he rose to a regional leader and became Chief of the Social Office of the Reich Youth Leadership.


title: Artur Axmann

text: Axmann directed the Hitler Youth in state vocational training and succeeded in raising the status of Hitler Youth agricultural work. He was also a member of Hans Frank's Academy for German Law and the Chairman of its Committee on Youth Law. In November 1934, he was appointed Hitler Youth leader of Berlin and from 1936, presided at the annual "Reichsberufswettkampf" competitions. On 30 January 1939 he was awarded the Golden Party Badge. On 1 May 1940, he was appointed deputy to Nazi "Reichsjugendführer" Baldur von Schirach, whom he succeeded three months later on 8 August 1940. In October 1941, Axmann became a member of the "Reichstag" from electoral constituency 1, East Prussia.


title: Artur Axmann

text: After World War II began in Europe, Axmann was on active service on the Western Front until May 1940. As a member of the Wehrmacht 23rd Infantry Division, he was severely wounded on the Eastern Front in 1941 and lost his right arm.


title: Artur Axmann

text: In early 1943, Axmann proposed the formation of the 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend to Heinrich Himmler, with servicemen drawn from the Hitler Youth. Hitler approved the plan for the combat division to be made up of Hitler Youth members born in 1926, and recruitment and training began. In the last weeks of the war in Europe, Axmann commanded units of the Hitler Youth, which had been incorporated into the Home Guard ("Volkssturm"). His units consisted mostly of children and adolescents and fought in the Battle of Seelow Heights and the Battle in Berlin.


title: Artur Axmann

text: During Hitler's last days in Berlin, Axmann was among those present in the "Führerbunker". Meanwhile, it was announced in the German press that Axmann had been awarded the German Order, the highest decoration that the Nazi Party could bestow on an individual for his services to the Reich. He and one other recipient, Konstantin Hierl, were the only holders of the award to survive the war and its consequences. All other recipients were either awarded it posthumously or were killed during the war or its aftermath.


title: Artur Axmann

text: On 30 April 1945, just a few hours before committing suicide, Hitler signed the order to allow a breakout. According to a report made to his Soviet captors by "Obergruppenführer" Hans Rattenhuber, the head of Hitler's bodyguard, Axmann took the Walther PP pistol that had been removed from Hitler's sitting room in the "Führerbunker" by Heinz Linge, Hitler's valet, which Hitler had used to commit suicide and said that he would "hide it for better times".


title: Artur Axmann

text: On 1 May, Axmann left the "Führerbunker" as part of a breakout group, which included Martin Bormann, Werner Naumann and SS doctor Ludwig Stumpfegger. Attempting to break out of the Soviet encirclement, their group managed to cross the River Spree at the Weidendammer Bridge.


title: Artur Axmann

text: Leaving the rest of their group, Bormann, Stumpfegger, and Axmann walked along railway tracks to Lehrter railway station. Bormann and Stumpfegger followed the railway tracks towards Stettiner station. Axmann decided to go in the opposite direction of his two companions. When he encountered a Red Army patrol, Axmann doubled back. He saw two bodies, which he later identified as Bormann and Stumpfegger, on the Invalidenstraße bridge near the railway switching yard (Lehrter Bahnhof), the moonlight clearly illuminating their faces. He did not have time to check the bodies thoroughly and so he did not know how they died. His statements were confirmed by the discovery of Bormann's and Stumpfegger's remains in 1972.


title: Artur Axmann

text: Axmann avoided capture by Soviet troops and lived under the alias of "Erich Siewert" for several months. In December 1945, Axmann was arrested in Lübeck when a Nazi underground movement, which he had been organising, was uncovered by a US Army counterintelligence operation.


title: Artur Axmann

text: In May 1949, a Nuremberg denazification court sentenced Axmann to a prison sentence of three years and three months as a "major offender". He was not found guilty of war crimes.


title: Artur Axmann

text: On 19 August 1958, a West Berlin court fined the former Hitler Youth leader 35,000 marks (approximately £3,000, or US$8,300) (), about half the value of his property in Berlin. The court found him guilty of indoctrinating German youth with National Socialism until the end of the war in Europe but concluded that he was not guilty of war crimes.


title: Artur Axmann

text: After his release from custody, Axmann worked as a businessman with varying success. From 1971 he left Germany for a number of years and lived on the Spanish island of Gran Canaria. Axmann returned to Berlin in 1976, where he died on 24 October 1996, aged 83. His cause of death and details of his surviving family members were not disclosed.


title: Henry Molaison

text: Henry Gustav Molaison (February 26, 1926 – December 2, 2008), known widely as H.M., was an American who had a bilateral medial temporal lobectomy to surgically resect the anterior two thirds of his hippocampi, parahippocampal cortices, entorhinal cortices, piriform cortices, and amygdalae in an attempt to cure his epilepsy. Although the surgery was partially successful in controlling his epilepsy, a severe side effect was that he became unable to form new memories.


title: Henry Molaison

text: A childhood bicycle accident is often advanced as the likely cause of H.M's epilepsy. H.M. began to have minor seizures at age 10; from 16 years of age, the seizures became major. Despite high doses of anticonvulsant medication, H.M.'s seizures were incapacitating. When he was 27, H.M. was offered an experimental procedure by neurosurgeon, W.B. Scoville. Previously Scoville had only ever performed the surgery on psychotic patients.


title: Henry Molaison

text: The surgery took place in 1953 and H.M. was widely studied from late 1957 until his death in 2008. He resided in a care institute in Windsor Locks, Connecticut, where he was the subject of ongoing investigation. His case played an important role in the development of theories that explain the link between brain function and memory, and in the development of cognitive neuropsychology, a branch of psychology that aims to understand how the structure and function of the brain relates to specific psychological processes.


title: Henry Molaison

text: Molaison's brain was kept at University of California, San Diego where it was sliced into histological sections on December 4, 2009. It was later moved to The MIND Institute at UC Davis. The brain atlas constructed was made publicly available in 2014.


title: Henry Molaison

text: Henry Molaison was born on February 26, 1926, in Manchester, Connecticut, and experienced intractable epilepsy that has sometimes been attributed to a bicycle accident at the age of seven. He had minor or partial seizures for many years, and then major or tonic-clonic seizures following his 16th birthday. He worked for a time on an assembly line but, by the age of 27, he had become so incapacitated by his seizures, despite high doses of anticonvulsant medication, that he could not work nor lead a normal life.


title: Henry Molaison

text: In 1953, Molaison was referred to William Beecher Scoville, a neurosurgeon at Hartford Hospital. Scoville localized his epilepsy to the left and right medial temporal lobes (MTLs) and suggested their surgical resection. On September 1, 1953, Scoville removed Molaison's medial temporal lobes on both hemispheres including the hippocampi and most of the amygdalae and entorhinal cortex, the major sensory input to the hippocampi. His hippocampi appeared entirely nonfunctional because the remaining 2 cm of hippocampal tissue appeared to have atrophied and some of his anterolateral temporal cortex was also destroyed.


title: Henry Molaison

text: After the surgery, which was partially successful in controlling his seizures, Molaison developed severe anterograde amnesia: although his working memory and procedural memory were intact, he could not commit new events to his explicit memory. According to some scientists, he was impaired in his ability to form new semantic knowledge.


title: Henry Molaison

text: Researchers argue over the extent of this impairment. He also had moderate retrograde amnesia, and could not remember most events in the one- to two-year period before surgery, nor some events up to 11 years before, meaning that his amnesia was temporally graded.


title: Henry Molaison

text: His case was first reported by Scoville and Brenda Milner in 1957, who referred to him by "H.M." His full name was not revealed to the wider public until after his death. While researchers had told him of the significance of his condition and of his renown within the world of neurological research, he was unable to internalize such facts as memories.


title: Henry Molaison

text: Near the end of his life, Molaison regularly filled in crossword puzzles. He was able to fill in answers to clues that referred to pre-1953 knowledge. For post-1953 information he was able to modify old memories with new information. For instance, he could add a memory about Jonas Salk by modifying his memory of polio.


title: Henry Molaison

text: Molaison was influential not only for the knowledge he provided about memory impairment and amnesia, but also because it was thought his exact brain surgery allowed a good understanding of how particular areas of the brain may be linked to specific processes hypothesized to occur in memory formation. In this way, his case was taken to provide information about brain pathology, and helped to form theories of normal memory function.


title: Henry Molaison

text: In particular, his apparent ability to complete tasks that require recall from short-term memory and procedural memory but not long-term episodic memory suggests that recall from these memory systems may be mediated, at least in part, by different areas of the brain. Similarly, his ability to recall long-term memories that existed well before his surgery, but inability to create new long-term memories, suggests that encoding and retrieval of long-term memory information may also be mediated by distinct systems.


title: Henry Molaison

text: Nevertheless, imaging of Molaison's brain in the late 1990s revealed the extent of damage was more widespread than previous theories had accounted for, making it very hard to identify any one particular region or even isolated set of regions that were responsible for HM's deficits.


title: Henry Molaison

text: The study of Molaison revolutionized the understanding of the organization of human memory. It has provided broad evidence for the rejection of old theories and the formation of new theories on human memory, in particular about its processes and the underlying neural structures (cf. Kolb & Whishaw, 1996). In the following, some of the major insights are outlined.


title: Henry Molaison

text: Molaison's brain was the subject of an anatomical study funded by the Dana Foundation and the National Science Foundation. The aim of the project, headed by Jacopo Annese, of The Brain Observatory at UC San Diego, was to provide a complete microscopic survey of the entire brain to reveal the neurological basis of Molaison's historical memory impairment at cellular resolution. On December 4, 2009, Annese's group acquired 2401 brain slices, with only two damaged slices and 16 potentially problematic slices. The digital 3D reconstruction of his brain was finished at the beginning of 2014.


title: Henry Molaison

text: The results of the study were published in Nature Communications for January 2014. The researchers found, to their surprise, that half of H.M.'s hippocampal tissue had survived the 1953 surgery, which has deep implications on past and future interpretations of H.M.'s neurobehavioral profile and of the previous literature describing H.M. as a "pure" hippocampus lesion patient. Additionally, a previously unexpected discrete lesion was discovered in the prefrontal cortex. These findings suggest revisiting raw data from behavioral testing. A three-dimensional virtual model of the brain allowed the dynamics of the surgery to be reconstructed; it was found that the brain damage above the left orbit could have been created by Dr. Scoville when he lifted the frontal lobe to reach into the medial temporal lobes.


title: Henry Molaison

text: The article also describes the general neuropathological state of the brain via multiple imaging modalities. As H.M. was 82 when he died, his brain had aged considerably. Several pathological features were discovered, some severe, which had contributed to his cognitive decline.


title: Henry Molaison

text: The digital atlas of HM's brain was made publicly available on the Internet free of charge; its "permanence on the web relies on contributions from users".


title: Henry Molaison

text: Molaison's general condition has been described as heavy anterograde amnesia, as well as temporally graded retrograde amnesia. Since Molaison did not show any memory impairment before the surgery, the removal of the medial temporal lobes can be held responsible for his memory disorder. Consequently, the medial temporal lobes can be assumed to be a major component involved in the formation of semantic and episodic long-term memories (cf. medial temporal lobes described as a convergence zone for episodic encoding in Smith & Kosslyn, 2007). Further evidence for this assumption has been gained by studies of other patients with lesions of their medial temporal lobe structures.


title: Henry Molaison

text: Despite his amnesic symptoms, Molaison performed quite normally in tests of intellectual ability, indicating that some memory functions (e.g., short-term memories, stores for words, phonemes, etc.) were not impaired by the surgery. However, for sentence-level language comprehension and production, Molaison exhibited the same deficits and sparing as in memory. Molaison was able to remember information over short intervals of time. This was tested in a working memory experiment involving the recall of previously presented numbers; in fact, his performance was no worse than that of control subjects (Smith & Kosslyn, 2007). This finding provides evidence that working memory does not rely on medial temporal structures. Molaison's largely intact word retrieval provides evidence that lexical memory is independent of the medial temporal structures.


title: Henry Molaison

text: In addition to his intact working memory and intellectual abilities, studies of Molaison's ability to acquire new motor skills contributed to a demonstrated preserved motor learning (Corkin, 2002). In a study conducted by Milner in the early 1960s, Molaison acquired the new skill of drawing a figure by looking at its reflection in a mirror (Corkin, 2002). Specifically, H.M. was asked to trace a 3rd star in the narrow space between 2 concentric stars while only looking at a reflection of his paper and pencil in a mirror. Like most people performing this task for the first time, he did not do well and went outside the lines about 30 times. Milner had him do this task 10 times on each day and saw that the number of errors he made went down for each trial after the first. H.M. made about 20 errors on the second trial, 12 errors on the third, and by the 10th trial on the first day he only made about 5-6 errors. Each time H.M. performed the task, he improved even though he had no memory of the previous attempts or of ever doing the task. On the second day, he made significantly fewer errors for each trial on average, and on the third day he made almost no errors for each trial. Milner concluded that the unconscious motor centers and parts of the brain responsible for procedural implicit memory such as the basal ganglia and cerebellum can remember things that the conscious mind has forgotten. These structures were intact in H.M.’s brain, and thus he was able to do well on this task after repeated trials.


title: Henry Molaison

text: Further evidence for intact motor learning was provided in a study carried out by Corkin (1968). In this study, Molaison was tested on three motor learning tasks and demonstrated full motor learning abilities in all of them.


title: Henry Molaison

text: Experiments involving repetition priming underscored Molaison's ability to acquire implicit (non-conscious) memories, in contrast to his inability to acquire new explicit semantic and episodic memories (Corkin, 2002). These findings provide evidence that memory of skills and repetition priming rely on different neural structures than memories of episodes and facts; whereas procedural memory and repetition priming do not rely on the medial temporal structures removed from Molaison, semantic and episodic memory do (cf. Corkin, 1984).


title: Henry Molaison

text: The dissociation of Molaison's implicit and explicit learning abilities along their underlying neural structures has served as an important contribution to our understanding of human memory: Long-term memories are not unitary and can be differentiated as being either declarative or non-declarative (Smith & Kosslyn, 2007).


title: Henry Molaison

text: According to Corkin (2002), studies of Molaison's memory abilities have also provided insights regarding the neural structures responsible for spatial memory and processing of spatial information. Despite his general inability to form new episodic or factual long-term memories, as well as his heavy impairment on certain spatial memory tests, Molaison was able to draw a quite detailed map of the topographical layout of his residence. This finding is remarkable since Molaison had moved to the house five years after his surgery and hence, given his severe anterograde amnesia and insights from other cases, the common expectation was that the acquisition of topographical memories would have been impaired as well. Corkin (2002) hypothesized that Molaison “was able to construct a cognitive map of the spatial layout of his house as the result of daily locomotion from room to room” (p. 156).


title: Henry Molaison

text: Regarding the underlying neural structures, Corkin (2002) argues that Molaison's ability to acquire the floor plan is due to partly intact structures of his spatial processing network (e.g., the posterior part of his parahippocampal gyrus). In addition to his topographical memory, Molaison showed some learning in a picture memorization-recognition task, as well as in a famous faces recognition test, but in the latter only when he was provided with a phonemic cue. Molaison's positive performance in the picture recognition task might be due to spared parts of his ventral perirhinal cortex.


title: Henry Molaison

text: Furthermore, Corkin (2002) argues that despite Molaison's general inability to form new declarative memories, he seemed to be able to acquire small and impoverished pieces of information regarding public life (e.g., cued retrieval of celebrities' names). These findings underscore the importance of Molaison's spared extrahippocampal sites in semantic and recognition memory and enhance our understanding of the interrelations between the different medial temporal lobe structures. Molaison's heavy impairment in certain spatial tasks provides further evidence for the association of the hippocampi with spatial memory (Kolb & Whishaw, 1996).


title: Henry Molaison

text: Another contribution of Molaison to understanding of human memory regards the neural structures of the memory consolidation process, which is responsible for forming stable long-term memories (Eysenck & Keane, 2005). Molaison displayed a temporally graded retrograde amnesia in the way that he "could still recall childhood memories, but he had difficulty remembering events that happened during the years immediately preceding the surgery". His old memories were not impaired, whereas the ones relatively close to the surgery were. This is evidence that the older childhood memories do not rely on the medial temporal lobe, whereas the more recent long-term memories seem to do so). The medial temporal structures, which were removed in the surgery, are hypothesized to be involved in the consolidation of memories in the way that "interactions between the medial temporal lobe and various lateral cortical regions are thought to store memories outside the medial temporal lobes by slowly forming direct links between the cortical representations of the experience".


title: Henry Molaison

text: On August 7, 2016, a "New York Times" article written by Luke Dittrich, grandson of Molaison's neurosurgeon William Beecher Scoville, raised a number of concerns about how Molaison's data and consent process had been conducted by the primary scientist investigating him, Suzanne Corkin. The article suggested that Corkin had destroyed research documents and data, and failed to obtain consent from Molaison's closest living kin. In response to the article, a group of over 200 leading neuroscientists signed a public letter arguing that the article was biased and misleading, and MIT published a rebuttal of some of the allegations in Dittrich's article. This was in turn rebutted by Dittrich, who provided a recording of the interview with Corkin, where she said she had destroyed large amounts of data. A second rebuttal was issued on 20 of August 2016 responding to the criticism leveled against Corkin, including the fact that in this same recorded interview Corkin says “We kept the H.M. stuff”.


title: Henry Molaison

text: Psychologist Stuart Vyse writes about this controversy and the action of the two hundred scientists that responded to criticism of Corkin. Vyse states that in their rush to defend Corkin they risked their credibility and authority "by weighing in on subjects outside their circle of knowledge". The "signers responded very quickly" only two days after the release of the NYT article, they were not aware of the "specific claims of bias" and very few of the signers "could have had relevant knowledge of the facts". Consensus of the science is important, but the consensus should be based on actual knowledge of the subject and not as a reaction to "come to the defense of a beloved colleague".


title: Gabor sisters

text: The Gabor sisters were three Hungarian-American actresses/socialites: Magda (June 11, 1915 – June 6, 1997), Zsa Zsa (February 6, 1917 – December 18, 2016), and Eva (February 11, 1919 – July 4, 1995). Born in Budapest, Hungary, the trio relocated to the United States in hopes of starting film careers.


title: Gabor sisters

text: Outside of their careers, they were each well known for their serial matrimony: Magda was married six times; Zsa Zsa nine times; and Eva five times. British actor George Sanders was first married to Zsa Zsa and later to Magda, though the latter marriage only lasted one month.


title: Gabor sisters

text: The Gabor sisters were born into a family of Hungarian-Jewish background, in Budapest, Hungary to parents Vilmos and Jolie Gabor. The family moved to New York in the wake of World War II. Magda had played a small role in a Hungarian film before the war, so Jolie and her three daughters moved to Hollywood to break into the film business. Eva was the first of the sisters to immigrate to the US, shortly after her first marriage, to a Swedish osteopath, Dr. Eric Drimmer, whom she married in 1937 when she was 18 years old.


title: Gabor sisters

text: In 1953, Eva was given her own television talk show, "The Eva Gabor Show", which ran for one season (1953–54). Both of her sisters appeared on the show in guest spots. From September 1965 through April 1971, Eva starred in the CBS sitcom "Green Acres", which proved to be a ratings success.


title: Gabor sisters

text: Zsa Zsa's only child, Francesca Hilton, was born on March 10, 1947, by then-husband Conrad Hilton. Zsa Zsa was the only Gabor sister to have a child. Francesca Hilton died on January 5, 2015, at the age of 67, from an apparent stroke or heart attack. She had no children.


title: Gabor sisters

text: The sisters were well-known socialites, with Eva and Zsa Zsa becoming notable for their acting and personality work. Both sisters had recurring roles on hit series such as "Climax!", "The Love Boat", and "The Matinee Theater", at separate times, and appeared as themselves regularly on "Hollywood Squares", "The Dean Martin Show", and "The Merv Griffin Show". In his autobiography, television host Merv Griffin, who was known to spend time with Eva socially, wrote of the Gabor sisters' initial presence in New York and Los Angeles:


title: Gabor sisters

text: All these years later, it's hard to describe the phenomenon of the three glamorous Gabor girls and their ubiquitous mother. They burst onto the society pages and into the gossip columns so suddenly, and with such force, it was as if they'd been dropped out of the sky.


title: Gabor sisters

text: The youngest sister, Eva predeceased her elder sisters and her mother. Eva died in Los Angeles on July 4, 1995, from respiratory failure and pneumonia, following a fall in a bathtub in Mexico, where she had been on vacation. Her funeral was held on July 11, 1995, at Good Shepherd Catholic Church in Beverly Hills.


title: Gabor sisters

text: Their mother, Jolie, was apparently never told of Eva's death and died less than two years later, in Palm Springs, California, of natural causes on April 1, 1997, at age 100. The cause of death was declared as kidney failure. Two months after Jolie's death, Magda died on June 6, 1997, five days before her 82nd birthday.


title: Gabor sisters

text: Francesca Hilton, Zsa Zsa's daughter, died in 2015. Zsa Zsa was reportedly never told of her daughter's death. Zsa Zsa died at the age of 99 of cardiac arrest while in a coma at Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center on December 18, 2016, 50 days shy of becoming a centenarian. The causes of death were given as "Cardiopulmonary arrest, Coronary Artery Disease, and Cerebral Vascular Disease". She had been on life support for the previous five years.


title: Liberals (Sweden)

text: The Liberals (, L), known as the Liberal People's Party () until 22 November 2015, is a conservative liberal political party in Sweden. The Liberals ideologically have shown a broad variety of liberal tendencies. Currently they are seen as following classical liberalism and economic liberalism. The party is a member of the Liberal International and Renew Europe.


title: Liberals (Sweden)

text: Historically the party was positioned in the centre of the Swedish political landscape, willing to cooperate with both the political left and the right. It has since the leaderships of Lars Leijonborg and Jan Björklund in the 2000s positioned itself more towards the right. It was a part of the Alliance centre-right coalition government led by Prime Minister Fredrik Reinfeldt from 2006 to 2014. The party's policies include action toward a free market economy and pushing for Sweden to join NATO and the Eurozone, as well as investing in nuclear power; it also focuses on gender equality, the school system and quality education.


title: Liberals (Sweden)

text: In February 2019, following the conclusion of government negotiations, Jan Björklund announced his intention to step down from the leadership position after 11 years at the helm of the Liberals. He was succeeded by Nyamko Sabuni in June 2019. After the 2021 Swedish government crisis, the party withdrew their support for Social Democratic Prime Minister Stefan Löfven, and is now promoting a right-wing government together with the Moderate Party and the Christian Democrats, with support from the Sweden Democrats, with Ulf Kristersson as their Prime Minister candidate. In an interview with Dagens Nyheter in February 2022, Sabuni stated that the Sweden Democrats will "play an important role in an eventual right-wing government" and that she would not be hesitant to work and collaborate with them, stating that there is a possibility of Liberals supporting a Moderate-Christian Democrats-Sweden Democrats government, even if the Liberals are not included in the government. Since the decision to collaborate with the Sweden Democrats, the party has adopted more right-wing populist policy, such as a more restrictive migration policy, easier withdrawal of citizenship for immigrants, and strong criticism of Muslim schools. The party ultimately agreed to join the Tidö Agreement and form a coalition government with the Christian Democrats and the Moderate Party, which rely closely on support from the Sweden Democrats.


title: Liberals (Sweden)

text: On 4 September 2006, only weeks before the 2006 general election, the Social Democratic Party reported to the police that its internal network had been hacked into. It has been reported that members of the Liberal People's Party had copied secret information not yet officially released to counter-attack Social Democrat political propositions on at least two occasions. On 5 September the Party Secretary, Johan Jakobsson, voluntarily chose to resign. Leading members of the party and its youth organisation were under police investigation suspected for criminal activity. All members of the party were acquitted by the court however, while an official of the party's youth organisation, as well as one from the Social Democrats and a newspaper reporter, were found guilty.


title: Liberals (Sweden)

text: The official party ideology has historically been social liberalism, which translates as a strong ideological commitment to a mixed economy, with support for comprehensive but market-based welfare state programs.


title: Liberals (Sweden)

text: While initially allied with the Swedish Social Democratic Party in the struggle for democracy (achieved in 1921) and social reform, the People's Party came to be part of the opposition from the thirties and onwards, opposing Social Democrat demands for nationalization of private businesses. It has stayed opposed to the Social Democrats ever since, often as the largest or second-largest party of the opposition block (called "the non-socialists" or "de borgerliga", approximately "the bourgeois"), but often equally critical towards parties on the right. Over time, this has shifted towards a more clear-cut rightwing role. In the mid-nineties the party seemed to have ruled out the alternative of co-operation with the Social Democrats, focusing instead on bringing them down by strengthening the opposition.


title: Liberals (Sweden)

text: Foreign policy is another high-profile issue. Always oriented towards the United States and the United Kingdom, the party was a strong opponent of Communism and Nazism during the 20th century. While it was part of and supported the Swedish coalition government and its position of neutrality during World War II, the party advocated an active stance against the Soviet Union during the Cold War. The party (alongside "Moderaterna") actively supported the struggle of the Baltic peoples against the Soviet regime, whereas Social Democrats were wary of irritating the Soviets. As a consequence, it suffered several sharply worded rebukes from the often-ruling Social Democrats for endangering Swedish relations with the Soviet Union. It also criticised what it perceived as Social Democrat tolerance of left-wing dictatorships in the third world, and supported the United States in the Vietnam War. After the end of the Cold War, it became the first Swedish party to call for abandoning the country's traditional neutrality in favor of joining NATO.


title: Liberals (Sweden)

text: Among issues concerning the developing world, the party supported decolonization and advocated boycotting South Africa to help overthrow apartheid rule. It also opposed third world Communist dictatorships. Nowadays it is strongly supportive of Israel, and former Party leader Per Ahlmark has been especially vocal on the issue.


title: Liberals (Sweden)

text: On the European level, the Liberal People's Party was strongly supportive of the emergence of the European Union and campaigned for Swedish entry into it (which happened in 1995). It also campaigned for joining the Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union, but this was voted down by the Swedes in a referendum in 2003. The party has aimed to come across as the most "pro-European" party, trying to break what it refers to as the country's "isolationist" mindset. It is supportive of EU enlargement, including letting Turkey join on condition of democratic reforms, and also advocates further integrative measures, with some members, including the youth organization, openly calling for a single federal European state.


title: Liberals (Sweden)

text: In 2003 the Liberal People's Party supported the invasion of Iraq, but stopped short of demanding Swedish participation in the US-led "coalition of the willing". In recent years, and especially under the leadership of Jan Björklund, the party has moved markedly towards conservative liberalism in its social attitudes, taking tougher stands on areas such as crime and punishment, law and order, school and discipline as well as strengthening its abolitionist policies on drugs. In 2008 the Liberal People's Party's support for a controversial legislative change regulating the National Defence Radio Establishment (FRA) in particular upset its youth organisation.


title: Liberals (Sweden)

text: Historically the party had a strong base in the 'free churches' (Protestant congregations not part of the state church that turned into powerful grassroots movements in the late 19th century), but with the exception of certain regions, that is not a significant feature today. Tensions between factions sometimes described as "the free religionists" and "the metropolitan liberals" (occasionally in the form of an open left-right conflict, with the "free religious" members emphasizing the social aspect over liberal economics) was an important part of party life until the seventies. It provoked a party split in the twenties, centred on the question of an alcohol ban, but differences were eventually repaired. (The re-merging of the parties in 1934 is one of the party's plethora of official creation dates, some others being 1895, 1900 and 1902, providing frequent cause for anniversary celebrations.)


title: Liberals (Sweden)

text: Support for the party is more marked among people above the age of 65, and tends to be higher among people who have completed more education. Its support is lowest among people with a pre-gymnasial education. The party's voters are predominantly urban with more than 30% of L-voters residing in Metropolitan Stockholm. The party's support is especially strong in affluent municipalities such as Danderyd, Lidingö and Lomma. According to Sveriges Television's exit poll for the 2019 European parliament election, voters of the Liberals were the most likely to approve of Sweden's EU membership. In September 2022, 84% of L-voters supported Sweden's bid to join NATO.


title: Liberals (Sweden)

text: The party has a youth organization called Liberal Youth of Sweden (Liberala ungdomsförbundet, LUF), which has its own platform and maintains a separate organisation from the party.


title: Liberals (Sweden)

text: There is also a women's organization called Liberal Women (Liberala Kvinnor, LK, chairperson Cecilia Elving) and immigrants' organization called Liberal Mångfald, LM, (Liberal Multicultural Association, chairperson Anna Steele Karlström). Additionally, party members maintain a number of small "ad hoc" "networks" addressing specific issues.


title: Liberals (Sweden)

text: The Liberals is a member of the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe and Liberal International. It is also part of Liberal organisations on the Nordic and Baltic levels. The party's MEP sits with Renew Europe parliamentary group (previously ALDE).


title: Liberals (Sweden)

text: In the European Committee of the Regions, the Liberals sit in the Renew Europe CoR group with one full member for the 2020-2025 mandate.


title: Katherine Swynford

text: Katherine Swynford, Duchess of Lancaster (born Katherine de Roet, – 10 May 1403), also spelled Katharine or Catherine, was the third wife of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, the fourth (but third surviving) son of King Edward III.


title: Katherine Swynford

text: Daughter of a knight from Hainaut, Katherine was brought up at the English royal court, later found herself in the service of Blanche of Lancaster, the first wife of John of Gaunt. At that time, she was married to Hugh Swynford (or de Swynford), one of the Duke's knights. After the death of the Duchess, Katherine became the lady-in-waiting of her daughters, and also took care of them.


title: Katherine Swynford

text: After the death of Hugh Swynford (or de Swynford), she became a member of the household of the Duke's new wife, Constance of Castile, and she was given management of the estates of her deceased husband in Lincolnshire: Coleby and Kettlethorpe. She soon became the mistress of John of Gaunt. From this connection, at least four children were born, who received the family surname Beaufort. In addition, Gaunt gave his mistress several estates, and also provided her with a generous allowance. Since the relationship between Katherine and John of Gaunt caused public condemnation, in 1381 the Duke was forced to break their relationship. Katherine then settled in a rented house in Lincoln.


title: Katherine Swynford

text: Despite the formal break, Katherine's relationship with her former lover and the rest of his family continued to be quite cordial. In 1387, she was made a Lady of the Garter by King Richard II, and shortly thereafter she became a member of the household of Mary de Bohun, wife of Henry Bolingbroke, eldest son and heir of John of Gaunt, who later became King of England under the name of Henry IV.


title: Katherine Swynford

text: In the early 1390s, the love affair between Katherine and John of Gaunt resumed, and after the death of his second wife, the Duke unexpectedly married his mistress in 1396, which caused discontent among the English nobility. However, in the same year, a papal bull was received, recognizing the marriage as valid, and all the children born from the connection were legitimized. After the death of the Duke in 1399, Katherine retired to her rented house in Lincoln, where she died a four years later. She was buried at Lincoln Cathedral.


title: Katherine Swynford

text: Katherine and John of Gaunt's descendants, the Beaufort family, played a major role in the Wars of the Roses. Henry VII, who became King of England in 1485, derived his claim to the throne from his mother, Margaret Beaufort, who was a great-granddaughter of Gaunt and Swynford. His legal claim to the throne, therefore, was through a cognatic and previously illegitimate line. Henry VII's first action was to declare himself king "by right of conquest" retroactively from 21 August 1485, the day before his army defeated King Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth.


title: Katherine Swynford

text: Through her son, John Beaufort, 1st Earl of Somerset, and her daughter, Joan Beaufort, Countess of Westmorland, Katherine became the ancestor of all English (and later British) kings since Edward IV.