title: Oxygen therapy

text: In some instances, a partial rebreathing mask can be used, which is based on a simple mask, but features a reservoir bag, which can provide oxygen concentrations of 40–70% at 5–15 LPM.


title: Oxygen therapy

text: Demand oxygen delivery systems (DODS) or oxygen resuscitators deliver oxygen only when the person inhales or the caregiver presses a button on the mask (e.g., nonbreathing patient). These systems greatly conserve oxygen compared to steady-flow masks, and are useful in emergency situations when a limited supply of oxygen is available and there is a delay in transporting the person to higher care. Due to utilization of a variety of methods for oxygenation requirements performance differences arise. They are very useful in CPR, as the caregiver can deliver rescue breaths composed of 100% oxygen with the press of a button. Care must be taken not to over-inflate the person's lungs, for which some systems employ safety valves. These systems may not be appropriate for people who are unconscious or in respiratory distress because of the required respiratory effort.


title: Oxygen therapy

text: For patients requiring high concentrations of oxygen, a number of devices are available. The most commonly utilized device is the non-rebreather mask (or reservoir mask). Non-rebreather masks draw oxygen from attached reservoir bags with one-way valves that direct exhaled air out of the mask. If flow rate is not sufficient (~10L/min), the bag may collapse on inspiration. This type of mask is indicated for acute medical emergencies. The delivered FO (Inhalation volumetric fraction of molecular oxygen) of this system is 60–80%, depending on oxygen flow and breathing pattern.


title: Oxygen therapy

text: Another type of device is a humidified high flow nasal cannula which enables flows exceeding a person's peak inspiratory flow demand to be delivered via nasal cannula, thus providing FO of up to 100% because there is no entrainment of room air. This also allows the person to continue to talk, eat, and drink while still receiving therapy. This type of delivery method is associated with greater overall comfort, improved oxygenation, and respiratory rates compared with face mask oxygen.


title: Oxygen therapy

text: In specialist applications such as aviation, tight-fitting masks can be used. These masks also have applications in anaesthesia, carbon monoxide poisoning treatment and in hyperbaric oxygen therapy.


title: Oxygen therapy

text: Patients who are unable to breathe on their own will require positive pressure to move oxygen into their lungs for gaseous exchange to take place. Systems for delivery vary in complexity and cost, starting with a basic pocket mask adjunct which can be used to manually deliver artificial respiration with supplemental oxygen delivered through a mask port.


title: Oxygen therapy

text: Many emergency medical service members, first aid personnel, and hospital staff may use a bag-valve-mask (BVM), which is a malleable bag attached to a face mask (or invasive airway such as an endotracheal tube or laryngeal mask airway), usually with a reservoir bag attached, which is manually manipulated by the healthcare professional to push oxygen (or air) into the lungs. This is the only procedure allowed for initial treatment of cyanide poisoning in the UK workplace.Automated versions of the BVM system, known as a resuscitator or pneupac can also deliver measured and timed doses of oxygen directly to people through a facemask or airway. These systems are related to the anaesthetic machines used in operations under general anaesthesia that allow a variable amount of oxygen to be delivered, along with other gases including air, nitrous oxide and inhalational anaesthetics.


title: Oxygen therapy

text: Oxygen and other compressed gases are used in conjunction with a nebulizer to allow delivery of medications to the upper and/or lower airways. Nebulizers use compressed gas to propel liquid medication into therapeutically sized aerosol droplets for deposition to the appropriate portion of the airway. A typical compressed gas flow rate of 8–10 L/min is used to nebulize medications, saline, sterile water, or a combination these treatments into a therapeutic aerosol for inhalation. In the clinical setting, room air (ambient mix of several gasses), molecular oxygen, and Heliox are the most common gases used to nebulize a bolus treatment or a continuous volume of therapeutic aerosols.


title: Oxygen therapy

text: Filtered oxygen masks have the ability to prevent exhaled particles from being released into the surrounding environment. These masks are normally of a closed design such that leaks are minimized and breathing of room air is controlled through a series of one-way valves. Filtration of exhaled breaths is accomplished either by placing a filter on the exhalation port or through an integral filter that is part of the mask itself. These masks first became popular in the Toronto (Canada) healthcare community during the 2003 SARS Crisis. SARS was identified as being respiratory based, and it was determined that conventional oxygen therapy devices were not designed for the containment of exhaled particles. In 2003, the HiOx oxygen mask was released for sale. The HiOx mask is a closed design mask that allows a filter to be placed on the exhalation port. Several new designs have emerged in the global healthcare community for the containment and filtration of potentially infectious particles. Other designs include the ISO- oxygen mask, the FloMax oxygen mask, and the O-Mask.


title: Oxygen therapy

text: Typical oxygen masks allow a person to breathe in a mixture of room air and therapeutic oxygen. However, as filtered oxygen masks use a closed design that minimizes or eliminates the person's contact with and ability to inhale room air, delivered oxygen concentrations in such devices have been found to be elevated, approaching 99% using adequate oxygen flows. Because all exhaled particles are contained within the mask, nebulized medications are also prevented from releasing into the surrounding atmosphere, decreasing the occupational exposure to healthcare staff and other people.


title: Oxygen therapy

text: In the United States, most airlines restrict the devices allowed on board an aircraft. As a result, passengers are restricted in what devices they can use. Some airlines will provide cylinders for passengers with an associated fee. Other airlines allow passengers to carry on approved portable concentrators. However, the lists of approved devices varies by airline so passengers may need to check with any airline they are planning to fly on. Passengers are generally not allowed to carry on personal cylinders. In all cases, passengers need to notify the airline in advance of their equipment.


title: Oxygen therapy

text: Effective May 13, 2009, the Department of Transportation and FAA ruled that a select number of portable oxygen concentrators are approved for use on all commercial flights. FAA regulations require larger airplanes to carry D-cylinders of oxygen for use in case of an emergency.


title: Oxygen therapy

text: Since the 1980s, devices have been available which conserve stored oxygen by delivering it during the portion of the breathing cycle when it is more effectively used. This has the effect of stored oxygen lasting longer, or a smaller, and therefore lighter, portable oxygen delivery system being practicable. This class of device can also be used with portable oxygen concentrators, making them more efficient.


title: Oxygen therapy

text: The delivery of supplemental oxygen is most effective if it is made at a point in the breathing cycle when it will be inhaled to the alveoli, where gas transfer occurs. oxygen delivered later in the cycle will be inhaled into physiological dead space, wher it serves no useful purpose as it cannot diffuse into the blood. Oxygen delivered during stages of the breathing cycle in which it is not inhaled is also wasted.


title: Oxygen therapy

text: A continuous constant flow rate uses a simple regulator, but is inefficient as a high percentage of the delivered gas does not reach the alveoli, and over half is not inhaled at all. A system which accumulates free-flow oxygen during resting and exhalation stages, (reservoir cannulas) makes a larger part of the oxygen available for inhalation, and it will be selectively inhaled during the initial part of inhalation, which reaches furthest into the lungs. A similar function is provided by a mechanical demand regulator which provides gas only during inhalation, but requires some physical effort by the user, and also ventilates dead space with oxygen. A third class of system (pulse dose oxygen conserving device, or demand pulse devices) senses the start of inhalation and provides a metered bolus, which if correctly matched to requirements, will be sufficient and effectively inhaled into the alveoli.Such systems can be pneumatically or electrically controlled.


title: Oxygen therapy

text: A development in pulse demand delivery are devices that automatically adjust the volume of the pulsed bolus to suit the activity level of the user. This adaptive response in intended to reduce desaturation responses caused by exercise rate variation.


title: Oxygen therapy

text: Pulsed delivery devices are available as stand alone modules or integrated into a system specifically designed to use compressed gas, liquid oxygen or oxygen concentrator sources. Integrated design usually allows optimisation of the system for the source type at the cost of versatility.


title: Oxygen therapy

text: Transtracheal oxygen catheters are inserted directly into the trachea through a small opening in the front of the neck for that purpose. The opening is directed downward, towards the bifurcation of the bronchi. Oxygen introduced through the catheter bypasses the dead spaces of the nose, pharynx and upper trachea during inhalation, and during continuous flow, will accumulate in the anatomic dead space at the end of exhalation and be available for immediate inhalation to the alveoli on the following inhalation. This reduces wastage and provides efficiency roughly three times greater than with external continuous flow. This is roughly equivalent to a reservoir cannula. Transtracheal catheters have been found to be effective during rest, exercise and sleep.


title: Aleksei Serebryakov (actor)

text: Aleksei Valeryevich Serebryakov, PAR, HOR (; born 3 July 1964) is a Soviet and Russian stage and film actor. He started acting at 13, and now he is one of the most popular and highly paid Russian actors. He has appeared in "Leviathan" and "McMafia".


title: Aleksei Serebryakov (actor)

text: Aleksei Valeryevich Serebryakov was born on 3 July 1964 in Moscow. His father was an aircraft engineer and his mother worked as a doctor at the Gorky Film Studio. In his childhood, he attended a music school (class of accordion). He made his debut as an actor at 13, when his music teacher published a photo of him in the newspaper "Vechernyaya Moskva". Serebryakov was noticed by casting directors Valery Uskov and Vladimir Krasnopolsky, who conducted castings for the Soviet TV series "Eternal Call".


title: Aleksei Serebryakov (actor)

text: In 1986, he graduated from the Lunacharsky State Institute for Theatre Arts, where he went to the acting school of Oleg Tabakov, after which he played for several years at the Moscow Theatre-Studio "Tabakerka" directed by Oleg Tabakov. In 1991, he left the theater.


title: Aleksei Serebryakov (actor)

text: After graduating from the Russian Institute of Theatre Arts, Serebryakov starred in several films, including "Silent Outpost" (1986) and "Accused of the Wedding" (1986), and some others. He gained wide popularity due to his main character as a criminal fighter in Vladimir Feoktistov's movie "Fan" (1989).


title: Aleksei Serebryakov (actor)

text: In 1990, Serebryakov appeared in "Afghan Breakdown", directed by Vladimir Bortko. He also starred in the 1990 film "Accidental Waltz", for which he won the best actor prize at the Locarno Film Festival. In 1994, he appeared in the Sergey Livnov drama "Hammer and Sickle".


title: Aleksei Serebryakov (actor)

text: Later in the decade, he also appeared in numerous TV series, including "Bandit Petersburg", "Empire Under Attack", "The White Guard" and many others. Concurrently, he starred in the movies "Antikiller 2: Antiterror" and "Escape" by Yegor Konchalovsky, "Dead Man's Bluff" by Aleksei Balabanov, "The 9th Company" and "Dark Planet" by Fyodor Bondarchuk, Vadim Shmelev's "The Apocalypse Code", "Gloss" by Andrei Konchalovsky, "Golden Section" by Sergei Debizhev, "Once Upon a Time There Lived a Simple Woman" by Andrei Smirnov, "Solo on the Saxophone" by Alexander Kirienko and the fantasy-anthology film "Fairytale.Is".


title: Aleksei Serebryakov (actor)

text: He performed in Lenkom Theatre between 2009 and 2012. He played Sergei Mamontov in the partly biographical film "The PyraMMMid" (2011), a fictional story inspired by financier Sergei Mavrodi (the founder of MMM pyramid scheme). In 2014, Serebryakov played the lead role of Kolya in Andrey Zvyagintsev's internationally acclaimed drama "Leviathan". After that, Serebryakov appeared in Sergei Puskepalis's directorial debut, "Clinch".


title: Aleksei Serebryakov (actor)

text: In 2015–2016, he continued acting in TV series, including "Fartsa" and "The Method". In 2017, he played role of Dr. Andrey Richter in "Doctor Richter", a Russian remake of the American medical drama series, "House". In the same year, he appeared in the historical fantasy feature film "Furious". Serebryakov appeared in the 2018 BBC series "McMafia", where he played Dimitri Godman, mafia boss father of protagonist Alex.


title: Aleksei Serebryakov (actor)

text: In 2018, Serebryakov became embroiled in controversy over his statement in an interview that the most common traits of Russian people are "[brutal] force, rudeness and arrogance". He also said in the interview that he does not like two things about Vladimir Putin: lies and thieving. At a business forum in London later that year, he accused Russia of stirring up multiple wars.


title: Aleksei Serebryakov (actor)

text: Serebryakov has been in a relationship with his wife Maria since the 1980s. They were married in the 1990s and have three children; one child from Maria's previous marriage and two whom they have adopted together. In March 2012, Serebryakov emigrated to Canada with his family, citing corruption and political unrest in Russia as barriers to raising his children. He later stated that he held no Canadian citizenship, but it was cheaper for him to live there. In 2021 it was reported that Serebryakov had returned back to Russia. According to the actor, "As a matter of fact, I never left, I only took my children away for studying".


title: Aero Commander 500 family

text: The Aero Commander 500 family is a series of light-twin piston-engined and turboprop aircraft originally built by the Aero Design and Engineering Company in the late 1940s, renamed the Aero Commander company in 1950, and a division of Rockwell International from 1965. The initial production version was the 200-mph, seven-seat Aero Commander 520. An improved version, the 500S, manufactured after 1967, is known as the Shrike Commander. Larger variants are known by numerous model names and designations, ranging up to the 330-mph, 11-seat Model 695B/Jetprop 1000B turboprop.


title: Aero Commander 500 family

text: The idea for the Commander light business twin was conceived by Ted Smith, a project engineer at the Douglas Aircraft Company. Working part-time after hours throughout 1944, a group of A-20 engineers formed the Aero Design and Engineering Company to design and build the proposed aircraft with a layout similar to their A-20 bomber. Originally, the new company was going to build three pre-production aircraft, but as the first aircraft was being built, they decided to build just one prototype. The final configuration was completed in July 1946 and was designated the Model L3805.


title: Aero Commander 500 family

text: Registered "NX1946", the prototype first flew on 23 April 1948. The L3805 accommodated up to five people and was powered by two Lycoming O-435-A piston engines., it was an all-metal high-wing monoplane with retractable undercarriage using components from a Vultee BT-13 Valiant. The market segment planned for this aircraft to be sold to small feeder airliner firms and was originally designed to carry seven passengers, but instead found use in the private business aircraft and military market. Walter Beech test flew the aircraft in 1949 and expressed interest in buying the project, but passed on it, to instead develop the Beechcraft Twin Bonanza. Fairchild Aircraft also evaluated the prototype at its Hagerstown, Maryland, headquarters.


title: Aero Commander 500 family

text: The prototype flew successfully and the company leased, at no cost, a new 26,000 square-foot factory at Bethany near Oklahoma City to build a production version, certified on 30 June 1950. Nearly 10,000 hours of redesign work went into the model, including more powerful Lycoming GO-435-C2 engines, with a combined rating of 520 horsepower. The production model was named the Commander 520. The first Commander 520 was rolled out of the new factory in August 1951. Serial number 1 was used as a demonstrator, then sold in October 1952 to the Asahi Shimbun Press Company of Tokyo.


title: Aero Commander 500 family

text: In military service it was initially designated the L-26, though in 1962 this was changed to U-4 for the United States Air Force and U-9 for the United States Army.


title: Aero Commander 500 family

text: Under ownership of Rockwell in the 1960s, World War II pilot R. A. "Bob" Hoover demonstrated the Shrike Commander 500S for decades in a variety of "managed energy" routines, including single-engine and engine-out aerobatics. His Shrike Commander is displayed in the colors of his last sponsor, Evergreen International Aviation, at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center of the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum. Bob Odegaard continued the tradition in 2012, flying a 1975 Shrike 500S in a Bob Hoover tribute routine.


title: Aero Commander 500 family

text: One U-4B became a presidential transport aircraft for Dwight D. Eisenhower between 1956 and 1960. This was the smallest "Air Force One," and the first to wear the now-familiar blue-and-white livery. This aircraft is now owned by the Commemorative Air Force.


title: Aero Commander 500 family

text: As of 2004 Shrike Commanders remained in service with the United States Customs Service and United States Coast Guard.


title: Aero Commander 500 family

text: A single 560F was operated by the Belgian Air Force as the personal transport of the late king Baudouin of Belgium from 1961 to 1973.


title: Aero Commander 500 family

text: According to the July 1, 1968 Frontier Airlines (1950-1986) system timetable, series 500 aircraft were being operated on scheduled passenger flights by Combs Aviation on behalf of Frontier via a contract agreement with service to several smaller communities in Montana and Wyoming at this time.


title: Aero Commander 500 family

text: The unpressurized, long-fuselage 680FL was operated as a small package freighter by Combs Freightair in the 1970s and 1980s, and by Suburban Air Freight in the 1980s and 1990s. The aircraft was popular with pilots, because it was extremely "pilot friendly" and with its 380 hp supercharged engines did well in icing meteorological conditions. A number are still operated on contracts for cargo and fire control applications, as their piston engines offer good fuel specifics at low altitudes and longer loiter times.


title: Aero Commander 500 family

text: Beginning in June 1991, senior engineers met with FAA officials to discuss concerns over the Aero Commander's main wing spar, which was believed to be susceptible to stress fatigue and subsequent cracking, and was believed to have resulted in a number of fatal crashes. From approximately 1961 to 1993, 24 aircraft crashed when spar failures caused the loss of the wing in flight. 35 more spars were found cracked during inspections.


title: Aero Commander 500 family

text: In 1950, when the developers were working to satisfy Civil Aeronautics Authority (CAA) regulations for certification of the 500, they chose a novel method of demonstrating its single-engine safety and performance: they removed one of the two-bladed propellers, secured it in the aft cabin, and flew from Bethany to Washington, D.C. on one engine. There they met with CAA personnel, then replaced the propeller and returned to Oklahoma in the conventional manner. The flight received nationwide coverage in the press.


title: Aero Commander 500 family

text: In 1979, the National Transportation Safety Board reviewed light-twin engine-failure accidents, involving the 24 most popular model-groups of light twins between 1972 and 1976. They found that the "piston"-engined twin-Commanders had averaged slightly over 3.4 engine-failure accidents per hundred-thousand hours, the second worst number of all aircraft under review. The most engine failures were suffered by the small-engine versions of the Piper Apache, at 6.9 failures per hundred thousand hours; the third-worst, the Beechcraft Travel Air, averaged 2.9 failures; the average for all models was only 1.6.


title: Aero Commander 500 family

text: Countering the statistical evidence, Rockwell demonstration pilot Bob Hoover's famous airshow stunt routine, with the Shrike Commander, included a full aerobatic routine performed first with both engines, then with one engine out (and the critical engine, at that), then both engines out, and gliding. Then in his final airshow performance, in a supreme demonstration of conservation of momentum, he did all that, then landed the Shrike Commander dead stick (engines off), coasted the airplane down the runway then from the runway down the taxiway and silently let the craft roll slowly to a full stop right in front of the crowd.


title: Aero Commander 500 family

text: The "turboprop" twin-Commanders—with much more powerful engines (and most with longer bodies, allowing greater rudder leverage, critical for single-engine control) – came out on the opposite end of the rankings, with one of the "lowest" rates of engine-failure accidents of all "light" twins examined, at only 0.4 per hundred-thousand hours.


title: Elsa Bloodstone

text: Elsa Bloodstone is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. She first appears in Marvel's "Bloodstone" mini-series of 2001 written by Dan Abnett and Andy Lanning. She is the daughter of the previously established Marvel Universe character Ulysses Bloodstone and the sister of Cullen Bloodstone. She was a member of Nextwave, Midnight Sons and Fearless Defenders.


title: Elsa Bloodstone

text: As she is a young, female monster-hunter there are potential similarities with Buffy the Vampire Slayer, although when asked about this the authors claimed "neither of us have seen an episode of "Buffy" all the way through! I know we're missing out on some great TV but we've determined to steer clear of Buffy at least while we're doing Bloodstone."


title: Elsa Bloodstone

text: Elsa Bloodstone appeared in the Marvel Cinematic Universe / Disney+ television special "Werewolf by Night", portrayed by Laura Donnelly.


title: Elsa Bloodstone

text: Elsa appeared as the lead character in the "Bloodstone" mini-series (December, 2001 - March, 2002) and was created by writer duo Dan Abnett, Andy Lanning and artist Michael Lopez. She is introduced as the daughter of Ulysses Bloodstone and she is a monster hunter just like her father. The miniseries further detailed her origin. Despite her similarities with Buffy the Vampire Slayer, both have claimed to have never seen a full episode of Buffy and were "determined to steer clear of Buffy at least while we're doing Bloodstone."


title: Elsa Bloodstone

text: She was a team member in the twelve issue "Nextwave" maxi-series. At first presented as a counter-terrorist group made up of superheroes and former superheroes, but it is later revealed that their employers were being funded by a terrorist group. The All-New, All-Different Marvel refresh of their main line of comics, made it part of the main continuity, which was previously disputed.


title: Elsa Bloodstone

text: Elsa and her family featured in the four issue mini "Legion of Monsters", that was collected in Bloodstone and the Legion of Monsters. In 2012, she appeared in Wolverine's ongoing and "Avengers Arena" which introduced her long lost brother Cullen Bloodstone, who was trapped in an alternate dimension by their father.


title: Elsa Bloodstone

text: In Aug. 2013, Elsa joined a team of superheroes known as the Fearless Defenders. At the time of her joining, the roster consisted of Valkyrie, Misty Knight, Annabelle Riggs, Warrior Woman, Danielle Moonstar and Clea. The following year, she was part of the Doctor Doom's Avengers team in the pages of "Avengers World", written by Nick Spencer, they were tied in to line wide "AXIS" storyline.


title: Elsa Bloodstone

text: She was one of the main characters in the 2017's company-wide crossover story arc "Monsters Unleashed", the crossover included a huge cast of superheroes, that consisted of the Avengers, Champions, Moon Girl and Devil Dinosaur, Guardians of the Galaxy, Inhumans, Kei Kawade, Leviathon Tide and the X-Men.


title: Elsa Bloodstone

text: In the limited series "Damnation", Wong summoned her to be a member of a new version of the Midnight Sons alongside Blade, Doctor Voodoo, Ghost Rider, Iron Fist, and Man-Thing, a superhero team focused on supernatural phenomena. She returned in Kelly Thompson's "Jessica Jones", she aided the titular character in the first storyarc.


title: Elsa Bloodstone

text: Elsa lives in Bloodstone Manor with her mother Elise and ally Adam the Frankenstein Monster. She has befriended Charles Barnabus, a pureblood vampire lawyer and executor of the Bloodstone estate. Together along with Dracula they defeat Nosferatu and his scourge of vampires.


title: Elsa Bloodstone

text: Pursuing a monster-hunting occupation, she begins an online blog to create an electronic encyclopedic reference guide for the numerous monsters and alien beasts in the Marvel Universe (published by Marvel as "Marvel Monsters: From the Files of Ulysses Bloodstone and the Monster Hunters").


title: Elsa Bloodstone

text: Elsa Bloodstone has also appeared in "Nextwave", but the series' connection to the Marvel Universe is unclear - it was initially out-of-continuity and was later implied to be the adventures of tourists from Earth-A. However, "Civil War: Damage Report" suggest that at least parts of the adventures of the team were set in the main continuity: the others may have been delusions brought by constant use of drugs, mental conditioning and deceptions by their H.A.T.E. employers. Her delusional state could also account for her "memories" of being routinely subjected to abusive monster-hunting training by her father, like being left alone in childhood with a robotical nanny programmed to torture her whenever she wasn't able to reply to a question regarding monsters, or being forced by her father to kill monsters, as a toddler, armed with simple cutlery.


title: Elsa Bloodstone

text: The character elected to suspend her college studies upon being recruited by Dirk Anger of H.A.T.E. to fight Unusual Weapons of Mass Destruction (UWMD) alongside Monica Rambeau, Tabitha Smith, Aaron Stack, and The Captain. Shortly after this recruiting Elsa and her teammates found H.A.T.E. to be funded by the Beyond Corporation©, which is in fact a terrorist organization. Using the stolen Marketing Plan of Beyond, the Nextwave squad traveled across the country destroying hidden UWMDs which included Fin Fang Foom, Mindless Ones, and Forbush Man.


title: Elsa Bloodstone

text: She suffers constant abuses by her teammembers, like being confronted by Tabitha Smith about her European origins and accent (referred even in the "Nextwave Theme Song" as her main characteristic), and constantly ogled by Aaron Stack, attracted by her large chest.


title: Elsa Bloodstone

text: Recently, Elsa joined up as part of Iron Man and the government's Fifty State Initiative. Elsa has been identified as one of the 142 registered superheroes who appear to have signed the Superhuman Registration Act and become part of the Initiative. She later returns to her monster-hunting adventures: still with her brasher mind-set, seen in her Nextwave days, she vows solemnly to never have children on her own, since she feels the responsibility of being a Bloodstone too heavy to be forced on another living being. Instead, she chooses to end her legacy once and for all, completing the task of freeing humanity from monsters before dying.


title: Elsa Bloodstone

text: As part of the "Marvel NOW!" event, Elsa Bloodstone is shown as one of the teachers at the Braddock Academy (the British equivalent of the Avengers Academy) where she takes her brother Cullen Bloodstone to attend.


title: Elsa Bloodstone

text: She gets involved with the Thunderbolts, when Punisher steals her magic regalia to battle teammate Ghost Rider and again when the team needs magical assistance from her and W.A.N.D. in order to battle Doctor Strange.


title: Elsa Bloodstone

text: Elsa later appears in the pages of "Avengers Undercover" where she visits Cullen and argues with him in the S.H.I.E.L.D. detention center after Hazmat seemingly killed Arcade in Bagalia.


title: Elsa Bloodstone

text: During the "AXIS" storyline, Elsa Bloodstone is among the heroes recruited by an inverted Doctor Doom to join his team of Avengers. They attempt to protect the innocent citizens of Latveria, who had nothing to do with their monarch's latest problems.


title: Elsa Bloodstone

text: During the "Civil War II" storyline, Elsa appeared in Ouray, Colorado, where she defends the town from an infection that is turning the populace into a swarm of giant bugs. She befriends Nico Minoru who is running from Captain Marvel due to a vision of the future predicting she will murder an innocent woman named Alice. Elsa takes Nico to meet her contact, Janine, who is harboring survivors and looking for her missing daughter, Alice. Captain Marvel, Medusa, Dazzler and Singularity arrive and argue over whether to apprehend Nico or not. Eventually they split into two teams: one to find Alice and the other to protect the civilians. Elsa, Nico and Captain Marvel search for Alice in an abandoned mine and are attacked by a giant bug which infects Elsa. Nico learns the bug is Alice who begs Nico to kill her since she is the one infecting the people. When Nico refuses, Elsa threatens to murder Captain Marvel to force Nico into committing murder to stop her transformation into a monster. Medusa, Singularity, and an infected Dazzler are overrun by bugs and regroup with the others just as Bloodstone infects Danvers. After Dazzler infects Medusa, Minoru casts a spell to transform Alice back into a human but it does not cure the rest of the populace. Alice explains that she must be killed and Minoru reluctantly casts a death spell on Alice which transforms the infected back into humans. Alice then remerges in her final form and tells A-Force that she is no longer a threat as she now has greater control of her powers.


title: Elsa Bloodstone

text: During the "Monsters Unleashed" storyline, Elsa is seen in Peru and finds a prophecy that tells of the Monster King all the monsters fear. She then discovers that a kid named Kei Kawade is somehow responsible for the invasion and pays him a visit. Elsa then takes Kei to the Inhumans to examine his abilities. When another wave of monsters arrive, Elsa and other heroes protect Kei from monsters attacking the Triskelion, a S.H.I.E.L.D. base off the coast of New York City.


title: Elsa Bloodstone

text: Elsa has exhibited superhuman strength, speed, durability and endurance, and a regenerative healing factor. She appears to possess all of the abilities her father once had. In addition, she has demonstrated immunity to vampire bites (her blood will kill a vampire if consumed and the original Bloodgem fragment itself is anathema to vampires).


title: Elsa Bloodstone

text: Some of her powers were bestowed upon her by the Bloodgem fragment she wears on a choker, although she does not appear to be wearing it in flashbacks to her childhood training sessions. Elsa has also inherited at least some of the Bloodgem's power genetically from her father. She has also been portrayed as an expert marksman.


title: Elsa Bloodstone

text: Elsa is able to fire energy blasts from her right hand, and claims that her father ripped off her original hand and replaced it with an apparently magical one. This power was never utilized previously and has not been used since. No explanation has been offered to date.


title: Elsa Bloodstone

text: She has been shown to use a removable Bloodgem on a choker as well as a number of artifacts gathered by her father. These include a lamp which contained a genie whom Ulysses had enslaved years ago. This serves as an early warning system, lighting up during times of supernatural crisis, and transporting him to said crisis. In "Nextwave", she carries a guitar case with a false cover, containing two Uzis and a rifle.


title: Elsa Bloodstone

text: Elsa is the commander of super-powered soldiers manning a wall that keeps zombies from civilization. A teleportation accident leaves Elsa far from safety, hunted by powered zombies and with a strange human girl she dubs Shuttup in her care.


title: Elsa Bloodstone

text: In an archaeological expedition, Elsa and her team find the stone statue of Fin Fang Foom. She sells this statue to Tony Stark for the opening of his new casino only for the statue to release the actual dragon himself from his stone tomb.


title: Elsa Bloodstone

text: Elsa Bloodstone alongside the other members of Nextwave show up "in a purely superfluous cameo" in the third issue of the "Marvel Zombies vs. The Army of Darkness" to save Ash from a zombified Power Pack, before being "Ruthlessly dispatched off-panel in the most humiliating and degrading ways imaginable" moments later.


title: Elsa Bloodstone

text: Elsa Bloodstone appears in the Marvel Cinematic Universe / Disney+ special "Werewolf by Night", portrayed by Laura Donnelly. This version is the estranged stepdaughter of Verussa Bloodstone.


title: Nahanni National Park Reserve

text: Nahanni National Park Reserve in the Dehcho Region of the Northwest Territories, Canada, approximately west of Yellowknife, protects a portion of the Mackenzie Mountains Natural Region. The centrepiece of the park is the South Nahanni River ("Naha Dehé"). Four noteworthy canyons reaching in depth, called First, Second, Third and Fourth Canyon, line its whitewater river. The name Nahanni comes from the indigenous Dene language name for the area; Nahʔa Dehé, which means "river of the land of the Nahʔa people". The park was among the world's first four natural heritage locations to be inscribed as World Heritage Sites by UNESCO in 1978 because of its picturesque wild rivers, canyons, and waterfalls. The park is also said to be haunted or cursed, following the mysterious disappearances and deaths of several gold prospectors over the years.


title: Nahanni National Park Reserve

text: There are several different landforms in the park that have taken millions of years to form, and give it a diversity not seen in any other national park in Canada. Sediment left by an ancient inland sea 500-200 million years ago had since become pressed into layers of rock. These layers were stacked about deep and are peppered with fossils, remnants of these ancient sea beds. As the continents shifted, the North American and Pacific Plates collided, the force of which pushed the layers of rock upwards. Ridges of rock bent and broke, leaving behind the ranges seen today. This same action also caused volcanic activity, sending molten lava into but not through the sedimentary rock. While there are no volcanoes in the park, towers of heated rock called igneous batholiths were sent upwards, pushing the sediment further up. The top layer of sedimentary rock was eventually worn away, resulting in granite towers that form the Ragged Range.


title: Nahanni National Park Reserve

text: Over the last 2 million years, glaciers have covered most of North America, creating most of the land formations seen today. While previous ice ages affected the park area, the most recent, the Wisconsin Ice Age (85,000-10,000 years ago), touched only the most western and eastern parts of the park. This has left many geological features in the park much more time to develop than most of North America had.


title: Nahanni National Park Reserve

text: The central feature of the park is the South Nahanni River which runs the length of the park, beginning near Moose Ponds and ending when it meets the Liard River near Nahanni Butte. The South Nahanni is a rare example of an antecedent river. The mountains rose slowly enough, and the river was powerful enough, that the river maintained its course over its history, meaning it has approximately the same path today as it did before the mountains rose. As the river was meandering, the canyons it carved while entrenching also meander. Most visitors only visit the portions from Virginia Falls ("Nailicho") down.


title: Nahanni National Park Reserve

text: There are four main canyons that line the South Nahanni River, named by prospectors, numbering them as they travelled up the river. The fourth canyon, also called Painted Canyon or Five Mile Canyon due to its length, begins with Virginia Falls, and was created as the falls eroded the limestone surrounding the river, working its way upstream. Third canyon runs through Funeral Range, around long. Because its walls are composed of strata of shale, sandstones and limestone, this canyon has long slopes instead of steep, flat walls like the lower canyons. Big Bend, a point where the river does a 45-degree turn, marks the end of Third and the beginning of Second Canyon. At long, it runs through the Headless Range. The final canyon is considered the most beautiful. Beginning after Deadmen Valley, First Canyon boasts the highest, most vertical walls, cutting through very resistant limestone. It ends near Kraus Hotsprings, making it about long. Following this, the river slows and braids into different channels, passing through the park boundary, and coming together again near the village of Nahanni Butte. Soon after the town, the South Nahanni River joins the Liard River.


title: Nahanni National Park Reserve

text: Notable mountains in the park include Mount Nirvana (), officially an unnamed peak, which at is the highest mountain in the Northwest Territories. Slightly further north lies Mount Sir James MacBrien (), the territories second highest peak at , and Lotus Flower Tower (, ) both of which form part of the Cirque of the Unclimbables ().


title: Nahanni National Park Reserve

text: At Virginia Falls or "Nailicho" in Dene (), the river plunges in a thunderous plume. Including the Sluice Box Rapids above the falls, it is more than twice the height of Niagara Falls. In the centre of the falls is a dramatic spire of resistant rock, called Mason's Rock after Bill Mason, the famous Canadian canoeist, author, and filmmaker. The falls were initially located downstream at the east end of Fourth Canyon, and over the centuries carved through the limestone rock that surrounds the river. This continuous erosion shifted the falls upstream and created the Fourth Canyon. Due to the mist, the immediate vicinity of the falls is home to several rare orchid species. Downstream from the falls, there are many notable rapids on the river including Figure Eight, George's Riffle, and Lafferty's Riffle.


title: Nahanni National Park Reserve

text: The Rabbitkettle ("Gahnîhthah") Hotsprings and tufa mounds () are the largest of tufa mounds in Canada. The largest of the mounds, the North Mound, is high and across. The source of the springs comes from deep in the Earth's crust, near the base of the granite batholiths that form the Ragged Range. The volcanic activity that raised the mountains still heats the water deep below the surface of the Earth. The heated water percolates upwards, dissolving calcium carbonate from limestone deposits on its way by. When it reaches the surface springs, the water cools and the calcium carbonate particles are released. These microscopic particles settle to form porous calcite rims around the pools of water. These pools range in size from that of a bathtub to that of a fingernail. This process takes a great deal of time, and it is believed that the mounds themselves are around 10,000 years old, their creation beginning at the end of the last ice age.


title: Nahanni National Park Reserve

text: These rare and fragile features are protected as a Zone 1, Special Preservation Area, and all visitors must be accompanied by Parks Canada staff in order to minimize impact and visitors to the North Mound are required to be barefoot.


title: Nahanni National Park Reserve

text: The park's sulphur hot springs, alpine tundra, mountain ranges, and forests of spruce and aspen are home to many species of birds, fish and mammals. The park lies within three of Canada's ecozones, the Taiga Cordillera in the west, the Taiga Plains in the east and a small southern portion in the Boreal Cordillera.


title: Nahanni National Park Reserve

text: According to Parks Canada there are 42 mammal, 180 bird, 16 fish and a few amphibian species found in the park. In the "State of the Park Report 2009" the NWT government showed ten species that the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) had listed as special concern, threatened, or endangered that Nahanni National Park Reserve provides seasonal and year-round habitat for. These include common nighthawk, grizzly bear, olive-sided flycatcher, peregrine falcon, rusty blackbird, short-eared owl, wood bison, woodland caribou, wolverine and yellow rail. In addition the bull trout and the Nahanni aster are listed but without a status and the Canada warbler and western toad are listed as possibly existing in the park.


title: Nahanni National Park Reserve

text: Mammal species found in the park include; black bear, timber wolf, moose, shrew, vole, Arctic ground squirrel, marmot, mink, beaver, pine marten, lynx, snowshoe hare, river otter, muskrat, and red fox.


title: Nahanni National Park Reserve

text: Birds include the American kestrels, bald and golden eagles, loons, red-necked grebes, sharp-shinned hawks and trumpeter swans. It also includes the only known nesting site of the whooping crane.


title: Nahanni National Park Reserve

text: Fish found in the park include, Arctic grayling, burbot, inconnu, lake trout, lake chub, lake whitefish, longnose dace, longnose sucker, mountain whitefish, northern pike, round whitefish, slimy sculpin, spoonhead sculpin, spottail shiner and trout-perch.


title: Nahanni National Park Reserve

text: The diverse range of soils offers several specialized and uncommon habitats. More than 700 species of vascular plants and 300 species of both bryophytes and lichen can be found in the park, giving it a richer variety than any other area in the NWT. Nahanni aster is a very rare species of aster found only in the Park.


title: Nahanni National Park Reserve

text: The Dene, sometimes called Slavey, peoples have used the lands around Nahanni National Park Reserve for thousands of years. The first human occupation of the area is estimated to have occurred 9,000-10,000 years ago. Evidence of prehistoric human use has been found at Yohin Lake and a few other sites within the park. The local oral history contains many references to the Naha tribe, a mountain-dwelling people who used to raid settlements in the adjacent lowlands. These people are said to have rather quickly and mysteriously disappeared.


title: Nahanni National Park Reserve

text: First contact with European fur traders expanding into the region occurred in the 18th century, and was increased with Alexander Mackenzie's exploration of the Mackenzie River (Deh Cho), and building of trading posts at Fort Simpson and Fort Liard. At both of these John McLeod, a Scottish explorer of the area, was to serve as manager. During the 19th century, most Dene families left their nomadic lifestyles and settled into more permanent communities, often close to the trading posts. Permanent settlements were established at locations such as Nahanni Butte, Fort Liard and Fort Simpson.


title: Nahanni National Park Reserve

text: In the late 19th century, the Mountain Indians of the Nahanni region would travel down the Nahanni River each spring in mooseskin boats to trade the winter take of furs. These boats, based on the York boats used by the Hudson's Bay Company, were up to in length. Constructed from six to ten untanned moose hides sewn together and stretched over a spruce pole frame, these boats would transport entire families, their dogs and cargo of furs down the river during high water. Upon arrival the boat was dismantled and the hides traded along with the furs. Following a visit to the forts, these people would return to the high country with only what they could carry on their pack dogs.


title: Nahanni National Park Reserve

text: The stories of the Naha, and dangerous landscape that they inhabited, grew in stature with the Klondike Gold Rush as some explorers attempted to use the Nahanni as a path to the famous gold fields of the Yukon, or to try and make their fortune on the Flat and South Nahanni Rivers. Although no significant gold was found, legends of haunted valleys and lost gold emerged after the headless corpses of Métis prospectors Willie and Frank McLeod were found around 1908. The Lost McLeod Mine, a legendary lost mine somewhere in the park, is supposed to have been where the two brothers found their gold. In the years that followed, mysterious deaths of other prospectors added to the legends. The names of park features such as Deadmen Valley, Headless Creek, Headless Range and the Funeral Range bear testimony to these stories and legends. In later years Albert Faille was a prospector in the area and met writer Raymond M. Patterson. The latter's works brought minor fame to Faille.


title: Nahanni National Park Reserve

text: In 1946 Calgary geologist and mining expert Frank M. W. Henderson returned from the valley reporting his partner Jack Patterson had disappeared. Henderson and Patterson had agreed to meet at a point near Virginia Falls. The first to arrive would leave a message on a large tree which both knew from previous trips. Henderson arrived first and left his message before traveling into the valley. He returned several weeks later only to find there was still no message left by Patterson. Henderson and his party camped there a few days, but one night were awoken by a group of First Nations people who warned of white figures moving along the valley.


title: Nahanni National Park Reserve

text: In 1947 author Pierre Berton was sent by "The Vancouver Sun" to cover the north. He, along with pilot Russ Baker, flew up the Headless Valley. Writing on his journey for Macleans Berton remarked, "Frank Henderson himself, a man who perhaps has good reason not to want too many people rushing into the valley, was quoted as saying, on his return from the area last fall, 'There is absolutely no denying the sinister atmosphere of that whole valley. The weird, continual wailing of the wind is something I won’t, soon forget.'"


title: Nahanni National Park Reserve

text: In 1964, explorer parachutist Jean Poirel from Montreal jumped at its source north of Yellowknife, followed by his teammate Bertrand Bordet. Jean Poirel imagined the idea of going down the river with inflatable dinghies. During the following four consecutive expeditions in the valley Jean Poirel discovered more than 250 caverns. The most important contained 116 Dall sheep’s skeletons (carbon-14 dated to 2500 years BC); Jean Poirel named it "Valerie Cavern" after his daughter. He took topographic notes and drew detailed maps, paving the way for the park's creation. During his last expedition in 1972, he escorted Pierre Trudeau, who came in person to evaluate this superb and fascinating region.


title: Nahanni National Park Reserve

text: Originally established in 1972, by then Prime Minister Pierre Elliot Trudeau, the park was in area. The park was in "reserve" status pending settlement of outstanding Aboriginal land claims in the region. In 2003, an agreement between the Dehcho First Nations and Parks Canada gave temporary protection to . In August 2007, the federal government added an extra .


title: Nahanni National Park Reserve

text: In a novel form of cooperation between federal government and native groups, the Naha Dehe Consensus Team was formed in June 2000 by Canada and the Dehcho First Nations. Their original main tasks included:


title: Nahanni National Park Reserve

text: In 2003, these were completed and the purpose of the team changed, now dealing with cooperative management issues, according to the Interim Park Management Arrangement, until the Dehcho Process is completed.


title: Nahanni National Park Reserve

text: On 9 June 2009 the Government of Canada, with the Dehcho First Nations, announced legislation that will increase the area of Nahanni National Park to cover , including 91% of the Greater Nahanni ecosystem in the Dehcho Region and most of the South Nahanni River watershed.


title: Nahanni National Park Reserve

text: The new park area is estimated to be the home of around 500 grizzly bears, two herds of woodland caribou, as well as species of alpine sheep and goats and other species. The new boundary will include the highest mountains and largest ice fields in the Northwest Territories. With the expansion of the park there have been several added designated landing sites. Because most access to the park is done by aircraft and air access is restricted in the park, there are set places aircraft can land. Before the expansion these were limited to Virginia Falls and Rabbitkettle Lake. Now there are five more: the Bunny Bar, Island Lake, Honeymoon Lake, Glacier Lake, and Seaplane Lake. However, only Virginia Falls and Glacier Lake are designated for day use visitation, meaning all other sites require visitors to stay overnight in the park.


title: Nahanni National Park Reserve

text: A visitor centre in Fort Simpson features displays on the history, culture and geography of the area. The park was among the world's first four natural heritage locations to be inscribed as World Heritage Sites by UNESCO in 1978. The South Nahanni River achieved Canadian Heritage River status in 1987. Presently around 800–1000 people visit the park every year, most of which are overnight visitors who travel down the South Nahanni. The park is open year-round, but most visitors come in June, July, and August. Virginia Falls is the only area of the park where a reservation is required, which must be done months in advance to prevent overcrowding. For safety reasons, all visitors must register with park officials upon entering the park boundaries, and deregister within 24 hours of leaving. There is a park office in Nahanni Butte at the end of the river, where visitors can deregister. The only practical way to get to Nahanni National Park is by floatplane or by helicopter, usually from Fort Simpson but other communities and locations offering a gateway into the park include: Watson Lake, Muncho Lake, Fort Nelson and Inconnu Lodge. Some people do hike in from the Nahanni Range Road at Tungsten to the west of the park.


title: Nahanni National Park Reserve

text: In 2007 the park was voted one of the Seven Wonders of Canada in a competition sponsored by CBC Television's "The National" and CBC Radio One's "Sounds Like Canada". The park was the subject of a short film in 2011's "National Parks Project", directed by Kevin McMahon and scored by Shad, Jace Lasek and Olga Goreas.


title: Nahanni National Park Reserve

text: The area was featured in "Sick Heart River", a fictional river in the Nahanni area, by John Buchan, 1st Baron Tweedsmuir who was the Governor General of Canada. Buchan had not visited the Nahanni but had travelled down the Mackenzie and wanted to visit the area. "The River", a book by Cheryl Kaye Tardif, is based on stories and legends from the area.


title: Nahanni National Park Reserve

text: The Nahanni River and its surroundings has also been featured in the French book "La Vallée Sans Homme", written in 1973 by Roger Frison-Roche.


title: Chamber of Deputies (Brazil)

text: The Chamber of Deputies () is a federal legislative body and the lower house of the National Congress of Brazil. The chamber comprises 513 deputies, who are elected by proportional representation to serve four-year terms. The current President of the Chamber is the Deputy Arthur Lira (PP-AL), who was elected on 1 February 2021.


title: Chamber of Deputies (Brazil)

text: The number of deputies elected is proportional to the size of the population of the respective state (or of the Federal District) as of 1994. However, no delegation can be made up of less than eight or more than seventy seats. Thus the least populous state elects eight federal deputies and the most populous elects seventy. These restrictions favour the smaller states at the expense of the more populous states and so the size of the delegations is not exactly proportional to population.


title: Chamber of Deputies (Brazil)

text: A census held every 10 years by the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics is used as the basis for the distribution of the seats. Proportionality is followed as a principle, with the exception that there should be a minimum of eight (8) members and a maximum of seventy (70) members per state. Per the 2010 census, states with 3,258,117 inhabitants upwards have 9 to 70 deputies.


title: Chamber of Deputies (Brazil)

text: As a result, although most states hover around an average of 362,013 inhabitants by deputy (per the 2010 census), some states with smaller populations have a much lower average, such as Roraima (1 for 51,000 inhabitants).


title: Chamber of Deputies (Brazil)

text: The House of Deputies is composed of the Bureau of the Chamber of Deputies of Brazil by College Leaders and the Commissions, which can be permanent, temporary, or special inquiry.


title: Chamber of Deputies (Brazil)

text: On 6 March 2012, was defined division of committees between parties. The House President, Marco Maia, believes that the proportionality between the parties / blocs must take into account the data of the last election. Thus, PT and PMDB, with the highest benches, were three committees (the PT made the choice first). DEM and PSDB, the two largest opposition, were two commissions each. On the other hand, PSD, most harmed by this decision, filed a lawsuit in the Supreme Court (STF) trying to reverse this decision.


title: Lipizzan

text: The Lipizzan or Lipizzaner (, , , , , ), is a European breed of riding horse developed in the Habsburg Empire in the sixteenth century. It is of Baroque type, and is powerful, slow to mature and long-lived; the coat is usually gray.


title: Lipizzan

text: The name of the breed derives from that of the village of Lipica (), now in Slovenia, one of the earliest stud farms established, then part of Austria-Hungary; the stud farm there is still active. The breed has been endangered numerous times by warfare sweeping Europe, including during the War of the First Coalition, World War I, and World War II. The rescue of the Lipizzans during World War II by American troops was made famous by the Disney movie "Miracle of the White Stallions".


title: Lipizzan

text: The Lipizzaner is closely associated with the Spanish Riding School of Vienna, Austria, where the horses demonstrate the "haute école" or "high school" movements of classical dressage, including the highly controlled, stylized jumps and other movements known as the "airs above the ground". These horses are mostly bred at the Piber Federal Stud, near Graz, Austria, and are trained using traditional methods of classical dressage that date back hundreds of years.


title: Lipizzan

text: Eight stallions are recognized as the classic foundation bloodstock of the breed, all foaled in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. All modern Lipizzans trace their bloodlines to these eight stallions, and all breeding stallions have included in their name the name of the foundation sire of their bloodline. Also classic mare lines are known, with up to 35 recognized by various breed registries. The majority of horses are registered through the member organizations of the Lipizzan International Federation, which covers almost 11,000 horses in 19 countries and at 9 state studs in Europe. Most Lipizzans reside in Europe, with smaller numbers in the Americas, South Africa, and Australia.


title: Lipizzan

text: Most Lipizzans measure between . However, horses bred to be closer to the original carriage-horse type are taller, approaching . Lipizzans have a long head, with a straight or slightly convex profile. The jaw is deep, the ears small, the eyes large and expressive, and the nostrils flared. They have a neck that is sturdy, yet arched and withers that are low, muscular, and broad. They are a Baroque horse, with a wide, deep chest, broad croup, and muscular shoulder. The tail is carried high and well set. The legs are well-muscled and strong, with broad joints and well-defined tendons. The feet tend to be small, but are tough.


title: Lipizzan

text: Lipizzan horses tend to mature slowly. However, they live and are active longer than many other breeds, with horses performing the difficult exercises of the Spanish Riding School well into their 20s and living into their 30s.


title: Lipizzan

text: Aside from the rare solid-colored horse (usually bay or black), most Lipizzans are gray. Like all gray horses, they have black skin, dark eyes, and as adult horses, a white hair coat. Gray horses, including Lipizzans, are born with a pigmented coat—in Lipizzans, foals are usually bay or black—and become lighter each year as the graying process takes place, with the process being complete between 6 and 10 years of age. Lipizzans are not actually true white horses, but this is a common misconception. A white horse is born white and has unpigmented skin.


title: Lipizzan

text: Until the eighteenth century, Lipizzans had other coat colors, including dun, bay, chestnut, black, piebald, and skewbald. However, gray is a dominant gene. Gray was the color preferred by the royal family, so the color was emphasized in breeding practices. Thus, in a small breed population when the color was deliberately selected as a desirable feature, it came to be the color of the overwhelming majority of Lipizzan horses. However, it is a long-standing tradition for the Spanish Riding School to have at least one bay Lipizzan stallion in residence, and this tradition is continued through the present day.


title: Lipizzan

text: The ancestors of the Lipizzan can be traced to around 800 AD. The earliest predecessors of the Lipizzan originated in the seventh century when Barb horses were brought into Spain by the Moors and crossed on native Spanish stock. The result was the Andalusian horse and other Iberian horse breeds.


title: Lipizzan

text: By the sixteenth century, when the Habsburgs ruled both Spain and Austria, a powerful but agile horse was desired both for military uses and for use in the fashionable and rapidly growing riding schools for the nobility of central Europe. Therefore, in 1562, the Habsburg Emperor Maximillian II brought the Spanish Andalusian horse to Austria and founded the court stud at Kladrub. In 1580, his brother, Archduke Charles II, ruler of Inner Austria, established a similar stud at Lipizza (now Lipica), located in modern-day Slovenia, from which the breed obtained its name. When the stud farm was established, Lipizza was located within the municipal limits of Trieste, an autonomous city under Habsburg sovereignty. The name of the village itself derives from the Slovene word "lipa", meaning "linden tree."


title: Lipizzan

text: Spanish, Barb, and Arabian stock were crossed at Lipizza, and succeeding generations were crossed with the now-extinct Neapolitan breed from Italy and other Baroque horses of Spanish descent obtained from Germany and Denmark. While breeding stock was exchanged between the two studs, Kladrub specialized in producing heavy carriage horses, while riding and light carriage horses came from the Lipizza stud.


title: Lipizzan

text: Beginning in 1920, the Piber Federal Stud, near Graz, Austria, became the main stud for the horses used in Vienna. Breeding became very selective, only allowing stallions that had proved themselves at the Riding School to stand at stud, and only breeding mares that had passed rigorous performance testing.


title: Lipizzan

text: Today, eight foundation lines for Lipizzans are recognized by various registries, which refer to them as "dynasties". They are divided into two groups. Six trace to classical foundation stallions used in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries by the Lipizza stud, and two additional lines were not used at Lipizza, but were used by other studs within the historic boundaries of the Habsburg Empire.


title: Lipizzan

text: Two additional stallion lines are found in Croatia, Hungary, and other eastern European countries, as well as in North America. They are accepted as equal to the six classical lines by the Lipizzan International Federation. These are:


title: Lipizzan

text: Several other stallion lines have died out over the years, but were used in the early breeding of the horses. In addition to the foundation stallion lines, there were 20 "classic" mare lines, 14 of which exist today. However, up to 35 mare lines are recognized by various Lipizzan organizations.


title: Lipizzan

text: Traditional naming patterns are used for both stallions and mares, required by Lipizzan breed registries. Stallions traditionally are given two names, with the first being the line of the sire and the second being the name of the dam. For example, "Maestoso Austria" is a horse sired by Maestoso Trompeta out of a mare named Austria. The horse's sire line traces to the foundation sire Maestoso. The names of mares are chosen to be "complementary to the traditional Lipizzan line names" and are required to end in the letter "a".


title: Lipizzan

text: The world-famous Spanish Riding School uses highly trained Lipizzan stallions in public performances that demonstrate classical dressage movements and training. In 1572, the first Spanish riding hall was built, during the Austrian Empire, and is the oldest of its kind in the world. The Spanish Riding School, though located in Vienna, Austria, takes its name from the original Spanish heritage of its horses. In 1729, Charles VI commissioned the building of the Winter Riding School in Vienna and in 1735, the building was completed that remains the home of the Spanish Riding School today.


title: Lipizzan

text: The Lipizzans endured several wartime relocations throughout their history, each of which saved the breed from extinction. The first was in March 1797 during the War of the First Coalition, when the horses were evacuated from Lipica. During the journey, 16 mares gave birth to foals. In November 1797, the horses returned to Lipica, but the stables were in ruins. They were rebuilt, but in 1805, the horses were evacuated again when Napoleon invaded Austria. They were being taken care of in Đakovo Stud. They remained away from the stud for two years, returning April 1, 1807, but then, following the Treaty of Schönbrunn in 1809, the horses were evacuated three more times during the unsettled period that followed, resulting in the loss of many horses and the destruction of the written studbooks that documented bloodlines of horses prior to 1700. The horses finally returned to Lipica for good in 1815, where they remained for the rest of the nineteenth century.


title: Lipizzan

text: The first evacuation of the twentieth century occurred in 1915 when the horses were evacuated from Lipica due to World War I and placed at Laxenburg and Kladrub. Following the war, the Austro-Hungarian Empire was broken up, with Lipica becoming part of Italy. Thus, the animals were divided between several different studs in the new postwar nations of Austria, Italy, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia. The nation of Austria kept the stallions of the Spanish Riding School and some breeding stock. By 1920, the Austrian breeding stock was consolidated at Piber.


title: Lipizzan

text: During World War II, the high command of Nazi Germany transferred most of Europe's Lipizzan breeding stock to Hostau, Czechoslovakia. The breeding stock was taken from Piber in 1942, and additional mares and foals from other European nations arrived in 1943. The stallions of the Spanish Riding School were evacuated to St. Martins, Austria, from Vienna in January 1945, when bombing raids neared the city and the head of the Spanish Riding School, Colonel Alois Podhajsky, feared the horses were in danger. By spring of 1945, the horses at Hostau were threatened by the advancing Soviet army, which might have slaughtered the animals for horse meat had it captured the facility.


title: Lipizzan

text: The rescue of the Lipizzans by the United States Army, made famous by the Disney movie "Miracle of the White Stallions", occurred in two parts: The Third United States Army, under the command of General George S. Patton, was near St. Martins in the spring of 1945 and learned that the Lipizzan stallions were in the area. Patton himself was a horseman, and like Podhajsky, had competed in the Olympic Games. On May 7, 1945, Podhajsky put on an exhibition of the Spanish Riding School stallions for Patton and Undersecretary of War Robert P. Patterson, and at its conclusion requested that Patton take the horses under his protection.


title: Lipizzan

text: Meanwhile, the Third Army's United States Second Cavalry, a tank unit under the command of Colonel Charles Reed, had discovered the horses at Hostau, where 400 Allied prisoners of war were also being kept, and had occupied it on April 28, 1945. "Operation Cowboy", as the rescue was known, resulted in the recovery of 1,200 horses, including 375 Lipizzans. Patton learned of the raid, and arranged for Podhajsky to fly to Hostau. On May 12, American soldiers began riding, trucking, and herding the horses 35 miles across the border into Kotztinz, Germany. The Lipizzans were eventually settled in temporary quarters in Wimsbach, until the breeding stock returned to Piber in 1952, and the stallions returned to the Spanish Riding School in 1955. In 2005, the Spanish Riding School celebrated the 60th anniversary of Patton's rescue by touring the United States.


title: Lipizzan

text: During the Croatian War of Independence, from 1991 to 1995, the horses at the Lipik stable in Croatia were taken by the Serbs to Novi Sad, Serbia. The horses remained there until 2007, when calls began to be made for them to be returned to their country of origin. In October 2007, 60 horses were returned to Croatia.


title: Lipizzan

text: The Lipizzan breed suffered a setback to its population when a viral epidemic hit the Piber Stud in 1983. Forty horses and 8% of the expected foal crop were lost. Since then, the population at the stud increased. By 1994, 100 mares were at the stud farm and a foal crop of 56 was born in 1993. In 1994, the rate of successful pregnancy and birth of foals increased from 27 to 82%; the result of a new veterinary center. In 1996, a study funded by the European Union Indo-Copernicus Project assessed 586 Lipizzan horses from eight stud farms in Europe, with the goal of developing a "scientifically based description of the Lipizzan horse". A study of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) was performed on 212 of the animals, and those studied were found to contain 37 of the 39 known mtDNA haplotypes known in modern horses, meaning that they show a high degree of genetic diversity. This had been expected, as it was known that the mare families of the Lipizzan included a large number of different breeds, including Arabians, Thoroughbreds, and other European breeds.


title: Lipizzan

text: The Lipizzan International Federation (LIF) is the international governing organization for the breed, composed of many national and private organizations representing the Lipizzan. The organizations work together under the banner of the LIF to promote the breed and maintain standards. As of 2012, almost 11,000 Lipizzans were registered with the LIF; residing with private breeders in 19 countries and at 9 state studs in Europe. The largest number are in Europe, with almost 9,000 registered horses, followed by the Americas, with just over 1,700, then Africa and Australia with around 100 horses each. The 9 state studs that are part of the LIF represent almost one-quarter of the horses in Europe. Sâmbăta de Jos in Romania, has the greatest number of horses, with 400, followed by Piber in Austria (360), Lipica in Slovenia (358), Szilvásvárad in Hungary (262), Monterotondo in Italy (230), Đakovo-Lipik in Croatia (220), and Topoľčianky in Slovakia (200). The other two studs are smaller, with Vučijak in Bosnia having 130 horses and Karađorđevo in Serbia having just 30. Educational programs have been developed to promote the breed and foster adherence to traditional breeding objectives.


title: Lipizzan

text: Because of the status of Lipizzans as the only breed of horse developed in Slovenia, via the Lipica stud that is now located within its borders, Lipizzans are recognized in Slovenia as a national animal. For example, a pair of Lipizzans is featured on the 20-cent Slovenian euro coins. Mounted regiments of Carabinieri police in Italy also employ the Lipizzan as one of their mounts. In October 2008, during a visit to Slovenia, a Lipizzan at Lipica, named 085 Favory Canissa XXII, was given to Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom. She decided to leave the animal in the care of the stud farm.


title: Lipizzan

text: The traditional horse training methods for Lipizzans were developed at the Spanish Riding School and are based on the principles of classical dressage, which in turn traces to the Ancient Greek writer Xenophon, whose works were rediscovered in the sixteenth century. His thoughts on development of horses' mental attitude and psyche are still considered applicable today. Other writers who strongly influenced the training methods of the Spanish Riding School include Federico Grisone, the founder of the first riding academy in Naples, who lived during the sixteenth century, and Antoine de Pluvinel and François Robichon de la Guérinière, two Frenchmen from the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The methods for training the Lipizzan stallions at the Spanish Riding School were passed down via an oral tradition until Field Marshal Franz Holbein and Johann Meixner, Senior Rider at the School, published the initial guidelines for the training of horse and rider at the school in 1898. In the mid-twentieth century, Alois Podhajsky wrote a number of works that serve as textbooks for many dressage riders today.


title: Lipizzan

text: The principles taught at the Spanish Riding School are based on practices taught to cavalry riders to prepare their horses for warfare. Young stallions come to the Spanish Riding School for training when they are four years old. Full training takes an average of six years for each horse, and schooling is considered complete when they have mastered the skills required to perform the "School Quadrille". There are three progressively more difficult skill sets taught to the stallions, which are:


title: Lipizzan

text: Although the Piber Stud trains mares for driving and under saddle, the Spanish Riding School exclusively uses stallions in its performances. Worldwide, the Lipizzan today competes in dressage and driving, as well as retaining their classic position at the Spanish Riding School.


title: Lipizzan

text: The "airs above the ground" are the difficult "high school" dressage movements made famous by the Lipizzans. The finished movements include:


title: Lipizzan

text: The 1940 film "Florian" stars two Lipizzan stallions. It was based on a 1934 novel written by Felix Salten. The wife of the film's producer owned the only Lipizzans in the US at the time the movie was made. The rescue during World War II of the Lipizzan stallions is depicted in the 1963 Walt Disney movie "Miracle of the White Stallions". The movie was the only live-action, relatively realistic film set against a World War II backdrop that Disney has ever produced.


title: Cannabis in India

text: Cannabis in India has been known to be used at least as early as 2000 BCE. In Indian society, common terms for cannabis preparations include charas (resin), ganja (flower), and bhang (seeds and leaves), with Indian drinks such as bhang lassi and bhang thandai made from bhang being one of the most common legal uses.


title: Cannabis in India

text: As of 2000, per the UNODC the "prevalence of usage" of cannabis in India was 3.2%. A 2019 study conducted by the All India Institutes of Medical Sciences reported that about 7.2 million Indians had consumed cannabis within the past year. The Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment's "Magnitude of Substance Use in India 2019" survey found that 2.83% of Indians aged 10–75 years (or 31 million people) were current users of cannabis products. According to the UNODC's World Drug report 2016, the retail price of cannabis in India was per gram, the lowest of any country in the world. A study by the German data firm ABCD found that New Delhi and Mumbai were the third and sixth largest cannabis consuming cities in the world in 2018, consuming 38.2 tonnes and 32.4 tonnes of cannabis respectively.


title: Cannabis in India

text: "Bhanga" is mentioned in several Indian texts dated before 1000 CE. However, there is philological debate among Sanskrit scholars as to whether this "bhanga" can be identified with modern "bhang" or cannabis.


title: Cannabis in India

text: "Cannabis sativa" is one of the candidates for the identity of the plant that was used to prepare soma in Vedic period. Soma was an intoxicating ritual drink that is highly praised in the "Rigveda" (c. 1700–1100 BCE).


title: Cannabis in India

text: "Atharvaveda" (c. 1500–1000 BCE) mentions "bhanga" as one of the five sacred plants that relieve anxiety. Sayana interpreted "bhanga" as a type of wild grass, but many scholars identify "bhanga" with cannabis. The relevant verse:


title: Cannabis in India

text: "Sushruta Samhita" (c. 600 BCE) again mentions "bhanga", as a medicinal plant, and recommends it for treating catarrh, phlegm and diarrhea.


title: Cannabis in India

text: According to Gerrit Jan Meulenbeld and Dominik Wujastyk, "Chikitsa-sara-sangraha" (c. late 11th century) by Vangasena is the earliest extant Indian text that features an uncontested mention of cannabis. It mentions "bhanga" as an appetiser and a digestive, and suggests it in two recipes for a long and happy life. Narayan Sarma's "Dhanvantariya Nighantu", a contemporary text, mentions a narcotic of the plant. Nagarjuna's "Yogaratnamala" (c. 12th–13th century) suggests that cannabis ("mdtuldni") smoke can be used to make one's enemies feel possessed by spirits. "Sharngadhara Samhita" (13th century) also gives medicinal uses of cannabis, and along with "ahiphena" (opium poppy), mentions it as one of the drugs which act very quickly in the body.


title: Cannabis in India

text: Cannabis also finds its mention in other historic scriptures like "Dhanvantari Nighantu", "Sarngandhara Samhita" and "Kayyadeva Nighantu". It is also referred in Ayurveda as an ingredient in various recipes of pain relievers and aphrodisiacs, but in small quantities. Ayurveda however does not use cannabis for smoking recipes.


title: Cannabis in India

text: The Hindu god Shiva is said to have chosen cannabis as his favorite food, after having spent one night sleeping under the plant's leaves and when eating of it in the morning refreshed him. Another legend suggests that when the poison Halahala came out from the Samudra manthan, Shiva drank it to protect everyone from it. Later, "bhang" was used to cool him down. Shiva Purana suggests offering "bhang" to Shiva during the summer months. But not all devotees offer "bhang" to Shiva.


title: Cannabis in India

text: Following the Portuguese seizure of Goa in 1510, the Portuguese became familiar with the cannabis customs and trade in India. Garcia de Orta, a botanist and doctor, wrote about the uses of cannabis in his 1534 work "Colloquies on the Simples and Drugs and Medicinal Matters of India and of a Few Fruits". Garcia noted that bhang was used to improve work and appetite and enable labour, and "I believe that it is so generally used and by such a number of people that there is no mystery about it.” Fifteen years later Cristobal Acosta produced the work "A Tract about the Drugs and Medicines of the East Indies", outlining recipes for bhang.


title: Cannabis in India

text: The British Parliament enacted a tax on bhang, ganja and charas in 1798, stating that the tax was intended to reduce cannabis consumption ""for the sake of the natives' good health and sanity"". In 1894, the British Indian government completed a wide-ranging study of cannabis in India. The report's findings stated:


title: Cannabis in India

text: As bhang, cannabis is still popular in India. It is also mixed in thandai, a milkshake-like preparation. Bhang is consumed as prasad of Shiva, and is popular between Mahashivaratri and Holi (February–March). Among Sikh Nihangs, bhang is popular, especially during Hola Mohalla. Muslim Indian Sufis place the spirit of Khidr within the cannabis plant, and consume bhang.


title: Cannabis in India

text: Even in Assam, where cannabis has been explicitly banned since 1958, it is consumed by thousands during the Ambubachi Mela. In 2015, the police did not stop devotees from consuming bhang, although they fined two people for smoking tobacco in public places, under the Cigarettes and Other Tobacco Products Act.


title: Cannabis in India

text: In November 2015, Uttarakhand legalized the cultivation of cannabis for industrial purposes. In June, 2016 Pillares EXIM LLP based out of Vapi, Gujarat took a step towards Cannnabis Legalization by launching HERBBOX as a one stop shop for smoking accessories in India. Patanjali Ayurved CEO Balkrishna stated in February 2018 that his company had begun researching the benefits of cannabis and its extracts at its research and development facility in Haridwar, for use in the company's medicines and other products. Madhya Pradesh's Law Minister, P.C. Sharma stated on 20 November 2019 that the state was considering legalising the cultivation of cannabis for medical and industrial purposes. Manipur Chief Minister N. Biren Singh informed the State Assembly on 21 February 2020 that his government was considering legalising the cultivation of cannabis for medical and industrial purposes.


title: Cannabis in India

text: Indian law enforcement agencies seized a total of 182,622 kg of ganja and 2,489 kg of hashish in 2016. Enforcement agencies eradicated 1,980 hectares of illicit cannabis cultivation in 2018, lower than the 3,446 hectares eradicated in 2017. The International Narcotics Control Board's 2019 annual report noted that "India is among those countries worldwide with the greatest extent of illicit cannabis cultivation and production.


title: Cannabis in India

text: The Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment's "Magnitude of Substance Use in India 2019" survey found that 2.83% of Indians aged 10–75 years (or 31 million people) were current users of cannabis products, with 10% of the population considered to be using cannabis "in a dependent pattern". The survey found that 20% of the population consumed bhang and 12%% consumed charas or ganja. It also noted that most cannabis users were male with 25% of the male population consuming cannabis and 10% of the female population. The survey found that cannabis use was most prevalent in Sikkim, where 7.3% of the population reported using cannabis, followed by Nagaland (4.7%), Odisha (4.7%) Arunachal Pradesh (4.2%) and Delhi (3.8%). The lowest cannabis use was reported in Puducherry, Kerala, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Lakshadweep, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Gujarat and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, all of which recorded about 0.1% of the population as having used cannabis.


title: Cannabis in India

text: A study by the German data firm ABCD found that New Delhi and Mumbai were the third and sixth largest cannabis consuming cities in the world in 2018, consuming 38.2 tonnes and 32.4 tonnes of cannabis respectively.


title: Cannabis in India

text: There is some evidence that Naxalites are invested in illegal production of Cannabis in some parts of India.


title: Cannabis in India

text: The 1961 international treaty Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs classed cannabis with hard drugs. During the negotiations, the Indian delegation opposed its intolerance to the social and religious customs of India. As a compromise, the Indian Government promised to limit the export of Indian hemp, and the final draft of the treaty defined cannabis as:


title: Cannabis in India

text: Bhang, which is prepared from leaves, was thus left out from the definition of "cannabis". This allowed India to carry on the tradition of large-scale consumption of bhang during Holi. The treaty also gave India 25 years to clamp down on recreational drugs. Towards the end of this exemption period, the Indian government passed the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act in 1985.


title: Cannabis in India

text: NDPS banned the production and sale of cannabis resin and flowers, but permitted the use of the leaves and seeds, allowing the states to regulate the latter.


title: Cannabis in India

text: Though the NDPS Act doesn't mention anything about Smoking paraphernalia, making it completely legal to buy or sell smoking accessories like Rolling Papers, Smoking Pipes, and more.


title: Cannabis in India

text: Cultivation of cannabis for industrial purposes such as making industrial hemp or for horticultural use is legal in India. The National Policy on Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances recognizes cannabis as a source of biomass, fiber, and high-value oil. The Government of India encourages the research and cultivation of cannabis with low THC content.


title: Cannabis in India

text: Indian government is strict with the Cannabis policy. According to Section 20 of the NDPS Act, holding a small quantity of weed can land you in jail for rigorous imprisonment of up to six months or a fine of Rs. 10,000 or both.


title: Cannabis in India

text: Although NDPS allows consumption of bhang, various states have their own laws banning or restricting its use. In some states, only authorised dealers are allowed to sell bhang. Some states also have rules about the maximum amount of bhang one person can carry and the minimum age of the buyer.


title: Cannabis in India

text: In Assam, "The Assam Ganja and Bhang Prohibition Act, 1958", prohibits sale, purchase, possession and consumption of ganja and bhang.


title: Cannabis in India

text: In Maharashtra, Section 66(1)(b) of the "Bombay Prohibition (BP) Act, 1949", bans manufacture, possession and consumption of bhang and bhang-containing substances without a license.


title: Cannabis in India

text: In Karnataka, "The Karnataka Prohibition Act of 1961" classifies ganja and bhang as "intoxicating drugs" and prohibits the manufacture, possession and consumption of the same with the exception for medicinal purposes.


title: Cannabis in India

text: On 21 February 2017, Gujarat legalized bhang by removing it from the list of "intoxicating drugs" covered by section 23 of the "Gujarat Prohibition Act". Gujarat's Minister of State for Home and Prohibition, Pradipsinh Jadeja, explained, "Bhang is consumed only as prasad of Lord Shiva. The state government has received complaints of misuse of prohibition act against those found drinking bhang. Hence, keeping in view the sentiments of public at large, the government has decided to exempt bhang from the ambit of Gujarat Prohibition Amendment Act. Bhang is less intoxicating as compared to ganja."


title: Cannabis in India

text: In 2015, the first organised efforts to re-legalise cannabis in India appeared, with the holding of medical marijuana conferences in Bangalore, Pune, Mumbai and Delhi by the Great Legalisation Movement India. Many articles and programs in the popular media have also begun to appear pushing for a change in cannabis laws.


title: Cannabis in India

text: In March 2015, Lok Sabha MP for Dhenkanal Tathagata Satpathy stated on a Reddit AMA that he supported the legalisation of cannabis, and also admitted to having consumed the drug on several occasions when he was in college. He later repeated his comments on television and during interactions with the media. On 2 November 2016, Lok Sabha MP Dharamvir Gandhi announced that he had received clearance from Parliament to table a Private Member's Bill seeking to amend the NDPS Act to allow for the legalised, regulated, and medically supervised supply of "non-synthetic" intoxicants including cannabis and opium.


title: Cannabis in India

text: In July 2017, Union Minister of Women and Child Development Maneka Gandhi suggested the legalization of medical marijuana on the grounds that it would reduce drug abuse and aid cancer patients at the second meeting of the group of ministers to examine the draft Cabinet note for the National Drug Demand Reduction Policy. About a week after the minister's statement, the Union Government issued the first-ever licence to grow cannabis for research purposes to the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), in collaboration with the Bombay Hemp Company (BOHECO).


title: Cannabis in India

text: On 12 December 2017, Viki Vaurora, the founder of the Great Legalisation Movement India, penned an open letter to Prime Minister Narendra Modi and all members of Parliament advocating the urgent need to legalise the cultivation of cannabis and hemp for medical and industrial use. In February 2018, the Prime Minister's Office sent a notification to the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare directing the ministry to examine the potential benefits associated with cannabis and issue a response to the letter.


title: Cannabis in India

text: On 5 June 2018, Lok Sabha MP from Thiruvananthapuram Shashi Tharoor wrote an opinion piece expressing support for the legalization of cannabis, and concluding that it was "high time for India to embrace the health, business, and broader societal benefits that legally regulating cannabis can bring".


title: Cannabis in India

text: In July 2019, the Delhi High Court agreed to hear a petition, filed by the Great Legalisation Movement Trust, challenging the ban on cannabis. The public interest litigation argues that grouping cannabis with other chemical drugs under the NDPS Act is "arbitrary, unscientific and unreasonable".


title: Cannabis in India

text: India voted in favour of removing cannabis and cannabis resin from Schedule IV of the 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs at the United Nations Commission on Narcotic Drugs (CND) on 9 December 2020. The resolution was passed with 27 member countries voting in favour, 25 against, and one abstention.


title: Cannabis in India

text: "The Indian Express" published an editorial on 7 December 2020 supporting the legalisation of cannabis, and calling for it to be regulated and taxed like alcohol and tobacco products.


title: Cannabis in India

text: In March 2021, the Chief Minister of Himachal Pradesh, Jai Ram Thakur, said that the state government is coming up with a policy to allow controlled cultivation of hemp or cannabis in the state. The motivation behind this change is reported to be to boost the local economy of Himachal Pradesh.


title: Cannabis in India

text: In March 2021, The State Government of Tripura announced it would form an expert panel to examine the viability of legalizing cannabis cultivation. “"There is a limited scope of revenue collection in Tripura. We have to depend on the central government due to this. The soil of Tripura is very fertile for cannabis cultivation but since it is not legal, many people are suffering financially here. If ganja becomes legal, it can be regulated, revenue can be collected and many people involved in cultivating it, illegally till now, can benefit financially"”.


title: Cannabis in India

text: Cannabis has often been depicted in Indian cinema. Historically, Hindi films have portrayed cannabis use negatively depicting the drug as being associated with an upper class hippie culture or as an intoxicating substance used by criminals. On the other hand, consumption of bhang was often celebrated in popular film songs such as "Jai Jai Shiv Shankar" and "Khaike Paan Banaraswala" and the famous track "Manali trance". The negative portrayals of cannabis began to undergo a change from the 2000s. Films such as "Shaitan" (2011), "Luv Shuv Tey Chicken Khurana (2012)", "Kapoor & Sons" and "The Blueberry Hunt" (2016) feature urban middle-class protagonists using cannabis as form of relaxation. "Go Goa Gone" (2013) was described as the first Hindi-language stoner comedy. Bejoy Nambiar, who wrote and directed "Shaitan", believes that "there's a culture of smoking up among today's youth and it's becoming more and more relevant in our movies." Some movies such as "Gully Boy" (2019) touch upon the illicit trade of Cannabis in Mumbai.


title: Kars

text: Kars (; ; ) is a city in northeast Turkey and the capital of Kars Province. Its population is 73,836 in 2011. Kars was in the ancient region known as "Chorzene", (in Greek Χορζηνή) in classical historiography (Strabo), part of Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity), in Ayrarat province, and later the capital of Bagratid Kingdom of Armenia in 929–961. Currently, the mayor of Kars is Türker Öksüz. The city had an Armenian ethnic majority until it was conquered by Turkish nationalist forces in late 1920.


title: Kars

text: The city's name may be derived from the Armenian word հարս ("hars"), meaning "bride". Another hypothesis has it that the name derives from the Georgian word "the gate.


title: Kars

text: Little is known of the early history of Kars beyond the fact that, during medieval times, it had its own dynasty of Armenian rulers and was the capital of a region known as Vanand. Medieval Armenian historians referred to the city by a variety of names, including "Karuts' K'aghak'" (Kars city), "Karuts' Berd", "Amrots'n Karuts'" (both meaning Kars Fortress) and "Amurn Karuts'" (Impenetrable Kars). At some point in the ninth century (at least by 888) it entered into the domains of the Armenian Bagratunis. Kars was the capital of Bagratid Kingdom of Armenia between 929 and 961. During this period the town's cathedral, later known as the Church of the Holy Apostles, was built.


title: Kars

text: In 963, shortly after the Bagratuni seat was transferred to Ani, Kars became the capital of a separate independent kingdom, again called Vanand. However, the extent of its actual independence from the Kingdom of Ani is uncertain: it was always in the possession of the relatives of the rulers of Ani, and, after Ani's capture by the Byzantine Empire in 1045, the Bagratuni title "King of Kings" held by the ruler of Ani was transferred to the ruler of Kars.


title: Kars

text: In 1064, just after the capture of Ani by Alp Arslan (leader of the Seljuk Turks), the Armenian king of Kars, Gagik-Abas, paid homage to the victorious Turks so that they would not lay siege to his city. In 1065 Gagik-Abas ceded his kingdom to the Byzantine Empire, but soon after Kars was taken by the Seljuk Turks.


title: Kars

text: The Seljuks quickly relinquished direct control over Kars and it became a small emirate whose territory corresponded closely to that of Vanand, and which bordered the similarly created but larger Shaddadid emirate centered at Ani. The Kars emirate was a vassal of the Saltukids in Erzurum, whose forces were effective in opposing Georgian attempts at seizing Kars. Thus, it was only in 1206 that Zakare of the Zakarids–Mkhargrdzeli succeeded in capturing Kars, joining it to their fiefdom of Ani. It was conquered in 1242 by the Mongols and later Kars fell under Georgian influence. During the reign of David IX of Georgia, the Ilkhanate occupied the southern territories of the Kingdom of Georgia, which included Kars. By 1358, the city was ruled by the Jalayirids and in 1380 it fell to the Qara Qoyunlu. In 1387 the city was leveled and the surrounding countryside was devastated by Timur (Tamerlane). Anatolian beyliks followed for some time after that, until it firstly fell into the hands of the Qara Qoyunlu and subsequent Aq Qoyunlu. After the Ak Koyunlu, as it went naturally for almost all their former territories, the city fell into the hands of the newly established Safavid dynasty of Iran, founded by king Ismail I. Following the Peace of Amasya of 1555 that followed through the Ottoman–Safavid War of 1533–1555, the city was declared neutral, and its existing fortress was destroyed. In 1585, during the Ottoman–Safavid War of 1579–1590, the Ottomans took the city alongside Tabriz. On June 8, 1604, during the next bout of hostilities between the two archrivals, the Ottoman–Safavid War of 1603–1618, Safavid ruler Abbas I retook the city from the Ottomans. The fortifications of the city were rebuilt by the Ottoman Sultan Murad III and were strong enough to withstand a siege by Nader Shah of Persia, in 1731. It became the head of a sanjak in the Ottoman Erzurum vilayet. In August 1745, a huge Ottoman army was routed at Kars by Nader Shah during the Ottoman–Persian War of 1743–1746. As a result, the Turks fled westwards, raiding their own lands as they went.


title: Kars

text: In 1807 Kars successfully resisted an attack by the Russian Empire. During a break between the Russian campaigns in the region conducted against the Ottomans, in 1821, commander-in-chief Abbas Mirza of Qajar Iran occupied Kars, further igniting the Ottoman-Persian War of 1821-1823. After another Russian siege in 1828 the city was surrendered by the Ottomans on June 23, 1828 to the Russian general Count Ivan Paskevich, 11,000 men becoming prisoners of war. At the end of the war it returned to Ottoman control for diplomatic reasons, Russia gaining only two border forts. During the Crimean War an Ottoman garrison led by British officers including General William Fenwick Williams kept the Russians at bay during a protracted siege; but after the garrison had been devastated by cholera and food supplies had depleted, the town was surrendered to General Mouravieff in November 1855.


title: Kars

text: The city's significance increased as the Ottoman and Russian empires contested its possession. The fortress was stormed by the Russians in the Battle of Kars during the Russo-Turkish War, 1877-78 under generals Loris-Melikov and Ivan Lazarev. Following the war, Kars was transferred to Russia by the Treaty of San Stefano. Kars became the capital of the Kars Okrug and larger Kars Oblast ("region"), comprising the "okrugs" ("districts") of Kars, Ardahan, Kagizman, and Olti, which was the most southwesterly extension of the Russian Transcaucasus. In the following years the Russians supported the fortification of Kars.


title: Kars

text: From 1878 to 1881 more than 82,000 Muslims from formerly Ottoman-controlled territory migrated to the Ottoman Empire. Among those there were more than 11,000 people from the city of Kars. At the same time, many Armenians and Pontic Greeks (here usually called Caucasus Greeks) migrated to the region from the Ottoman Empire and other regions of Transcaucasia. According to the Russian census data, by 1897 Armenians formed 49.7%, Russians 26.3%, Caucasus Greeks 11.7%, Poles 5.3% and Turks 3.8%.


title: Kars

text: In the First World War, the city was one of the main objectives of the Ottoman army during the lost Battle of Sarikamish in the Caucasus Campaign. Russia ceded Kars, Ardahan and Batum to the Ottoman Empire under the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk on 3 March 1918. However, by then Kars was under the effective control of Armenian and non-Bolshevik Russian forces. The Ottoman Empire captured Kars on 25 April 1918, but under the Armistice of Mudros (October 1918) was required to withdraw to the pre-war frontier and Kars came under control of the First Republic of Armenia. The Ottomans refused to relinquish Kars; its military governor instead established a government, the Provisional National Government of the Southwestern Caucasus, led by Fahrettin Pirioglu, that claimed Turkish sovereignty over Kars and Turkic-speaking regions as far as Batumi and Alexandropol (Gyumri). Much of the region fell under the administrative control of Armenia in January 1919 but the pro-Turkish government remained in the city until a joint operation launched by British and Armenian troops dissolved it on 19 April 1919, arresting its leaders and sending them to Malta. In May 1919 Kars came under the full administration of the Armenian Republic and became the capital of its Vanand province.


title: Kars

text: Skirmishes between the Turkish revolutionaries and Armenian border troops in Olti took place during the summer of 1920. In the autumn of that year four Turkish divisions under the command of General Kâzım Karabekir invaded the Armenian Republic, triggering the Turkish-Armenian War. Kars had been fortified to withstand a lengthy siege but, to the astonishment of all, was taken with little resistance by Turkish forces on 30 October 1920, in what some modern scholars have called one of the worst military fiascoes in Armenian history. The terms of the Treaty of Alexandropol, signed by the representatives of Armenia and Turkey on 2 December 1920, forced Armenia to give back all the Ottoman territories granted to it in the Treaty of Sèvres.