title: Battle of Aachen

text: Franz Oppenhoff was appointed Mayor of Aachen by the Allies on 31 October, but after his identity was leaked, he was assassinated on Heinrich Himmler's orders in "Unternehmen Karneval" (Operation Carnival) on March 25, 1945.


title: Ken Xie

text: Ken Xie () is an American billionaire businessman who founded Systems Integration Solutions (SIS), NetScreen, and Fortinet. He is CEO of Fortinet, a cybersecurity firm based in Silicon Valley. Xie was previously the CEO of NetScreen, which was acquired by Juniper Networks for $4 billion in 2004. He built the first ASIC-based firewall/VPN appliance in 1996.


title: Ken Xie

text: Xie was born and raised in China. He graduated from Tsinghua University with a B.S. and M.S. in electrical engineering, and from Stanford University with an M.S. in electrical engineering.


title: Ken Xie

text: In 1993, Xie founded a network security company, Systems Integration Solutions (SIS). Xie built the first ASIC-based firewall/VPN appliance in 1996, in his garage in Palo Alto, California. That same year he founded NetScreen Technologies, an online security firm, with Yan Ke and Feng Deng. NetScreen Technologies was later acquired by Juniper Networks Inc. for $4 billion.


title: Ken Xie

text: In 2000, Xie left NetScreen to create Fortinet with his brother Michael Xie, an electrical engineer. Since then, Ken Xie has served as Fortinet's CEO, while Michael Xie is president and chief technology officer.


title: Ken Xie

text: Xie has stated that he founded Fortinet because he believed that security must be embedded in the end-to-end computing and networking infrastructure. The Xie brothers launched the initial FortiGate products in May 2002.


title: Ken Xie

text: Xie has led Fortinet to acquire security monitoring firm AccelOps, endpoint security firm enSilo, and SOAR platform provider CyberSponse, among other companies.


title: Ken Xie

text: In January 2019, Xie was a discussion leader for the Centre for Cybersecurity’s cyber workforce session at Davos’ World Economic Forum (WEF) summit. In February 2020, Ken Xie spoke at the RSA conference in San Francisco about the importance of SD-WAN, edge computing, and automation.


title: Ken Xie

text: Xie is a founding member and a member of the board of board of directors of the Cyber Threat Alliance. In September 2020, Xie joined the Forbes 400 list.


title: Ken Xie

text: Xie is married and lives in Los Altos Hills, California. He is the father of Jaime Xie, a fashion influencer and star on the Netflix reality TV series "Bling Empire".


title: Note-taking

text: Note-taking (sometimes written as notetaking or note taking) is the practice of recording information from different sources and platforms. By taking notes, the writer records the essence of the information, freeing their mind from having to recall everything. Notes are commonly drawn from a transient source, such as an oral discussion at a meeting, or a lecture (notes of a meeting are usually called minutes), in which case the notes may be the only record of the event. Since the advent of writing and literacy, notes traditionally were almost always handwritten (often in notebooks), but the advent of notetaking software has made digital notetaking possible and widespread. Note-taking is a foundational skill in personal knowledge management.


title: Note-taking

text: Note-taking has been an important part of human history and scientific development. The Ancient Greeks developed hypomnema, personal records on important subjects. In the Renaissance and early modern period, students learned to take notes in schools, academies and universities, often producing beautiful volumes that served as reference works after they finished their studies. In pre-digital times, people used many kinds of notebooks, including commonplace books, accounting waste books, and marginalia. Philosopher John Locke developed and published a popular indexing system which served as a model for commonplace books and inspired at least ten different published editions of commonplace book templates in Europe and the Americas as well as "Bell's Common-Place Book, Form'd Generally upon the Principles Recommended and Practised by Mr Locke" (London, 1770).


title: Note-taking

text: Note-taking is a central aspect of a complex human behavior related to information management involving a range of underlying mental processes and their interactions with other cognitive functions. The person taking notes must acquire and filter the incoming sources, organize and restructure existing knowledge structures, comprehend and write down their explanation of the information, and ultimately store and integrate the freshly processed material. The result is a knowledge representation, and a memory storage. Studies comparing the performance of students who took handwritten notes to students who typed their notes found that students who took handwritten notes performed better on examinations, hypothetically due to the deeper processing of learned material through selective rephrasing instead of word-for-word transcription which is common when typing notes.


title: Note-taking

text: Note-taking is an important skill for students, especially at the college level. In some contexts, such as college lectures, the main purpose of taking notes may be to implant the material in the mind, the written notes themselves being of secondary importance. Many studies have been able to show that note taking in college students has helped them become more engaged in the lecture and allowed them to better comprehend the material. Even when students fail to return to their notes and study them, they have shown higher test scores and better comprehension when they take notes versus not taking notes. The difference is even more significant when the notes are hand written and reworded rather than merely transcribed or typed.


title: Note-taking

text: Many different formats are used to structure information and make it easier to find and to understand later. The format of the initial record may often be informal and/or unstructured. One common format for such notes is shorthand, which can allow large amounts of information to be put on paper very quickly. Historically, note-taking was an analog process, written in notebooks, or other paper methods like Post-It notes. In the digital age, use of computers, tablet PCs and personal digital assistants (PDAs) is common.


title: Note-taking

text: The note taker usually has to work fast, and different note-taking styles and techniques try to make the best use of time. The average rate of speech is 2–3 words per second (which is 120-180 words per minute), but the average handwriting speed as only 0.2–0.3 words per second (which is 12-18 words per minute).


title: Note-taking

text: Regardless of the medium, note-taking can be broadly divided into linear and nonlinear methods, which can be combined.


title: Note-taking

text: Regardless of the system used, it can be best to focus on writing down the most important information first.


title: Note-taking

text: Linear note-taking is the process of recording information in the order in which you receive it. Linear notes are typically chronological outlines of a lecture or a text. Linear note taking is a common means of taking notes, however, the potential to just transcribe everything that is being said or on the presentation slide is quite high.


title: Note-taking

text: Outlining is a common note-taking system. Notes and thoughts are organized in a structured, logical manner, reducing the time needed to edit and review, allowing a lot of information to be digested in a short period of time. For classes that involve many formulas and graphs, like mathematics or chemistry, a system such as Cornell Notes may be better.


title: Note-taking

text: Outlines generally proceed down a page, using headings and bullets to structure information. A common system consists of headings that use Roman numerals, letters of the alphabet, and Arabic numerals at different levels. A typical structure would be:


title: Note-taking

text: However, this sort of structure has limitations in non-digital form since it is difficult to go back and insert more information. Adaptive systems are used for paper-and-pen insertions, such as using the reverse side of the preceding page in a spiral notebook to make insertions. Or one can simply leave large spaces in between items, to enable more material to be inserted. (For information about application software that supports outlining, see .)


title: Note-taking

text: Computerized note-taking, whether with a word processor, outliner software, or a digital notebook program, allows note-takers to revise easily and add more entries or rows to the outline.


title: Note-taking

text: Sentence note-taking is simply writing down each topic as a short, simple sentence. This method works well for fast-paced lesson where a lot of information is being covered. The note-taker records every new thought, fact, or topic on a separate line. All information is recorded but is not organized into major and minor topics. Notes can be numbered or set off with bullets showing where a new thought begins.


title: Note-taking

text: Approaches to non-linear note-taking include clustering, concept mapping, Cornell Notes, idea mapping, instant replays, Ishikawa diagrams, knowledge maps, learning maps, mind mapping, model maps, and the pyramid principle.


title: Note-taking

text: The charting method of note taking, which includes the drawing of tables sometimes called , is useful for subject matter that can be broken into categories, such as similarities, differences, date, event, impact, etc. Students may use charting to identify categories and draw a table prior to a lecture or may review and rewrite notes using the charting method.


title: Note-taking

text: Mapping uses spatial organization and diagrams to assemble information. Ideas are written in a node–link structure, with lines connecting ideas together. Mind maps are drawn in a tree structure from a central point, purpose, or goal in the center of the page and then branch outward to identify all the ideas connected to that goal. Colors, small graphics, and symbols are often used to help to visualize the information more easily. It is also used for planning and writing essays.


title: Note-taking

text: The Cornell Notes method of note-taking was developed by Walter Pauk of Cornell University and promoted in his bestselling 1974 book "How to Study in College". It is commonly used at universities today. The Cornell method consists of dividing a single page into three sections: a right-hand column for notes, a left-hand column for cues, and a strip at the bottom for a summary. Cues are key words or questions that help evoke key aspects of the topic. Cornell notes may be more effective for understanding concepts or producing readable notes, but studies have found that they had no significant effect on student performance.


title: Note-taking

text: SQ3R ("Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Review") is a method of taking notes from written material, though it might be better classified as a method of reading and gaining understanding. The reader skims the written material to produce a list of headings (Survey), which are then converted into questions (Question). The reader then considers the questions while reading to provide motivation for what is being covered (Read). The reader writes notes in sections headed by the questions (Recite), then writes a summary from memory and reviews the notes (Review).


title: Note-taking

text: Research shows that students who use the SQ3R strategy retain more information and achieve higher test scores.


title: Note-taking

text: An updated version called SQ4R, which adds a "Relate" step before "Review", has been used by some students since the early 1960s.


title: Note-taking

text: Sometimes lecturers may provide handouts of guided notes, which provide a "map" of the lecture content with key points or ideas missing. Students then fill in missing items as the lecture progresses. Guided notes may assist students in following lectures and identifying the most important ideas from a lecture. This format provides students with a framework, yet requires active listening (as opposed to providing copies of presentation slides in their entirety), and promotes active engagement during lecture or independent reading. The student ends up with full and accurate notes for use as a study guide.


title: Note-taking

text: Research suggests that guided notes improve student recording of critical points in lecture, as well as quiz scores on related content. In addition, an investigation carried out on students with learning problems showed that the use of the guided notes is an effective strategy to improve the performance of these students.


title: Note-taking

text: A card file uses individual notes on index cards (or their digital equivalent) that may be linked to each other through subject headings or other metadata such as numbers and tags.


title: Note-taking

text: The growing ubiquity of laptops in universities and colleges has led to a rise in electronic note-taking. Many students write their notes in word processors or prepare digital hand-written notes using a graphics tablet or tablet computer and styli or digital pens, with the aid of note-taking software. Online applications are receiving growing attention from students who can forward notes using email, or otherwise make use of collaborative features in these applications and can also download the texts as a file on a local computer. It has also become common for lecturers to deliver lectures using these and similar technologies, including electronic whiteboards, especially at institutes of technology.


title: Note-taking

text: Online note-taking has created problems for teachers who must balance educational freedom with copyright and intellectual property concerns regarding course content.


title: Note-taking

text: Electronic note-taking may be less effective than traditional methods of note-taking. A study done by Pam A. Mueller of Princeton University and Daniel M. Oppenheimer of the University of California, Los Angeles showed that students who take notes digitally retain less information than students who take notes on paper, and the digital note-takers have more difficulty remembering what they've written. Electronic note-taking has created computer-aided distractions in class as multitasking on laptops is very easy to accomplish. However, this research only applies to typing notes on laptops, not writing on tablets.


title: Note-taking

text: Professional note-takers provide access to information for people who cannot take their own notes, such as some deaf and hearing impaired people. They most frequently work in colleges and universities, but are also used in workplace meetings, appointments, conferences, and training sessions.


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: A scanning tunneling microscope (STM) is a type of microscope used for imaging surfaces at the atomic level. Its development in 1981 earned its inventors, Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer, then at IBM Zürich, the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1986. STM senses the surface by using an extremely sharp conducting tip that can distinguish features smaller than 0.1 nm with a 0.01 nm (10 pm) depth resolution. This means that individual atoms can routinely be imaged and manipulated. Most microscopes are built for use in ultra-high vacuum at temperatures approaching zero kelvin, but variants exist for studies in air, water and other environments, and for temperatures over 1000 °C.


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: STM is based on the concept of quantum tunneling. When the tip is brought very near to the surface to be examined, a bias voltage applied between the two allows electrons to tunnel through the vacuum separating them. The resulting "tunneling current" is a function of the tip position, applied voltage, and the local density of states (LDOS) of the sample. Information is acquired by monitoring the current as the tip scans across the surface, and is usually displayed in image form.


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: A refinement of the technique known as scanning tunneling spectroscopy consists of keeping the tip in a constant position above the surface, varying the bias voltage and recording the resultant change in current. Using this technique the local density of the electronic states can be reconstructed. This is sometimes performed in high magnetic fields and in presence of impurities to infer the properties and interactions of electrons in the studied material.


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: Scanning tunneling microscopy can be a challenging technique, as it requires extremely clean and stable surfaces, sharp tips, excellent vibration isolation, and sophisticated electronics. Nonetheless, many hobbyists build their own microscopes.


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: The tip is brought close to the sample by a coarse positioning mechanism that is usually monitored visually. At close range, fine control of the tip position with respect to the sample surface is achieved by piezoelectric scanner tubes whose length can be altered by a control voltage. A bias voltage is applied between the sample and the tip, and the scanner is gradually elongated until the tip starts receiving the tunneling current. The tip–sample separation "w" is then kept somewhere in the 4–7 Å (0.4–0.7 nm) range, slightly above the height where the tip would experience repulsive interaction ("w"<3Å), but still in the region where attractive interaction exists (3<"w"<10Å). The tunneling current, being in the sub-nanoampere range, is amplified as close to the scanner as possible. Once tunneling is established, the sample bias and tip position with respect to the sample are varied according to the requirements of the experiment.


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: As the tip is moved across the surface in a discrete x–y matrix, the changes in surface height and population of the electronic states cause changes in the tunneling current. Digital images of the surface are formed in one of the two ways: in the "constant height mode" changes of the tunneling current are mapped directly, while in the "constant current mode" the voltage that controls the height ("z") of the tip is recorded while the tunneling current is kept at a predetermined level.


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: In constant current mode, feedback electronics adjust the height by a voltage to the piezoelectric height control mechanism. If at some point the tunneling current is below the set level, the tip is moved towards the sample, and vice versa. This mode is relatively slow as the electronics need to check the tunneling current and adjust the height in a feedback loop at each measured point of the surface. When the surface is atomically flat, the voltage applied to the z-scanner will mainly reflect variations in local charge density. But when an atomic step is encountered, or when the surface is buckled due to reconstruction, the height of the scanner will also have to change because of the overall topography. The image formed of the z-scanner voltages that were needed to keep the tunneling current constant as the tip scanned the surface will thus contain both topographical and electron density data. In some cases it may not be clear whether height changes came as a result of one or the other.


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: In constant height mode, the z-scanner voltage is kept constant as the scanner swings back and forth across the surface and the tunneling current, exponentially dependent on the distance, is mapped. This mode of operation is faster, but on rough surfaces, where there may be large adsorbed molecules present, or ridges and groves, the tip will be in danger of crashing.


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: The raster scan of the tip is anything from a 128×128 to a 1024×1024 (or more) matrix, and for each point of the raster a single value is obtained. The images produced by STM are therefore grayscale, and color is only added in post-processing in order to visually emphasize important features.


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: In addition to scanning across the sample, information on the electronic structure at a given location in the sample can be obtained by sweeping the bias voltage (along with a small AC modulation to directly measure the derivative) and measuring current change at a specific location. This type of measurement is called scanning tunneling spectroscopy (STS) and typically results in a plot of the local density of states as a function of the electrons' energy within the sample. The advantage of STM over other measurements of the density of states lies in its ability to make extremely local measurements. This is how, for example, the density of states at an impurity site can be compared to the density of states around the impurity and elsewhere on the surface.


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: The main components of a scanning tunneling microscope are the scanning tip, piezoelectrically controlled height (z axis) and lateral (x and y axes) scanner, and coarse sample-to-tip approach mechanism. The microscope is controlled by dedicated electronics and a computer. The system is supported on a vibration isolation system.


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: The tip is often made of tungsten or platinum-iridium wire, though gold is also used. Tungsten tips are usually made by electrochemical etching, and platinum-iridium tips by mechanical shearing. The resolution of an image is limited by the radius of curvature of the scanning tip. Sometimes, image artefacts occur if the tip has more than one apex at the end; most frequently "double-tip imaging" is observed, a situation in which two apices contribute equally to the tunneling. While several processes for obtaining sharp, usable tips are known, the ultimate test of quality of the tip is only possible when it is tunneling in the vacuum. Every so often the tips can be conditioned by applying high voltages when they are already in the tunneling range, or by making them pick up an atom or a molecule from the surface.


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: In most modern designs the scanner is a hollow tube of a radially-polarized piezoelectric with metallized surfaces. The outer surface is divided into four long quadrants to serve as x and y motion electrodes with deflection voltages of two polarities applied on the opposing sides. The tube material is a lead zirconate titanate ceramic with a piezo constant of some 5 nanometers per volt. The tip is mounted at the center of the tube. Because of some crosstalk between the electrodes and inherent nonlinearities, the motion is calibrated and voltages needed for independent x, y and z motion applied according to calibration tables.


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: Due to the extreme sensitivity of the tunneling current to the separation of the electrodes, proper vibration isolation or a rigid STM body is imperative for obtaining usable results. In the first STM by Binnig and Rohrer, magnetic levitation was used to keep the STM free from vibrations; now mechanical spring or gas spring systems are often employed. Additionally, mechanisms for vibration damping using eddy currents are sometimes implemented. Microscopes designed for long scans in scanning tunneling spectroscopy need extreme stability and are built in anechoic chambers—dedicated concrete rooms with acoustic and electromagnetic isolation that are themselves floated on vibration isolation devices inside the laboratory.


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: Maintaining the tip position with respect to the sample, scanning the sample and acquiring the data is computer controlled. Dedicated software for scanning probe microscopies is used for image processing as well as performing quantitative measurements.


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: Some scanning tunneling microscopes are capable of recording images at high frame rates. Videos made of such images can show surface diffusion or track adsorption and reactions on the surface. In video-rate microscopes, frame rates of 80 Hz have been achieved with fully working feedback that adjusts the height of the tip.


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: Quantum tunneling of electrons is a functioning concept of STM that arises from quantum mechanics. Classically, a particle hitting an impenetrable barrier will not pass through. If the barrier is described by a potential acting along "z"-direction in which an electron of mass "m" acquires the potential energy "U"("z"), the electron's trajectory will be deterministic, and such that the sum "E" of its kinetic and potential energies is at all times conserved,


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: The electron will have a defined, non-zero momentum "p" only in regions where the initial energy "E" is greater than "U"("z"). In quantum physics, however, particles with a very small mass, such as the electron, have discernible wavelike characteristics and are allowed to "leak" into classically forbidden regions. This is referred to as tunneling.


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: The simplest model of tunneling between the sample and the tip of a scanning tunneling microscope is that of a rectangular potential barrier. An electron of energy "E" is incident upon an energy barrier of height "U", in the region of space of width "w." An electron's behavior in the presence of a potential "U"("z"), assuming one-dimensional case, is described by wave functions formula_2 that satisfy Schrödinger’s equation,


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: Here, "ħ" is the reduced Planck’s constant, "z" is the position, and "m" is the mass of an electron. In the zero-potential regions on two sides of the barrier, the wave function takes on the following form


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: Here, formula_6. Inside the barrier, where "E" < "U", the wave function is a superposition of two terms, each decaying from one side of the barrier


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: The coefficients "r" and "t" provide measure of how much of the incident electron's wave is reflected or transmitted through the barrier. Namely, of the whole impinging particle current formula_9 only formula_10 will be transmitted, as can be seen from the probability current expression


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: which evaluates to formula_12. The transmission coefficient is obtained from the continuity condition on the three parts of the wave function and their derivatives at "z"=0 and "z"="w" (detailed derivation is in the article Rectangular potential barrier). This gives formula_13 where formula_14. The expression can be further simplified, as follows:


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: In STM experiments, typical barrier height is of the order of the material's surface work function "W," which for most metals has a value between 4 and 6 eV. The work function is the minimum energy needed to bring an electron from an occupied level, the highest of which is the Fermi level (for metals at "T"=0 kelvin), to vacuum level. The electrons can tunnel between two metals only from occupied states on one side into the unoccupied states of the other side of the barrier. Without bias, Fermi energies are flush and there is no tunneling. Bias shifts electron energies in one of the electrodes higher, and those electrons that have no match at the same energy on the other side will tunnel. In experiments, bias voltages of a fraction of 1 V are used, so formula_15 is of the order of 10 to 12 nm, while "w" is a few tenths of a nanometer. The barrier is strongly attenuating. The expression for the transmission probability reduces to formula_16. The tunneling current from a single level is therefore


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: Tunneling current is exponentially dependent on the separation of the sample and the tip, and typically reduces by an order of magnitude when the separation is increased by 1 Å (0.1 nm). Because of this, even when tunneling occurs from a non-ideally sharp tip, the dominant contribution to the current is from its most protruding atom or orbital.


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: As a result of the restriction that the tunneling from an occupied energy level on one side of the barrier requires an empty level of the same energy on the other side of the barrier, tunneling occurs mainly with electrons near the Fermi level. The tunneling current can be related to the density of available or filled states in the sample. The current due to an applied voltage "V" (assume tunneling occurs from the sample to the tip) depends on two factors: 1) the number of electrons between the Fermi level "E" and "E−eV" in the sample, and 2) the number among them which have corresponding free states to tunnel into on the other side of the barrier at the tip. The higher the density of available states in the tunneling region the greater the tunneling current. By convention, a positive "V" means that electrons in the tip tunnel into empty states in the sample; for a negative bias, electrons tunnel out of occupied states in the sample into the tip.


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: For small biases and temperatures near absolute zero, the number of electrons in a given volume (the electron concentration) that are available for tunneling is the product of the density of the electronic states "ρ"("E") and the energy interval between the two Fermi levels, "eV." Half of these electrons will be travelling away from the barrier. The other half will represent the electric current impinging on the barrier, which is given by the product of the electron concentration, charge, and velocity "v" ("I"="nev"),


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: The tunneling electric current will be a small fraction of the impinging current. The proportion is determined by the transmission probability "T", so


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: In the simplest model of a rectangular potential barrier the transmission probability coefficient "T" equals |"t"|.


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: A model that is based on more realistic wave functions for the two electrodes was devised by John Bardeen in a study of the metal-insulator-metal junction. His model takes two separate orthonormal sets of wave functions for the two electrodes and examines their time evolution as the systems are put close together. Bardeen's novel method, ingenious in itself, solves a time-dependent perturbative problem in which the perturbation emerges from the interaction of the two subsystems rather than an external potential of the standard Rayleigh–Schrödinger perturbation theory.


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: Each of the wave functions for the electrons of the sample (S) and the tip (T) decay into the vacuum after hitting the surface potential barrier, roughly of the size of the surface work function. The wave functions are the solutions of two separate Schrödinger's equations for electrons in potentials "U" and "U". When the time dependence of the states of known energies formula_22 and formula_23 is factored out, the wave functions have the following general form


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: If the two systems are put closer together, but are still separated by a thin vacuum region, the potential acting on an electron in the combined system is "U" + "U". Here, each of the potentials is spatially limited to its own side of the barrier. Only because the tail of a wave function of one electrode is in the range of the potential of the other, there is a finite probability for any state to evolve over time into the states of the other electrode. The future of the sample's state "μ" can be written as a linear combination with time-dependent coefficients of formula_26 and all formula_27,


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: with the initial condition formula_29. When the new wave function is inserted into the Schrödinger’s equation for the potential "U" + "U", the obtained equation is projected onto each separate formula_30 (that is, the equation is multiplied by a formula_31 and integrated over the whole volume) to single out the coefficients formula_32. All formula_33 are taken to be "nearly orthogonal" to all formula_30 (their overlap is a small fraction of the total wave functions), and only first order quantities retained. Consequently, the time evolution of the coefficients is given by


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: Because the potential "U" is zero at the distance of a few atomic diameters away from the surface of the electrode, the integration over "z" can be done from a point "z" somewhere inside the barrier and into the volume of the tip ("z">"z").


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: In a system with many electrons impinging on the barrier, this probability will give the proportion of those that successfully tunnel. If at a time "t" this fraction was formula_38, at a later time "t"+d"t" the total fraction of formula_39 would have tunneled. The "current" of tunneling electrons at each instance is therefore proportional to formula_40 divided by formula_41, which is the time derivative of formula_38,


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: The time scale of the measurement in STM is many orders of magnitude larger than the typical femtosecond time scale of electron processes in materials, and formula_44 is large. The fraction part of the formula is a fast oscillating function of formula_45 that rapidly decays away from the central peak where formula_46. In other words, the most probable tunneling process, by far, is the elastic one, in which the electron's energy is conserved. The fraction, as written above, is a representation of the delta function, so


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: Solid-state systems are commonly described in terms of continuous rather than discrete energy levels. The term formula_48 can be thought of as the density of states of the tip at energy formula_49, giving


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: The number of energy levels in the sample between the energies "formula_51" and "formula_52" is "formula_53". When occupied, these levels are spin-degenerate (except in a few special classes of materials) and contain charge "formula_54" of either spin. With the sample biased to voltage "formula_55", tunneling can occur only between states whose occupancies, given for each electrode by the Fermi–Dirac distribution formula_56, are not the same, that is, when either one or the other is occupied, but not both. That will be for all energies "formula_51" for which formula_58 is not zero. For example, an electron will tunnel from energy level formula_59 in the sample into energy level formula_60 in the tip ("formula_61"), an electron at formula_60 in the sample will find unoccupied states in the tip at formula_63 (formula_64), and so will be for all energies in-between. The tunneling current is therefore the sum of little contributions over all these energies of the product of three factors: "formula_65" representing available electrons, formula_58 for those that are allowed to tunnel, and the probability factor "formula_67" for those that will actually tunnel.


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: Typical experiments are run at a liquid helium temperature (around 4 K) at which the Fermi level cut-off of the electron population is less than a millielectronvolt wide. The allowed energies are only those between the two step-like Fermi levels, and the integral becomes


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: When the bias is small, it is reasonable to assume that the electron wave functions and, consequently, the tunneling matrix element do not change significantly in the narrow range of energies. Then the tunneling current is simply the convolution of the densities of states of the sample surface and the tip,


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: How the tunneling current depends on distance between the two electrodes is contained in the tunneling matrix element


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: This formula can be transformed so that no explicit dependence on the potential remains. First, the formula_72 part is taken out from the Schrödinger equation for the tip, and the elastic tunneling condition is used so that


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: Now formula_74 is present in the Schrödinger equation for the sample, and equals the kinetic plus the potential operator acting on formula_75. However, the potential part containing "U" is on the tip side of the barrier nearly zero. What remains,


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: Bardeen's tunneling matrix element is an integral of the wave functions and their gradients over a surface separating the two planar electrodes,


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: The exponential dependence of the tunneling current on the separation of the electrodes comes from the very wave functions that "leak" through the potential step at the surface and exhibit exponential decay into the classically forbidden region outside of the material.


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: The tunneling matrix elements show appreciable energy dependence, which is such that tunneling from the upper end of the "eV" interval is nearly an order of magnitude more likely than tunneling from the states at its bottom. When the sample is biased positively, its unoccupied levels are probed as if the density of states of the tip is concentrated at its Fermi level. Conversely, when the sample is biased negatively, its occupied electronic states are probed but the spectrum of the electronic states of the tip dominates. In this case it is important that the density of states of the tip is as flat as possible.


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: The results identical to Bardeen's can be obtained by considering adiabatic approach of the two electrodes and using the standard time-dependent perturbation theory. This leads to Fermi's golden rule for the transition probability formula_79 in the form given above.


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: Bardeen's model is for tunneling between two planar electrodes and does not explain scanning tunneling microscope's lateral resolution. Tersoff and Hamann used Bardeen's theory and modeled the tip as a structureless geometric point. This helped them disentangle the properties of the tip—which are hard to model—from the properties of the sample surface. The main result was that the tunneling current is proportional to the local density of states of the sample at the Fermi level taken at the position of the center of curvature of a spherically-symmetric tip ("s"-wave tip model). With such a simplification, their model proved valuable for interpreting images of surface features bigger than a nanometer, even though it predicted atomic-scale corrugations of less than a picometer. These are well below the microscope's detection limit and below the values actually observed in experiments.


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: In sub-nanometer resolution experiments, the convolution of the tip and sample surface states will always be important, to the extent of the apparent inversion of the atomic corrugations that may be observed within the same scan. Such effects can only be explained by modeling of the surface and tip electronic states and the ways the two electrodes interact from first principles.


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: An earlier invention similar to Binnig and Rohrer's, the "Topografiner" of R. Young, J. Ward, and F. Scire from the NIST, relied on field emission. However, Young is credited by the Nobel Committee as the person who realized that it should be possible to achieve better resolution by using the tunnel effect.


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: Many other microscopy techniques have been developed based upon STM. These include photon scanning microscopy (PSTM), which uses an optical tip to tunnel photons; scanning tunneling potentiometry (STP), which measures electric potential across a surface; spin polarized scanning tunneling microscopy (SPSTM), which uses a ferromagnetic tip to tunnel spin-polarized electrons into a magnetic sample; multi-tip scanning tunneling microscopy which enables electrical measurements to be performed at the nanoscale; and atomic force microscopy (AFM), in which the force caused by interaction between the tip and sample is measured.


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: STM can be used to manipulate atoms and change the topography of the sample. This is attractive for several reasons. Firstly the STM has an atomically precise positioning system which enables very accurate atomic scale manipulation. Furthermore, after the surface is modified by the tip, the same instrument can be used to image the resulting structures. IBM researchers famously developed a way to manipulate xenon atoms adsorbed on a nickel surface. This technique has been used to create electron "corrals" with a small number of adsorbed atoms, and observe Friedel oscillations in the electron density on the surface of the substrate. Aside from modifying the actual sample surface, one can also use the STM to tunnel electrons into a layer of electron beam photoresist on the sample, in order to do lithography. This has the advantage of offering more control of the exposure than traditional electron beam lithography. Another practical application of STM is atomic deposition of metals (gold, silver, tungsten, etc.) with any desired (pre-programmed) pattern, which can be used as contacts to nanodevices or as nanodevices themselves.


title: Antonio Gates

text: Antonio Ethan Gates Sr. (born June 18, 1980) is an American former professional football player who was a tight end for the San Diego / Los Angeles Chargers during his entire career in the National Football League (NFL). He was named to the Pro Bowl eight times and was a five-time All-Pro selection. He retired on January 14, 2020, after 16 years with the Chargers.


title: Antonio Gates

text: Gates was signed as an undrafted free agent in 2003 after playing college basketball for Kent State University. He attended college at Kent State his junior and senior years after brief stints at Michigan State University and Eastern Michigan University. He is the Chargers' career leader in receptions, receiving yards, and receiving touchdowns. In 2015, he became the second tight end and ninth player overall to record 100 career touchdown receptions. He ranks seventh in career touchdown receptions, with 116, and leads all tight ends in NFL history. Gates is considered one of the best tight ends and undrafted free agents in NFL history.


title: Antonio Gates

text: Gates played basketball but not football in college. He originally enrolled at Michigan State University wanting to play football under then-coach Nick Saban as well as basketball under coach Tom Izzo. Upon enrolling, he learned that Saban wanted him to play only football. Gates then chose to pursue playing basketball by transferring to Eastern Michigan University. He played there part of a season before transferring to the College of the Sequoias, a junior college in California, to focus on academics. Recruited by Stan Heath, Gates transferred to Kent State University in northeastern Ohio.


title: Antonio Gates

text: As a member of the Golden Flashes, Gates played two seasons as power forward. His junior season he averaged 16.0 points, 8.1 rebounds and 2.7 assists per game. His junior season his team won its first regular season Mid-American Conference (MAC) championship in school history after finishing the regular season with a 24–5 overall record with a 17–1 record in the MAC. Gates helped the Golden Flashes win their second consecutive MAC tournament and earn its resulting berth in the 2002 NCAA Tournament. In the tournament, he gave crucial performances that helped Kent State reach the Elite Eight as a 10 seed by upsetting 7 seed Oklahoma State (69–61), 2 seed Alabama (71–58) and 3 seed Pittsburgh (78–73).


title: Antonio Gates

text: During his senior season, he received honorable mention All-American honors from the Associated Press after averaging 20.6 points, 7.7 rebounds and 4.1 assists per game. He finished with a record of 54–16 in two years of playing.


title: Antonio Gates

text: His jersey number, 44, was retired on February 27, 2010, making him just the fourth Golden Flash to receive the honor.


title: Antonio Gates

text: After being told by scouts that he was too much of a "tweener" to make the NBA, Gates (6′4″) arranged a workout in front of NFL scouts. Despite never having played college football, as many as 19 teams were believed to have contacted Gates about a tryout. Gates chose to work out first for the San Diego Chargers. Recognizing his potential, the Chargers immediately signed him to a contract as an undrafted free agent.


title: Antonio Gates

text: Lost in the disappointment of San Diego's league-worst 4–12 record was Gates' rise from third string to starter. He made his first catch in Week 4 against the Oakland Raiders, scored his first touchdown in Week 10 against the Minnesota Vikings, and enjoyed his first 100-yard receiving game against the Green Bay Packers in Week 15. After finishing a solid 2003 rookie season in which he caught 24 passes for 389 yards and two scores, Gates was picked by many experts to have a breakout season in 2004. His 16.2 yards per reception were the longest of his career.


title: Antonio Gates

text: A preferred target of quarterback Drew Brees, Gates finished his second season in the NFL with 81 receptions for 964 yards and 13 touchdowns.


title: Antonio Gates

text: On December 19, Gates tied the NFL single season record for touchdown receptions by a tight end (12) in a 21–0 win over the Cleveland Browns—he went on to break this record in an overtime loss to the Indianapolis Colts on December 26.


title: Antonio Gates

text: Gates was selected to the 2005 Pro Bowl and caught a touchdown pass from Colts' quarterback Peyton Manning to help the AFC to a 38–27 victory. Additionally, Gates was on the receiving end of a 33-yard pass from teammate Drew Brees in a flea-flicker play selected by fans online.


title: Antonio Gates

text: On August 23, 2005, after holding out for a contract extension, Gates signed a six-year deal worth up to $24 million with the San Diego Chargers. Because of his holdout, Gates was suspended for one game–the home opener against the Dallas Cowboys, a loss. Gates went on to have another stellar season, catching 89 passes for 1,101 yards and 10 touchdowns, but the Chargers missed the playoffs by a single win.


title: Antonio Gates

text: With the departure of Drew Brees during the offseason, it was assumed that Gates would suffer a decline in production in 2006, with first-year starter Philip Rivers at the helm. Gates had a relatively quiet start to the season, but he finished the year strongly and ended up with 924 receiving yards and nine touchdowns. He caught two touchdown passes on December 10 against the Denver Broncos to help the Chargers clinch their division.


title: Antonio Gates

text: Gates was a Pro Bowler and All-Pro for the third straight year. Undefeated at Qualcomm during the regular season, the Chargers and their fans anticipated a trip to the Super Bowl but they were beaten by the New England Patriots at home by the score of 24–21.


title: Antonio Gates

text: In 2007, Gates was not selected to the All Pro team but was selected to the Pro Bowl. During the season, he caught 75 passes for 984 yards and nine touchdowns. He was once again a key factor during the Chargers' 11–5 campaign, but not during the playoffs. Gates dislocated a toe on his right foot just before the postseason, which slowed him down during the Chargers' playoff run.


title: Antonio Gates

text: Gates was not the only Chargers star player injured: both LaDainian Tomlinson and Philip Rivers had leg injuries which hindered the Chargers' chances of reaching the Super Bowl. However, the Chargers did eventually play in the AFC Championship, which they lost 21–12 to the Patriots.


title: Antonio Gates

text: Gates said he was leaning toward having surgery to repair a dislocated left big toe that slowed his performance during the 2007–08 NFL playoffs, but was undecided on whether to have surgery or not, "There is higher chance I'm going to have surgery". Gates also pulled out of his fifth Pro Bowl selection because of his injuries alongside his teammate LaDainian Tomlinson. Gates finished the season with 60 receptions for 704 yards and eight touchdowns.


title: Antonio Gates

text: On February 23, 2008, Gates said he would have foot surgery to fix the injury that had slowed him in the final part of the season. He would face a 4–6 month recovery time. Gates seemed questionable for Week 1 and even sounded worried about his status for the opening day of the 2008 season; however, he ended up playing every game despite complaints that his toe was bothering him during the first half of the season. He finished the season with 60 receptions for 704 yards and eight touchdowns.


title: Antonio Gates

text: Finally healthy after consecutive injury-plagued seasons, Gates enjoyed the finest year of his career. He caught 79 passes for a career-high 1,157 yards and eight touchdowns. He hauled in at least five passes in 10 of the team's first 11 games.


title: Antonio Gates

text: The team finished the year with 13 wins, one of the best records of the year. However, they were eliminated in their first postseason game by the New York Jets.


title: Antonio Gates

text: Gates began the 2010 season by signing a five-year, $36 million contract with $20 million guaranteed. In the first nine games of the 2010 season, he had 40 receptions and nine touchdowns.


title: Antonio Gates

text: Despite being limited by foot injuries throughout the second half of the 2010 season, Gates earned a Pro Bowl selection for his seventh consecutive year; however, as a result of his lingering injuries, Gates did not participate in the game.


title: Antonio Gates

text: Gates tried to play through his chronic foot problems but was forced to sit out Weeks 3–5. He came back after the bye week and started every game the rest of the way, finishing with more than 60 catches (64) for the seventh time in his career. He also scored seven touchdowns and was voted into his eighth Pro Bowl. Gates became the Chargers' all-time receptions leader on a six-yard catch on a fourth-and-5, early in the fourth quarter against Detroit. It was his 587th career catch, surpassing Charlie Joiner's 586.


title: Antonio Gates

text: Gates had another record-breaking season, becoming the fifth tight end in NFL history with 600 career catches and runner-up for most touchdowns in Chargers franchise history with 83. The tight end and his quarterback Philip Rivers connected for a total of 56 touchdown catches, the most out of any QB-tight end combination in the NFL.


title: Antonio Gates

text: Gates played all 16 games for the first time since 2009, finishing with 70 receptions (77) for the fourth time in his career. However, Gates only scored four touchdowns, his fewest since his rookie season in 2003.


title: Antonio Gates

text: Gates passed Lance Alworth to become the Chargers' career leader in receiving yards in Week 7 against the Broncos. In the season's final game against the Kansas City Chiefs, he became the fourth tight end in NFL history to surpass 10,000 yards in career receiving yards. He finished the season with 12 touchdowns, becoming the fourth player in league history to catch 12 or more touchdowns in a season at age 34. His teammates voted him the Chargers' Offensive Player of the Year and he was invited as an alternate for the Pro Bowl, but declined.


title: Antonio Gates

text: On July 2, 2015, it was announced that Gates would be suspended for the first four games of the 2015 season for violating the NFL's rules on performance enhancing drugs (PEDs). On October 12, 2015, in his first game back after from a four-game suspension, Gates scored his 100th and 101st career touchdown receptions. He would finish the season with 630 yards and five touchdowns on 56 receptions. On March 9, 2016, Gates signed a two-year contract extension to remain with the Chargers.


title: Antonio Gates

text: Gates played in 14 games in 2016, starting nine. He caught 53 passes for 538 yards and scored seven touchdowns. His 10.3 yards per reception and 57% completion percentage were the lowest of his career.


title: Antonio Gates

text: In Week 2, against the Miami Dolphins, he caught his 112th career touchdown pass, which set a new NFL record for most touchdowns as a tight end. Following the emergence of second-year tight end Hunter Henry as a starter, Gates only started four games and finished with 30 receptions for a career-low 316 yards and three touchdowns.


title: Antonio Gates

text: On April 27, 2018, the Chargers informed Gates they would not be bringing him back for the 2018 season.


title: Antonio Gates

text: On September 2, 2018, Gates re-signed with the Los Angeles Chargers following an injury to Hunter Henry. In Week 4, against the San Francisco 49ers, he scored his first receiving touchdown of the season.


title: Antonio Gates

text: Gates announced his retirement on January 14, 2020. He ended his career with a record 116 touchdown catches by a tight end, including 89 thrown by Rivers for the most ever by a quarterback–tight end duo at the time. He also finished as the Chargers' franchise leader in receptions (955) and receiving yards (11,841).


title: Antonio Gates

text: Gates married his longtime girlfriend, model Sasha Dindayal, on July 9, 2011. As of 2014, the couple resided in Encino, California.


title: Antonio Gates

text: Gates appeared in the fourth episode of season one and the final episode of season six of "The League". This is also where the reference Pete ‘top’ and Kevin ‘bottom’ originated.


title: Antonio Gates

text: Gates has a son, Antonio Gates Jr., who is (as of 2022) a freshman wide receiver for the Michigan State Spartans.


title: Next Danish general election

text: The next Danish general election is scheduled to be held no later than 31 October 2026, according to § 32 in the Constitution of Denmark, which defines an election cycle as four years. It will be the 72nd election in the Kingdom of Denmark. All 179 seats in the Folketing will be up for election, 175 in Denmark proper as well as two each in Greenland and the Faroe Islands.


title: Next Danish general election

text: The 2022 Danish general election was held on 31 October in the Faroe Islands and on 1 November in Denmark and on Greenland. The election led to a narrow victory for the red bloc. Following the election, a centrist government led by Prime Minister Mette Frederiksen and consisting of the Social Democrats, Venstre, and the Moderates was established.


title: Afrocentrism

text: Afrocentrism is an approach to the study of world history that focuses on the history of people of recent African descent. It is in some respects a response to Eurocentric attitudes about African people and their historical contributions. It seeks to counter what it sees as mistakes and ideas perpetuated by the racist philosophical underpinnings of Western academic disciplines as they developed during and since Europe's Early Renaissance as justifying rationales for the enslavement of other peoples, in order to enable more accurate accounts of not only African but all people's contributions to world history. Afrocentricity deals primarily with self-determination and African agency and is a Pan-African point of view for the study of culture, philosophy, and history.


title: Afrocentrism

text: Afrocentrism is a scholarly movement that seeks to conduct research and education on global history subjects, from the perspective of historical African peoples and polities. It takes a critical stance on Eurocentric assumptions and myths about world history, in order to pursue methodological studies of the latter. Some of the critics of the movement believe that it often denies or minimizes European, Near Eastern, and Asian cultural influences while exaggerating certain aspects of historical African civilizations that independently accomplished a significant level of cultural and technological development. In general, Afrocentrism is usually manifested in a focus on the history of Africa and its role in contemporary African-American culture among others.


title: Afrocentrism

text: What is today broadly called Afrocentrism evolved out of the work of African-American intellectuals in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, but flowered into its modern form due to the activism of African-American intellectuals in the U.S. civil rights movement and in the development of African-American Studies programs in universities. However, following the development of universities in African colonies in the 1950s, African scholars became major contributors to African historiography. A notable pioneer is the professor Kenneth Dike, who became chairman of the Committee on African Studies at Harvard in the 1970s. In strict terms Afrocentrism, as a distinct historiography, reached its peak in the 1980s and 1990s. Today it is primarily associated with Cheikh Anta Diop, John Henrik Clarke, Ivan van Sertima and Molefi Kete Asante. Asante, however, describes his theories as Afrocentricity.


title: Afrocentrism

text: Proponents of Afrocentrism support the claim that the contributions of various Black African people have been downplayed or discredited as part of the legacy of colonialism and slavery's pathology of "writing Africans out of history". Major critics of Afrocentrism include Mary Lefkowitz, who dismiss it as pseudohistory, reactive, and obstinately therapeutic. Others, such as Kwame Anthony Appiah, believe that Afrocentrism defeats its purpose of dismantling unipolar studies of world history by seeking to replace Eurocentricity with an equally ethnocentric and hierarchical curriculum, and negatively essentializes European culture and people of European descent. Clarence E. Walker claims it to be "Eurocentrism in blackface".


title: Afrocentrism

text: The term "Afrocentrism" dates to 1962. The adjective "Afrocentric" appears in a typescript proposal for an entry in "Encyclopedia Africana", possibly due to W. E. B. Du Bois. The abstract noun "Afrocentricity" dates to the 1970s, and was popularized by Molefi Asante's "Afrocentricity: The Theory of Social Change" (1980). Molefi Kete Asante's theory, Afrocentricity, has been one developed in academic settings and may incorporate the terms Afrocentric to describe scholarship and Afrocentrists to describe scholars, but does not use Afrocentrism. According to Asante, though the two terms are often confused to mean the same, Afrocentrists are not adherents of Afrocentrism. This has caused confusing notions about who is considered an Afrocentrist, as various scholars who may or may not be associated with Asante and his works have been erroneously given the title, even by other academics. Asante has written that Afrocentricity and Afrocentrism are not the same and neither do they share the same origin:


title: Afrocentrism

text: By way of distinction, Afrocentricity should not be confused with the variant Afrocentrism. The term “Afrocentrism” was first used by the opponents of Afrocentricity who in their zeal saw it as an obverse of Eurocentrism. The adjective “Afrocentric” in the academic literature always referred to “Afrocentricity.” However, the use of “Afrocentrism” reflected a negation of the idea of Afrocentricity as a positive and progressive paradigm. The aim was to assign religious signification to the idea of African centeredness. However, it has come to refer to a broad cultural movement of the late twentieth century that has a set of philosophical, political, and artistic ideas which provides the basis for the musical, sartorial, and aesthetic dimensions of the African personality. On the other hand, Afrocentricity, as I have previously defined it, is a theory of agency, that is, the idea that African people must be viewed and view themselves as agents rather than spectators to historical revolution and change. To this end Afrocentricity seeks to examine every aspect of the subject place of Africans in historical, literary, architectural, ethical, philosophical, economic, and political life.


title: Afrocentrism

text: Afrocentrism has its origins in the work of African and African diaspora intellectuals in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, following social changes in the United States and Africa due both to the end of slavery and the decline of colonialism. Following the American Civil War, African Americans in the South gathered together in communities to evade white control, established their own church congregations, and worked hard to gain education. They increasingly took more active public roles despite severe racial discrimination and segregation. American and African intellectuals looked to the African past for a re-evaluation of what its civilizations had achieved and what they meant for contemporary people.


title: Afrocentrism

text: As an ideology and political movement, Afrocentrism had its beginnings in activism among black intellectuals, political figures, and historians in the context of the US American civil rights movement. According to U.S. professor Victor Oguejiofor Okafor, concepts of Afrocentricity lie at the core of disciplines such as African American studies. But Wilson J. Moses claims that Afrocentrism roots are not exclusively African:


title: Afrocentrism

text: In 1987, Martin Bernal published his "Black Athena", in which he claims that ancient Greece was colonized by northern invaders mixing with a colony established by Phoenicia (modern Lebanon). A major theme of the work is the alleged denial by Western academia of the African and (western) Asiatic influence on ancient Greek culture.


title: Afrocentrism

text: In 2000, African American Studies professor Molefi Kete Asante, gave a lecture entitled "Afrocentricity: Toward a New Understanding of African Thought in this Millennium," in which he presented many of his ideas:


title: Afrocentrism

text: However, Wilson J. Moses, said of Asante: "His second book, "The Afrocentric Idea" (1987), was a creative and in some respects brilliant but rambling theoretical work, much influenced by the revolution in "critical theory" that occurred in American intellectual life during the late 1970s and early 1980s." Some also assert that the definition of Afrocentricity has never sat still long enough to be properly described and accurately critiqued.


title: Afrocentrism

text: Afrocentric education is education designed to empower peoples of the African diaspora. A central premise behind it is that many Africans have been subjugated by limiting their awareness of themselves and indoctrinating them with ideas that work against them. To control a people's culture is to control their tools of self-determination in relationship to others. Like educational leaders of other cultures, proponents assert that what educates one group of people does not necessarily educate and empower another group–so they assert educational priorities distinctly for the Africans in a given context.


title: Afrocentrism

text: The black church in the United States developed out of the creolization of African spirituality and European-American Christianity; early members of the churches made certain stories their own. During the antebellum years, the idea of deliverance out of slavery, as in the story of Exodus, was especially important. After Reconstruction and the restoration of white supremacy, their hope was based on deliverance from segregation and other abuses. They found much to respond to in the idea of a personal relationship with Jesus, and shaped their churches by the growth of music and worship styles that related to African as well as European-American traditions.


title: Afrocentrism

text: Twentieth-century "Africentric approaches" to Christian theology and preaching have been more deliberate. Writers and thinkers emphasize "Black presence" in the Christian Bible, including the idea of a "Black Jesus".


title: Afrocentrism

text: In 1966 Maulana Karenga of the black separatist US Organization created Kwanzaa; which became the first specifically African American holiday to be widely observed amongst African Americans. Karenga rejected liberation theology and considered the practice of Christianity anti-thetical to the creation of an African-American identity independent from white America. Karenga said his goal was to "give Blacks an alternative to the existing holiday and give Blacks an opportunity to celebrate themselves and history, rather than simply imitate the practice of the dominant society."


title: Afrocentrism

text: Many Afrocentrists seek to challenge concepts such as white privilege, color-blind perspectives, and race-neutral pedagogies. There are strong ties between Afrocentricity and Critical race theory.


title: Afrocentrism

text: Afrocentrists agree with the current scientific consensus that holds that Africans exhibit a range of types and physical characteristics, and that such elements as wavy hair or aquiline facial features are part of a continuum of African types that do not depend on admixture with Caucasian groups. They cite work by Hiernaux and Hassan that they believe demonstrates that populations could vary based on micro-evolutionary principles (climate adaptation, drift, selection), and that such variations existed in both living and fossil Africans.


title: Afrocentrism

text: Afrocentrists have condemned what they consider to be attempts at dividing African peoples into racial clusters as new versions of discredited theories, such as the Hamitic hypothesis and the Dynastic Race Theory. These theories, they contend, attempted to identify certain African ethnicities, such as Nubians, Ethiopians and Somalis, as "Caucasoid" groups that entered Africa to bring civilization to the natives. They believe that Western academics have traditionally limited the peoples they defined as "Black" Africans to those south of the Sahara, but used broader "Caucasoid" or related categories to classify peoples of Egypt or North Africa. Afrocentrists also believe strongly in the work of certain anthropologists who have suggested that there is little evidence to support that the first North African populations were closely related to "Caucasoids" of Europe and western Asia.


title: Afrocentrism

text: French historian Jean Vercoutter has claimed that archaeological workers routinely classified Negroid remains as Mediterranean, even though they found such remains in substantial numbers with ancient artefacts.


title: Afrocentrism

text: Some Afrocentrists have adopted a pan-Africanist perspective that people of color are all "African people" or "diasporic Africans," citing physical characteristics they exhibit in common with Black Africans. Afrocentric scholar Runoko Rashidi writes that they are all part of the "global African community." Some Afrocentric writers include in the African diaspora the Dravidians of India, "Negritos" of Southeast Asia (Thailand, the Philippines and Malaysia); and the aboriginal peoples of Australia and Melanesia.


title: Afrocentrism

text: A few Afrocentrists claim that the Olmecs of Mexico were a hybrid society of Native American peoples and Africans. Mainstream historians of Mesoamerica overwhelmingly reject that view with detailed rebuttals.


title: Afrocentrism

text: In the 1970s, Ivan van Sertima advanced the theory that the complex civilizations of the Americas were the result of trans-oceanic influence from the Egyptians or other African civilizations. Such a claim is his primary thesis in "They Came Before Columbus", published in 1978. The few hyper-diffusionist writers seek to establish that the Olmec people, who built the first highly complex civilization in Mesoamerica and are considered by some to be the mother civilization for all other civilizations of Mesoamerica, were deeply influenced by Africans. Van Sertima said that the Olmec civilization was a hybrid one of Africans and Native Americans. His theory of pre-Columbian American-African contact has since met with considerable and detailed opposition by scholars of Mesoamerica. Van Sertima has been accused of "doctoring" and twisting data to fit his conclusions, inventing evidence, and ignoring the work of respected Central and South American scholars in the advance of his own theory.


title: Afrocentrism

text: Several Afrocentrists have claimed that important cultural characteristics of ancient Egypt were indigenous to Africa and that these features were present in other early African civilizations such as the later Kerma and the Meroitic civilizations of Nubia. Scholars who have held this view include Marcus Garvey, George James, Cheikh Anta Diop, Martin Bernal, Ivan van Sertima, John Henrik Clarke, Chancellor Williams, and Molefi Kete Asante. The claim has also been made by many Afrocentric scholars that the Ancient Egyptians themselves were Black African (sub-saharan African) rather than North African/Maghrebi, and that the various invasions on Egypt resulted in the "Africanity" of Ancient Egypt becoming diluted, resulting in the modern diversity seen today. Examining this view, Egyptologist Stuart Tyson Smith, wrote that "Any characterization of race of the ancient Egyptians depends on modern cultural definitions, not on scientific study. Thus, by modern American standards it is reasonable to characterise the Egyptians as 'black', while acknowledging the scientific evidence for the physical diversity of Africans". Smith, however, expressed criticism of Egyptologists and Afrocentrists that defined ancient Egyptians "as members of an essentialist racial category" with perceived "Caucasoid" or "Negroid/Africoid" phenotypes".


title: Afrocentrism

text: As historian Ronald H. Fritze argued, mainstream Egyptologists and other scholars strongly object to Afrocentric Egyptology, viewing it as "theurapetic mythology" for black people, since it fails to provide sufficient evidence or persuasive interpretations to back up its claims.


title: Afrocentrism

text: Stephen Howe, professor in the history and cultures of colonialism at Bristol University, writes that contrary to "Afrocentric speculation, depending on undocumented assertions that the relatively light-skinned people of the lower Nile today descend from Arab conquerors rather than earlier residents". Howe also cited a 1995 publication wich stated "the latest major synthetic work on African populations is firmly of the opinion that "It was not the Arabs physically displaced Egyptians. Instead the Egyptians were transformed by relatively small number of immigrants bringing in new ideas, which, when disseminated, created a wider ethnic identity".


title: Afrocentrism

text: S.O.Y. Keita, a biological anthropologist and research affilitate at the Smithsonian Institution who has been described as sympathetic to Afrocentrism, but defined his position as that "it is not a question of “African” “influence”; Ancient Egypt was organically African. Studying early Egypt in its African context is not “Afrocentric,” but simply correct". Keita has argued that the original inhabitants of the Nile Valley were primarily a variety of indigenous Northeast Africans from the areas of the desiccating Sahara and more southerly areas. He reviewed studies on the biological affinities of the Ancient Egyptian population and described the skeletal morphologies of early dynastic Egyptian remains as a "Saharo-tropical African variant". He also noted that over time gene flow from the Near East and Europe added more genetic variability to the region. In 2022, Keita argued that some genetic studies have a "default racialist or racist approach" and should be interpreted in a framework with other sources of evidence. Several other academics, including Christopher Ehret, Fekri Hassan,


title: Afrocentrism

text: Bruce Williams, Frank Yurco, Molefi Kete Asante, Lanny Bell and A.J. Boyce across various disciplines have contended that Ancient Egypt was fundamentally an African civilization, with cultural and biological connections to Egypt's African neighbors.


title: Afrocentrism

text: Scholars have challenged the various assertions of Afrocentrists on the cultural and biological characteristics of Ancient Egyptian civilization and its people. At a UNESCO Symposium in the 1970s, some of the participants, including Jean Vercoutter, Serge Sauneron, Gunnar Säve-Söderbergh and Jean Leclant expressed "profound" disagreement with the "Black", homogeneous hypothesis. Despite contestations, UNESCO decided to include his "Origin of the ancient Egyptians" in the General History of Africa, with an editorial comment mentioning the disagreement. However, Diop's chapter was credited as a "painstakingly researched contribution" which nevertheless lead to a "real lack of balance" in the discussion among participants. The ancient world did not employ racial categories such as "Black" or "White" as they had no conception of "race", but rather labeled groups according to their land of origin and cultural traits. However, Keita studying the controversy, finds simplistic political appellations (in the negative or affirmative) describing ancient populations as "black" or "white" to be inaccurate and instead focuses on the ancestry of ancient Egypt as being a part of the native and diverse biological variation of Africa, which includes a variety of phenotypes and skin gradients. Egyptian Egyptologist Zahi Hawass has gone on record as saying that the Ancient Egyptians were not black and “We believe that the origin of Ancient Egyptians was purely Egyptian based on the discovery made by British Egyptologist Flinders Petrie at Naqada, and this is why the Ancient Egyptian civilisation did not occur in Africa, it occurred only here”.


title: Afrocentrism

text: In 2008, Stuart Tyson Smith expressed criticism of a facial reconstruction of Tutankhamun as "very light-skinned" which reflected "bias" and "predictably and justifiably, it has provoked protests from Afrocentrists" as "Egyptologists have been strangely reluctant to admit that the ancient Egyptians were rather dark-skinned Africans, especially the farther south one goes".


title: Afrocentrism

text: In 2011, Stephen Quirke, professor of Egyptian Archaeology and Philology argued that the UNESCO-sponsored conference on the General History of Africa in 1974 "did not change the Eurocentric climate of research" and of the need to incorporate both African-centred studies and White European, academic perspectives. He later outlined that "research conferences and publications on the history and language of Kemet [Egypt] remain dominated ... by those brought up and trained in European, not African societies and languages (which include Arabic)".


title: Afrocentrism

text: African-Americans who use the Black Egyptian hypothesis as a source of black pride have been called "the hoteps" (after the Egyptian word "hotep"). The term has often been used disparagingly by non-hotep African-Americans, some of whom have linked the ideology of the hotep community – which is anti-feminist, anti-gay and anti-Semitic – to the far-right. Hoteps have been described as promoting false histories and misinformation about black people and black history. Some have argued hotep beliefs are too narrow-minded (focusing only on Egypt as opposed to other aspects of African history), and black feminists argue that hoteps perpetuate rape culture by policing women's sexuality and not criticizing predatory black men.


title: Afrocentrism

text: Within Afrocentrism, claims have been forwarded involving the contention that African civilizations were founding influences on such distant civilizations as the American Olmec and the Chinese Xia cultures.


title: Afrocentrism

text: Afrocentrism has encountered significant opposition from mainstream scholars who charge it with historical inaccuracy, scholarly ineptitude, and racism.


title: Afrocentrism

text: Yaacov Shavit, a critic of the movement, summarises its goals in the preface to his book "History in Black", in which he states:


title: Afrocentrism

text: Other critics, such as Mary Lefkowitz, contend that the Afrocentric historical approach is entrenched in myth and fantasy. She argues that Afrocentrism is grounded in identity politics and myth rather than sound scholarship. In "The Skeptic's Dictionary", philosophy professor Robert Todd Carroll labeled Afrocentrism "pseudohistorical". He argued that Afrocentrism's prime goal was to encourage black nationalism and ethnic pride in order to effectively combat the destructive consequences of cultural and universal racism. Professor of history Clarence E. Walker has described Afrocentrism as "a mythology that is racist, reactionary, essentially therapeutic and is eurocentrism in black face."


title: Afrocentrism

text: Classicist Mary Lefkowitz rejects George James's theories about Egyptian contributions to Greek civilization as being faulty scholarship. She writes that ancient Egyptian texts show little similarity to Greek philosophy. Lefkowitz states that Aristotle could not have stolen his ideas from the great Library at Alexandria as James suggested, because the library was founded after Aristotle's death. On the basis of such errors, Lefkowitz calls Afrocentrism "an excuse to teach myth as history." Mary Lefkowitz in 1997 whilst criticising elements of Afrocentrism had acknowledged that the origins of the ancient Egyptians were more clear due to the "recent evidence on skeletons and DNA [which] suggests that the people who settled in the Nile valley, like all of humankind, came from somewhere south of the Sahara; they were not (as some nineteenth-century scholars had supposed) invaders from the North".


title: Afrocentrism

text: Literature and languages scholar Cain Hope Felder, a supporter of Afrocentric ideas, has warned Afrocentrists to avoid certain pitfalls, including:


title: Afrocentrism

text: Nathan Glazer writes that although Afrocentricity can mean many things, the popular press has generally given most attention to its most outlandish theories. Glazer agrees with many of the findings and conclusions presented in Lefkowitz's book "Not Out of Africa". Yet he also argues that Afrocentrism often presents legitimate and relevant scholarship. The late Manning Marable was also a critic of Afrocentrism. He wrote:


title: Afrocentrism

text: Some Afrocentrists agree in rejecting those works which critics have characterized as examples of bad scholarship. Adisa A. Alkebulan states that the work of Afrocentric scholars is not fully appreciated because critics use the claims of "a few non-Afrocentrists" as "an indictment against Afrocentricity."


title: Afrocentrism

text: In 1996, the historian August Meier critically reviewed the new work of Mary Lefkowitz on Afrocentrism as "Eurocentric". He criticized her book "Not out of Africa: How Afrocentrism became an Excuse to Teach Myth as History" for what he saw as her neglect of the African-American historic literature of the 19th and 20th centuries. Meier believes she fails to take the African-American experiences into account, to the extent that she "fails to answer the question raised in this book's subtitle".


title: Afrocentrism

text: Maghan Keita describes the controversy over Afrocentrism as a cultural war. He believes certain "epistemologies" are warring with each other: the "epistemology of blackness" argues for the "responsibilities and potential of black peoples to function in and contribute to the progress of civilization."


title: French Bee

text: French Bee SAS, styled as French bee, and formerly named "French Blue", is a French low-cost, long-haul airline based at Paris Orly Airport. It operates a scheduled network between France and worldwide leisure destinations with a fleet of Airbus A350s. Its head office is in parent company 's offices in the Belleville-sur-Vie area of Bellevigny, Vendée, France.


title: French Bee

text: In 2014, Marc Rochet (an airline executive at French Caribbean airline Air Caraïbes, with prior executive experience at airlines including AOM and L'Avion) and Jean-Paul Dubreuil (chairman of , the holding and parent company of Air Caraïbes) discussed ways to expand Groupe Dubreuil's aviation businesses. A possibility included the buyout of Corsair International from TUI Group; however when the buyout fell through in March 2015, a decision was made to instead form an entirely new French airline. In June 2015, Groupe Dubreuil announced the launch of a project under the codename "Sunline", involving the creation of a new low-cost, long-haul airline to be based in France. The airline was publicly unveiled in March 2016, under the name "French Blue". Plans for the airline's first two years were to launch flights from Paris to Punta Cana in September 2016, flights to the islands of Réunion and Mauritius in summer 2017, and to operate a fleet of two Airbus A330-300 and two Airbus A350-900s by March 2018. The airline also planned to hire 400 employees within two years.


title: French Bee

text: After receiving its first Airbus A330-300, the airline operated some long-haul flights on behalf of Air Caraïbes from 1 July 2016, before the airline's first flight from Paris Orly to Punta Cana International Airport on 10 September 2016. In October 2016, the airline announced its next destination from Paris Orly with flights to Roland Garros Airport on Réunion island, beginning on 16 June 2017. In August 2017, the airline received its first Airbus A350-900, and was also considering Mauritius and Seychelles as new destinations for 2018. By November 2017 however, the airline ultimately chose Papeete and San Francisco as its next destinations, with plans to begin serving them on 11 May 2018.


title: French Bee

text: In November 2017, while the airline as "French Blue" was applying with the United States Department of Transportation for a foreign air carrier permit to begin service to the country, US-based JetBlue raised objections to another airline serving the country bearing the word "Blue" in its name. In response, the airline was temporarily renamed to simply "French", before the airline announced on 30 January 2018 that it was rebranding as "French Bee". In February 2018, after receiving regulatory approval to begin operations to the US, the airline formally announced the opening of reservations for flights between Paris Orly and Faa'a International Airport (Papeete) in French Polynesia, with flights stopping at San Francisco International Airport each way, and launching on 11 May 2018 as previously planned. The services included international traffic rights for passengers to travel solely to or from San Francisco in addition to transiting between Paris and Papeete.


title: French Bee

text: In June 2018, parent company Groupe Dubreuil announced the addition of a third Airbus A350-900 to French Bee's fleet, to be delivered in June 2019, and that the airline's Airbus A330-300 would be reconfigured and transferred to Air Caraïbes upon the A350's delivery. Following this, the airline's fleet consisted entirely of Airbus A350 aircraft. Also during June 2019, Groupe Dubreuil allocated a fourth A350-900 to the airline for delivery during 2020, and with this expansion to its fleet, the airline in September 2019 announced its second destination in the US with flights to Newark Liberty International Airport, to begin on 10 June 2020. Groupe Dubreuil also announced that it had allocated deliveries for the larger A350-1000 variant to the airline, initially with one each in 2021 and 2022, but was later reported to have been adjusted for both A350-1000s to be delivered during 2021.


title: French Bee

text: In January 2020, French Bee was granted traffic rights to operate services between Paris Orly and São Paulo, Brazil, following the redistribution of traffic rights previously held by Aigle Azur and XL Airways France, which had both gone defunct during September 2019. The airline had not decided which São Paulo airport it would serve between either Guarulhos or Viracopos International Airport, though the airline proposed a June 2021 start date in its application for the traffic rights, with the possibility of an expedited start date during December 2020 by chartering an aircraft from Air Caraïbes. In February 2020, the airline announced an interlining agreement with Alaska Airlines through Alaska's hub in San Francisco, and in anticipation of French Bee's planned services to Newark, a destination also served by Alaska.


title: French Bee

text: During the COVID-19 pandemic and its impact on aviation, which included the United States travel ban beginning in March 2020, French Bee temporarily suspended its operations to the US, intending to operate its flights to Faa'a International Airport by rerouting its intermediate stop from San Francisco International Airport to Pointe-à-Pitre International Airport, allowing for the route's stops between France and French Polynesia to occur within French domestic territories. Shortly after, the airline instead suspended its commercial flights to French Polynesia after 15 March 2020, with the initial intention of resuming them on 10 April 2020. As overseas borders between the airline's Paris Orly base and its destinations began to close, the remainder of the airline's commercial operations (which included its flights to Réunion) were suspended starting from 28 March 2020, with the suspensions expected to last for at least two months. Four days later on 1 April 2020, Orly Airport closed to commercial passenger traffic.


title: French Bee

text: While French Bee's commercial passenger operations were suspended, the airline still operated some charter and cargo-only flights, and while doing so claimed the record for the world's longest domestic flight, though the flight did not carry any passengers as Paris Orly remained closed to passenger traffic. After making a stopover in Pointe-à-Pitre on a flight from Paris Orly to Papeete carrying medical supplies to French Polynesia, the Airbus A350-900 operating the flight returned from Papeete to Paris Orly as a nonstop flight on 15 May 2020, traveling a great-circle distance of , with the airline claiming it traveled a ground distance of . The distance of the flight surpassed the record of Air Tahiti Nui, which initially took the record for its flight from Papeete to Paris Charles de Gaulle earlier that March, with Air Tahiti Nui's Boeing 787-9 traveling a great-circle distance of .


title: French Bee

text: As Orly Airport was still closed to commercial passenger traffic since 1 April 2020, French Bee's Paris-based operations were temporarily relocated to Charles de Gaulle Airport when the airline's passenger flights to Réunion resumed on 12 June 2020. Following Paris Orly's reopening to commercial passenger traffic on 26 June 2020, the airline's operations returned to Paris Orly on 13 July 2020, with the resumption of its commercial flights to French Polynesia following on 15 July 2020. As international borders between Europe and the United States remained closed, the airline's planned flights to Newark Liberty International Airport that were to begin in June 2020 were repeatedly postponed. Additionally, French Bee continued operating its flights to French Polynesia with the intermediate stop occurring in Pointe-à-Pitre or a Canadian airport instead of in San Francisco, though the airline did not pursue international traffic rights to allow passengers to travel solely to or from Canada.


title: French Bee

text: After over a year of suspensions, the airline's flights between Paris Orly and Newark launched on 14 July 2021, as restrictions on travel between France and the United States were gradually lifted, with the resumption of the airline's services to San Francisco between Paris and Papeete following on 10 November 2021. Soon after resuming both of its routes to the United States, the airline on 16 November 2021 announced a new service between Paris Orly and Los Angeles to begin on 9 April 2022 (later postponed to 30 April 2022), and during the following month, the airline received its first Airbus A350-1000 on 17 December 2021. Following the launch of its Los Angeles service, the airline on 3 May 2022 announced a new service between Paris Orly and Miami to begin on 15 December 2022, in anticipation of the delivery of its second Airbus A350-1000.


title: French Bee

text: French Bee has codeshare agreements with sister airline Air Caraïbes as well as the SNCF, the French national railway operator.


title: French Bee

text: French Bee offers three booking classes, consisting of Basic, Smart, and Premium, for its two cabin classes of service, consisting of Premium Blue (the airline's premium economy class) and Eco Blue (the airline's economy class). The Basic and Smart booking classes apply to economy class, while the Premium booking class applies to premium economy. As a low-cost airline, French Bee in most cases charges additional fees for services and amenities offered, such as for seat selection, through buy on board services for catering and comfort kits, as well as for airport services including lounge access and expedited security queues. The Smart and Premium booking classes however include some services and amenities, such as complimentary meals and checked/hold baggage. The airline also provides catalogues in French and English for in-flight catering and duty-free shopping.


title: French Bee

text: Seats in both the premium and economy cabins of French Bee's aircraft are equipped with an in-flight entertainment touchscreen system by Zodiac Aerospace. The system includes a selection of audio and video on demand (AVOD) consisting of movies, recorded television shows, podcasts, music, and video games. Content on the system is freely available to all passengers, regardless of cabin of service, and each screen is equipped with a USB power outlet. The airline also offers in-flight Wi-Fi access at different service levels for an additional fee.


title: French Bee

text: Premium Blue is French Bee's premium economy product, with the cabin consisting of seats configured in a 2-3-2 layout. The seats offer of pitch and measure wide. Each seat is equipped with an adjustable leg, foot, and head rest as well as a power outlet.


title: French Bee

text: Eco Blue is French Bee's economy class product, with the cabin consisting of seats configured mostly in a 3-4-3 layout, with some rows toward the rear of the aircraft configured in a 3-3-3 layout. The seats offer of pitch and measure wide, while two power outlets are included with each set of three or four seats.


title: French Bee

text: During the airline's initial startup as French Blue in 2016, employee unions of sister airline Air Caraïbes (a full service airline) expressed concerns that French Blue's nature as a low-cost airline would be retroactively used to transfer the transatlantic operations of and impede Air Caraïbes' future growth. The unions cited two Airbus A350-900s due in 2017, previously allocated by Groupe Dubreuil to Air Caraïbes that were instead allocated to French Blue, and demanded that the original plans of delivering the A350s to Air Caraïbes be maintained, or that for every aircraft added to the French Blue fleet, an aircraft would also be added to the Air Caraïbes fleet for the latter's fleet size to remain larger. The unions also stressed that French Blue's operations should be kept separate from those of Air Caraïbes not only in the French Caribbean, but also for the future plans to serve Réunion island, which Groupe Dubreuil had previously announced as part of French Blue's plans for the summer of 2017. Marc Rochet acknowledged Air Caraïbes' successful financial results as a full-service airline and reassured that growth and the use of resources for both Air Caraïbes and French Blue would be possible, noting that French Blue's operations would not interfere with the French Caribbean operations of Air Caraïbes in limiting French Blue's Caribbean presence to Punta Cana in the Dominican Republic.


title: French Bee

text: French Blue's sole Airbus A330-300 was ultimately chartered by Air Caraïbes for some of its flights to the Caribbean even through French Blue's official launch to Punta Cana in September 2016, though French Blue also went ahead with its plans to launch its own flights to Réunion island in June 2017. In subsequent years, both the A330 as well as the Punta Cana route were transferred back to Air Caraïbes, while Air Caraïbes received its share of A350 deliveries and renewed part of its Airbus widebody fleet. In addition, the overall fleet size of Air Caraïbes remained higher than that of its sister airline.


title: French Bee

text: French Blue's intention in 2017 to launch flights from Paris Orly to Papeete via San Francisco in May 2018 was opposed by the Tahoera'a Huiraatira party in the French Polynesian government, although the government also approved the airline's application to start service. Gaston Flosse, the party's leader, argued that the high-cost environment of French Polynesia would be unsuitable for the influx of budget travelers that French Blue would transport to the islands, and that effects from the low-cost airline's new services would be detrimental to the local population. A drop in the market shares of Air France and Air Tahiti Nui, which were already operating services between France and French Polynesia via the United States, was also expected due to the added competition and reduced fares that the airline would introduce to the route. Air Tahiti Nui in particular expressed skepticism toward the long-term sustainability of French Blue's low-cost and long-haul business model, claiming that the concept had not yet proven its success. The airline's initial effects on traffic to French Polynesia were reflected in passenger traffic statistics for June 2018, where after the airline (by then having rebranded as French Bee) launched its Papeete services during the previous month, French Bee attained 10% of the market share for all traffic through Faa'a International Airport, while Air France's share fell by 11.1% and Air Tahiti Nui's fell by 3.6% compared to June 2017. By the end of 2018, French Bee claimed to have attained 35% of the total market share between Paris and Papeete, compared to Air Tahiti Nui's 36% and Air France's 29%, and a 16% market share between the United States and Papeete, compared to Air Tahiti Nui's 52% and Air France's 12%.


title: French Bee

text: Observers additionally felt that the infrastructure for tourism on the islands, including hotel vacancy or capacity on domestic inter-island services, would be unable to support the increase in visitors. While inbound tourism increased by 10.1% in June 2018 compared to June 2017 (particularly from Europe and the United States as a result of French Bee's new services), the demand for hotel capacity dropped by 2.5% compared to June 2017, with independent renters being projected to have absorbed or hosted additional capacity. In contrast to the increased tourist volume from Europe and the United States, tourism from Japan, Australia, and New Zealand dropped during the same period. After French Bee, United Airlines in December 2017 also announced the launch of its own services to Papeete from San Francisco for October 2018; and as United was also serving Paris Charles de Gaulle from San Francisco, it further increased competition and contributed additional capacity from the United States and Europe to the islands. While United's total market share between Paris and Papeete was not specified, French Bee claimed that United attained 20% of the total market share between the US and Papeete by the end of 2018, although these figures did not include Hawaiian Airlines, a US-based carrier that also operated Papeete services during the same period.


title: Maidenhead

text: Maidenhead is a market town in the Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead in the county of Berkshire, England, on the southwestern bank of the River Thames. It had an estimated population of 70,374 and forms part of the border with southern Buckinghamshire. The town is situated west of Charing Cross, London and east-northeast of the county town of Reading. The town differs from the Parliamentary constituency of Maidenhead, which includes a number of outer suburbs and villages (including parts of Wokingham and Reading) such as Twyford, Charvil, Remenham, Ruscombe and Wargrave.


title: Maidenhead

text: The antiquary John Leland claimed that the area around Maidenhead's present town centre was a small Roman settlement called Alaunodunum. He stated that it had all but disappeared by the end of the Roman occupation. Although his source is unknown, there is documented and physical evidence of Roman settlement in the town. There are two well known villa sites in the town, one being in the suburb of Cox Green, and the other just west of the town centre on Castle Hill. This villa sat on the route of the Camlet Way which was a Roman road linking Silchester (Calleva Atrebatum) and Colchester (Camulodunum) via St Albans (Verulamium) and passes through the present town centre. Remnants of the road have been unearthed at various locations nearby, but its exact route is unclear.


title: Maidenhead

text: Maidenhead's name stems from the riverside area where the first "New wharf" or "Maiden Hythe" was built, as early as Saxon times. In the year 870, an army of Danes invaded the kingdom of Wessex. They disembarked from their longboats by the wharf and ferry crossing at Maidenhead and fought their way overland to Reading where they set up camp and made it their regional power base. The area of the present town centre was originally a small Anglo-Saxon town known as "South Ellington". The town would have likely developed on the Camlet Way on the site of Alaunodunum as the Bath Road was not re-routed until the 13th century. Maidenhead is recorded in the Domesday Book as the settlement of Ellington in the hundred of Beynhurst.