title: Tannhäuser (opera)

text: Wagner wove a variety of sources into the opera narrative. According to his autobiography, he was inspired by finding the story in "a "Volksbuch" (popular book) about the Venusberg", which he claimed "fell into his hands", although he admits knowing of the story from the "Phantasus" of Ludwig Tieck and E. T. A. Hoffmann's story, "Der Kampf der Sänger" (The Singers' Contest). Tieck's tale, which names the hero "Tannenhäuser", tells of the minnesinger-knight's amorous adventures in the Venusberg, his travels to Rome as a Pilgrim, and his repudiation by the pope. To this Wagner added material from Hoffmann's story, from "Serapions-Brüder" (1819), describing a song contest at the Wartburg castle, a castle which featured prominently in Thuringian history. Heinrich Heine had provided Wagner with the inspiration for "Der fliegende Holländer" and Wagner again drew on Heine for Tannhäuser. In Heine's sardonic essay "Elementargeister" (Elemental spirits), there appears a poem about Tannhäuser and the lure of the grotto of Venus, published in 1837 in the third volume of "Der Salon". Other possible sources include Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué's play "Der Sängerkrieg auf der Wartburg" and Eichendorff's "Das Marmorbild" (The Marble Statue, 1818).


title: Tannhäuser (opera)

text: The legend of Tannhäuser, the amorous crusading Franconian knight, and that of the song contest on the Wartburg (which did not involve Tannhäuser, but the semi-mythical minnesinger Heinrich von Ofterdingen), came from quite separate traditions. Ludwig Bechstein wove together the two legends in the first volume of his collection of Thuringian legends, "Der Sagenschatz und die Sagenkreise des Thüringerlandes" (A treasury of the tales of Thuringian legends and legend cycles, 1835), which was probably the "Volksbuch" to which Wagner refers in his autobiography. Wagner also knew of the work of another contemporary, Christian Theodor Ludwig Lucas, whose "Über den Krieg von Wartburg" of 1838 also conflated the two legends. This confusion (which explains why Tannhäuser is referred to as 'Heinrich' in the opera) does not fit with the historical timeline of the events in the opera, since the Singers' Contest involving von Ofterdingen is said to have taken place around 1207, while Tannhäuser's poetry appeared much later (1245–1265). The sources used by Wagner therefore reflected a nineteenth century romantic view of the medieval period, with concerns about artistic freedom and the constraints of organised religion typical of the period of Romanticism.


title: Tannhäuser (opera)

text: During Wagner's first stay in Paris (1839–1842) he read a paper by Ludwig Lucas on the "Sängerkrieg" which sparked his imagination, and encouraged him to return to Germany, which he reached on 7 April 1842. Having crossed the Rhine, the Wagners drove towards Thuringia, and saw the early rays of sun striking the Wartburg; Wagner immediately began to sketch the scenery that would become the stage sets. Wagner wrote the prose draft of "Tannhäuser" between June and July 1842 and the libretto in April 1843.


title: Tannhäuser (opera)

text: Wagner began composing the music during a vacation in Teplitz in the summer of 1843 and completed the full score on 13 April 1845; the opera's famous overture, often played separately as a concert piece, was written last. While composing the music for the Venusberg grotto, Wagner grew so impassioned that he made himself ill; in his autobiography, he wrote, "With much pain and toil I sketched the first outlines of my music for the "Venusberg"... Meanwhile, I was very much troubled by excitability and rushes of blood to the brain. I imagined I was ill and lay for whole days in bed..." The instrumentation also shows signs of borrowing from French operatic style. The score includes parts for on-stage brass; however, rather than using French brass instruments, Wagner uses 12 German waldhorns. Wagner also makes use of the harp, another commonplace of French opera. Wagner made a number of revisions of the opera throughout his life, and was still dissatisfied with its format when he died. The most significant revision was made for the opera's première in Paris in 1861.


title: Tannhäuser (opera)

text: The first performance was given in the Königliches Hoftheater Dresden on 19 October 1845. The composer Ferdinand Hiller, at that time a friend of the composer, assisted in the musical preparations for the production. The part of Elisabeth was sung by Wagner's niece Johanna Wagner. Wagner had intended to premiere the opera on 13 October, Johanna's 19th birthday, but she was ill, so it was postponed by six days. Venus was sung by Wilhelmine Schröder-Devrient, and the title role of Tannhäuser by Josef Tichatschek. The performance was conducted by the composer. "Tannhäuser" was not the success that "Rienzi" had been, and Wagner almost immediately set to modifying the ending, adjusting the score through 1846 and 1847. For the first Dresden revival (1847) he clarified the representation of Venus's temptation of Tannhäuser in the final act, and added vocal presentation of the pilgrim's chorus in this act (where it had previously been represented by orchestra alone). This version of the opera, as revised for publication in 1860, is generally known as the "Dresden" version. After Franz Liszt produced the opera at Weimar Court Theatre in 1849, there were further performances between 1852 and 1856 in (amongst other locations) Schwerin, Kassel, Poznań, Wiesbaden, Hanover, Munich, and Berlin.


title: Tannhäuser (opera)

text: The Dresden version was used for initial productions outside Germany, notably at Riga on 18 January 1853; at Tallinn on 10 January 1854; at Prague on 25 November 1854 at Theatre of the Estates; at New York City on 4 April 1859 at the Stadt Theatre; and in London on 6 May 1876 at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden (when it was sung in Italian).


title: Tannhäuser (opera)

text: Wagner substantially amended the opera for a special 1861 performance by the Paris Opéra. This had been requested by Emperor Napoleon III at the suggestion of Princess Pauline von Metternich, wife of the Austrian ambassador to France. This revision forms the basis of what is now known as the "Paris version" of "Tannhäuser". The venue meant that the composer had to insert a ballet into the score, according to the traditions of the house. Wagner agreed to this condition since he believed that a success at the Opéra represented his most significant opportunity to re-establish himself following his exile from Germany. However, rather than put the ballet in its traditional place in Act II, he chose to place it in Act I, in the form of a bacchanale, where it could make dramatic sense by representing the sensual world of Venus's realm. There were further extensive changes. The text was translated into French (by Charles-Louis-Étienne Nuitter and others). Venus, a role that in the Dresden version was considered a soprano, was rewritten as for mezzo-soprano. Venus' aria "Geliebter, komm!" was transposed down by a semitone, and its latter part was completely rewritten. A solo for Walther was removed from Act II. Extra lines for Venus following Tannhäuser's "Hymn to Love" were added. The orchestral introduction to Act III was shortened. The end of the opera was reworked to include Venus on stage, where before the audience only heard the Venus motif, in an attempt to clarify the action.


title: Tannhäuser (opera)

text: "Tannhäuser"s first performance in Paris was given on 13 March 1861 at the Salle Le Peletier of the Paris Opéra. The composer had been closely involved in its preparation and there had been 164 rehearsals. The costumes were designed by Alfred Albert, the sets by Charles-Antoine Cambon and Joseph Thierry (Act I, Scene 1), Édouard Desplechin (Act I, Scene 2 and Act III), and Joseph Nolau and Auguste Alfred Rubé (Act II).


title: Tannhäuser (opera)

text: At the first performance the opera was initially well-received, with disturbances including whistling and cat-calls beginning to appear in Act II, and becoming prominent by the end of the third act. For the second performance much of the new ballet music was removed, together with some actions that had specifically provoked mockery, such as the piping of the shepherd in Act I. At this performance however the audience disturbances were increased. This was partly due to members of the wealthy and aristocratic Jockey Club, who objected to the ballet coming in Act I, since this meant they would have to be present from the beginning of the performance (disrupting their dining schedule). It was alleged that they distributed whistles to the audience. A further incentive to disruption was the unpopularity of Princess von Metternich and of her native country of Austria. At the third performance on 24 March (which Wagner did not attend) uproar caused several interruptions of up to fifteen minutes at a time. As a consequence, Wagner withdrew the opera after the third performance. This marked the end to Wagner's hopes of establishing himself in Paris.


title: Tannhäuser (opera)

text: The first performance outside France of the "Paris" version was given in Bologna on 7 November 1872 at the Teatro Comunale, (the first performance of the opera in Italy). The American and British premieres of this version were respectively in New York at the Metropolitan Opera on 30 January 1889, and at London's Royal Opera House on 15 July 1895 .


title: Tannhäuser (opera)

text: A few further changes to "Tannhäuser" were made for an 1875 performance of the opera in Vienna, the last production carried out under Wagner's own supervision. These included the opera being sung in German (rather than in French, as in Paris) and linking the end of the overture to the start of the opera proper. The 1875 Vienna version is that normally used in modern productions of the "Paris" version, often with the reinstatement of Walther's Act II solo. Wagner remained dissatisfied with the opera. Cosima Wagner noted in her diary on 23 January 1883 (three weeks before he died) "He says he still owes the world "Tannhäuser"."


title: Tannhäuser (opera)

text: Although the libretto and the score always use the single name "Tannhäuser" in stage directions involving the title character or in indicating which passages are sung by him, that name never appears in the libretto. Rather, each character who addresses Tannhäuser by name uses his given name "Heinrich" (Heinrich von Ofterdingen).


title: Tannhäuser (opera)

text: The distinct character Heinrich der Schreiber sings many melodies distinct from all other named characters, and occasionally unique lyrics. However, in the libretto he finds individual mention only in the list of characters, with the ensemble numbers that include him being labelled for the "Ritter" (i.e., "knights", referring to the "Minnesinger", who all share knightly rank). The score in the Schirmer edition labels his melody line simply "Schreiber".


title: Tannhäuser (opera)

text: In Eisenach, Germany, in the early 13th century, the landgraves of the Thuringian Valley ruled the area of Germany around the Wartburg. They were great patrons of the arts, particularly music and poetry, holding contests between the Minnesingers at the Wartburg. Across the valley towered the Venusberg, in whose interior, according to legend, dwelt Holda, the Goddess of Spring. In time, Holda became identified with Venus, the pagan Goddess of Love, whose grotto was the home of sirens and nymphs. It was said that the goddess would lure the Wartburg minnesinger-knights to her lair where her beauty would captivate them. The minnesinger-knight Heinrich von Ofterdingen, known as Tannhäuser, left the court of the Landgrave of Thuringia a year ago after a disagreement with his fellow knights. Since then he has been held as a willing captive through his love for Venus, in her grotto in the Venusberg.


title: Tannhäuser (opera)

text: The Venusberg, (the Hörselberg of "Frau Holda" in Thuringia, in the vicinity of Eisenach), and a valley between the Venusberg and Wartburg


title: Tannhäuser (opera)

text: The substantial overture commences with the theme of the 'Pilgrim's Chorus' from Act III, Scene 1, and also includes elements of the 'Venusberg' music from Act I, Scene 1. The overture is frequently performed as a separate item in orchestral concerts, the first such performance having been given by Felix Mendelssohn conducting the Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra in February 1846. Wagner later gave the opinion that perhaps it would be better to cut the overture at opera performances to the Pilgrim's Chorus alone – "the remainder – in the fortunate event of its being understood – is, as a prelude to the drama, too much; in the opposite event, too little." In the original, "Dresden" version, the overture comes to a traditional concert close (the version heard in concert performances). For the "Paris" version the music leads directly into the first scene, without pausing.


title: Tannhäuser (opera)

text: Wagner's stage directions state: "The stage represents the interior of the Venusberg...In the distant background is a bluish lake; in it one sees the bathing figures of naiads; on its elevated banks are sirens. In the extreme left foreground lies Venus bearing the head of the half kneeling Tannhäuser in her lap. The whole cave is illuminated by rosy light. – A group of dancing nymphs appears, joined gradually by members of loving couples from the cave. – A train of Bacchantes comes from the background in wild dance... – The ever-wilder dance answers as in echo the Chorus of Sirens": ""Naht euch dem Strande"" ("Come to the shore"). In the "Paris" version this orgiastic ballet is greatly extended.


title: Tannhäuser (opera)

text: Following the orgy of the ballet, Tannhäuser's desires are finally satiated, and he longs for freedom, spring and the sound of church bells. He takes up his harp and pays homage to the goddess in a passionate love song, ""Dir töne Lob!"" ("Let your praises be heard"), which he ends with an earnest plea to be allowed to depart, ""Aus deinem Reiche, muss ich fliehn! O Königin! Göttin! Lass mich ziehn!"" ("From your kingdom must I flee! O Queen! O Goddess, set me free"). Surprised, Venus offers him further charms, but eventually his repeated pleas arouse her fury and she curses his desire for salvation. (In the "Paris" version Venus's inveighing against Tannhäuser is significantly expanded). Eventually Tannhäuser declares: ""Mein Heil ruht in Maria"" ("My salvation rests in Mary"). These words break the unholy spell. Venus and the Venusberg disappear.


title: Tannhäuser (opera)

text: According to Wagner's stage directions, "Tannhäuser...finds himself a beautiful valley… To the left one sees the Hörselberg. To the right...a mountain path from the direction of the Wartburg ...; in the foreground, led to by a low promontory, an image of the Virgin Mary – From above left one hears the ringing of herder’s bells; on a high projection sits a young shepherd with pipes facing the valley". It is May. The shepherd sings an ode to the pagan goddess Holda, ""Frau Holda kam aus dem Berg hervor"" ("Lady Holda, come forth from the hill"). A hymn ""Zu dir wall ich, mein Jesus Christ"" ("To thee I turn, my Jesus Christ") can be heard, as Pilgrims are seen approaching from the Wartburg, and the shepherd stops playing. The pilgrims pass Tannhäuser as he stands motionless, and then, praising God, (""Allmächt'ger, dir sei Preis!"" ("Almighty God, to you be praise!")) he sinks to his knees, overcome with gratitude. At that moment the sound of hunting-horns can be heard, drawing ever nearer.


title: Tannhäuser (opera)

text: The Landgrave's hunting party appears. The minnesingers (Wolfram, Walther, Biterolf, Reinmar, and Heinrich) recognise Tannhäuser, still deep in prayer, and greet him (""Heinrich! Heinrich! Seh ich recht?"" ("Heinrich! Heinrich! Do I see right?")) cautiously, recalling past feuds. They question him about his recent whereabouts, to which he gives vague answers. The minnesingers urge Tannhäuser to rejoin them, which he declines until Wolfram mentions Elisabeth, the Landgrave's niece, ""Bleib bei Elisabeth!"" ("Stay, for Elisabeth!"). Tannhäuser is visibly moved, ""Elisabeth! O Macht des Himmels, rufst du den süssen Namen mir?"" ("Elisabeth! O might of heaven, do you cry out the sweet name to me?"). The minnesingers explain to Tannhäuser how he had enchanted Elisabeth, but when he had left she withdrew from their company and lost interest in music, expressing the hope that his return will also bring her back, ""Auf's Neue leuchte uns ihr Stern!"" ("Let her star once more shine upon us"). Tannhäuser begs them to lead him to her, ""Zu ihr! Zu ihr!"" ("To her! To her!"). The rest of the hunting party gathers, blowing horns.


title: Tannhäuser (opera)

text: Elisabeth enters, joyfully. She sings, to the hall, of how she has been beset by sadness since Tannhäuser's departure but now lives in hope that his songs will revive both of them, ""Dich, teure Halle, grüss ich wieder"" ("Dear hall, I greet thee once again"). Wolfram leads Tannhäuser into the hall.


title: Tannhäuser (opera)

text: Tannhäuser flings himself at Elisabeth's feet. He exclaims ""O Fürstin!"" ("O Princess!"). At first, seemingly confused, she questions him about where he has been, which he avoids answering. She then greets him joyfully (""Ich preise dieses Wunder aus meines Herzens Tiefe!"" ("I praise this miracle from my heart's depths!")), and they join in "a duet, "Gepriesen sei die Stunde"" ("Praise be to this hour"). Tannhäuser then leaves with Wolfram.


title: Tannhäuser (opera)

text: The Landgrave enters, and he and Elisabeth embrace. The Landgrave sings of his joy, ""Dich treff ich hier in dieser Halle"" ("Do I find you in this hall") at her recovery and announces the upcoming song contest, at which she will preside, ""dass du des Festes Fürstin seist"" ("that you will be the Princess of the Festival").


title: Tannhäuser (opera)

text: Elisabeth and the Landgrave watch the guests arrive. The guests assemble greeting the Landgrave and singing ""Freudig begrüssen wir edle Halle"" ("With joy we greet the noble hall"), take their places in a semicircle, with Elisabeth and the Landgrave in the seats of honour in the foreground. The Landgrave announces the contest and the theme, which shall be ""Könnt ihr der Liebe Wesen mir ergründen?"" ("Can you explain the nature of Love?"), and that the prize will be whatever the winner asks of Elisabeth. The knights place their names in a cup from which Elisabeth draws the first singer, Wolfram. Wolfram sings a song of courtly love and is applauded, but Tannhäuser chides him for his lack of passion. There is consternation, and once again Elisabeth appears confused, torn between rapture and anxiety. Biterolf accuses him of blasphemy and speaks of ""Frauenehr und hohe Tugend"" ("women's virtue and honour"). The knights draw their swords as Tannhäuser mocks Biterolf, but the Landgrave intervenes to restore order. However, Tannhäuser, as if in a trance, rises to his feet and sings a song of ecstatic love to Venus, ""Dir Göttin der Liebe, soll mein Lied ertönen"" ("To thee, Goddess of Love, should my song resound"). There is general horror as it is realised he has been in the Venusberg; the women, apart from Elisabeth, flee. She appears pale and shocked, while the knights and the Landgrave gather together and condemn Tannhäuser to death. Only Elisabeth, shielding him with her body, saves him, ""Haltet ein!"" ("Stop!"). She states that God's will is that a sinner shall achieve salvation through atonement. Tannhäuser collapses as all hail Elisabeth as an angel, ""Ein Engel stieg aus lichtem Äther"" ("An angel rose out of the bright ether"). He promises to seek atonement, the Landgrave exiles him and orders him to join another younger band of pilgrims then assembling. All depart, crying ""Nach Rom!"" ("To Rome!").


title: Tannhäuser (opera)

text: The valley of the Wartburg, in autumn. Elisabeth is kneeling, praying before the Virgin as Wolfram comes down the path and notices her


title: Tannhäuser (opera)

text: Orchestral music describes the pilgrimage of Tannhäuser. It is evening. Wolfram muses on Elisabeth's sorrow during Tannhäuser's second absence, ""Wohl wusst' ich hier sie im Gebet zu finden"" ("I knew well I might find her here in prayer") and her longing for the return of the pilgrims, and expresses concerns that he may not have been absolved. As he does so he hears a pilgrims' prayer in the distance, ""Beglückt darf nun dich, O Heimat, ich schauen"" ("Joyfully may I now you, O homeland, behold"). Elisabeth rises and she and Wolfram listen to the hymn, watching the pilgrims approach and pass by. She anxiously searches the procession, but in vain, realising sorrowfully he is not amongst them, ""Er kehret nicht züruck!"" ("He has not returned"). She again kneels with a prayer to the Virgin that appears to foretell her death, ""Allmächt'ge Jungfrau! Hör mein Flehen"" ("Almighty Virgin, hear my plea!"). On rising she sees Wolfram but motions him not to speak. He offers to escort her back to the Wartburg, but she again motions him to be still, and gestures that she is grateful for his devotion but her path leads to heaven. She slowly makes her way up the path alone.


title: Tannhäuser (opera)

text: Wolfram, left alone as darkness draws on and the stars appear, begins to play and sings a hymn to the evening star that also hints at Elisabeth's approaching death, ""Wie Todesahnung Dämmrung deckt die Lande...O du mein holder Abendstern"" ("Like a premonition of death the twilight shrouds the earth... O thou my fair evening star").


title: Tannhäuser (opera)

text: It is now night. Tannhäuser appears, ragged, pale and haggard, walking feebly leaning on his staff. Wolfram suddenly recognises Tannhäuser and, startled, challenges him, since he is exiled. To Wolfram's horror, Tannhäuser explains he is once again seeking the company of Venus. Wolfram tries to restrain him, at the same time expressing compassion and begging him to tell the story of his pilgrimage. Tannhäuser urges Wolfram to listen to his story, ""Nun denn, hör an! Du, Wolfram, du sollst es erfahren"" ("Now then, listen! You, Wolfram, shall learn all that has passed"). Tannhäuser sings of his penitence and suffering, all the time thinking of Elisabeth's gesture and pain, ""Inbrunst im Herzen, wie kein Büsser noch"" ("With a flame in my heart, such as no penitent has known"). He explains how he reached Rome, and the ""Heiligtumes Schwelle"" ("Holy shrine"), and witnessed thousands of pilgrims being absolved. Finally he approaches ""ihn, durch den sich Gott verkündigt"" ("he, through whom God speaks") and tells his story. However, rather than finding absolution, he is cursed, ""bist nun ewig du verdammt!"" ("you are forever damned!"), and is told by the pope that ""Wie dieser Stab in meiner Hand, nie mehr sich schmückt mit frischem Grün, kann aus der Hölle heissem Brand, Erlösung nimmer dir erblühn!"" ("As this staff in my hand, no more shall bear fresh leaves, from the hot fires of hell, salvation never shall bloom for thee"). Whereupon, absolutely crushed, he fled, seeking his former source of bliss.


title: Tannhäuser (opera)

text: Having completed his tale, Tannhäuser calls out to Venus to take him back, ""Zu dir, Frau Venus, kehr ich wieder"" ("To you, Lady Venus, I return"). The two men struggle as a faint image of dancing becomes apparent. As Tannhäuser repeatedly calls on Venus, she suddenly appears and welcomes him back, ""Willkommen, ungetreuer Mann!"" ("Welcome, faithless man!"). As Venus continues to beckon, ""Zu mir! Zu mir!"" ("To me!, To me!"), in desperation, Wolfram suddenly remembers there is one word that can change Tannhäuser's heart, and exclaims ""Elisabeth!"" Tannhäuser, as if frozen in time, repeats the name. As he does so, torches are seen, and a funeral hymn is heard approaching, ""Der Seele Heil, die nun entflohn"" ("Hail, the soul that now is flown"). Wolfram realises it must be Elisabeth's body that is being borne, and that in her death lies Tannhäuser's redemption, ""Heinrich, du bist erlöst!"" ("Heinrich, you are saved"). Venus cries out, ""Weh! Mir verloren"" ("Alas! Lost to me!") and vanishes with her kingdom. As dawn breaks the procession appears bearing Elisabeth's body on a bier. Wolfram beckons to them to set it down, and as Tannhäuser bends over the body uttering, ""Heilige Elisabeth, bitte für mich!"" ("Holy Elisabeth!, pray for me!") he dies. As the growing light bathes the scene the younger pilgrims arrive bearing the pope's staff sprouting new leaves, and proclaiming a miracle, ""Heil! Heil! Der Gnade Wunder Heil!"" ("Hail!, Hail! To this miracle of grace, Hail!"). All then sing ""Der Gnade Heil ist dem Büsser beschieden, er geht nun ein in der Seligen Frieden!"" ("The Holy Grace of God is to the penitent given, who now enters into the joy of Heaven!").


title: Tannhäuser (opera)

text: Wagner died in 1883. The first production of the opera at Wagner's Bayreuth Festspielhaus (originally constructed for the performance of his Ring Cycle), was undertaken under the supervision of Cosima Wagner in 1891, and adhered closely to the 'Vienna' version. Later performances at Bayreuth included one conducted by Richard Strauss (1894), and one where the Bacchanal was choreographed by Isadora Duncan (1904). Duncan envisaged the Bacchanal as a fantasy of Tannhäuser's fevered brain, as Wagner had written to Mathilde Wesendonck in 1860. Arturo Toscanini conducted the opera at Bayreuth in the 1930/31 season.


title: Tannhäuser (opera)

text: In the words of the Wagner scholar Thomas S. Grey, "The Bacchanal remained a defining focus of many ...productions, as a proving ground for changing conceptions of the psychosexual symbolism of the Venusberg." Productions including those of Götz Friedrich at Bayreuth (1972) and Otto Schenk at the Metropolitan Opera, New York, (1977) "routinely offer quantities of simulated copulation and post-coital langour, for which the Paris score offers ample encouragement". A Munich production (1994) included as part of Tannhäuser's fantasies "creatures out of Hieronymus Bosch crawl[ing] around the oblivious protagonist".


title: Tannhäuser (opera)

text: A production mounted in 2013 at the Deutsche Oper am Rhein, Düsseldorf, was withdrawn after angry protests and reports of distressed audience members seeking medical help. Directed by , the production incorporated characters dressed as Nazis; a realistic depiction of a death by shooting; and a setting within a Holocaust-era concentration camp. After the first night, the opera's run continued in the form of unstaged concert performances only.


title: Tannhäuser (opera)

text: Many scholars and writers on opera have advanced theories to explain the motives and behaviour of the characters, including Jungian psychoanalysis, in particular as regards Tannhäuser's apparently self-destructive behaviour. In 2014 an analysis suggested that his apparently inconsistent behaviour, when analysed by game theory, is actually consistent with a redemption strategy. Only by public disclosure can Tannhäuser force a resolution of his inner conflict.


title: Battle of Khanwa

text: The Battle of Khanwa was fought at Khanwa on March 16, 1527. It was fought between the invading Timurid forces of Babur and the Rajput confederacy led by Rana Sanga for suprermacy of Northern India. The battle was a major event in Medieval Indian history although Timurids won at Panipat but at the time, the sultanate at Delhi was a spent force that was long crumbling. To the contrary Mewar kingdom, under the able rule of Rana Sanga, had turned into one of the strongest powers of northern India. Therefore the battle was among the most decisive battles in the Mughal conquest of northern India.


title: Battle of Khanwa

text: It was among the earliest battles in Northern India where gunpowder was used to a great extent. The battle resulted in heavy casualties for both Timurids and Rajputs.


title: Battle of Khanwa

text: Until 1524, Babur's aim was to expand his rule to Punjab, primarily to fulfil the legacy of his ancestor Timur, since it used to be part of his empire. Large parts of north India were under the rule of Ibrahim Lodi of the Lodi dynasty, but the empire was crumbling and there were many defectors. Babur had already raided Punjab in 1504 and 1518. In 1519 he tried to invade Punjab but had to return to Kabul due to complications there. In 1520–21 Babur again ventured to conquer Punjab, he easily captured Bhira and Sialkot which were known as the "twin gateways to Hindustan". Babur was able to annex towns and cities till Lahore but was again forced to stop due to rebellions in Qandhar. In 1523 he received invitations from Daulat Khan Lodi, Governor of Punjab and Ala-ud-Din, Ibrahim's uncle, to invade the Delhi Sultanate. Daulat Khan later betrayed Babur and with a force of 40,000 he captured Sialkot from the Mughal garrison and marched towards Lahore. Daulat Khan was soundly defeated at Lahore and through this victory Babur became the unopposed lord of Punjab., Babur continued his conquest and annihilated the Lodi sultanate's army in the First Battle of Panipat, where he killed the Sultan and founded the Mughal Empire.


title: Battle of Khanwa

text: According to Baburnama, Rana Sanga had also offered to help Babur against Ibrahim, however while Babur did attack Lodi and take over Delhi and Agra, Sanga made no move, apparently having changed his mind. Babur had resented this backsliding; in his autobiography, Babur accuses Rana Sanga of breaching their agreement. However Rajput sources claim the opposite and say that Sanga was successful against the Lodi Empire and did not require Baburs aid. Instead it was Babur who approached Rana Sanga and proposed an alliance against the Lodi Empire. Historian Satish Chandra speculates that Sanga may have imagined a long, drawn-out struggle taking place between Babur and Lodi, following which he would be able to take control of the regions he coveted. Alternatively, writes Chandra, Sanga may have thought that in the event of a Mughal victory, Babur would withdraw from Delhi and Agra, like Timur, once he had seized the treasures of these cities. Once he realized that Babur intended to stay on in India, Sanga proceeded to build a grand coalition that would either force Babur out of India or confine him to Afghanistan. In early 1527, Babur started receiving reports of Sanga's advance towards Agra.


title: Battle of Khanwa

text: According to Jadunath Sarkar, Babur did not need an invitation to invade Hindustan. After establishing himself in Kabul, Babur had started making inroads into Punjab which was governed by Daulat Khan Lodi, a courtier of Ibrahim Lodi. Daulat was unfaithful to his lord and formed an alliance with Babur against the Lodi Empire. This made it easy for Babur to enter Hindustan and oust both Daulat and Ibrahim.


title: Battle of Khanwa

text: However, Indologist Gopinath Sharma who is well known for his scholarly work on Mewar Kings and Mughal Empire ably rejected this theory of Rana Sanga sending his ambassador to Babur by providing various factual contemporary evidences for the same. Sharma added that Sanga already established himself as the most powerful Hindu king of Northern India of that time, while Babur was yet to establish his reputation in India. Under those circumstances it was in Babur's interest to seek an alliance with perhaps his greatest and most powerful enemy of Northern India. Also Babur gave no details of his alliance with Sanga while elsewhere he had provided details of his agreement with Daulat khan and Alam khan Lodhi. Baburnama itself was not a reliable book as it exaggerated many accounts like he did about number of armies in First Battle of Panipat to over glorify his victory which are too exaggerated in the context of modern researches.


title: Battle of Khanwa

text: The most important aspect of all is that there are no contemporary Hindu or Muslim writer who mentioned Sanga sending an ambassador to Kabul while all of them do that for Lodhi's. Therefore In Sharma's words "It was a pity that all later writers have uncritically accepted Babur's version."


title: Battle of Khanwa

text: After the First Battle of Panipat, Babur had recognized that his primary threat came from two allied quarters: Rana Sanga and the Afghans ruling eastern India at the time. In a council that Babur called, it was decided that the Afghans represented the bigger threat, and consequently Humayun was sent at the head of an army to fight the Afghans in the east. However, upon hearing of Rana Sanga's advancement on Agra, Humayun was hastily recalled. Military detachments were then sent by Babur to conquer Dholpur, Gwaliar, and Bayana, strong forts forming the outer boundaries of Agra. The commanders of Dholpur and Gwalior surrendered their forts to Babur, accepting his generous terms. However, Nizam Khan, the commander of Bayana, opened negotiations with both Babur and Sanga. The force sent by Babur to Bayana was defeated and dispersed by Rana Sanga on 21 February 1527.


title: Battle of Khanwa

text: In one of the earliest western scholarly account of the Mughal rulers, 'A History of India Under the Two First Sovereigns of the House of Taimur Baber and Humayun', William Erskine, a 19th-century Scottish historian, quotes:


title: Battle of Khanwa

text: Rana Sanga had destroyed all the Mughal contingents that were sent against him, this caused great fear in Babur's army as he has written "the fierceness and valour of the pagan army" made the troops "anxious and afraid". The Afghans in Baburs army started to leave and the Turks started complaining about defending a land that they hated, they requested Babur to leave to Kabul with the rich spoils that they had collected. Babur writes "no manly word or brave council was heard from any one soever".


title: Battle of Khanwa

text: Rana Sanga had built a formidable military alliance against Babur. He was joined by virtually all the leading Rajput kings from Rajasthan, including those from Harauti, Jalor, Sirohi, Dungarpur, and Dhundhar. Rao Ganga of Marwar did not join personally but sent a contingent on his behalf led by his son Maldev Rathore. Rao Medini Rai of Chanderi in Malwa also joined the alliance. Further, Mahmud Lodi, the younger son of Sikandar Lodi, whom the Afghans had proclaimed their new sultan also joined the alliance with a contingent of Afghan horsemen with him. Khanzada Hasan Khan Mewati, the ruler of Mewat, also joined the alliance with his men. Babur denounced the Afghans who joined the alliance against him as "kafirs" and "murtads" (those who had apostatized from Islam). Chandra also argues that the alliance weaved together by Sanga represented a Rajput-Afghan alliance with the proclaimed mission of expelling Babur and restoring the Lodi empire. Rajasthan Indologist Dasharatha Sharma noted that Ibrahim's brother Mahmmud Lodhi went to Chittor with his small faction and asked for Sanga's assistance and Sanga in chivalrous manner agree for the purposal. Sharma further commented that this small factions of Afghan does not represented any united military pact but instead the pitty state of remaining disintigerated pact of Afghans at time who already witnessed the consequences of joining Babur as they did in Sack of Bayana where several of them were slaughtered. Sharma further explained that this small Afghan contingent along with Mahmmud fled from the battlefield of Khanua amidst the battle.


title: Battle of Khanwa

text: According to K.V Krishna Rao, Rana Sanga wanted to overthrow Babur, because he considered him to be a foreigner ruling in India and also to extend his territories by annexing Delhi and Agra, the Rana was supported by some Afghan chieftains who felt that Babur had been deceptive towards them.


title: Battle of Khanwa

text: According to Babur, Rana Sanga's army consisted of 200,000 soldiers. However, according to Alexander Kinloch, this is an exaggeration as the Rajput army did not exceed 40,000 men during the campaign in Gujarat. Even if this figure is exaggerated, Chandra comments that it is indisputable that Sanga's army greatly outnumbered Babur's forces. The greater numbers and reported courage of the Rajputs served to instil fear in Babur's army. An astrologer added to the general unease by his foolish predictions. To raise the flagging morale of his soldiers, Babur gave a religious colour to the battle against Hindus. Babur proceeded to renounce future consumption of wine, broke his drinking cups, poured out all the stores of liquor on the ground and promulgated a pledge of total abstinence. In his autobiography, Babur writes that:


title: Battle of Khanwa

text: Babur knew that his army would have been swept by the Rajput charge if he tried to fight them in the open, he therefore planned a defensive strategy to form a fortified encampment where he would use his muskets and artillery to weaken his foes and then strike when their morale had shattered. Babur had carefully inspected the site. Like in Panipat, he strengthened his front by procuring carts that were fastened by iron chains (not leather straps, as at Panipat) and reinforced by mantlets. Gaps between the carts were used for horsemen to charge at the opponent at an opportune time. To lengthen the line, ropes made of rawhide were placed over wheeled wooden tripods. The flanks were given protection by digging ditches. Foot-musketeers, falconets and mortars were placed behind the carts, from where they could fire and, if required, advance. The heavy Turkic horsemen stood behind them, two contingents of elite horsemen were kept in the reserve for the "taulqama" (flanking) tactic. Thus, a strong offensive-defensive formation had been prepared by Babur.


title: Battle of Khanwa

text: Rana Sanga, fighting in a traditional manner, charged the Mughal ranks. His army was shot down in great numbers by the Mughal muskets, the noise of the muskets further caused fear amongst the horses and elephants of the Rajput army, causing them to trample their own men. Rana Sanga finding it impossible to attack the Mughal centre, ordered his men to attack the Mughal flanks, the fighting continued on the two flanks for three hours, during which the Mughals fired at the Rajput ranks with muskets and arrows while the Rajputs could only retaliate in close quarters.


title: Battle of Khanwa

text: Babur did make attempts to use his famous taulqama or pincer movement, however his men were unable to complete it, twice they pushed the Rajputs back however due to the relentless attacks of the Rajput horsemen they were forced to retreat to their positions. At about this time Silhadi of Raisen deserted the Ranas army and went over to Baburs. The betrayal of Silhadi forced the Rana to change his plans and issue new orders. According to some historians this betrayal never happened and was a later concoction. During this time the Rana was shot by a bullet and fell unconscious, causing great confusion in the Rajput army and a lull in the fighting for a short period. Babur has written this event in his memoirs by saying "the accursed infidels remained confounded for one hour". A Jhala chieftain called Ajja acted as the Rana and led the Rajput army, while the Rana was hidden within a circle of his trusted men. Jhala Ajja proved to be a poor general, as he continued the attacks on the Mughal flanks while ignoring his weak centre. The Rajputs continued their attacks but failed to break the Mughal flanks and their centre was unable to do anything against the fortified Mughal centre, Jadunath Sarkar has explained the struggle in the following words:


title: Battle of Khanwa

text: Babur after noticing the weak Rajput centre ordered his men to take the offensive, the Mughal attack pushed the Rajputs back and forced the Rajput commanders to rush to the front, resulting in the death of many. The Rajputs were now leaderless as most of their senior commanders were dead and their unconscious king had been moved out of the battle. The Rajputs made a desperate charge on the Mughal left and right flanks like before, "here their bravest were mown down and the battle ended in their irretrievable defeat". The Rajputs and their allies had been defeated, dead bodies could be found as far as Bayana, Alwar and Mewat. The Mughals were too exhausted after the long fight to give chase and Babur himself gave up the idea of invading Mewar.


title: Battle of Khanwa

text: Following his victory, Babur ordered a tower of enemy skulls to be erected, a practice formulated by Timur. According to Chandra, the objective of constructing a tower of skulls was not just to record a great victory, but also to terrorize opponents. Earlier, the same tactic had been used by Babur against the Afghans of Bajaur.


title: Battle of Khanwa

text: The Battle of Khanwa demonstrated that Rajput bravery was not enough to counter Babur's superior generalship and organizational skills. Babur himself commented:


title: Battle of Khanwa

text: Sanga was taken away from the battlefield in an unconscious state by Prithviraj Kachwaha and prince Maldev Rathore of Marwar. After regaining consciousness he took an oath to not return to Chittor until he had defeats Babur and ouster him. He also stopped wearing a Turban and just used to wrap a cloth over his head. While he was preparing to wage another war against Babur , he was poisoned by his own nobles who did not want another conflict with Babur. He died in Kalpi on January 1528.


title: Battle of Khanwa

text: It is suggested that had it not been for the cannon of Babur, Rana Sanga might have achieved a Historic victory against Babur. Pradeep Barua notes that Babur's cannon put an end to outdated trends in Indian warfare.


title: Economy of Monaco

text: The economy of Monaco is reliant on tourism and banking. Monaco, situated on the French coast of the Mediterranean Sea, is a popular resort, attracting tourists to its casino and pleasant climate.


title: Economy of Monaco

text: The Principality has successfully sought to diversify into services and small, high-value-added, nonpolluting industries. The state has no income tax and low business taxes and thrives as a tax haven both for individuals who have established residence and for foreign companies that have set up businesses and offices. The state retains monopolies in a number of sectors, including tobacco, the telephone network, and the postal service.


title: Economy of Monaco

text: Economic development was spurred in the late 19th century with the opening of the rail link to France and a casino. Monaco's economy is now primarily geared toward finance, commerce, and tourism.


title: Economy of Monaco

text: Low taxes have drawn many foreign companies to Monaco and account for around 75% of the $5.748 billion annual GDP income in (2011). Similarly, tourism accounts for close to 15% of the annual revenue, as the Principality of Monaco also has been a major center for tourism ever since the famed Monte Carlo Casino was established in 1856. The casino is alluded to in the ABBA song "Money, Money, Money".


title: Economy of Monaco

text: Financial and insurance activities, along with scientific and technical activities are main contributors to GDP of Monaco. Banking sector of Monaco is rather large: in 2015 consolidated banking assets 8.42 times exceeded the country's GDP. Banks operating in Monaco traditionally specialize in private banking, asset and wealth management services.


title: Economy of Monaco

text: An economic and customs union with France governs customs, postal services, telecommunications, and banking in Monaco. Before the euro, Monaco used the Monegasque franc, which itself was pegged to the French franc. Now part of the Eurozone, but not the EU, Monaco mints its own euro coins.


title: Economy of Monaco

text: Monaco is noted for its activity in the field of marine sciences. Its Oceanographic Museum, formerly directed by Jacques-Yves Cousteau, is one of the most renowned institutions of its kind in the world. Monaco import and exports products and services from all over the world. There is no commercial agriculture in Monaco; it is 100% urban.


title: Economy of Monaco

text: Monaco levies no income tax on individuals. The absence of a personal income tax in the principality has attracted to it a considerable number of wealthy "tax refugee" residents from European countries who derive the majority of their income from activity outside Monaco; celebrities such as Formula One drivers attract most of the attention, but the vast majority of them are less well-known business people.


title: Economy of Monaco

text: In 2000, a report by the French parliamentarians, Arnaud Montebourg and Vincent Peillon, alleged that Monaco had lax policies with respect to money laundering, including within its famed casino, and that the government of Monaco had been placing political pressure on the judiciary so that alleged crimes were not properly investigated.


title: Economy of Monaco

text: In 1998, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) issued a first report on the consequences of the tax havens' financial systems. Monaco did not appear in the list of these territories until 2004, when OECD became indignant regarding the Monegasque situation and denounced it in its last report, as well as Andorra, Liechtenstein, Liberia and the Marshall Islands, underlining its lack of co-operation as regards to financial information disclosure and availability.


title: Economy of Monaco

text: In 2000, the Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering (FATF) stated: "The anti-money laundering system in Monaco is comprehensive. However, difficulties have been encountered with Monaco by countries in international investigations on serious crimes that appear to be linked also with tax matters. In addition, the FIU of Monaco (SICCFIN) suffers a great lack of adequate resources. The authorities of Monaco have stated that they will provide additional resources to SICCFIN." The Principality is no longer blamed in the 2005 FATF report, as well as all other territories. However, since 2003, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) has identified Monaco, along with 36 other territories, as a tax haven.


title: Economy of Monaco

text: The Council of Europe also decided to issue reports naming tax havens. Twenty-two territories, including Monaco, were thus evaluated between 1998 and 2000 on a first round. Monaco is the only territory that refuses to perform the second round, initially forecast between 2001 and 2003, whereas the 21 other territories are implementing the third and last round, planned between 2005 and 2007.


title: Wendy Raquel Robinson

text: Wendy Raquel Robinson is an American actress. She is best known for her roles as high school principal Regina "Piggy" Grier on The WB comedy sitcom "The Steve Harvey Show" (1996–2002), and as sports agent Tasha Mack on The CW/BET/Paramount+ comedy-drama "The Game" (2006–present).


title: Wendy Raquel Robinson

text: Robinson was born in Los Angeles, California. She attended Howard University, where she graduated "cum laude" with a Bachelor of Fine Arts in drama.


title: Wendy Raquel Robinson

text: She made her acting debut in 1993 on an episode of "Martin". That same year she guest starred on episodes of "Thea" and "The Sinbad Show".


title: Wendy Raquel Robinson

text: From 1995 to 1996, Robinson co-starred on the short-lived NBC sitcom "Minor Adjustments", starring Rondell Sheridan. The following year she won the role of Regina "Piggy" Grier in The WB sitcom "The Steve Harvey Show" which aired for six seasons. After the series ended its run in 2002, she appeared on the short-lived sketch comedy series "Cedric the Entertainer Presents" with her former "Steve Harvey" co-star Cedric the Entertainer. Robinson also made guest appearances on "The Parkers", "All of Us", and "The New Adventures of Old Christine". Robinson has also appeared in several films including "The Walking Dead", followed by roles in "A Thin Line Between Love and Hate" (1996), "Ringmaster" (1998), "Two Can Play That Game" (2001), and "Rebound" (2005). In 2000, she played Miss California in the film "Miss Congeniality".


title: Wendy Raquel Robinson

text: In 2006, Robinson began portraying the role of Tasha Mack, in the comedy "The Game". After three seasons, the series was canceled by The CW on May 21, 2009. BET struck a deal with "The Game"'s parent company CBS to develop new episodes of the series, relocating taping of the show from Los Angeles to Atlanta, and announcing its renewal at the April 2010 upfronts. "The Game" returned to the air for a fourth season on January 11, 2011, The series ended in 2015. She also appeared on Shonda Rhimes' "Grey's Anatomy" in 2010. In 2014, she was cast as Cruella de Vil in the Disney's "Descendants". In 2017, she has appeared in the film "Flatliners", and had a recurring role on the short-lived ABC comedy series, "The Mayor".


title: Wendy Raquel Robinson

text: In 2018, Robinson was cast in the ABC comedy-drama series "Grand Hotel" opposite Demián Bichir and Roselyn Sánchez. In 2022 she featured in the Netflix series "Family Reunion" as Joyce.


title: Wendy Raquel Robinson

text: In 1996, Robinson co-founded the Amazing Grace Conservatory, a school that predominantly serves children from 5 to 18 years old from disadvantaged socioeconomic backgrounds in the fields of the arts and media production. Robinson serves as the school's artistic director. The school has provided a safe haven and training for thousands of young people. Some notable members include Issa Rae, Rhyon Nicole Brown, and Elle Varner.


title: Copacabana (song)

text: "Copacabana", also known as "Copacabana (At the Copa)", is a song recorded by Barry Manilow. Written by Manilow, Jack Feldman, and Bruce Sussman, it was released in 1978 as the third and final single from Manilow's fifth studio album, "Even Now" (1978).


title: Copacabana (song)

text: The song was inspired by a conversation between Manilow and Sussman at the Copacabana Hotel in Rio de Janeiro, when they discussed whether there had ever been a song called "Copacabana". After returning to the US, Manilow – who, in the 1960s, had been a regular visitor to the Copacabana nightclub in New York City – suggested that Sussman and Feldman write the lyrics to a story song for him. They did so, and Manilow supplied the music.


title: Copacabana (song)

text: The song's lyrics refer to the Copacabana nightclub, "the hottest spot north of Havana". The story starts in the late 1940s, focusing on Lola, a Copacabana showgirl, and her sweetheart Tony, a bartender at the club. One night, an ostentatiously wealthy man named Rico takes a fancy to Lola, but Tony intervenes when Rico becomes aggressive. The ensuing brawl ends in "blood and a single gunshot"; after it is initially unclear "who shot who[m]", Lola shrieks at the sight of Tony dead. Thirty years later, the club has been transformed into a discotheque (as the real New York Copacabana had been), but a middle-aged Lola remains in her showgirl attire, now a customer at the bar who "drinks herself half blind" lamenting the loss of her youth, her sanity and Tony.


title: Copacabana (song)

text: "Copacabana" debuted on "Billboard" magazine's Top 40 chart on July 7, 1978, and peaked at number 8. It has also reached the Top 10 in Belgium, Canada, France and the Netherlands. Internationally, the song is Manilow's third-greatest hit. The track was his first gold single for a song he wrote or co-wrote. Additionally, the song earned Manilow his first and only Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance in February 1979.


title: Copacabana (song)

text: In 1985, Manilow and his collaborators Bruce Sussman and Jack Feldman expanded the song into a full–length, made-for-television musical, also called "Copacabana", writing many additional songs and expanding the plot suggested by the song.


title: Copacabana (song)

text: This film version was then further expanded by Manilow, Feldman, and Sussman into a full-length, two-act stage musical, again titled "Copacabana", which ran at the Prince of Wales Theatre on London's West End for two years prior to a lengthy tour of the UK. An American production was later mounted that toured the US for over a year. Over 200 productions of the show have since been mounted worldwide.


title: The Stadium Tour

text: The Stadium Tour was a co-headlining concert tour by British rock band Def Leppard and American rock band Mötley Crüe, taking place in the summer and fall of 2022 in venues across North America. Poison and Joan Jett & the Blackhearts served as the tour's special guests, while Classless Act was the opening band. It was Mötley Crüe's first major tour in seven years (following their final world tour in 2014–2015), and Def Leppard's first in three years, with the latter touring in support of their twelfth studio album "Diamond Star Halos".


title: The Stadium Tour

text: The Stadium Tour was announced on December 4, 2019, and was set to take place in the summer of 2020. It was later announced that the tour would be rescheduled for 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The tour was once again pushed back to 2022 due to the same circumstances. The tour began on June 16, 2022 in Atlanta, Georgia and concluded on September 9, 2022 in Las Vegas, Nevada. The members of Def Leppard indicated that a European version of The Stadium Tour would take place in 2023. Tour dates for the Latin American and European tour were later announced on October 20, 2022; this tour was advertised as The World Tour and will once again be a co-headlining tour of Def Leppard and Mötley Crüe.


title: Glossary of Nazi Germany

text: This is a list of words, terms, concepts and slogans of Nazi Germany used in the historiography covering the Nazi regime.


title: Glossary of Nazi Germany

text: Some words were coined by Adolf Hitler and other Nazi Party members. Other words and concepts were borrowed and appropriated, and other terms were already in use during the Weimar Republic. Finally, some are taken from Germany's cultural tradition.


title: Bonferroni correction

text: In statistics, the Bonferroni correction is a method to counteract the multiple comparisons problem. Bonferroni correction is the simplest method for counteracting this; however, it is a conservative method that gives greater risk of failure to reject a false null hypothesis than other methods, as it ignores potentially valuable information, such as the distribution of "p"-values across all comparisons (which, if the null hypothesis is correct for all comparisons, is expected to take a uniform distribution).


title: Bonferroni correction

text: Of note, the Bonferroni correction controls for family-wise error rate (relating to the null hypothesis being true for all comparisons simultaneously, and alternatively that the null hypothesis is false for at least one test). Alternative approaches, such as the Benjamini–Hochberg procedure, are explicitly designed to control error rate when detecting individual "discoveries", and are thus more appropriate in many scenarios, such as the detection of differentially expressed genes in bioinformatics. This method is named after Carlo Bonferroni.


title: Bonferroni correction

text: Statistical hypothesis testing is based on rejecting the null hypothesis if the likelihood of the observed data under the null hypotheses is low. If multiple hypotheses are tested, the probability of observing a rare event increases, and therefore, the likelihood of incorrectly rejecting a null hypothesis (i.e., making a Type I error) increases.


title: Bonferroni correction

text: The Bonferroni correction compensates for that increase by testing each individual hypothesis at a significance level of formula_1, where formula_2 is the desired overall alpha level and formula_3 is the number of hypotheses. For example, if a trial is testing formula_4 hypotheses with a desired formula_5, then the Bonferroni correction would test each individual hypothesis at formula_6. Likewise, when constructing multiple confidence intervals the same phenomenon appears.


title: Bonferroni correction

text: Let formula_7 be a family of hypotheses and formula_8 their corresponding p-values. Let formula_3 be the total number of null hypotheses, and let formula_10 be the number of true null hypotheses (which is presumably unknown to the researcher). The family-wise error rate (FWER) is the probability of rejecting at least one true formula_11, that is, of making at least one type I error. The Bonferroni correction rejects the null hypothesis for each formula_12, thereby controlling the FWER at formula_13. Proof of this control follows from Boole's inequality, as follows:


title: Bonferroni correction

text: This control does not require any assumptions about dependence among the p-values or about how many of the null hypotheses are true.


title: Bonferroni correction

text: Rather than testing each hypothesis at the formula_1 level, the hypotheses may be tested at any other combination of levels that add up to formula_2, provided that the level of each test is decided before looking at the data. For example, for two hypothesis tests, an overall formula_2 of 0.05 could be maintained by conducting one test at 0.04 and the other at 0.01.


title: Bonferroni correction

text: The procedure proposed by Dunn can be used to adjust confidence intervals. If one establishes formula_3 confidence intervals, and wishes to have an overall confidence level of formula_19, each individual confidence interval can be adjusted to the level of formula_20.


title: Bonferroni correction

text: When searching for a signal in a continuous parameter space there can also be a problem of multiple comparisons, or look-elsewhere effect. For example, a physicist might be looking to discover a particle of unknown mass by considering a large range of masses; this was the case during the Nobel Prize winning detection of the Higgs boson. In such cases, one can apply a continuous generalization of the Bonferroni correction by employing Bayesian logic to relate the effective number of trials, formula_3, to the prior-to-posterior volume ratio.


title: Bonferroni correction

text: There are alternative ways to control the family-wise error rate. For example, the Holm–Bonferroni method and the Šidák correction are universally more powerful procedures than the Bonferroni correction, meaning that they are always at least as powerful. Unlike the Bonferroni procedure, these methods do not control the expected number of Type I errors per family (the per-family Type I error rate).


title: Bonferroni correction

text: With respect to FWER control, the Bonferroni correction can be conservative if there are a large number of tests and/or the test statistics are positively correlated.


title: Bonferroni correction

text: The correction comes at the cost of increasing the probability of producing false negatives, i.e., reducing statistical power. There is not a definitive consensus on how to define a family in all cases, and adjusted test results may vary depending on the number of tests included in the family of hypotheses. Such criticisms apply to FWER control in general, and are not specific to the Bonferroni correction.


title: The 36th Chamber of Shaolin

text: The 36th Chamber of Shaolin, also known as The Master Killer, Shaolin Master Killer and Shao Lin San Shi Liu Fang, is a 1978 Hong Kong kung fu film directed by Lau Kar-leung and produced by Shaw Brothers, starring Gordon Liu. The film follows a highly fictionalized version of San Te, a legendary Shaolin martial arts disciple who trained under the general Chi Shan.


title: The 36th Chamber of Shaolin

text: "The 36th Chamber of Shaolin" is widely considered to be one of the greatest kung fu films and a turning point in its director's and star's careers. It was followed by "Return to the 36th Chamber", which was more comedic in presentation and featured Gordon Liu as the new main character with another actor in the smaller role of San Te, and "Disciples of the 36th Chamber".


title: The 36th Chamber of Shaolin

text: A young student named Liu Yude is drawn by his activist teacher into the local rebellion against the Manchu government. The government officials, headed by the brutal General Tien Ta, however, quickly discover and suppress the uprising, liquidating the school and killing the students' friends and family members. Yude decides to seek vengeance and liberation for the people, and heads for the Shaolin temple to learn kung fu.


title: The 36th Chamber of Shaolin

text: Wounded by Manchu henchmen during an escape, Yude reaches the temple and seeks sanctuary. Initially the monks reject him, since he is an outsider, but the chief abbot has mercy on the young man and lets him stay. One year later, Yude - now known as San Te - begins his martial arts training in the temple's 35 chambers, in each of which the temple's novices are trained in one aspect of the kung fu fighting arts.


title: The 36th Chamber of Shaolin

text: The chambers shown in San Te's training are as follows (names of the chambers, if given, are from the subtitles and in quotation marks):


title: The 36th Chamber of Shaolin

text: San Te advances more rapidly than any previous student, reaching the rank of deputy overseer within the space of six years. Challenged by the monastery's Discipline Chief, who thinks him unfit for his role, San Te has several exhibition matches with him, only to be beaten each time. However, after inventing the three section staff, San Te finally prevails and gains the chief abbot's permission to become overseer of one of the chambers.


title: The 36th Chamber of Shaolin

text: When San Te professes that he wants to create a new chamber where he can train ordinary people in the basics of kung fu so they can defend themselves against their oppressors, the temple officially banishes him in a surreptitious way to allow him to carry out his mission. He returns to the outside world, namely to his hometown, and assists the people, gathering several young men who loyally follow him and become his first students. Before the political revolution where his aspirations reach completion, he is forced into conflict with Tien Ta. A fierce duel ensues, where San Te is victorious. Finally, he returns to the Shaolin temple, where he establishes the 36th chamber, a special martial arts class for laypeople to learn kung fu.


title: The 36th Chamber of Shaolin

text: The film was released on VHS as early as 1993. It was released on DVD in February 2000 by Crash Cinema Media under the title "Shaolin Master Killer". In 2007, it was released on DVD by Dragon Dynasty as "The 36th Chamber of Shaolin". It was released on Blu-ray on 2 March 2010 from Vivendi Visual Entertainment. The film aired on the El Rey Network in 2016, and is now available on Netflix and Amazon Prime Video.


title: The 36th Chamber of Shaolin

text: "36th Chamber of Shaolin" has received massive universal acclaim and is widely considered to be one of the greatest kung fu films ever made and a highly influential entry in the genre.


title: The 36th Chamber of Shaolin

text: According to the Harvard Film Archive, the film is an "exhilarating rendition of the legendary dissemination of the Shaolin martial arts" and an "absorbing account of [an] initiation into the vaunted Shaolin style, ... depicted here [as] an inner voyage of discovery."


title: The 36th Chamber of Shaolin

text: In 2014, "Time Out" polled several film critics, directors, actors and stunt actors to list their top action films. "The 36th Chamber of Shaolin" was listed in 22nd place on this list.


title: The 36th Chamber of Shaolin

text: In 2021, "Complex" posted the article '24 Best Kung Fu Movies of All Time'. and "The 36th Chamber of Shaolin" was listed in 5th place on this list.


title: Twelve Tables

text: The Laws of the Twelve Tables was the legislation that stood at the foundation of Roman law. Formally promulgated in 449 BC, the Tables consolidated earlier traditions into an enduring set of laws.


title: Twelve Tables

text: The Twelve Tables are sufficiently comprehensive that their substance has been described as a 'code', although modern scholars consider this characterization exaggerated. The Tables are a sequence of definitions of various private rights and procedures. They generally took for granted such things as the institutions of the family and various rituals for formal transactions. The provisions were often highly specific and diverse.


title: Twelve Tables

text: There is no scholarly agreement about the exact historical account of the creation and promulgation of the laws of the Twelve Tables. Ancient writers' stories about the Twelve Tables were recorded a couple of centuries later, in the second and first centuries BC. The first known publications of the text of the Twelve Tables were prepared by the first Roman jurists. Sextus Aelius Paetus Catus (consul in 198 BC) in his work on jurisprudence called "Tripertita" included a version of the laws of the Twelve Tables, his commentary on them and the legal formulas ("legis actiones") to use them in trials. Lucius Acilius Sapiens was another early interpreter of the Twelve Tables in the middle of the second century BC. Meanwhile Roman historians Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus provided the most detailed accounts of the creation of the laws. In addition, different versions of the story are known from the works of Diodorus Siculus and Sextus Pomponius.


title: Twelve Tables

text: According to Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, the laws of the Twelve Tables have come about as a result of the long social struggle between patricians and plebeians, in modern scholarship known as the conflict of the orders. After the expulsion of the last king of Rome, Tarquinius Superbus, in 509 BC, the Republic was governed by a hierarchy of magistrates. Initially, only patricians were eligible to become magistrates and this, among other plebeian complaints, was a source of discontent for plebeians. In the context of this unequal status, plebeians would take action to secure concessions for themselves using the threat of secession. They would threaten to leave the city with the consequence that it would grind to a halt, as the plebeians were Rome's labor force. Tradition held that one of the most important concessions won in this class struggle was the establishment of the Twelve Tables, establishing basic procedural rights for all Roman citizens in relation to each other. The drafting of the Twelve Tables may have been fomented by a desire for self-regulation by the patricians, or for other reasons.


title: Twelve Tables

text: Around 450 BC, the first "decemviri" (decemvirate, board of "Ten Men") were appointed to draw up the first ten tables. According to Livy, they sent an embassy to Greece to study the legislative system of Athens, known as the Solonian Constitution, but also to find out about the legislation of other Greek cities. Some scholars deny that the Romans imitated the Greeks in this respect or suggest that they visited only the Greek cities of Southern Italy, and did not travel all the way to Greece. In 450 BC, the second "decemviri" started to work on the last two tables.


title: Twelve Tables

text: The first decemvirate completed the first ten codes in 450 BC. Here is how Livy describes their creation:


title: Twelve Tables

text: "...every citizen should quietly consider each point, then talk it over with his friends, and, finally, bring forward for public discussion any additions or subtractions which seemed desirable." (cf. Liv. )


title: Twelve Tables

text: In 449 BC, the second decemvirate completed the last two codes, and after a "secessio plebis" (secession of the plebes, a plebeian protest) to force the Senate to consider them, the Law of the Twelve Tables was formally promulgated. According to Livy (AUC ) the Twelve Tables were inscribed on bronze (Pomponius (Dig. 1 tit. 2 s2 §4) alone says on ivory), and posted publicly, so all Romans could read and know them.


title: Twelve Tables

text: The laws the Twelve Tables were a way to publicly display rights that each citizen had in the public and private sphere. These Twelve Tables displayed what was previously understood in Roman society as the unwritten laws. The public display of the copper tablets allowed for a more balanced society between the Roman patricians who were educated and understood the laws of legal transactions, and the Roman plebeians who had little education or experience in understanding law. By revealing the unwritten rules of society to the public, the Twelve Tables provided a means of safeguard for Plebeians allowing them the opportunity to avoid financial exploitation and added balance to the Roman economy.


title: Twelve Tables

text: Some of the provisions are procedural to ensure fairness among all Romans in the courts, while other established legal terms dictating the legality of capital crimes, intentional homicide, treason, perjury, judicial corruption, and writing slanderous poems. The Romans valued keeping peace in the city and the Twelve Tables were a mechanism of establishing and continuing peace and equality.


title: Twelve Tables

text: These two tables are concerned with the Roman court proceedings. Table I covers proceedings between the defendant and the plaintiff, with responses to potential situations such as when age or illness prevents the defendant from making appearance, then transportation has to be arranged to assist them. It also deals with:


title: Twelve Tables

text: Table II sets the amount of financial stake for each party depending on the source of litigation, what to do in case of impairment of the judge, and rules of who must present evidence.


title: Twelve Tables

text: Featured within the Twelve Tables are five rules about how to execute judgments, in terms of debtors and creditors. These rules show how the ancient Romans maintained peace with financial policy.


title: Twelve Tables

text: In the book, "The Twelve Tables," written by an anonymous source due to its origins being collaborated through a series of translations of tablets and ancient references, P.R. Coleman-Norton arranged and translated many of the significant features of debt that the Twelve Tables enacted into law during the 5th century. The translation of the legal features surrounding debt and derived from the known sources of the Twelve Tables are stated as such


title: Twelve Tables

text: “1. Of debt acknowledged and for matters judged in court (in iure) thirty days shall be allowed by law [for payment or for satisfaction].


title: Twelve Tables

text: 2. After that [elapse of thirty days without payment] hand shall be laid on (Manus infection) [the debtor]. He shall be brought into court (in ius).


title: Twelve Tables

text: 3. Unless he (the debtor) discharge the debtor unless someone appear in court (in iure) to guarantee payment for him, he (the creditor) shall take [the debtor] with him. He shall bind [him] either with thong or with fetters, of which the weight shall be not less than fifteen pounds or shall be more if he (the creditor) choose.


title: Twelve Tables

text: 4. If he (the debtor) chooses, he shall live on his own [means]. If he lives not on his own [means], [the creditor,] who shall hold him in bonds, shall give [him] a pound of bread daily; if he (the creditor) shall so desire, he shall give [him] more.


title: Twelve Tables

text: 5. Unless they (the debtors) make a compromise, they (the debtors) shall be held in bonds for sixty days. During those days they shall be brought to [the magistrate] into the comitia (meeting-place) on three successive markets […]”


title: Twelve Tables

text: The five mandates of the Twelve Tables encompassing debt created a new understanding within social classes in ancient Rome that insured financial exploitation would be limited within legal business transactions.


title: Twelve Tables

text: The fourth table of the Twelve Tables deals with the specific rights of Patriarchs of families. One of the first proclamations of the Table IV is that "dreadfully deformed" children must be quickly euthanized. It also explains that sons are born into inheritance of their family. Babies with physical and mental diseases must be killed by the father himself. If a husband no longer wants to be married to his wife he can remove her from their household and "order her to mind her own affairs" Not all of the codes of table IV are to the benefit of only the patriarch. If a father attempts to sell his son three times then the son earns his freedom from the father.


title: Twelve Tables

text: The Twelve Tables have three sections that pertain to women as they concern estates and guardianship, ownership and possession, and religion, which give a basic understanding as to the legal rights of females.


title: Twelve Tables

text: One of the aspects highlighted in the Twelve Tables is a woman's legal status and standing in society. Women were considered to be under a form of guardianship similar to that of minors, and sections on ownership and possession give the impression that women were considered to be akin to a piece of real estate or property due to the use of terms such as "ownership" and "possession".


title: Twelve Tables

text: Torts are laws dealing with litigating wrongs that occur between citizens. One such situation is that of physical injury, retaliation for which can range from dealing the perpetrator an injury in kind, to monetary compensation to the injured. This table also establishes the legal ramifications for damage dealt to property by animals and damage dealt to crops by people or animals. The penalty for stealing crops is hanging as sacrifice to Ceres.


title: Twelve Tables

text: This section of the tables makes it illegal for anyone to define what a citizen of Rome is with the exception of the greatest assembly, or "maximus comitatus." It also outlaws execution of those who are unconvicted, bribery of judges, and extradition of a citizen to enemy powers.


title: Twelve Tables

text: The Twelve Tables are often cited as the foundation for ancient Roman law. The Twelve Tables provided an early understanding of some key concepts such as justice, equality, and punishment. Although legal reform occurred soon after the implementation of the Twelve Tables, these ancient laws provided social protection and civil rights for both the patricians and plebeians. At this time, there was extreme tension between the privileged class and the common people resulting in the need for some form of social order. While the existing laws had major flaws that were in need of reform, the Twelve Tables eased the civil tension and violence between the plebeians and patricians.


title: Twelve Tables

text: The Twelve Tables also heavily influenced and are referenced in later Roman Laws texts, especially The Digest of Justinian I. Such laws from The Digest that are derived from the Twelve Tables are the legal recompense for damage caused by an animal, protocol for inheritances, and also laws about structural property damage.


title: Twelve Tables

text: The influence of the Twelve Tables is still evident in the modern day. The Twelve Tables play a significant role in the basis of the early American legal system. Political theorists, such as James Madison have highlighted the importance of the Twelve Tables in crafting the United States Bill of Rights. The idea of property was also perpetuated in the Twelve Tables, including the different forms of money, land, and slaves. An additional example, the Twelve Tables are tied into the notion of Jus Commune, which translates as "common law", but is commonly referred to as "civil law" in English-speaking countries. Some countries including South Africa and San Marino still base their current legal system on aspects of jus commune. In addition, law school students throughout the world are still required to study the Twelve Tables as well as other facets of Roman Law in order to better understand the current legal system in place.


title: Twelve Tables

text: The Twelve Tables are no longer extant: although they remained an important source through the Republic, they gradually became obsolete, eventually being only of historical interest. The original tablets may have been destroyed when the Gauls under Brennus burned Rome in 387 BC. Cicero claimed that he learned them by heart as a boy in school but that no one did so any longer. Since the early second century BC, Roman Republican scholars wrote commentaries upon the Twelve Tables, such as Lucius Aelius Stilo, teacher of both Varro and Cicero.


title: Twelve Tables

text: Parts of the text of the Twelve Tables were preserved in the brief excerpts and quotations from the original laws in other ancient authors. All Roman sources quote the Twelve Tables in a modernised form of Latin. It is likely that the extant quotations of the text contain a multiplicity of layers of modernisation. It is believed that the process of this interlingual translation began at some point during the third or second century BC when the text of the Twelve Tables was no longer understandable in its entirety. As such, though it cannot be determined whether the quoted fragments accurately preserve the original form of Latin, what is present gives some insight into the grammar of early Latin.


title: Twelve Tables

text: Even in the updated form, certain Latin terms used in the Twelve Tables were difficult to understand in the late Roman Republic. For instance, when Cicero reports that Roman commentators did not understand a particular point in the Twelve Tables, we should expect that his example was not unique. According to Cicero, the law of the Twelve Tables introduced limits on the expense of the funeral arrangements. One of those rules, Cicero explains, was subject to various interpretations because of the difficulty to understand the archaic Latin term of "lessus":


title: Twelve Tables

text: After limiting the expense, then, to three veils, a small purple tunic, and ten pipers, the law [of the Twelve Tables] goes on to do away with lamentation: ‘Women shall not scratch their cheeks or have a "lessus" on the occasion of a funeral’. The old interpreters, Sextus Aelius and Lucius Acilius, said they were not sure what this meant, but suspected it was some kind of funeral garment. Lucius Aelius takes "lessus" to be a mournful wailing, as the word itself suggests. I tend to believe this second explanation, since that is the very thing that Solon’s law forbids.


title: Twelve Tables

text: Some claim that the text was written as such so plebeians could more easily memorize the laws, as literacy was not commonplace during early Rome.


title: Twelve Tables

text: According to ancient authors initially the Twelve Tables were recorded as an epigraphic text inscribed on twelve bronze tablets. It is believed that at some later stage the text of the Twelve Tables became a literary text. Some scholars suggest that the text at this time was rewritten and kept as a small ancient book. For instance, Cicero terms the laws ‘a single booklet’ ("unus libelus" in Latin). In the ancient world, the laws inscribed on bronze were often not easy to read but tended to serve a symbolic and religious purpose. It is likely that the law became literary text at some point during the fourth century BC. It was the time when the Roman civil law began to be administered by curule magistrates. It is likely that state administrators would have found it more convenient to consult the law in book form. Therefore, it is likely that the twelve bronze tables would have become obsolete.


title: Twelve Tables

text: Like most other early codes of law, the Twelve Tables were largely procedural, combining strict and rigorous penalties with equally strict and rigorous procedural forms. In most of the surviving quotations from these texts, the original table that held them is not given. Scholars have guessed where surviving fragments belong by comparing them with the few known attributions and records, many of which do not include the original lines, but paraphrases. It cannot be known with any certainty from what survives that the originals ever were organized this way, or even if they ever were organized by subject at all.


title: Twelve Tables

text: In Roman historical and legal sources ancient writers referenced and discussed the laws of the Twelve Tables in numerous fragments. However, during the Early Middle Ages the knowledge of the Twelve Tables was lost. The reconstruction of the text started with the rediscovery of " Corpus Iuris" in the Late Middle Ages. The first attempt of the recovery of the laws was made by the French legal historian Aymar du Rivail in his "Libri de Historia Juris Civilis et Pontificii" (1515). His work was followed by more publications on the Twelve Tables by Alessandro d'Alessandro (1522) and Johannes Tacuinus (1525).


title: Twelve Tables

text: The most important modern reconstruction of the Twelve Tables was published by the German legal historian Heinrich Eduard Dirksen in his work of "A Review of the attempts hitherto made at the criticism and restoration of the text of the fragments of the Twelve Tables" (Leipzig, 1824). Dirksen's work, based on the principles and discoveries of Godefroy, is now considered to be the most authoritative reconstructions of the Twelve Tables. In 1866 Rudolf Schöll reconstruction in "Legis Duodecim Tabularum Reliquiae" followed Dirksen's model. The first full English publication of the Dirksen's reconstruction was prepared and translated by Eric Herbert Warmington in the "Remains of Old Latin, Volume III: Lucilius. The Twelve Tables" in 1938 (No. 329 edition in the Loeb Classical Library).


title: Twelve Tables

text: In the last couple of decades, one of the most prominent reconstructions of the law of the Twelve Tables was Michael H. Crawford's work of "Roman Statutes", vol. 2 (London, 1996). In this new version, Crawford and the team of specialists reconsidered the conventional arrangement of the laws based on Dirksen and his followers. They concluded that this conventional grouping of the rules was wrong and offered their new arrangement. For instance, the laws relating to "iniuria " and "furtum" were moved from the eighth table ("Tabula" VIII) to the first table ("Tabula" I). Similarly, the law on the conditionally freed slaves was moved from "Tabula" IV to "Tabula" VI.


title: Pusher (1996 film)

text: Pusher is a 1996 Danish crime thriller film co-written and directed by Nicolas Winding Refn, in his film debut. A commercial success considered to be influential in Danish film history, it marked Mads Mikkelsen's film debut.


title: Pusher (1996 film)

text: The film is set in the criminal underground of Copenhagen, Denmark, and tells the story of the drug dealer Frank (Kim Bodnia) who, after losing a large amount of money in a drug deal gone wrong, falls into desperation as he only has a few days to raise the money he owes.


title: Pusher (1996 film)

text: Although "Pusher" was not intended to become a franchise, financial difficulties forced Winding Refn to produce two sequels: "Pusher II", focusing on Mikkelsen's character after the events of the first film, and "Pusher 3", focusing on another secondary character introduced in "Pusher"; both were financial and critical successes. A Hindi remake of the same name was released in 2010, as well as an English-language remake in 2012.


title: Pusher (1996 film)

text: The film begins in Copenhagen with a low-level drug dealer Frank (Kim Bodnia) going to a heroin deal with his sidekick Tonny (Mads Mikkelsen). The pair only manage to sell some of their product, and then waste time about town. Frank then visits his friend Vic (Laura Drasbæk), a prostitute who holds some of Frank's stash for a fee. Vic wants to have a serious relationship with Frank, but Frank prefers to keep it purely casual.


title: Pusher (1996 film)

text: Frank is visited by a former cell mate, a Swede named Hasse (Peter Andersson), and the pair set up a large drug deal. Frank visits his supplier, the Serbian local drug lord Milo (Zlatko Burić), to get the heroin. Already owing Milo some money, Frank cannot cover the cost of the heroin, but Milo allows him to take the drugs provided that he immediately returns with the money.


title: Pusher (1996 film)

text: The deal goes bad, however, when police arrive. In the process of evading the police, Frank dumps the heroin in a lake. At the station, police officers convince Frank that Tonny has delivered a confession that implicates Frank, but he still does not admit to anything. When Frank is released after 24 hours he returns to Milo to explain how he lost the money and the drugs. Milo does not believe Frank's story and demands that he pay back even more than he already owes. Frank then immediately seeks Tonny out and savagely beats him with a baseball bat.


title: Pusher (1996 film)

text: Milo's henchman Radovan (Slavko Labović) accompanies Frank to help him collect on some of his own debts to use toward his debt with Milo. The pair have a friendly conversation and Radovan shares his secret desire to open a restaurant. Radovan tries to force an addict customer of Frank's to rob a bank to cover his debt, but the addict commits suicide in front of them. As Frank makes other disastrous attempts to earn money, Vic becomes increasingly insistent that they behave as a couple. He takes her to several clubs and makes plans to drive her to the veterinarian to see her sick dog.


title: Pusher (1996 film)

text: Frank finally makes a deal, but his drug mule betrays him and switches the heroin for baking soda. Radovan drops his friendly demeanour and begins threatening Frank with serious injury should he fail to pay up soon. Frank goes on a desperate rampage, stealing money and drugs from the gym of some drug-dealing bodybuilders, but he is soon picked up by Radovan and tortured. Frank manages to escape and makes plans to flee with Vic to Spain. After successfully making his final deal in Copenhagen, Frank receives a call from Milo, who promises to accept a token payment to put an end to their feud. However, we see that Milo and his henchmen are actually planning to kill Frank when he arrives. When Frank bluntly informs Vic that their plans to flee are cancelled, she steals his stash of money and runs off.


title: Pusher (1996 film)

text: The film ends with Frank grimly catching his breath as his enemies throughout the city prepare to dispose of him.


title: Pusher (1996 film)

text: The movie began as a five-minute "short" that Winding Refn had made as an application to a Danish film school. Refn turned down the offer he subsequently received, instead deciding to transform "Pusher" into a feature-length independent film utilizing a nominal amount of funding that he had managed to acquire.


title: Pusher (1996 film)

text: Refn partnered with film student Jens Dahl to write the film's screenplay. His goal was to tell the story of a man under pressure, without glamorizing the lifestyle of a drug dealer. Refn organized the plot's events according to the days of the week in his notes and this was subsequently established in the final product. Refn's major inspirations for the film were "The Battle of Algiers", "Cannibal Holocaust", "The French Connection", "The Killing of a Chinese Bookie" and "Mean Streets".


title: Pusher (1996 film)

text: During rehearsal, Winding Refn became dissatisfied with the actor he had cast as Frank, thinking him too placid and boring. Two weeks before shooting was to begin, Winding Refn fired the actor without a replacement in line. Winding Refn approached Kim Bodnia, who was an established actor at the time, and Bodnia accepted. Though the other primary roles were mostly filled with experienced actors, many of the minor roles were filled by Winding Refn's friends or people accustomed to the street life.


title: Pusher (1996 film)

text: Bodnia brought a greater degree of intensity and aggressiveness to the part that some actors were not prepared for. Winding Refn claimed that the surprised reactions of some actors are genuine, as they had not rehearsed with Bodnia beforehand and were expecting the previous actor's more sedate performances.


title: Pusher (1996 film)

text: Slavko Labović, who played the Serbian thug Radovan, was a friend of Serbian war criminal Željko Ražnatović. He provided a poster of Ražnatović to use as a prop in Milo's headquarters. The actor playing Milo, Zlatko Burić, is actually a Croat. Winding Refn became concerned when violence flared between Serbs and Croats during filming, but the events did not cause problems on set.


title: Pusher (1996 film)

text: The film was shot using Danish union rules, which allowed no more than 8 hours of filming per day, and no filming on weekends. The rules, combined with the high cost of filming permits, caused time and budget constraints. The film was shot entirely using hand-held cameras. Winding Refn wanted to capture a realistic, documentary feel to the film. This caused problems with the time constraints of the shooting schedule and Winding Refn's desire to keep the film shadowy. Actors are often backlit or difficult to see due to the low levels of lighting used.


title: Pusher (1996 film)

text: The film was shot almost completely in chronological order. Winding Refn later admitted that shooting scenes out of order was confusing to him; however, some scenes were reshot or added later. The scene in which Frank shoots at Milo's thugs was originally filmed without special effects, but Winding Refn was dissatisfied with the results and reshot the scene using squibs. The scene with the junkie was shot after shooting had completed to replace a previous scene that Refn discarded because it dealt with an outdated vision of Frank's character.


title: Pusher (1996 film)

text: Punk rocker Peter Peter and composer Povl Kristian composed the score and formed the temporary band "Prisoner" to perform the score, with Peter playing guitar and Kristian playing the clavier. Kristian also composed the song ""Summers got the colour"" with text by Lars K. Andersen which was sung by Aud Wilken. Although Povl Kristian did not return to work on the sequels, the ""Pusher theme"" he wrote with Peter Peter was used in all of the following films.


title: Pusher (1996 film)

text: The film was considered the first Danish-language gangster film and became a breakthrough success for Winding Refn and several of the lead actors. Winding Refn claimed that the film inspired cults of highly dedicated fans and influenced Danish fashion to emulate certain costumes worn by the characters. Kim Bodnia launched a very successful career as a leading man in Danish cinema largely due to the success of the movie. Zlatko Burić was given a Bodil Award in 1997 for his performance as Milo.


title: Pusher (1996 film)

text: The film holds a score of 83% positive reviews on Rotten Tomatoes with an average score of 7.1/10. The review aggregator site Metacritic has given the movie an average score of 72 out of 100, which means "Generally favorable reviews".


title: Pusher (1996 film)

text: Two sequels followed, focusing on different characters from the same "underworld" milieu of Copenhagen.


title: Pusher (1996 film)

text: "Pusher II" follows Frank's former partner, Tonny. Tonny struggles with his relationship with his father following his release from prison; Tonny concurrently negotiates the prospect of becoming a father himself and the discovery that his mother had died while he was incarcerated. "Pusher" ends with Frank stranded in Copenhagen with no friends or resources, while his enemies poise to strike. Dialogue in "Pusher II" suggests that Milo, at least, never caught up with Frank.


title: Pusher (1996 film)

text: "Pusher 3" follows drug lord, Milo. Milo is followed through the course of a hectic day, as he struggles with his attempt at sobriety, a series of problematic criminal deals, and his daughter's birthday celebration for which he is the chef.


title: Sega Genesis Mini

text: The Sega Genesis Mini, known as the Mega Drive Mini in regions outside of North America, is a dedicated console modeled on the Sega Genesis. The Mini emulates the original console's 16-bit hardware, and includes 42 games ported by M2. It was released in North America and Japan in September 2019 and in Europe and the Middle East in October 2019. A follow-up, Sega Genesis Mini 2, was released in October 2022 and includes 53 games from the Genesis and Sega CD.


title: Sega Genesis Mini

text: The Mini is half the size of the original Sega Genesis. Inside the unit is an ARM-based SOC ZUIKI Z7213 and 512 MB of flash memory. It includes either one or two (dependent on region's bundle options) full-size replica controllers that connect through USB (thus original controllers are incompatible), a USB-to-Micro-B power cable (USB AC adapter in North America), and an HDMI video cable. There are separate releases for North America, Europe, Asia and Japan, as the Mini reproduces the original console's decal and color variations in those regions. Korea is a slight exception, as the Mega Drive was released there by Samsung as the Super Gam*Boy and Super Aladdin Boy; none of these names appear on the Korean Mini.


title: Sega Genesis Mini

text: All of the games have a save state feature to pause and resume progress and can be played in either the original aspect ratio with optional wallpapers or stretched to widescreen with HUD elements modified to fit onto the screen. Certain games have regional variants that can be accessed by changing the system's language settings (e.g. switching the system language from English to Japanese will change "Dr. Robotnik's Mean Bean Machine" into "Puyo Puyo".)


title: Sega Genesis Mini

text: The North American and European models of the Genesis Mini come bundled with two three-button controllers, while the Japanese model comes with two six-button controllers. Officially licensed six-button controllers made specifically for the Mini are also sold separately in North America and Europe. Official model accessories of a miniature Mega-CD, a miniature Super 32X, a miniature "Sonic & Knuckles" lock-on Genesis cartridge, and a miniature "Sonic the Hedgehog" standard Mega Drive cartridge were also sold separately in Japan. Miniature replicas of the Sega CD and Sega 32X in both the North American and European versions were also manufactured but only distributed to select members of the media.


title: Sega Genesis Mini

text: The Mini 2 system is modeled after the Mega Drive 2 variant of the original console and comes bundled with over 50 games and a single six-button controller in all regions. It uses the same SOC chip as the first Mini, albeit with more memory and storage. In addition to the first Mini's emulation features, the Mini 2 includes the option to emulate the sound outputs of the original Genesis or Genesis 2. Like with the original Mega Drive Mini, a set of model accessories consisting of a miniature Mega-CD 2, a miniature "Virtua Racing" cartridge, and a miniature "Sonic CD" disc was released in Japan alongside the system, including compatibility parts with the first Mega Drive Mini and its accessories. Additionally, a USB-powered Cyber Stick controller based on the original flight stick controller produced by Sharp was released alongside the system in Japan and provides analog input for "After Burner II", "Night Striker", and "Starblade".


title: Sega Genesis Mini

text: The Sega Genesis Mini features 40 Sega Genesis games, with the selection varying depending on the region. In addition to these titles, the game includes two bonus titles, "Darius" and "Tetris", which are new conversions made for the Mini system that were previously never released for the original console.


title: Sega Genesis Mini

text: The Sega Genesis Mini 2 features 53 games released for both the Genesis and the Sega CD add-on peripheral. Like the original Mini, the Mini 2 also features additional bonus titles that were previously never released for the Genesis, 7 titles in this case, including both previously unreleased titles and new arcade conversions.


title: Sega Genesis Mini

text: The Sega Genesis Mini was first announced at the Sega Fes show in April 2018. The announcement was part of a trend of releasing smaller versions of retro video game consoles. It was delayed in September, missing the console's 30th-anniversary window, when Sega dropped its partnership with AtGames, whose 2017 Sega Genesis Flashback was critically panned for its production quality. Instead of using AtGames's Flashback software on a Japan-exclusive Mini, Sega handled the entire production of the system. The system was released worldwide on September 19, 2019, except in Europe and the Middle East, where it was delayed until October 4, 2019, due to distribution issues.


title: Sega Genesis Mini

text: M2, who previously collaborated with Sega on the "Sega Ages" and "Sega 3D Classics Collection" series, produced the Mini's ports. Sega emphasized first-party production quality in its marketing for the Mini, as the company returns to the hardware business after last producing the Sega Dreamcast in 2001. The menu music was written by Yuzo Koshiro, who was also the composer of the compilation's "Beyond Oasis", "Streets of Rage 2", and "The Revenge of Shinobi".


title: Sega Genesis Mini

text: Since its release, the first Sega Genesis Mini console had sold over 300,000 units by the end of March 2020.


title: Sega Genesis Mini

text: A followup, the Sega Genesis Mini 2, was announced on June 3, 2022 and was released worldwide on October 27, 2022. Koshiro returned to write the menu music.


title: Willem II (football club)

text: Willem II (), also known as Willem II Tilburg, is a Dutch football club based in Tilburg, Netherlands. They play in the Eerste Divisie, the second tier of Dutch football, following relegation from the Eredivisie in the 2021–22 season. The club was founded on 12 August 1896 as "Tilburgia". On 12 January 1898, the club was renamed "Willem II" after Dutch king William II of the Netherlands (1792–1849), who, as Prince of Orange and commander of the Dutch army, had his military headquarters in Tilburg during the Belgian uprising of 1830, spent much time in the city after becoming king, and died there.


title: Willem II (football club)

text: Notable former players for the club include Dutch internationals Jan van Roessel, Joris Mathijsen, Jaap Stam, Frenkie de Jong, Marc Overmars, Virgil Van Dijk and Finland's Sami Hyypiä. The club's shirt consists of red-white-blue vertical stripes, inspired by the colours of the flag of the Netherlands. Willem II plays its home matches in the Koning Willem II Stadion, also named after the King. The stadium, opened on 31 May 1995, has a capacity of 14,700 spectators. The average attendance in 2004–05 was 12,500 people.