title: Made in China (2019 film)

text: Over a flashback, it is shown that Raghu has been a failed Gujarati entrepreneur who lives with his wife Rukmini and his son Chintu. Despite being in charge of his late father's mattress business, which everybody including him now feels has been sustaining losses for too long, he struggles to come up with a profitable business idea and has cycled through several products which have failed to take off. His uncle forces him to go on a trip to China with his cousin Devraj where he is to meet investors about a sports drink business. While in China, Devraj presents his product to Tanmay, a successful Gujarati entrepreneur, who rejects it. Despondent over the rejection, as Devraj abandons him to his own devices, Raghu strikes up a bond with Tanmay who explains the philosophy behind entrepreneurship to him. Raghu goes on a drunken binge with Devraj's contact Xui Lee, and in a stupor, commits to meet her boss Hao Li while posing as Devraj.


title: Made in China (2019 film)

text: During the meeting, Hao introduces Raghu to Tiger Penis Soup which is the Chinese equivalent of Viagra. Hao proposes that Raghu shall sell this product in India and suggests that it will be successful over there because Chinese and Indians are constantly thinking about sex. While researching the market in India, Raghu realizes that there is no genuine solution available for sexual problems faced by men. Raghu proposes a business partnership to Dr. Tribhuvan Vardhi, a sexologist whose books have impressed Raghu, but Vardhi initially rejects the offer. Meanwhile, Raghu's inability to provide a steady income for his family creates tension between him and Rukmini. Raghu proceeds to recruit Vardhi with the promise of spreading sex awareness to the public and eventually Vardhi agrees. Back in the present, General Zeng's autopsy is held up in diplomatic red tape, forcing Sharma and Gupta into trying to get to the truth through Raghu, who remains adamant about nothing being faulty with his product.


title: Made in China (2019 film)

text: Rewinding to the past, Raghu puts together a team of talented young professionals to handle manufacturing and distribution of the product. After some initial struggles, Raghu meets Tanmay who suggests Vardhi as the face of their product. The team arranges a seminar but Vardhi accidentally walks into a parent-teacher conference; his impassioned plea to make sexual discourse normal in society goes viral. As a result, the Tiger Soup business is wildly successful. However, Raghu hides the product from Rukmini and his extended family who think that he is running a business related to Chinese fans. Devraj soon finds out that the Tiger Soup is behind Raghu's success. Raghu meets his idol Abhay Chopra, a successful investor and motivational speaker, who is in league with Devraj. Chopra proposes a business partnership but Raghu rejects the proposal; in retaliation, Devraj reveals to the family that Raghu is running the ostensibly disreputable Tiger Soup business.


title: Made in China (2019 film)

text: Chintu is expelled from his school when a bottle of Tiger Soup is found in his bag. Once a livid Rukmini finds out that Raghu lied about his business, she confronts him about it. A distressed Raghu goes to Vardhi to end their partnership but a timely call from Tanmay causes him to reconsider. Back to the present, Raghu and Vardhi appear before a preliminary commission consisting of several government agencies to explain their role in Zeng's death. Raghu reveals that there is no secret ingredient in the soup; it is just Rabdi, an Indian dessert, and implies that most sexual issues are more psychological than biological. Vardhi appeals to the commission not to consider sex as a taboo topic and encourages them to let the product continue instead of banning it. However, while bureaucratic pressures from the Chinese delegation force the commission to ban the Tiger Soup for some time, Raghu and Vardhi are acquitted and convey to the media that they are happy the product was not banned completely.


title: Made in China (2019 film)

text: At the end, Raghu is shown as a successful owner of a chain of sexual health-related clinics with Vardhi as the face of the business and he is invited to a premier business school to give a lecture on being an entrepreneur. Rukmini is overwhelmed at the success of her husband and the achievements he has made. Raghu ends the story with the same catchphrase that Tanmay had previously taught him.


title: Made in China (2019 film)

text: The film was announced in June 2018 with Mouni Roy and Rajkummar Rao in lead roles, to be directed by Mikhil Musale. The film was shot in China and Ahmedabad.


title: Made in China (2019 film)

text: The principal photography of the film began in September 2018. The film was wrapped up in the end of May 2019.


title: Made in China (2019 film)

text: In October 2018, Rao and Musale announced the release date of 30 August 2019. In July 2019, the release date of the film was declared not yet confirmed, when the makers of the high-budget trilingual film "Saaho" shifted its release date from 15 to 30 August 2019. In late-August 2019, it was officially announced that the film had got a new release date, 25 October 2019, clashing with "Housefull 4" and "Saand Ki Aankh".


title: Made in China (2019 film)

text: Anna M. M. Vetticad of "Firstpost" gave two-star out of five and opined that the film had 'tonal and logical inconsistency in the narrative.' She noted that the film was a drag on long stretches, and the storytelling lacked liveliness. However, praising the performance of Rao and Roy, Vetticad concluded, "Made in China fails to hit the bull's eye because it sorely needed an evening out of pace and tone, depth of characterisation and detailing in the plotline. The best thing about it are Rao and Irani, who are a pleasure to watch even in this middling affair.".


title: Made in China (2019 film)

text: "Made In China"s opening day domestic collection was 90 lacs. On the second day, the film collected 1.25 crore. On the third day, the film collected 90 lacs, taking total opening weekend collection to 3.05 crore.


title: Made in China (2019 film)

text: , with a gross of 11.46 crore in India and 1.35 crore overseas, the film has a worldwide gross collection of 12.81 crore.


title: Made in China (2019 film)

text: The music of the film is composed by Sachin–Jigar, while lyrics are written by Vayu, Jigar Saraiya, Priya Saraiya, and Niren Bhatt. There are three adapted songs of the four. The first two, "Odhani" and "Sanedo", are lifted from two original Gujarati folk songs, while the third, "Naari Naari", derives from the hugely popular eponymous Arabic song Habibi Dah (Nari Narain).


title: Advocate

text: An advocate is a professional in the field of law. Different countries' legal systems use the term with somewhat differing meanings. The broad equivalent in many English law–based jurisdictions could be a barrister or a solicitor. However, in Scottish, Manx, South African, Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Scandinavian, Polish, Israeli, South Asian and South American jurisdictions, "Advocate" indicates a lawyer of superior classification.


title: Advocate

text: "Advocate" is in some languages an honorific for lawyers, such as "Adv. Sir Alberico Gentili". "Advocate" also has the everyday meaning of speaking out to help someone else, such as patient advocacy or the support expected from an elected politician; this article does not cover those senses.


title: Advocate

text: In England and Wales, Advocates and proctors practiced civil law in the Admiralty Courts and also, but in England only, in the ecclesiastical courts of the Church of England, in a similar way to barristers, attorneys and solicitors in the common law and equity courts.


title: Advocate

text: Advocates, who formed the senior branch of the legal profession in their field, were Doctors of Law of the University of Oxford, Cambridge, or Dublin and Fellows of the Society of Doctors' Commons.


title: Advocate

text: Advocates lost their exclusive rights of audience in probate and divorce cases when the Crown took these matters over from the church in 1857, and in Admiralty cases in 1859. The Society of Advocates was never formally wound up, but its building was sold off in 1865 and the last advocate died in 1912.


title: Advocate

text: Barristers were admitted to the Court of Arches of the Church of England in 1867. More recently, Solicitor Advocates have also been allowed to play this role.


title: Advocate

text: Advocates are regulated by the Faculty of Advocates in Edinburgh. The Faculty of Advocates has about 750 members, of whom about 460 are in private practice. About 75 are King's Counsel. The Faculty is headed by the Dean of the Faculty who, along with the Vice-Dean, Treasurer, and Clerk are elected annually by secret ballot.


title: Advocate

text: The Faculty has a service company, Faculty Services Ltd, to which almost all Advocates belong, which organized the stables (sets of Advocates or barristers' chambers) and fee collection. This gives a guarantee to all newly called Advocates of a place. Until the end of 2007, there was an agreement with the Law Society of Scotland, which is the professional body for Scottish solicitors, as to the payment of fees, but this has now been replaced by the Law Society. It remains the case that Advocates are not permitted to sue for their fees, as they have no contractual relationship with their instructing solicitor or with the client. Their fees are honoraria.


title: Advocate

text: Advocates wear wigs, white bow-ties (or falls in the case of senior counsel), straps and gowns as a dress in court.


title: Advocate

text: The process of becoming an advocate is referred to as devilling. All intrants will be Scottish solicitors, i.e. hold a Bachelor of Laws degree and the Diploma in Legal Practice, and must have completed the traineeships of two years (which in some cases may be reduced to eighteen months) required to qualify as a solicitor; or else will be members of the bar in another common law jurisdiction.


title: Advocate

text: At the end of the devilling period, a devil's admission to the Faculty is dependent on certification by the principal devil master that the devil is a fit and proper person to be an advocate and that the devil has been involved in a wide range of work in the course of devilling. A devil's competence in a number of aspects of written and oral advocacy is assessed during devilling, and if a devil is assessed as not competent, he or she will not be admitted to the Faculty. Further details of this process can be found in the assessment section.


title: Advocate

text: In recent years, increasing numbers of Advocates have come to the Scottish Bar after some time as solicitors, but it is possible to qualify with a law degree, after twenty-one months traineeship in a solicitor's office and almost a year as a 'devil', or apprentice advocate. There are exceptions for lawyers who are qualified in other European jurisdictions, but all must take the training course as 'devils'.


title: Advocate

text: Until 2007, a number of young European lawyers were given a placement with Advocates under the European Young Lawyers Scheme organized by the British Council. They are known as 'Eurodevils', in distinction to the Scottish 'devils'. This scheme was withdrawn by the British Council. In January 2009, a replacement scheme began.


title: Advocate

text: Lawyers qualified in other European Union states (but not in England and Wales) may have limited rights of audience in the Scottish supreme courts if they appear with an advocate, and a few solicitors known as 'solicitor-Advocates' have rights of audience, but for practical purposes, Advocates have almost exclusive rights of audience in the supreme courts – the High Court of Justiciary (criminal), and the Court of Session (civil). Advocates share the right of audience with solicitors in the sheriff courts and justice of the peace courts.


title: Advocate

text: It used to be the case that Advocates were completely immune from suit etc. while conducting court cases and pre-trial work, as they had to act 'fearlessly and independently'; the rehearing of actions was considered contrary to public interest; and Advocates are "required" to accept clients, they cannot pick and choose. However, the seven-judge English ruling of "Arthur J.S. Hall & Co. (a firm) v. Simons" 2000 (House of Lords) declared that none of these reasons justified the immunity strongly enough to sustain it. This has been followed in Scotland in "Wright v Paton Farrell" (2006) "obiter" insofar as civil cases are concerned.


title: Advocate

text: Advocates are the only lawyers with rights of audience in the courts of the Isle of Man. An advocate's role is to advise on all matters of law: it may involve representing a client in the civil and criminal courts or advising a client on matters such as matrimonial and family law, trusts and estates, regulatory matters, property transactions, and commercial and business law. In court, Advocates wear a horsehair wig, stiff collar, bands, and a gown in the same way as barristers do elsewhere.


title: Advocate

text: To become an advocate, it is normally necessary to hold either a qualifying law degree with no less than lower second class (2:2) honors, or else a degree in another subject with no less than lower second class (2:2) honors complemented by the Common Professional Examination. It is then necessary to obtain a legal professional qualification such as the Bar Professional Training Course or the Legal Practice Course. It is not, however, necessary actually to be admitted as an English barrister or solicitor to train as an advocate.


title: Advocate

text: Trainee Advocates (as articled clerks are now more usually known) normally undertake a period of two years’ training articled to a senior advocate; in the case of English barristers or solicitors who have been practicing or admitted for three years this training, the period is reduced to one year. Foreign lawyers who have been registered as legal practitioners in the Isle of Man for a certain time may also undertake a shorter period of training and supervision. During their training, all trainee Advocates are required to pass the Isle of Man bar examinations, which include papers on civil and criminal practice, constitutional and land law, and company law and taxation, as well as accounts. The examinations are rigorous and candidates are limited to three attempts to pass each paper.


title: Advocate

text: Senior English barristers are occasionally licensed to appear as Advocates in cases expected to be unusually long or complex, without having to pass the bar examination or undertake further training: they are permitted only to act in relation to the matter for which they have been licensed. Similarly, barristers and solicitors employed as public prosecutors may be licensed to appear as Advocates without having to pass the bar examination or undertake further training: they are permitted only to act as such only for the duration of that employment.


title: Advocate

text: The professional conduct of Advocates is regulated by the Isle of Man Law Society, which also maintains a library for its members in Douglas. While Advocates in the Isle of Man have not traditionally prefixed their names with 'Advocate' in the Channel Islands manner, some Advocates have now started to adopt this practice.


title: Advocate

text: The Bailiwick of Jersey and the Bailiwick of Guernsey (Guernsey, together with the two semi-autonomous islands of Alderney and Sark, and together with other islands) are two separate legal jurisdictions, have largely two different sets of laws and have two separate, but similar, legal professions. In both jurisdictions, Advocates—properly called Advocates of the Royal Court—are the only lawyers with general rights of audience in their courts.


title: Advocate

text: To be eligible to practice as an advocate in Jersey, it is necessary first to have a law degree from a British university or a Graduate Diploma in Law and to have qualified as a recognized legal professional in England and Wales, Scotland or Northern Ireland. Thereafter, a candidate must undertake two years of practical experience in a law office dealing with Jersey law, enrol on the Jersey Law Course provided by the Institute of Law, Jersey and pass examinations in six subjects. Alternatively, a person may apply to become a Jersey advocate two years after qualifying as a Jersey solicitor.


title: Advocate

text: To become an advocate in Guernsey, one has to possess a valid law degree or diploma, plus a qualification as an English barrister or solicitor, or a French avocat. They must then study for the Guernsey Bar. Three months of study of Norman law at the Université de Caen (University of Caen) is required; this is no longer required for entry into the legal profession in Jersey.


title: Advocate

text: Guernsey Advocates dress in the same way as barristers, but substitute a black biretta-like toque for a wig, while those in Jersey go bare-headed. Advocates are entitled to prefix their names with 'Advocate'; e.g. Mr. Tostevin is called to the Guernsey Bar and is henceforth known as Advocate Tostevin.


title: Advocate

text: In Dutch law, the law relating to the Advocates is the Advocates Act. Under the Act, the Dutch bar association (Orde van Advocaten) regulates the professional conduct and the professional education of the Advocates.


title: Advocate

text: A Dutch advocate has to complete Dutch bar education and fulfil certain requirements (which may vary among the various judicial regions within the Netherlands) under the supervision of a senior advocate for a period of at least three years, called the 'advocate-stage'. After completing the bar education exams, the junior advocate is admitted unconditionally to the Dutch bar.


title: Advocate

text: The Nordic countries have a united legal profession, which means that they do not draw a distinction between lawyers who plead in court and those who do not. To get an official recognition with an Advocates title, the candidate must have a legal degree, that is, completed ca. 5–6 years of legal studies from an accredited university in his or own country, and in addition have worked for some time (around 2 – 5 years) under the auspices of a qualified advocate and have some experience from court. When qualified, the candidate may obtain a license as an "advocate", the equivalent of being called to the bar. In all the Scandinavian languages the title is "advokat"; in Finland "advokat" is the Swedish title for such a qualified lawyer, with the equivalent title in Finnish being "asianajaja".


title: Advocate

text: However, one does not necessarily have to be an advocate to represent a party in the Nordic countries legally. In Norway, a person with an appropriate law degree, for example, can practice law as a registered legal advisor ("rettshjelper") instead, which gives many of the same rights as an advocate's title. Both in Sweden and Norway any adult, in theory, can represent a party in court without any prior approval, training, license or advocate title. In practice it's unusual, and in Norway, it's subject to the approval of the court, which is unlikely to give it except in very simple cases.


title: Advocate

text: In English, the Scandinavian title of "advokat" is interchangeably also translated as barrister, lawyer or attorney-at-law.


title: Advocate

text: In Russia, anyone with a legal education (lawyer) can practice law, but only a member of the "" () may practice before a criminal court (other person can be a defence counsel in criminal proceeding along with a member of "Advokatura" but not in lieu him) and Constitutional Court (leaving aside persons having academic degree of candidate or doctor in juridical sciences who also can represent parties in constitutional proceeding). Specialist degree in law is the most commonly awarded academic degree in Russian jurisprudence but after Russia's accession to the Bologna process only bachelor of laws and master of laws academic degrees are available in Russian institutions of higher education. An "advocate" is a lawyer who has demonstrated qualification and belongs to an organizational structure of Advocates specified by law, known as being "called to the bar" in Commonwealth countries.


title: Advocate

text: An examination is administered by the qualifications commission of regional advocate's chamber for admission to its "". To sit for the exam, one must have a higher legal education and also two years of experience in legal work after graduation or a training program in a law firm after graduation. The exam is both written and oral, but the main test is oral. The written exam takes place in the form of computer testing and includes issues of the professional conduct of advocate and advocate's professional responsibility. After successfully passing of the written exam the candidates are allowed to take the oral exam. As part of the oral exam, the candidate must demonstrate his knowledge in various bodies of law and solve some mimic a real-life legal tasks. The candidate who does not pass the qualification exam can try to pass it again after 1 year only. The qualifications commission is composed of seven Advocates, two judges, two representatives of the regional legislature, and two representatives of the Ministry of Justice.


title: Advocate

text: After successful passing the qualification exam a candidate should take the oath of advocate. From the moment of taking the oath, he becomes an advocate and a member of the advocate's chamber of the relevant federal subject of Russia. Advocate's chamber sends relevant information to the territorial subdivision of the Ministry of Justice of the Russian Federation, which includes the new advocate in the register of Advocates of the relevant federal subject of Russia and issues to him an advocate's certificate, which is the only official document confirming the status of an advocate, on the basis of this information. The status of an advocate is granted for an indefinite period and is not limited by any age. There is only 1 advocate's chamber in each federal subject of Russia. Each advocate can be the member of only 1 advocate's chamber and can be listed in the register of Advocates of the relevant federal subject of Russia only. In case of relocation to another region, the advocate ceases to be a member of the advocate's chamber and should be excluded from register of Advocates at the old place of residence (advocate's certificate should be returned to the subdivision of the Ministry of Justice of the Russian Federation, which issued it), and after that he becomes a member of the advocate's chamber and is included in the register of Advocates at the new place of residence (where he receive new advocate's certificate) without any exams. Each advocate can carry out his professional activity throughout Russia, regardless of membership in particular regional advocate's chamber and regardless of particular regional register where he is listed in. Advocates carry out their professional activity individually (advocate's cabinet) or as the member of advocate's juridical person (collegium of Advocates, advocate's bureau). Advocate can open own cabinet after at least 3 years legal practice in collegium or bureau. An advocate, who has opened own cabinet, can not be the member of any advocate's juridical person, and an advocate, who is the member of one advocate's juridical person, can not be the member of any other advocate's juridical person. Advocate is obliged to report to advocate's chamber any changes in his membership in a collegium or a bureau and, equally, opening and closing a cabinet.


title: Advocate

text: An advocate can not be an individual entrepreneur, government official, municipal official, notary, judge, elected official. An advocate can not work under an employment (labour) contract, with the exception of scientific and teaching activities. An advocate may combine his status with the status of a patent attorney, a trustee in bankruptcy. An advocate may be a shareholder/owner of business juridical persons and a member of voluntary associations and political parties. Russian advocate may have a status of advocate (attorney, barrister, solicitor) in foreign jurisdiction, subject to above conditions.


title: Advocate

text: Russian law provides for voluntary and involuntary suspension of advocate's status. Voluntary suspension for a term of 1 to 10 years occurs when an Advocate files relevant application to the advocate's chamber. Involuntary suspension is applicable in cases of serious illness, election to an elected position in federal, regional or local authorities, military conscription, declaration of absence made by the court decision. An Advocate can not carry out advocate's activity during suspension, otherwise he may be deprived of the right to be an Advocate. After the end of the suspension, advocate's status should be resumed without any additional conditions. Also Russian law provides for voluntary and involuntary termination of advocate's status. Voluntary termination of the status occurs when an Advocate files relevant application to the advocate's chamber. Involuntary termination of the status is applicable in cases of death, declaration of no having legal capacity or having limited legal capacity made by the court decision, conviction for intentional crime made by the court decision, violations of the federal law regulating advocate's activity or advocate's code of conduct found by advocate's chamber. The latter two cases incur lifetime prohibition on being an Advocate. In other cases, ex-Advocate can go back to being an Advocate on general grounds through a passing the qualification exam, on condition that the reasons for termination of advocate's status have ceased to exist.


title: Advocate

text: Advocate's chambers are professional associations of Advocates, which are based on mandatory membership of Advocates. All regional advocate's chambers are mandatory members of Federal Chamber of Advocates of Russian Federation (), which is professional association at the federal level.


title: Advocate

text: In Russia, foreign Advocates can advise on the legislation of their countries; they should register in the special register maintained by the Ministry of Justice of the Russian Federation to obtain the right to carry out this activity. Foreign advocate can in addition become Russian advocate. There are two possible paths for that. The first possibility is to become Russian advocate on the same basis as Russian citizens (i.e. through higher legal education in one of Russian universities, two years of experience in legal work in Russia after graduation or a training program in Russian law firm after graduation, successful passing the qualification exam). Since Russia's WTO Accession the second possibility is available: foreign advocate can just pass special qualification exam to become Russian advocate.


title: Advocate

text: In Bangladesh, after passing the Higher Secondary School Certificate, one can apply for admission for studying law in Universities. There are several public and private universities which provide Bachelor of Laws and Master of Laws degree in Bangladesh. Generally, the LL.B. course is equivalent to a four-year bachelor's degree. Graduate lawyers have to seat for and pass the Bar Council Exam to become Advocates.


title: Advocate

text: By passing the Bangladesh Bar Council Exam, Advocates are eligible to practice in the Supreme Court of Bangladesh and other courts. A license is obtained after successful completion of two year's practice in the lower courts by applicant, which is reviewed by a body of the relevant provincial Bar Council. Most applications after successful completion of the requirement, are accepted.


title: Advocate

text: In India, the law relating to the Advocates is the Advocates Act, 1961 introduced and thought up by Ashoke Kumar Sen, the then law minister of India, which is a law passed by the Parliament and is administered and enforced by the Bar Council of India. Under the Act, the Bar Council of India is the supreme regulatory body to regulate the legal profession in India and also to ensure the compliance of the laws and maintenance of professional standards by the legal profession in the country.


title: Advocate

text: Each State has a Bar Council of its own whose function is to enroll the Advocates willing to practice predominantly within the territorial confines of that State and to perform the functions of the Bar Council of India within the territory assigned to them. Therefore, each law degree holder must be enrolled with a (single) State Bar Council to practice in India. However, enrollment with any State Bar Council does not restrict the Advocate from appearing before any court in India, even though it is beyond the territorial jurisdiction of the State Bar Council which he is enrolled in.


title: Advocate

text: The advantage of having the State Bar Councils is that the workload of the Bar Council of India can be divided into these various State Bar Councils and also that matters can be dealt with locally and in an expedited manner. However, for all practical and legal purposes, the Bar Council of India retains with it, the final power to take decisions in any and all matters related to the legal profession on the whole or with respect to any Advocate individually, as so provided under the Advocates Act, 1961.


title: Advocate

text: The process of being entitled to practice in India is twofold. First, the applicant must be a holder of a law degree from a recognised institution in India (or from one of the four recognised Universities in the United Kingdom) and second, must pass the enrollment qualifications of the Bar Council of the state where he/she seeks to be enrolled. For this purpose, the Bar Council of India has an internal Committee whose function is to supervise and examine the various institutions conferring law degrees and to grant recognition to these institutions once they meet the required standards. In this manner, the Bar Council of India also ensures the standard of education required for practicing in India is met with. As regards the qualification for enrollment with the State Bar Council, while the actual formalities may vary from one State to another, yet predominately they ensure that the application has not been a bankrupt /criminal and is generally fit to practice before courts of India.


title: Advocate

text: Enrollment with a Bar Council also means that the law degree holder is recognised as an Advocate and is required to maintain a standard of conduct and professional demeanor at all times, both on and off the profession. The Bar Council of India also prescribes "Rules of Conduct" to be observed by the Advocates in the courts, while interacting with clients and even otherwise.


title: Advocate

text: All Advocates in India are at the same level and are recognised as such. Any distinction, if any, is made only on the basis of seniority, which implies the length of practice at the Bar. As a recognition of law practice and specialisation in an area of law, there is a concept of conferral of Senior Advocate status. An Advocate may be recognised by the Judges of the High Court (in case of an Advocate practicing before that High Court) or by the Supreme Court (in case of the Advocate practicing before the Supreme Court). While the conferral of Senior Advocate status not only implies distinction and fame of the Advocate, it also requires the Senior Advocate to follow higher standards of conduct and some distinct rules. Also, a Senior Advocate is not allowed to interact directly with the clients. He can only take briefs from other Advocates and argue on the basis of the details given by them. From the year 2010 onward a mandatory rule is made for lawyers passing out from the year 2009–10 to sit for an evaluation test named AIBE (All India Bar Exam) for one to qualify as an advocate and practice in the courts. However, to practice law before the Supreme Court of India, Advocates must first appear for and qualify in the Supreme Court Advocate on Record Examination conducted by the Supreme Court.


title: Advocate

text: Further, under the Constitutional structure, there is a provision for the elevation of Advocates as judges of High Courts and Supreme Court. The only requirement is the Advocate must have ten years standing before the High Court(/s) or before the Supreme Court to be eligible for such. (Article 217 and 124 of the Constitution of India for High Courts and Supreme Court respectively)


title: Advocate

text: The first level is the Advocate, who is eligible to practice in the district courts or lower courts in the respective province. An advocate is an officer of the court. One can qualify as an Advocate after completion of a law degree (LL.B(Hons) of five years), six months pupillage under a senior Advocate in his/her chambers, and thereafter to go for a GAT test recognized by HEC Pakistan and Pakistan bar council and have to obtain 50% marks for passing the test. Then he has to pass the Bar admission test, and the Bar Council of the relevant province examines him/her whether he is fit or not to become an Advocate and is not convicted. After passing the multiple-choice question examination and interview conducted by the provincial Bar Council members and justice of the high court, the Bar Council will issue him/her the license for appearing before the Courts.


title: Advocate

text: After completion of two years, practice Advocates then can apply for an Advocate High court practicing certificate/ license and after an interview, they can apply for an Advocate High Court license.


title: Advocate

text: Advocate Supreme Court is the third level. After successful completion of ten years of practice in the High Courts by the applicant, the panel of members of Pakistan Bar Council and one judge of the Supreme Court of Pakistan, review the application. (Before 1985 the requirement was successful completion of five years practice in the High Courts of Pakistan.) Over fifty percent of applications are accepted, after successful completion of the requirement. An unsuccessful application in one year does not bar the candidate from re-applying in the next judicial year.


title: Advocate

text: The highest level is the Senior Advocate Supreme Court. It is Pakistan's title equivalent to Queen's Counsel in the United Kingdom.


title: Advocate

text: After at least fifteen years of practice, by invitation or by an application to a panel of Supreme Court Judges headed by the Chief Justice of Pakistan, one can become Senior Advocate of Supreme Court of Pakistan. Very few applications are accepted and even fewer invitations are made. Attorneys General are usually invited by the Supreme Court on the appointment, to the office. So are some notable High Court judges who upon retirement choose to practice before the Supreme Court, where they are still eligible to do so.


title: Advocate

text: In Sri Lanka (formally Ceylon) till 1973 Advocate was a practitioner in a court of law who is legally qualified to prosecute and defend actions in such court on the retainer of clients. Advocates had to pass the HSC exam and enter the Ceylon Law College and follow the Advocates course and sit for the relevant exams. Thereafter, they would have to practice under a senior advocate before being called to the bar for admission as an Advocate of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Members of the English, Scottish and Irish Bars are permitted to be admitted to an Barrister without examination on payment of a fee. Ceylonese Advocates with three years standing were allowed to be called to the English Bar without examination on completing three terms. The "Justice Law No. 44 of 1973" of the National State Assembly created a single group of practitioners known as Attorneys-at-law. The current equivalent to an advocate is a counsel who is a trial lawyer distinguished from an instructing attorney.


title: Advocate

text: In South Africa, there are two main branches of legal practitioner: attorneys, who do legal work of all kinds, and Advocates, who are specialist litigators; see Attorneys in South Africa. In general, Advocates (also called 'counsel') are 'briefed' by attorneys when a specialist skill in court-based litigation, or in research into the law is required; Referral Advocates have no direct contact with clients and are said to be in a 'referral' profession. However, Advocates who have a Trust Account and hold a valid Fidelity Fund Certificate are authorized to take briefs directly from the public and attorneys respectively.


title: Advocate

text: The key formal distinction, however, is the different rights with regard to the courts in which they may appear. Advocates have the right to appear in any court, while attorneys have the right to appear only in the lower courts. (And, under certain conditions, can acquire the right of appearance in the superior courts, by applying to the registrar of the provincial division of the relevant High Court.) A further distinction is that while attorneys practice in partnership, Advocates are individual practitioners and never form partnerships; practice in "Chambers" and / or "Groups" is standard.


title: Advocate

text: The requirements to enter private practice as Advocates (Junior Counsel) are to hold the LL.B. degree, and to become a member of a Bar Association by undergoing a period of training (pupilage) for one year with a practicing Advocate, and to sit an admission examination. See Legal education in South Africa.


title: Advocate

text: On the recommendation of the Bar Councils, an advocate "of proven experience and skill" with at least ten years experience, may be appointed by the President of South Africa as a Senior Counsel (SC; also referred to as a "silk"). When a junior advocate is viewed in the eyes of any particular Senior Counsel (Silk) as having commended him or herself in the profession so as to warrant recognition for excellence, he or she is commonly rewarded with a traditional gift of a red brief bag.


title: Advocate

text: "State Advocates" act as a public prosecutor in High Court matters, typically in cases requiring preparation and research. They are appointed by the National Prosecuting Authority and are attached to the Office of the National Director of Public Prosecutions.


title: Advocate

text: In Brazil, the bar examination occurs nationally in March, August, and December. These examinations are unified and organized by the Order of Attorneys of Brazil. After 5 years in law school, Brazilian law students are required to take the bar exam, which consists of 2 phases: the multiple choice test and written test, without any further requirements.


title: Advocate

text: The Constitution of Brazil applies restrictions on professional practice of law in the fulfillment of the requirements, which may include in addition to graduation, formal submission of the applicant in the proficiency tests. The Order exam is tied to Law No. 8609 of 4/7/1994:


title: Advocate

text: Within its powers expressly granted by the Constitution, the ordinary legislative demands that whoever wishes to pursue the legal profession possess the degree of Bachelor of Law and approval of Examination of Order, whose preparation and implementation is done by their own class. The Constitution itself provides for the restriction, and the Statute of Law requires the examination.


title: Advocate

text: The bar exam in Brazil approves very few students and is considered a hard one. For instance, in February 2014, the Bar association made a release stating that only 19.64% of students had been approved in the last exam and were able to register as a lawyer.


title: Galah

text: The galah (; Eolophus roseicapilla), also known as the pink and grey cockatoo or rose-breasted cockatoo, is the only species within genus "Eolophus" of the cockatoo family. Found throughout Australia, it is among the most common of the cockatoos. With its distinctive pink and grey plumage and its bold and loud behaviour, it is a familiar sight in the wild and increasingly in urban areas. It has benefited from the change in the landscape since European colonisation, and appears to be replacing the Major Mitchell's cockatoo in parts of its range.


title: Galah

text: The term galah is derived from "gilaa", a word from the Yuwaalaraay and neighbouring Aboriginal languages spoken in north-western New South Wales.


title: Galah

text: The galah is about in length, and weighs . It has a pale silver to grey back, a pale grey rump, a pink face and breast, and a light pink mobile crest. It has a bone-coloured beak, and the bare skin of the eye ring is carunculated. It has grey legs. The sexes appear similar; however, adult birds differ in the colour of the irises; the male has very dark brown (almost black) irises and the female has mid-brown or red irises. Adults are more brightly coloured than juveniles. Juveniles have a greyish breast, crown, and crest, and brown irises with whitish non-carunculated eye rings.


title: Galah

text: The galah can be found throughout Australia, and is absent only from the driest areas and the far north of Cape York Peninsula. The galah has been introduced to Tasmania through anthropogenic means and there were no sightings prior to 1848. A large population expansion occurred in the 1960s following many escapees from captivity. It is common in metropolitan areas such as Adelaide, Perth, and Melbourne, and abundant in open habitats that offer at least some scattered trees for shelter. It is common in all habitats in its range except for dense forests, especially those with high rainfall.


title: Galah

text: While it is mostly found in inland areas, the galah is rapidly colonising coastal regions. The changes brought by European settlement, which have been disastrous for many species, have been highly beneficial for the galah, because of the clearing of forests in fertile areas and the provision of stock-watering points in arid zones.


title: Galah

text: The classification of the galah was difficult. It was separated in the monotypic genus "Eolophus", but the further relationships were not clear. Obvious morphological similarities are shared between the galah and the white cockatoos that make up the genus "Cacatua" and indeed the galah was initially described as "Cacatua roseicapilla". Early DNA studies allied the galah with the cockatiel or placed it close to some "Cacatua" species of completely different appearance. In consequence, the ancestors of the galah, the cockatiel and Major Mitchell's cockatoo were thought to have diverged from the main white cockatoo line at some stage prior to that group's main radiation; this was indeed correct except for the placement of the cockatiel. Ignorance of this fact, however, led to attempts to resolve the evolutionary history and prehistoric biogeography of the cockatoos, which ultimately proved fruitless because they were based on invalid assumptions to start with.


title: Galah

text: It fell to the study of Brown & Toft (1999) to compare research and resolve the issue. Today, the galah is seen, along with Major Mitchell's cockatoo, as an early divergence from the white cockatoo lineage, which has not completely lost its ability to produce an overall pink (Major Mitchell's) or pink and grey (galah) body plumage, while already being light in colour and non-sexually dimorphic. The significance of these two (and other) characteristics shared by the Cacatuinae


title: Galah

text: Three subspecies are usually recognised. Slight variation exists in the colours of the plumage and in the extent of the carunculation of the eye rings among the three subspecies. The south-eastern form, "E. r. albiceps", is clearly distinct from the paler-bodied Western Australian nominate subspecies, "E. r. roseicapilla", although the extent and nature of the central hybrid zone remains undefined. Most pet birds outside Australia are the south-eastern form. The third form, "E. r. kuhli", found right across the northern part of the continent, tends to be a little smaller and is distinguished by differences in the shape and colour of the crest, although its status as a valid subspecies is uncertain.


title: Galah

text: The galah is often found in flocks of 10 to 1,000 individuals. These can be mixed flocks, the members of which may include Major Mitchell's cockatoo, the little corella, and the sulphur-crested cockatoo. The galah readily hybridizes with all of these species (see below). Flocks of galahs often congregate and forage on the ground for food in open, grassy areas. Flocks of independent juvenile galahs will often disperse from their birth flock haphazardly. The galah feeds on seeds gathered on the ground, mainly feeding in the morning and late afternoon. Idly, it will strip leaves and barks from trees, and large flocks have been observed to kill trees through defoliation.


title: Galah

text: The galah nests in tree cavities. The eggs are white, usually two to five in a clutch. The eggs are incubated for about 25 days, and the male and female share the incubation. The chicks leave the nest about 49 days after hatching.


title: Galah

text: Living in captivity, galahs have been recorded reaching up to 72 years of age when a good-quality diet is strictly followed. They socialise adequately and can engage playfully in entertainment activities to support the overall very intelligent nature of the bird. In their natural habitat, galahs are unlikely to reach the age of 20 years, falling victim to traffic, predators such as the little eagle and black and peregrine falcons, and human activities in some agricultural areas. Like most other cockatoos, galahs create strong, lifelong bonds with their partners.


title: Galah

text: The galah readily hybridizes with several species, including the sulphur-crested cockatoo, little corella, Major Mitchell's cockatoo, and the cockatiel. Galah x cockatiel hybrids are often referred to as "galatiels". Aviary-bred hybrids of galah x Major Mitchell's cockatoo have been bred in Sydney, with the tapered wings of the galah and the crest and colours of the Major Mitchell's, as well as the plaintive cry of the latter.


title: Galah

text: In Australia, galahs are considered "unprotected native fauna" and may be shot (without a permit), trapped or gassed (with a permit) by landowners.


title: Galah

text: The galah is very common as a companion parrot or avicultural specimen around the world, although generally absent from Australian aviaries, although permits are available to take a limited number of galahs from the wild per year for avicultural purposes. When tame, it can be an affectionate and friendly bird that can learn to talk, as well as mimic other sounds heard in its environment. While it is a noisy bird that may be unsuitable for apartment living, it is comparatively quieter than other cockatoo species. Like most parrots, the galah requires plenty of exercise and play time out of its cage as well as several hours of daily social interaction with humans or other birds in order to thrive in captivity. It may also be prone to obesity if not provided with a suitable, nutritionally-balanced diet. The World Parrot Trust recommends that captive galahs should be kept in an aviary with a minimum length of 7 metres.


title: Galah

text: The breeding requirements include the use upright or tilted logs with a hollow some twenty to thirty centimetres in diameter. Sand and finer grades of wood material are used to construct their nest, the availability of eucalypt leaves for the nest lining is also suggested for captive breeding.


title: Galah

text: The galah has historically been eaten by humans. Galah meat recipes were published in Australian newspapers in the 1930s, alongside jokes about the alleged toughness and unpalatable nature of the bird's flesh.


title: Galah

text: "Galah" is also derogatory Australian slang, synonymous with 'fool', 'clown' or 'idiot'. Because of the bird's distinctive bright pink colour, it is also used for gaudy dress. A detailed description of the Australian slang term can be found in the standup comedy performance of Paul Hogan, titled "Stand Up Hoges". Another famous user of the slang "galah" is Alf Stewart from "Home and Away", who is often heard saying "Flaming galah!" when he is riled by somebody.


title: Galah

text: The Australian representative team of footballers that played a series of test matches of international rules football against Irish sides in the late 1960s adopted the nickname "The Galahs" after a disparaging reference to their uniform.


title: Dumbo, Brooklyn

text: Dumbo (or DUMBO, short for Down Under the Manhattan Bridge Overpass) is a neighborhood in the New York City borough of Brooklyn. The area known as Dumbo used to be known as Gairville. It encompasses two sections: one located between the Manhattan and Brooklyn Bridges, which connect Brooklyn to Manhattan across the East River, and another that continues east from the Manhattan Bridge to the Vinegar Hill area. The neighborhood is bounded by Brooklyn Bridge Park to the north, the Brooklyn Bridge to the west, Brooklyn Heights to the south and Vinegar Hill to the east. Dumbo is part of Brooklyn Community Board 2.


title: Dumbo, Brooklyn

text: The area was originally a ferry landing, characterized by 19th- and early 20th-century industrial and warehouse buildings, Belgian block streets, and its location on the East River by the imposing anchorage of the Manhattan Bridge. The entirety of Dumbo was bought by developer David Walentas and his company Two Trees Management in the late 20th century, and remade into an upscale residential and commercial community—first becoming a haven for art galleries, and currently a center for technology startups.


title: Dumbo, Brooklyn

text: The large community of tech startups earned Dumbo the nickname of "the center of the Brooklyn Tech Triangle". In that time, Dumbo had become Brooklyn's most expensive neighborhood, as well as New York City's fourth-richest community overall; this is owing in part to its large concentration of technology startups, its close proximity to Manhattan, and its large number of former industrial buildings that have been converted into spacious luxury residential lofts. The neighborhood is the corporate headquarters for e-commerce retailer Etsy and home furnishing stores company West Elm.


title: Dumbo, Brooklyn

text: The name is an acronym of "Down Under the Manhattan Bridge Overpass". The area has been known variously as Rapailie, Olympia, and Walentasville; the developer who began its current gentrification is Two Trees Management, led at the time by David Walentas. The "Olympia" name came from Comfort and Joshua Sands, who bought the land in 1787 and were planning to develop the land as a summer place for New Yorkers. Through the 18th and 19th centuries, the area now known as Dumbo was considered part of Vinegar Hill.


title: Dumbo, Brooklyn

text: In the 1890s, the western portion of the neighborhood was known as Fulton Landing, after the ferry stop that connected it to Manhattan before the Brooklyn Bridge opened. At that time, it was primarily a manufacturing district, with warehouses and factories that made machinery, paper boxes, spices and Brillo soap pads. The cardboard box was invented in the Robert Gair building on Washington Street by Robert Gair, a Scottish emigrant; because of Gair's fame, the area was known as Gairsville for a long time. The Gair building is now home to Etsy.


title: Dumbo, Brooklyn

text: The Jay Street Connecting Railroad ran through Dumbo's waterfront from circa 1904–1906 through 1957. It ran from rail yards beneath the Manhattan and Brooklyn Bridges to buildings near the waterfront in Dumbo and Vinegar Hill. At the height of operations, it had spurs into several buildings, a car float bridge on Bridge Street, and a yard with capacity of 120 cars. The tracks were abandoned in 1959, though the railroad's tracks are still visible on streets in Dumbo.


title: Dumbo, Brooklyn

text: With the deindustrialization of New York City, Dumbo began to become primarily residential; artists and other young homesteaders seeking relatively large and inexpensive loft apartment spaces for studios and homes began moving there in the late 1970s. The acronym "Dumbo" arose in 1978, when new residents coined it in the belief such an unattractive name would help deter developers.


title: Dumbo, Brooklyn

text: Near the end of the 20th century, as property became more and more expensive in Manhattan, Dumbo became increasingly gentrified. Even so, the acronym 'Dumbo' was largely unknown as late as 1997, and the area itself was very inclusive, serving mainly as an enclave for artists located along the East River and under the Manhattan Bridge. At this stage there were still many air conditioner repair shops, auto shops, and "seedy back alleys and wharves"; and, because the neighborhood was still gentrifying from its industrial past, it lacked even a bookstore, coffee shop, or laundromat. The efforts of Joy Glidden, the Founding Director of the Dumbo Arts Center (DAC) and co-founder of the Dumbo Art Under the Bridge Festival, achieved successful development in Dumbo, which is now a model for similar waterfront developments around the world. Glidden stated of Dumbo's gentrification, "It may be one of the last of what could be considered a true arts community in New York."


title: Dumbo, Brooklyn

text: The DUMBO Historic District, a historic industrial complex and national historic district in Dumbo, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2000. It consists of 95 contributing buildings; the manufacturing concerns located in this district included Benjamin Moore & Co. (paint), Arbuckle Brothers (coffee and sugar), J.W. Masury & Son (paint), Robert Gair (paper boxes), E.W. Bliss (machinery), and Brillo (soap pads). The district includes the earliest large-scale reinforced concrete factory buildings in America. On December 18, 2007, the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission voted unanimously to designate Dumbo as the city's 90th historic district. The Dumbo historic district consists of properties bound by John Street to the north, York Street to the south, Main Street to the west, and Bridge Street to the east.


title: Dumbo, Brooklyn

text: The area has emerged as one of New York City's premier arts districts, with a cluster of for-profit art galleries such as the Klompching Gallery, and such not-for-profit institutions as the St. Ann's Warehouse and the A.I.R. Gallery.


title: Dumbo, Brooklyn

text: Chef Jacques Torres opened a chocolate factory in Dumbo in December 2000. Other culinary businesses in the area include Grimaldi's, Ample Hills Creamery, Almondine Bakery, and the River Café, all clustered in Fulton Landing, also home to Bargemusic, a floating venue for classical music. John Fluevog, a Canadian shoe designer, opened a store on Main Street in November 2017. Celebrity fans of his art-deco inspired shoes include Kit Harington, Woody Harrelson, and Beyoncé.


title: Dumbo, Brooklyn

text: The first public space in the neighborhood was Fulton Ferry, followed by Empire-Fulton Ferry State Park. The first six acres of Brooklyn Bridge Park, a joint state/city venture under development, were opened in March 2010. The Cliffs at DUMBO is a 7,800 square foot outdoor climbing gym located in the Main Street section of Brooklyn Bridge Park, and is the largest outdoor bouldering gym in North America.


title: Dumbo, Brooklyn

text: The building at 200 Water Street, which the Brillo Manufacturing Co. once occupied, is being renovated as a high-end condo building.


title: Dumbo, Brooklyn

text: The DUMBO Archway is a popular location for film shoots, art exhibitions, live music, large-scale events, and watch parties for events like the World Cup. The trailer for "Joker", the 2019 film by Todd Phillips, features actor Joaquin Phoenix as the Joker running through the archway. The Archway also hosts the Brooklyn Flea every Sunday from April to October. The outdoor market features 80 vendors, and the products range from secondhand goods to custom-made jewelry.


title: Dumbo, Brooklyn

text: Gleason's Gym, located on Water Street, is the oldest boxing gym in New York. Many champions have trained there, including Muhammad Ali and Mike Tyson. The gym has been located in DUMBO since the 1980s. It moved from 77 Front Street to its current location at 130 Water Street in 2016. The legendary boxing coach Hector Roca still teaches at the Water Street location. In addition to boxing champions, Roca has trained many actors, including Wesley Snipes, Hilary Swank, Jennifer Lopez, and John Leguizamo.


title: Dumbo, Brooklyn

text: The renovation of Empire Stores on Water Street was completed in 2017. Previously, it had been a Civil War era coffee warehouse. It was converted to mixed-use retail and office space, and it includes West Elm's global flagship store. Other retailers in Empire Stores include Detroit-based watchmaker Shinola and the café and accessories store, FEED Projects. In May 2017, the Brooklyn Historical Society (BHS) opened a new branch in Empire Stores (its main location is in Brooklyn Heights). BHS features exhibits and artifacts relating to DUMBO's industrial past. In May 2019, Time Out Market opened in Empire Stores. The food hall features 21 local vendors, including the Breads Bakery and DUMBO's renowned pizzeria, Juliana's.


title: Dumbo, Brooklyn

text: Dumbo has New York City's highest concentration of technology firms by neighborhood. Dumbo is home to 25 percent of New York City-based tech firms. Within a 10-block radius are 500 tech and creative firms that employ over 10,000 people. It also contains the corporate headquarters for e-commerce retailer Etsy and home furnishing stores company West Elm.


title: Dumbo, Brooklyn

text: The City of New York, in conjunction with New York University, installed an incubator in Dumbo to support development of tech start-ups. Dumbo's average office rent of $25 per square foot made it (as of 2013) more attractive to start-ups than Manhattan, where rents averaged $40 per square foot in 2013. The area has been compared to the Silicon Roundabout area in Shoreditch, East London, as well as to Manhattan's Silicon Alley.


title: Dumbo, Brooklyn

text: New York City Subway stations are located at York Street () on the IND Sixth Avenue Line, and High Street () on the IND Eighth Avenue Line. New York City Bus service is provided by the .


title: Dumbo, Brooklyn

text: In June 2011, NY Waterway started service to points along the East River. On May 1, 2017, that route became part of the NYC Ferry's East River route, which runs between Pier 11/Wall Street in Manhattan's Financial District and the East 34th Street Ferry Landing in Murray Hill, Manhattan, with five intermediate stops in Brooklyn and Queens. One of the East River Ferry's stops is at Fulton Ferry in Dumbo.


title: Dumbo, Brooklyn

text: The neighborhood contains the Farragut Houses, a group of ten towers managed by the New York City Housing Authority.


title: Jan Kubiš

text: Jan Kubiš (24 June 1913 – 18 June 1942) was a Czech soldier, one of a team of Czechoslovak British-trained paratroopers sent to eliminate acting Reichsprotektor (Realm-Protector) of Bohemia and Moravia, SS-Obergruppenführer Reinhard Heydrich, in 1942 as part of Operation Anthropoid. During the attack, Kubiš threw the bomb that mortally wounded Heydrich.


title: Jan Kubiš

text: Jan Kubiš was born in 1913 in Dolní Vilémovice, Moravia in the Austro-Hungarian Empire (present-day Czech Republic). Jan was a Boy Scout.


title: Jan Kubiš

text: Jan Kubiš, having previously been an active member of Orel, started his military career as a Czechoslovak army conscript on 1 November 1935 by 31st Infantry Regiment ""Arco"" in Jihlava. After passing petty officer course and promotion to corporal, Kubiš served some time in Znojmo before being transferred to 34th infantry regiment ""Marksman Jan Čapek"" in Opava, where he served at guard battalion stationed in Jakartovice. Here, Kubiš reached promotion to platoon sergeant.


title: Jan Kubiš

text: During the Czechoslovak mobilisation of 1938, Kubiš served as deputy commander of a platoon in Czechoslovak border fortifications in the Opava area. Following the Munich Agreement and demobilisation, Kubiš was discharged from army on 19 October 1938 and returned to his civilian life, working at a brick factory.


title: Jan Kubiš

text: At the eve of World War II, on 16 June 1939, Kubiš fled Czechoslovakia and joined a forming Czechoslovak unit in Kraków, Poland. Soon he was transferred to Algiers, where he entered the French Foreign Legion. He fought in France during the early stage of World War II and received his Croix de Guerre there.


title: Jan Kubiš

text: A month after the German victory in the Battle of France, Kubiš fled to Great Britain, where he received training as a paratrooper. The Free Czechoslovaks, as he and other self-exiled Czechoslovaks were called, were stationed at Cholmondeley Castle near Malpas in Cheshire. He and his best friend, Jozef Gabčík, both befriended the Ellison family, from Ightfield, Shropshire, whom they met while in Whitchurch, Shropshire.


title: Jan Kubiš

text: In 1941, Kubiš was dropped into Czechoslovakia as part of Operation Anthropoid, where he died following the successful assassination of Reinhard Heydrich. His remains were buried secretly in a mass grave at the Ďáblice cemetery in Prague. Since this was unknown after World War II, Karel Čurda, the member of their squad who betrayed them to the Nazis, was coincidentally also buried at the cemetery. However, in 1990 mass graves were excavated and a memorial site with symbolic gravestones was established instead. In 2009, a memorial was built at the place of the attack on Heydrich.


title: Jan Kubiš

text: Jozef Gabčík and Jan Kubiš were airlifted along with seven soldiers from Czechoslovakia's army-in-exile in the United Kingdom and two other groups named "Silver A" and "Silver B" (who had different missions) by a Royal Air Force Halifax of No. 138 Squadron into Czechoslovakia at 10 pm on 28 December 1941. In Prague, they contacted several families and anti-Nazi organisations who helped them during the preparations for the assassination.


title: Jan Kubiš

text: On 27 May 1942, Heydrich had planned to meet Hitler in Berlin. German documents suggest that Hitler intended to transfer Heydrich to German occupied France, where the French resistance was gaining ground. Heydrich would have to pass a section where the Dresden-Prague road merged with a road to the Troja Bridge. The junction, in the Prague suburb of Libeň, was well-suited for the attack because motorists have to slow for a hairpin bend. At 10:30 am, Heydrich proceeded on his daily commute from his home in Panenské Břežany to Prague Castle. Gabčík and Kubiš waited at the tram stop on the curve near Bulovka Hospital in Prague 8-Libeň. As Heydrich's open-topped Mercedes-Benz neared the pair, Gabčík tried to open fire, but his Sten gun jammed. Heydrich ordered his driver, SS-Oberscharführer Klein, to stop the car. As the car braked in front of him, Kubiš threw a modified anti-tank grenade (concealed in a briefcase) at the vehicle; he misjudged his throw. Instead of landing inside the Mercedes, it landed against the rear wheel. Nonetheless, the bomb severely wounded Heydrich when it detonated, its fragments ripping through the right rear fender and embedding shrapnel from the upholstery of the car into Heydrich, causing serious injuries to his left side, with major damage to his diaphragm, spleen and lung, as well as a fractured rib. Kubiš received a minor wound to his face from the shrapnel. As Kubiš staggered against the railings, Klein leapt out of the shattered limousine with a drawn pistol; Kubiš recovered and jumped on his bicycle and pedaled away, scattering passengers spilling from the tram, by firing in the air with his Colt M1903 pistol. Klein tried to fire at him but dazed by the explosion, pressed the magazine release catch and the gun jammed.


title: Jan Kubiš

text: A Czech woman went to Heydrich's aid and flagged down a delivery van. Heydrich was first placed in the driver's cab, but complained that the van's movement was causing him pain. He was placed in the back of the van, on his stomach, and taken to the emergency room at Bulovka Hospital. Heydrich had suffered severe injuries to his left side, with major damage to his diaphragm, spleen and lung. He had also fractured a rib. Slanina packed the chest wound, while Walter Diek tried unsuccessfully to remove the splinters. He immediately decided to operate. This was carried out by Diek, Slanina and Hohlbaum. Heydrich was given several blood transfusions. A splenectomy was performed. The chest wound, left lung, and diaphragm were all debrided and the wounds closed. Himmler ordered Dr Karl Gebhardt to fly to Prague to assume care. Despite a fever, Heydrich's recovery appeared to progress well. Theodor Morell, Hitler's personal physician, suggested the use of sulfonamide (an antibacterial drug), but Gebhardt, thinking Heydrich would recover, refused. On 2 June, during a visit by Himmler, Heydrich reconciled himself to his fate by reciting a part of one of his father's operas.


title: Jan Kubiš

text: Heydrich slipped into a coma after Himmler's visit and never regained consciousness. He died on 4 June, probably around 04:30. He was 38. The autopsy concluded that he died of sepsis. Heydrich's facial expression as he died betrayed an "uncanny spirituality and entirely perverted beauty, like a renaissance Cardinal," according to Bernhard Wehner, a Kripo police official who investigated the assassination.


title: Jan Kubiš

text: Kubiš and his group were found on 18 June in the Church of St Cyril and St Methodius in Resslova Street in Prague. In a bloody battle that lasted for six hours, Kubiš was seriously wounded by a grenade and was found unconscious. Heinz Pannwitz, the German detective charged with capturing at least one of the perpetrators alive, later recalled his death:


title: Jan Kubiš

text: He had tried to use poison on himself but apparently lost consciousness before he could do so. Although he was immediately transferred to the hospital none of the doctors’ attempts to keep him alive succeeded. He died within twenty minutes.


title: Jan Kubiš

text: The other parachutists committed suicide to avoid capture after an additional four-hour battle with the SS.


title: Jan Kubiš

text: In revenge, the Nazis murdered 24 family members and close relatives of Jan Kubiš in the concentration camp, Mauthausen: his father, both full and half-siblings, including their wives and husbands, cousins, aunts and uncles.


title: Jan Kubiš

text: Shortly after his successful mission, Kubiš (as well as Gabčík) was promoted to the rank of second lieutenant "in memoriam". After the liberation of Czechoslovakia he was further promoted to the rank of staff captain "in memoriam". During the celebration of the 60th anniversary of the assassination of Heydrich in 2002, Kubiš was again promoted "in memoriam", to the rank of colonel.


title: Jan Kubiš

text: Apart from the Czechoslovak Military Cross 1939 and Croix de Guerre (both he received in 1940), Kubiš was posthumously decorated with the Commemorative Medal of the Czechoslovak Army, F, GB (1944), another two Czechoslovak Military Crosses (1942, 1945), King's Commendation for Brave Conduct (1947), Czechoslovak Military Order for Liberty (1949), Military Order of the White Lion "For Victory" 1st Class (1968), Order of Milan Rastislav Štefánik (1992) and Cross of Defence of the Minister of Defence of the Czech Republic (2008).


title: Jan Kubiš

text: There are streets named after Jan Kubiš in the cities of Prague (close to the Operation Anthropoid Memorial), Pardubice, Tábor, Třebíč and other places. In 2013 (100th anniversary of Kubiš's birth) a small memorial and museum was open in the house where Jan Kubiš was born. Since 2010 a National memorial and museum dedicated to all heroes related to the assassination of Heydrich is open in the crypt of Ss. Cyril and Methodius Cathedral in Prague.


title: Jan Kubiš

text: Coinciding with the release of the 2016 film "Anthropoid", campaigners called for Kubiš's and Gabčík's bodies to be identified and exhumed from the mass-grave at the Ďáblice Cemetery, Prague, and to be given a dignified burial fitting "the heroes of anti-Nazi resistance".


title: Jan Kubiš

text: Jan Kubiš has been portrayed by Rudolf Jelínek in the 1964 film "Atentát", Timothy Bottoms in the film "Operation Daybreak" and Miroslav Rataj in the film "Sokolovo" (both released in 1975), Patrik Staněk in the 2011 film "Lidice", by Jamie Dornan in the 2016 film "Anthropoid" and by Jack O'Connell in the 2017 film "The Man with the Iron Heart".


title: Canon EOS 5D Mark II

text: The Canon EOS 5D Mark II is a 21.1 effective megapixel full-frame CMOS digital single-lens reflex camera made by Canon, the first Canon EOS camera to have video recording capabilities. It succeeds the EOS 5D and was announced on 17 September 2008.


title: Canon EOS 5D Mark II

text: On 2 March 2012, Canon announced the camera's successor: the Canon EOS 5D Mark III. On 24 December 2012, Canon Japan moved the camera to their "Old Products" list, effectively discontinuing the camera.


title: Canon EOS 5D Mark II

text: The 5D Mark II is the first camera in the EOS line to provide video recording functions. Still photography during video recording is possible, but the camera suspends recording video until the final still frame is captured.


title: Canon EOS 5D Mark II

text: The lithium-ion battery for the 5D Mark II (LP-E6) has an 1800 mAh capacity. Each battery contains a microchip with a unique identifier for reporting charge status and battery health for display on the camera. The 5D Mark II's "Battery Info" screen can track battery health and shooting history for up to six LP-E6 batteries.


title: Canon EOS 5D Mark II

text: The camera has native ISO values of 100 multiplied by a power of 2; other ISO values are obtained by a digital exposure push (ISO values that are multiples of 125) or digital exposure pull (ISO values that are multiples of 160). The digital exposure push ISO is 1/3 stop greater than the native ISO, and a digital exposure pull ISO is 1/3 stop less than the native ISO. The digital exposure push ISO settings produce more noise than the native settings with a reduced dynamic range, and the digital exposure pull ISO settings produce less noise than the native settings.


title: Canon EOS 5D Mark II

text: While the Nikon D90 was the first DSLR to shoot 720p high-definition video, and the Panasonic GH1, a MILC, was capable of 1080p/24 recording before the 5D Mark II officially gained this capability, the latter was the first full-frame DSLR to feature 1080p video recording. With these features, Canon 5D Mark II was able to compete with high-end digital movie cameras available that time. Its release started the trend of "DSLR revolution", significantly changing the world of independent filmmaking for upcoming years.


title: Canon EOS 5D Mark II

text: The 16:9 aspect ratio portion of the sensor used in video mode is similar in sensitive area to a VistaVision 8/35 frame. This large sensor allows videos to be recorded with very shallow depth of field for a "film look". The 21 megapixel sensor is downsampled to HD resolution by only using every third line and 4:2:0 chroma subsampling, leading to concern about Moiré patterns in recorded video.


title: Canon EOS 5D Mark II

text: Video clips can be up to 4 GB in size, approximately 12 minutes of 1080p HD or 24 minutes of SD (640 x 480) footage. These limits stem from the 4 GB maximum file size supported by the FAT32 filesystem format used on Compact Flash cards. The camera also imposes a hard maximum clip length of 29 minutes 59 seconds if the 4 GB limit has not already been reached. Video and audio is recorded to QuickTime (MOV) container files with H.264/MPEG-4 (Base Profile @ L5) compressed video and uncompressed 48 kHz/16-bit PCM audio. The bitrate for 1080p is approximately 38 megabits per second (4.8 MByte/s), while for SD it is approximately 17 megabits per second (2.2 MByte/s). Although the internal microphone is mono, stereo audio is supported through the audio input jack. When recording for long periods, especially in warmer climates, increased video noise may occur due to CMOS overheating. Rolling shutter, a phenomenon where vertical lines look bent on moving objects, when the camera is in motion is a significant issue with the Canon 5D Mark II.


title: Canon EOS 5D Mark II

text: The EOS 5D Mark II is capable of video recording in low-light situations and it is sold for a relatively low price, compared with professional video cameras. For the first eighteen months of its release, the camera only had a 30 frame per second (30p) video mode. On 15 March 2010, Canon released a firmware upgrade to add a 25p mode for PAL format compatibility and a 24p mode for compatibility with motion picture film cameras.


title: Canon EOS 5D Mark II

text: The firmware update also modified the 30p mode to record 29.97 frame/s and the new 24p mode actually records 23.976 frame/s to have frame rates compatible with NTSC. Lastly, the update added manual control of the audio record levels and an official way to disable the automatic gain control.


title: Canon EOS 5D Mark II

text: Following the success of the Canon Hack Development Kit (CHDK) for Canon's PowerShot cameras, third party firmware add-on was also produced for the 5D Mark II. The Magic Lantern firmware add-on provides many additional video and cinematography related controls and meters such as false colors, and zebra stripes for exposure control, depth of field estimates via peaking filters, audio VU meters and disables the automatic gain control on the microphone input (manual gain control for microphone input has since been added to Canon's official firmware, as noted above). It also provides a stable output of uncompressed 14-Bit RAW video data onto fast UDMA 7 CF cards at almost HD resolution (1004p vs. 1080p at Full HD).


title: Canon EOS 5D Mark II

text: Notable film and television productions that used the Canon 5D Mark II include (in order of release):


title: Penny

text: A penny is a coin ( pennies) or a unit of currency ( pence) in various countries. Borrowed from the Carolingian denarius (hence its former abbreviation d.), it is usually the smallest denomination within a currency system. Presently, it is the formal name of the British penny ( p) and the "de facto" name of the American one-cent coin ( ¢) as well as the informal Irish designation of the 1 cent euro coin ( c). It is the informal name of the cent unit of account in Canada, although one-cent coins are no longer minted there. The name is used in reference to various historical currencies, also derived from the Carolingian system, such as the French denier and the German pfennig. It may also be informally used to refer to any similar smallest-denomination coin, such as the euro cent or Chinese fen.


title: Penny

text: The Carolingian penny was originally a 0.940-fine silver coin, weighing pound. It was adopted by Offa of Mercia and other English kings and remained the principal currency in Europe over the next few centuries, until repeated debasements necessitated the development of more valuable coins. The British penny remained a silver coin until the expense of the Napoleonic Wars prompted the use of base metals in 1797. Despite the decimalization of currencies in the United States and, later, throughout the British Commonwealth, the name remains in informal use.


title: Penny

text: No penny is currently formally subdivided, although farthings (d), halfpennies, and half cents have previously been minted and the mill (¢) remains in use as a unit of account in some contexts.


title: Penny

text: "Penny" is first attested in a 1394 Scots text, a variant of Old English , a development of numerous variations including , , and . The etymology of the term "penny" is uncertain, although cognates are common across almost all Germanic languages and suggest a base *"pan-", *"pann-", or *"pand-" with the individualizing suffix "-ing". Common suggestions include that it was originally *"panding" as a Low Franconian form of Old High German "pawn" (in the sense of a pledge or debt, as in a pawnbroker putting up collateral as a pledge for repayment of loans); *"panning" as a form of the West Germanic word for "frying pan", presumably owing to its shape; and *"ponding" as a very early borrowing of Latin ("pound"). Recently, it has been proposed that it may represent an early borrowing of Punic ("Pane" or "Pene", "Face"), as the face of Carthaginian goddess Tanit was represented on nearly all Carthaginian currency. Following decimalization, the British and Irish coins were marked "new penny" until 1982 and 1985, respectively.


title: Penny

text: From the 16th century, the regular plural "pennies" fell out of use in England, when referring to a sum of money (e.g. "That costs tenpence."), but continued to be used to refer to more than one penny coin ("Here you are, a sixpence and four pennies."). It remains common in Scottish English, and is standard for all senses in American English, where, however, the informal "penny" is typically only used of the coins in any case, values being expressed in "cents". The informal name for the American cent seems to have spread from New York State.


title: Penny

text: In Britain, prior to decimalization, values from two to eleven pence were often written, and spoken as a single word, as "twopence" or "tuppence", "threepence" or "thruppence", etc. (Other values were usually expressed in terms of shillings and pence or written as two words, which might or might not be hyphenated.) Where a single coin represented a number of pence, it was treated as a single noun, as "a sixpence". Thus, "a threepence" (but more usually "a threepenny bit") would be a single coin of that value whereas "three pence" would be its value, and "three pennies" would be three penny coins. In British English, divisions of a penny were added to such combinations without a conjunction, as "sixpence-farthing", and such constructions were also treated as single nouns. Adjectival use of such coins used the ending -penny, as "sixpenny".


title: Penny

text: The British abbreviation d. derived from the Latin . It followed the amount, e.g. "11d". It has been replaced since decimalization by p, usually written without a space or period. From this abbreviation, it is common to speak of pennies and values in pence as "p". In North America, it is common to abbreviate cents with the currency symbol ¢. Elsewhere, it is usually written with a simple c.


title: Penny

text: The medieval silver penny was modeled on similar coins in antiquity, such as the Greek drachma, the Carthaginian shekel, and the Roman denarius. Forms of these seem to have reached as far as Norway and Sweden. The use of Roman currency in Britain, seems to have fallen off after the Roman withdrawal and subsequent Saxon invasions.


title: Penny

text: Charlemagne's father Pepin the Short instituted a major currency reform around aiming to reorganize Francia's previous silver standard with a standardized .940-fine () weighing ⁄ pound. (As the Carolingian pound seems to have been about 489.5 grams, each penny weighed about 2 grams.) Around 790, Charlemagne introduced a new .950 or .960-fine penny with a smaller diameter. Surviving specimens have an average weight of although some estimate the original ideal mass at But despite the purity and quality of these pennies, they were often rejected by traders throughout the Carolingian period, in favor of the gold coins used elsewhere; this led to repeated legislation against such refusal, to accept the king's currency.


title: Penny

text: Some of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms initially copied the solidus, the late Roman gold coin; at the time, however, gold was so rare and valuable that even the smallest coins had such a great value that they could only be used in very large transactions and were sometimes not available at all. Around 641–670, there seems to have been a movement to use coins with lower gold content. This decreased their value and may have increased the number that could be minted, but these paler coins do not seem to have solved the problem of the value and scarcity of the currency. The miscellaneous silver sceattas minted in Frisia and Anglo-Saxon England after around 680 were probably known as "pennies" at the time. (The misnomer is based on a probable misreading of the Anglo-Saxon legal codes.) Their purity varied and their weight fluctuated from about 0.8 to about 1.3 grams. They continued to be minted in East Anglia under Beonna and in Northumbria as late as the mid-9th century.


title: Penny

text: The first Carolingian-style pennies were introduced by King Offa of Mercia ( 757–796), modeled on Pepin's system. His first series was of the Saxon pound of , giving a pennyweight of about His queen Cynethryth also minted these coins under her own name. Near the end of his reign, Offa minted his coins in imitation of Charlemagne's reformed pennies. Offa's coins were imitated by East Anglia, Kent, Wessex and Northumbria, as well as by two Archbishops of Canterbury. As in the Frankish Empire, all these pennies were notionally fractions of shillings (; ) and pounds (; ) but during this period neither larger unit was minted. Instead, they functioned only as notional units of account. (For instance, a "shilling" or "solidus" of grain was a measure equivalent to the amount of grain that 12 pennies could purchase.) English currency was notionally .925-fine sterling silver at the time of Henry II, but the weight and value of the silver penny steadily declined from 1300 onwards.


title: Penny

text: In 1257, Henry III minted a gold penny which had the nominal value of 1 shilling 8 pence (i.e. 20 "d."). At first, the coin proved unpopular because it was overvalued for its weight; by 1265 it was so undervalued—the bullion value of its gold being worth 2 shillings (i.e. 24 "d.") by then—that the coins still in circulation were almost entirely melted down for the value of their gold. Only eight gold pennies are known to survive. It was not until the reign of that the florin and noble established a common gold currency in England.


title: Penny

text: The earliest halfpenny and farthing (¼"d.") found date from the reign of Henry III. The need for small change was also sometimes met by simply cutting a full penny into halves or quarters. In 1527, Henry VIII abolished the Tower pound of 5400 grains, replacing it with the Troy pound of 5760 grains (making a penny 5760/240 = 24 grains) and establishing a new pennyweight of 1.56 grams, although, confusingly, the penny coin by then weighed about 8 grains, and had never weighed as much as this 24 grains. The last silver pence for general circulation were minted during the reign of Charles II around 1660. Since then, they have only been coined for issue as Maundy money, royal alms given to the elderly on Maundy Thursday.


title: Penny

text: Throughout the 18th century, the British government did not mint pennies for general circulation and the bullion value of the existing silver pennies caused them to be withdrawn from circulation. Merchants and mining companies, such as Anglesey's Parys Mining Co., began to issue their own copper tokens to fill the need for small change. Finally, amid the Napoleonic Wars, the government authorized Matthew Boulton to mint copper pennies and twopences at Soho Mint in Birmingham in 1797. Typically, 1 lb. of copper produced 24 pennies. In 1860, the copper penny was replaced with a bronze one (95% copper, 4% tin, 1% zinc). Each pound of bronze was coined into 48 pennies.


title: Penny

text: The United States' cent, popularly known as the "penny" since the early 19th century, began with the unpopular copper chain cent in 1793. Abraham Lincoln was the first historical figure to appear on a U.S. coin when he was portrayed on the one-cent coin to commemorate his 100th birthday.


title: Penny

text: The penny that was brought to the Cape Colony (in what is now South Africa) was a large coin—36 mm in diameter, 3.3 mm thick, and —and the twopence was correspondingly larger at 41 mm in diameter, 5 mm thick and . On them was Britannia with a trident in her hand. The English called this coin the Cartwheel penny due to its large size and raised rim, but the Capetonians referred to it as the Devil's Penny as they assumed that only the Devil used a trident. The coins were very unpopular due to their large weight and size. On 6 June 1825, Lord Charles Somerset, the governor, issued a proclamation that only British Sterling would be legal tender in the Cape Colony (colonial South Africa). The new British coins (which were introduced in England in 1816), among them being the shilling, six-pence of silver, the penny, half-penny, and quarter-penny in copper, were introduced to the Cape. Later two-shilling, four-penny, and three-penny coins were added to the coinage. The size and denomination of the 1816 British coins, with the exception of the four-penny coins, were used in South Africa until 1960.


title: Penny

text: Handling and counting penny coins entail transaction costs that may be higher than a penny. It has been claimed that, for micropayments, the mental arithmetic costs more than the penny. Changes in the market prices of metals, combined with currency inflation, have caused the metal value of penny coins to exceed their face value.


title: Penny

text: Australia and New Zealand adopted 5¢ and 10¢, respectively, as their lowest coin denomination, followed by Canada, which adopted 5¢ as its lowest denomination in 2012. Several nations have stopped minting equivalent value coins, and efforts have been made to end the routine use of pennies in several countries. In the UK, since 1992, one- and two-penny coins have been made from copper-plated steel (making them magnetic) instead of bronze.


title: Anne Ramsay

text: Anne Elizabeth Ramsay is an American actress best known for her role as Lisa Stemple on "Mad About You", for which she shared a Screen Actors Guild Award nomination for Best Ensemble in a Comedy series.


title: Anne Ramsay

text: Ramsay studied theater at UCLA and graduated with a bachelor's degree. She landed her first professional role in an industrial film. She also worked with an acting group called "The Continuum", which featured UCLA alumni. Their 1987 production of "Waiting", which she co-wrote, won the group acclaim and Ramsay an agent.


title: Mound Builders

text: A number of pre-Columbian cultures are collectively termed "Mound Builders". The term does not refer to a specific people or archaeological culture, but refers to the characteristic mound earthworks erected for an extended period of more than 5,000 years. The "Mound Builder" cultures span the period of roughly 3500 BCE (the construction of Watson Brake) to the 16th century CE, including the Archaic period, Woodland period (Calusa culture, Adena and Hopewell cultures), and Mississippian period. Geographically, the cultures were present in the region of the Great Lakes, the Ohio River Valley, and the Mississippi River valley and its tributary waters.


title: Mound Builders

text: The first mound building was an early marker of political and social complexity among the cultures in the Eastern United States. Watson Brake in Louisiana, constructed about 3500 BCE during the Middle Archaic period, is currently the oldest known and dated mound complex in North America. It is one of 11 mound complexes from this period found in the Lower Mississippi Valley.


title: Mound Builders

text: These cultures generally had developed hierarchical societies that had an elite. These commanded hundreds or even thousands of workers to dig up tons of earth with the hand tools available, move the soil long distances, and finally, workers to create the shape with layers of soil as directed by the builders.


title: Mound Builders

text: From about 800 CE, the mound building cultures were dominated by the Mississippian culture, a large archaeological horizon, whose youngest descendants, the Plaquemine culture and the Fort Ancient culture, were still active at the time of European contact in the 16th century. One tribe of the Fort Ancient culture has been identified as the Mosopelea, presumably of southeast Ohio, who were speakers of an Ohio Valley Siouan language. The bearers of the Plaquemine culture were presumably speakers of the Natchez language isolate.


title: Mound Builders

text: The first description of these cultures is due to Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto, written between 1540 and 1542.


title: Mound Builders

text: The namesake cultural trait of the Mound Builders was the building of mounds and other earthworks. These burial and ceremonial structures were typically flat-topped pyramids or platform mounds, flat-topped or rounded cones, elongated ridges, and sometimes a variety of other forms. They were generally built as part of complex villages. The early earthworks built in Louisiana around 3500 BCE are the only ones known to have been built by a hunter-gatherer culture, rather than a more settled culture based on agricultural surpluses.


title: Mound Builders

text: The best-known flat-topped pyramidal structure is Monks Mound at Cahokia, near present-day Collinsville, Illinois. This mound appears to have been the main ceremonial and residential mound for the religious and political leaders; it is more than tall and is the largest pre-Columbian earthwork north of Mexico. This site had numerous mounds, some with conical or ridge tops, as well as palisaded stockades protecting the large settlement and elite quarter. At its maximum about 1150 CE, Cahokia was an urban settlement with 20,000–30,000 people; this population was not exceeded by North American European settlements until after 1800.


title: Mound Builders

text: Some effigy mounds were constructed in the shapes or outlines of culturally significant animals. The most famous effigy mound, Serpent Mound in southern Ohio, ranges from to just over tall, wide, more than long, and shaped as an undulating serpent.


title: Mound Builders

text: Between 1540 and 1542, Hernando de Soto, the Spanish conquistador, traversed what became the southeastern United States. There he encountered many different mound-builder peoples who were perhaps descendants of the great Mississippian culture. De Soto observed people living in fortified towns with lofty mounds and plazas, and surmised that many of the mounds served as foundations for priestly temples. Near present-day Augusta, Georgia, de Soto encountered a group ruled by a queen, Cofitachequi. She told him that the mounds within her territory served as burial places for nobles.


title: Mound Builders

text: The artist Jacques le Moyne, who had accompanied French settlers to northeastern Florida during the 1560s, likewise noted Native American groups using existing mounds and constructing others. He produced a series of watercolor paintings depicting scenes of native life. Although most of his paintings have been lost, some engravings were copied from the originals and published in 1591 by a Flemish company. Among these is a depiction of the burial of an aboriginal Floridian tribal chief, an occasion of great mourning and ceremony. The original caption reads:


title: Mound Builders

text: Maturin Le Petit, a Jesuit priest, met the Natchez people, as did Le Page du Pratz (1758), a French explorer. Both observed them in the area that today is known as Mississippi. The Natchez were devout worshippers of the sun. Having a population of some 4,000, they occupied at least nine villages and were presided over by a paramount chief, known as the Great Sun, who wielded absolute power. Both observers noted the high temple mounds which the Natchez had built so that the Great Sun could commune with God, the sun. His large residence was built atop the highest mound, from "which, every morning, he greeted the rising sun, invoking thanks and blowing tobacco smoke to the four cardinal directions".


title: Mound Builders

text: The most complete reference for these earthworks is "Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley", written by Ephraim G. Squier and Edwin H. Davis. It was published in 1848 by the Smithsonian Institution. Since many of the features which the authors documented have since been destroyed or diminished by farming and development, their surveys, sketches, and descriptions are still used by modern archaeologists. All of the sites which they identified as located in Kentucky came from the manuscripts of C. S. Rafinesque.


title: Mound Builders

text: Radiocarbon dating has established the age of the earliest Archaic mound complex in southeastern Louisiana. One of the two Monte Sano Site mounds, excavated in 1967 before being destroyed for new construction at Baton Rouge, was dated at 6220 BP (plus or minus 140 years). Researchers at the time thought that such societies were not organizationally capable of this type of construction. It has since been dated as about 6500 BP, or 4500 BCE, although not all agree.


title: Mound Builders

text: Watson Brake is located in the floodplain of the Ouachita River near Monroe in northern Louisiana. Securely dated to about 5,400 years ago (around 3500 BCE), in the Middle Archaic period, it consists of a formation of 11 mounds from to tall, connected by ridges to form an oval nearly across. In the Americas, building of complex earthwork mounds started at an early date, well before the pyramids of Egypt were constructed. Watson Brake was being constructed nearly 2,000 years before the better-known Poverty Point, and building continued for 500 years. Middle Archaic mound construction seems to have ceased about 2800 BCE, and scholars have not ascertained the reason, but it may have been because of changes in river patterns or other environmental factors.


title: Mound Builders

text: With the 1990s dating of Watson Brake and similar complexes, scholars established that pre-agricultural, pre-ceramic American societies could organize to accomplish complex construction during extended periods of time, invalidating scholars' traditional ideas of Archaic society. Watson Brake was built by a hunter-gatherer society, the people of which occupied the area on only a seasonal basis, but where successive generations organized to build the complex mounds over a 500-year period. Their food consisted mostly of fish and deer, as well as available plants.


title: Mound Builders

text: Poverty Point, built about 1500 BCE in what is now Louisiana, is a prominent example of Late Archaic mound-builder construction (around 2500 BCE – 1000 BCE). It is a striking complex of more than , where six earthwork crescent ridges were built in concentric arrangement, interrupted by radial aisles. Three mounds are also part of the main complex, and evidence of residences extends for about along the bank of Bayou Macon. It is the major site among 100 associated with the Poverty Point culture and is one of the best-known early examples of earthwork monumental architecture. Unlike the localized societies during the Middle Archaic, this culture showed evidence of a wide trading network outside its area, which is one of its distinguishing characteristics.


title: Mound Builders

text: Horr's Island, Florida, now a gated community next to Marco Island, when excavated by Michael Russo in 1980 found an Archaic Indian village site. Mound A was a burial mound that dated to 3400 BCE, making it the oldest known burial mound in North America.


title: Mound Builders

text: The oldest mound associated with the Woodland period was the mortuary mound and pond complex at the Fort Center site in Glade County, Florida. 2012 excavations and dating by Thompson and Pluckhahn show that work began around 2600 BCE, seven centuries before the mound-builders in Ohio.


title: Mound Builders

text: The Archaic period was followed by the Woodland period ("circa" 1000 BCE). Some well-understood examples are the Adena culture of Ohio, West Virginia, and parts of nearby states. The subsequent Hopewell culture built monuments from present-day Illinois to Ohio; it is renowned for its geometric earthworks. The Adena and Hopewell were not the only mound-building peoples during this time period. Contemporaneous mound-building cultures existed throughout what is now the Eastern United States, stretching as far south as Crystal River in western Florida. During this time, in parts of present-day Mississippi, Arkansas, and Louisiana, the Hopewellian Marksville culture degenerated and was succeeded by the Baytown culture. Reasons for degeneration include attacks from other tribes or the impact of severe climatic changes undermining agriculture.


title: Mound Builders

text: The Coles Creek culture is a Late Woodland culture (700–1200 CE) in the Lower Mississippi Valley in the Southern United States that marks a significant change in the cultural history of the area. Population and cultural and political complexity increased, especially by the end of the Coles Creek period. Although many of the classic traits of chiefdom societies were not yet made, by 1000 CE, the formation of simple elite polities had begun. Coles Creek sites are found in Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Mississippi, and Texas. The Coles Creek culture is considered ancestral to the Plaquemine culture.


title: Mound Builders

text: Around 900–1450 CE, the Mississippian culture developed and spread through the Eastern United States, primarily along the river valleys. The largest regional center where the Mississippian culture is first definitely developed is located in Illinois near the Mississippi, and is referred to presently as Cahokia. It had several regional variants including the Middle Mississippian culture of Cahokia, the South Appalachian Mississippian variant at Moundville and Etowah, the Plaquemine Mississippian variant in south Louisiana and Mississippi, and the Caddoan Mississippian culture of northwestern Louisiana, eastern Texas, and southwestern Arkansas. Like the mound builders of the Ohio, these people built gigantic mounds as burial and ceremonial places.


title: Mound Builders

text: Fort Ancient is the name for a Native American culture that flourished from 1000 to 1650 CE among a people who predominantly inhabited land along the Ohio River in areas of modern-day southern Ohio, northern Kentucky, and western West Virginia.