title: John Locke (Lost)

text: Locke is introduced in the first season as a mysterious, intellectual and stoic character with an affinity for living out in the wild and a penchant for hunting and tracking. He believes in mystical and spiritual explanations for why things happen on the island due to a self-described "miracle" happening to him after the crash of Oceanic 815. His stoicism and mystical outlook dominate his character and are the basis for many of his relationships and interactions on the show.


title: John Locke (Lost)

text: John Locke was born to teenager Emily Locke on May 30, 1956. In his early years he showed extreme promise in his intelligence. After being placed in government care as a ward of the state he found himself in a variety of foster homes. He was visited in one such home by Richard Alpert (Nestor Carbonell), who described Locke as "extremely special". Locke had a number of foster siblings over the years: Jeannie, who died as a child when she fell off of a set of monkey bars; Melissa, who was prone to bullying John; and an unnamed brother with whom Locke played the game Mouse Trap.


title: John Locke (Lost)

text: At age 16, Locke's high school teacher freed him from a locker and took him to his office, and kindly told him that being a sportsman, prom king, and a superhero were simply not who he was. Locke angrily replied "Don't tell me what I can't do!" It is implied here that Locke disliked being put down more than being physically bullied. The phrasing of Locke imploring figures in his life both in the show's present and in his character's past was used repeatedly throughout the series.


title: John Locke (Lost)

text: Around 22 years later, Locke was working in a toy store and was visited by his mother, who implied that he was conceived without a father. Curious, Locke hired a private investigator to track down the location of his father, Anthony Cooper (Kevin Tighe). Cooper welcomed Locke into his life, and the two bonded over hunting trips. Cooper soon revealed he needed a kidney transplant and Locke volunteered to donate one of his. Following the surgery Cooper abandoned Locke and refused to see him, at which point Locke found out that his father conned him for his kidney. Locke became very depressed and eventually sought group therapy, where he met his future girlfriend Helen Norwood (Katey Sagal). Helen helped Locke overcome his obsession with his father. However, Cooper later came to him for assistance and Locke helped him. Helen left Locke as a result.


title: John Locke (Lost)

text: Locke began living and working at a commune that grew marijuana in California until the police began an investigation. He subsequently left.


title: John Locke (Lost)

text: Locke retreated into a life of solitude until he was visited one day by a young man named Peter Talbot. Peter came asking for information about "Adam Seward," who intended to marry Peter's wealthy mother. Locke realized it was Cooper and met with him, ordering him to not marry Peter's mother. It is strongly implied Cooper killed Peter, although he denied it when Locke confronted him. After a struggle, he pushed Locke out of a window eight stories high. Locke hit the ground, where he was soon touched by the mysterious island inhabitant Jacob (Mark Pellegrino). Locke survived the fall but suffered a broken back, an injury that left him in a wheelchair.


title: John Locke (Lost)

text: While Locke recovered in the hospital, an alleged orderly named Matthew Abaddon (Lance Reddick) visited him and told him to go on a walkabout for a period of self-discovery. Once out of the hospital Locke started working at a box company where he was constantly insulted by his boss, Randy (Billy Ray Gallion). Locke then flew to Australia, where he was denied admission on the walkabout because of his paraplegic state. He boarded Oceanic Flight 815 to return home.


title: John Locke (Lost)

text: After crashing on the Island in the fuselage section, Locke miraculously regains the use of the lower portion of his body below his waist. Locke becomes the most attuned toward the Island and has no intention of leaving it. It is then revealed that Locke is an expert at hunting and tracking. On a hunt he encounters the smoke monster, describing it as a "bright light". When Claire Littleton (Emilie de Ravin) is abducted, Locke helps Jack Shephard (Matthew Fox), Kate Austen (Evangeline Lilly) and Boone Carlyle (Ian Somerhalder) to look for her. Whilst searching, he and Boone discover the , which they then spend most of their time trying to open. During this time, Boone becomes Locke's protégé and Locke tries to teach him the nature of the Island. When Locke has a vision one night of a Beechcraft crashing, Locke and Boone then discover it lodged atop a cliff. Boone climbs up into the plane, but it falls while he is still inside. Locke carries him back to the caves and leaves him dying in Jack's care, then sneaks away to the hatch, where he bangs furiously on the door. Just as Locke loses hope, a light shines from the hatch, and Locke sees it as a sign. Locke returns to the beach in time for Boone's funeral, and reluctantly reveals the existence of the hatch. Due to Boone's death, Jack is no longer trusting of Locke and his motives, and Boone's grieving stepsister Shannon Rutherford (Maggie Grace) attempts to shoot Locke. In order to open the hatch, the survivors are led by Danielle Rousseau to the wreckage of a ship known as the "Black Rock", and find some dynamite. Locke uses the dynamite to blow the Hatch open.


title: John Locke (Lost)

text: Locke enters the hatch and discovers Desmond Hume (Henry Ian Cusick), who shows Locke and Jack an orientation film explaining that the hatch was once used for studying electromagnetism and a specific series of numbers has to be entered into a computer terminal every 108 minutes to prevent an unspecified catastrophe. Seeing that his replacements have arrived, Desmond leaves. While Jack is reluctant to enter the numbers, Locke convinces him otherwise. When a man named "Henry Gale" (Michael Emerson) arrives in the jungle (captured in a trap set by Danielle Rousseau), Locke holds him prisoner in the empty armory. The blast doors in the hatch all descend, and they end up falling on Locke's legs. Locke tasks Henry with entering the numbers in the computer. Locke notices a strange map drawn on one of the doors when the lights go out, which he manages to sketch after the blast doors rise again. Locke and the other survivors soon find out that Henry was lying about his identity and he is a member of The Others, but he refuses to speak to anyone but Locke. He taunts Locke by telling him that his people saw the hatch as a joke, and that he never entered the numbers in the computer, which results in Locke starting to believe that the button is not real. When "Henry" escapes, Locke and Mr. Eko (Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje) enter the jungle to search for him but find the "?" on Locke's map, where they discover the station, which explains that pushing the button is just to test the occupants of the hatch. While Locke believes that the button is fake, Eko feels the opposite. Locke abandons pushing the button, and he and the recently returned Desmond sneak into the hatch to allow the timer to reach zero, but when the electromagnetic force builds up, Locke realizes that he has been wrong all along. Desmond then turns the fail-safe key that causes the hatch to implode.


title: John Locke (Lost)

text: Locke awakens in the jungle the next day and constructs a sweat lodge to induce a hallucination, in which Boone tells him to rescue Eko. In order to communicate with the Others to help the captured Jack, Kate and Sawyer (Josh Holloway), he and some of the other survivors travel to the Pearl station, where they rewire the circuits in the monitors to view surveillance from another hatch. They leave the station and discover Eko dead in the jungle. After burying him, Locke notices an inscription on Eko's prayer stick instructing him to go north. After Kate returns, she, Locke, Sayid (Naveen Andrews), and Danielle Rousseau (Mira Furlan) go on a mission to rescue Jack from the Others. When they arrive at the Others' village, the Barracks, Locke finds Henry (whose actual name is Ben and is the leader of the Others). Locke takes Ben hostage and forces him to show him the location of the Others' submarine. Locke then uses some C-4 to blow up a submarine that Jack was going to use to get off of the Island, due to his belief that everyone should stay on it because of destiny. After this, Ben shows him his father, Anthony Cooper, whom they have captured, and tells Locke that he can join the Others if he kills his father. Locke manipulates Sawyer into murdering Cooper for him, then carries the corpse to the Others' camp. He is taken by Ben to see Jacob, but Locke is shown only an empty chair in the filthy cabin. Locke goes into a rage because of Ben's lie, then suddenly objects began to fly around of their own accord. Ben and Locke next visit a pit full of long-deceased Dharma members, where Ben shoots Locke, because Locke threatens his leadership of the Others. Locke is left for dead, but he wakes up days later. Locke contemplates suicide, but his faith is restored upon witnessing an apparition of Walt, who tells Locke that he's got "work to do". He makes his way to where Jack has taken the survivors, and kills Naomi, a woman from the freighter, whom he believes has brought danger to the Island. He asks Jack not to communicate with the nearby freighter, but Jack ignores him and contacts it. Locke goes back to the beach camp, hoping to gain support from some of the other survivors.


title: John Locke (Lost)

text: The survivors split into two groups, with those believing the people from the freighter to be dangerous joining Locke. Locke attempts to carry out the work he was told to do by Walt. In order to do this he has to go to Jacob for advice, but is unable to find Jacob's cabin, so they proceed to the Barracks. For the first few days there, Ben continually taunts Locke for not having a plan, but Ben eventually explains that Charles Widmore (Alan Dale) is the man who sent the freighter, and that he wants to exploit the Island. After the village is ambushed by a group from the freighter and most of Locke's group is killed (including Rousseau and Alex), Locke leads Ben and Hurley to look for the cabin again, since Hurley claimed to see it. Locke has a dream in which the Dharma Initiative member who built the cabin (Horace Goodspeed—Doug Hutchison) tells him that Jacob is waiting for him. In the pit containing the bodies of the Dharma Initiative members, Locke finds a map to the cabin, which Locke, Ben, and Hurley follow. Inside the cabin, Locke does not meet Jacob, but rather Christian Shephard (John Terry) and Claire. They tell him that to save the Island he must move it. Ben leads Locke and Hurley to a Dharma station known as that will be able to do this, but discovers the mercenaries from the freighter waiting for Ben there, so Ben turns himself over and instructs Locke how to get in the actual station. After failing to find it, Jack arrives and Locke tries to convince Jack not to leave. Unsuccessful, he tells Jack to lie about the Island and everything that has happened in order to protect it. Ben escapes and they enter the Orchid station together, only to discover that the mercenary leader, Martin Keamy (Kevin Durand) survived his encounter with Ben and followed him back. Keamy warns Ben that he has a dead man's trigger on him and that if he dies everyone on the freighter will also, but Ben kills him anyway to avenge his daughter's death, much to Locke's horror. Ben then apologizes for making Locke's life miserable and tells Locke that he is the new leader of the Others. Locke joins the Others as Ben moves the Island, causing him to leave it.


title: John Locke (Lost)

text: Immediately after the Island is apparently moved, Locke finds himself along with the other island survivors traveling through time at random points indicated by a bright flash. During these flashes, he is found by Richard (Nestor Carbonell), who explains that he knew where to find him from Locke himself. He informs Locke that they will be strangers at their next meeting, and thus gives him a compass to get his younger self to trust Locke. He also tells Locke this is happening because of those that have left the Island. To get them to return, he will need to die. Later, Locke saves Juliet and Sawyer from three Others back in 1954, one of them being a young Charles Widmore. Locke convinces his group to go along with him to the Orchid station, hoping to stop the time flashes. After the group reunites with Jin (Daniel Dae Kim), they arrive at an ancient well which will lead to the Orchid station. Jin tells Locke to tell his wife Sun (Yunjin Kim) that he (Jin) died and to give her his wedding ring as proof.


title: John Locke (Lost)

text: Locke leaves the Island at Christian's behest via the Orchid Station and emerges about 3 years in the future. Charles Widmore makes contact with Locke, provides him with the alias "Jeremy Bentham", and assigns Matthew Abaddon as his assistant to find the survivors that left the island, also known as the Oceanic Six. Locke visits Sayid, Walt Lloyd (Malcolm David Kelley), Hurley, Kate and Jack, and unsuccessfully tells them all (with the exception of Walt) that they must return to the Island. Ben visits the in-despair Locke and tells him that he will help reunite the Oceanic Six, only for Ben to subsequently murder him. According to The Man in Black, Locke's final thoughts were "I don't understand." Jack is now convinced by Locke's visit to return to the island. He then attends Locke's wake. Ben later approaches Jack and informs him the only way to return to the Island is to bring everyone back, including Locke's corpse.


title: John Locke (Lost)

text: Locke's suicide note is given to Jack by Faraday's mother, Eloise Hawking. Locke's death was necessary so that his body would act as a proxy for Christian Shephard (whose body had been on the original flight) in order to as closely as possible recreate the conditions by which the Oceanic Six first found the Island. When Jack eventually brings himself to open the suicide note, it reads simply: ""Jack, I wish that you had believed me. JL"". After flight 316 crashes on the Hydra island near the main island, Locke appears to the survivors of the crash, resurrected.


title: John Locke (Lost)

text: He and Ben later leave for the Island, where Ben is ordered by the smoke monster, under the guise of his dead daughter, to do everything Locke asks of him. Locke and Ben then locate the Others' camp, and are reunited with Richard. Locke demands a meeting with Jacob, which Richard agrees to arrange. Together with Sun and the rest of the Others, the group makes their way to the base of a giant statue. Ben and Locke confront Jacob in his chamber. Jacob identifies this Locke as his nemesis, and the rival has Ben stab Jacob. The rival then pushes the body into the fire. Outside the chamber, survivors from Flight 316 arrive at the campsite, where they present Richard Alpert with a box containing Locke's body, which was found in the plane's cargo hold. It is then revealed that Locke is in fact dead and the Smoke Monster has been impersonating him since his return to the island.


title: John Locke (Lost)

text: Locke is later buried near the original beach camp, and his eulogy is given by Ben, who calls Locke a man of faith and a better man than he'll ever be. He also says that he is truly sorry for murdering him.


title: John Locke (Lost)

text: Following his return to the island, Jack begins to adopt a more faith-based outlook, in contrast to his previous empiricism-supported views, and is even resentful of the Man in Black for using Locke's appearance.


title: John Locke (Lost)

text: In the alternate timeline, Locke is still paralyzed and does not go on the walkabout. He flies back on Oceanic 815 and sits next to Boone. They talk and Locke claims that he went on a walkabout. Boone ironically claims that he will stick with Locke if the plane crashes, but in this alternate universe, the plane does not crash. Once the plane lands, Locke's suitcase of knives does not make it back with him and he meets Jack in the lost luggage department. Jack is in turmoil since the airline lost his father's coffin and tells Locke this story. Locke consoles Jack that they didn't lose his father, rather just the body. Grateful for these words of comfort, Jack asks Locke how he got in the wheelchair, but Locke, instead of revealing the reason, claims that his condition is irreversible, to which Jack responds "Nothing is irreversible". Jack then hands him a business card and tells him to call in order to receive a free consult to see if he can fix Locke's paralysis. The two introduce themselves and part ways.


title: John Locke (Lost)

text: Locke had used a conference that the box company he worked for had sent him to attend in Australia as his pretext for going to Australia in the first place. Instead of attending the conference, Locke tries to go on his walkabout, but is denied. His boss Randy casually fires him for this misuse of company travel time. After clearing out his desk, he heads to the parking lot, only to find a huge Hummer blocking his van. He angrily slams on it, until Hugo "Hurley" Reyes, impeccably dressed, shows up; Hurley owns the box company as part of his wealth from winning the lottery. After an exchange about Randy, Hugo gives Locke the number to a temp agency that he also owns. Locke goes there and receives a work assignment, given by Rose Nadler, as a substitute teacher at a high school in Southern California. In the teacher's lounge, he meets a European history teacher in the form of Benjamin Linus. One day, while eating lunch in the lounge, Locke suggests that Ben should apply for the position of the school's principal, because Ben is lamenting the lack of care the current principal shows for the school.


title: John Locke (Lost)

text: Helen, Locke's girlfriend, is alive and still with Locke. They are planning to marry in October 2004, and she indicates, when she suggests having a small wedding with only Locke's father and her parents present, that Locke's father may not be the cruel con artist they knew him as before. But Locke, losing faith and his belief in miracles, confesses to her one day that he lost his job at the box company and he thinks Helen deserves someone better. Helen, telling him he is all she ever wanted, tears up Jack's business card and affirms that she loves only him, the way he is.


title: John Locke (Lost)

text: In the midst of Ben Linus' alternate reality segment, Desmond deliberately runs over Locke with his car in the school parking lot. Paramedics bring him to the hospital and admit him into surgery, where Jack is his surgeon. Jack recognizes Locke from the airport. He tells him that upon looking at his spinal injuries, he has concluded that he is a "candidate" for elective spinal correction surgery. However, Locke refuses the operation. After Jack does some research and visits his father, Anthony Cooper, he returns to Locke and asks him how he became paralyzed. Locke tells him that it was from a plane crash. He had been taking private flying lessons and asked his father to be his first passenger on his first solo flight. Unfortunately, his plane crashed before taking flight, paralyzing both himself and Cooper (his father's injuries were much more substantial than his). Upon telling Jack his story, he leaves the hospital, hearing Jack tell him that he "wished he had believed in him".


title: John Locke (Lost)

text: After Desmond attacks Ben at their school, and learning he was the same man who ran him over, Locke slowly starts to regain his belief in destiny. Believing their meeting to be fated, Locke contacts Jack and decides to have the procedure done after all. The surgery is a success, and Locke quickly regains feeling in his legs. Seeing his toes move spurs the return of Locke's memories of the island; Locke tries to get Jack to remember as well, though Jack resists. Later, Locke arrives in his wheelchair at the church where all the survivors have gathered. After a brief conversation with Ben, who apologizes for how he treated him, Locke forgives Ben. Ben is deeply grateful for this and tells him he does not need his wheelchair any longer. Locke considers this for a moment, before standing and walking inside the church. Locke is reunited with all his friends from the island, and together they all move on.


title: John Locke (Lost)

text: Lost creator J. J. Abrams had worked with Terry O'Quinn previously on "Alias". He was also the only actor who did not have to officially audition for a part of a main character. In the episode "Cabin Fever", two actors play a younger Locke in flashbacks. Charles Wyson plays Locke at age five, while Caleb Steinmeyer plays Locke at age sixteen.


title: John Locke (Lost)

text: Locke was not originally written with his paralysis—while writing "Tabula Rasa", Damon Lindelof suggested that John Locke was in a wheelchair before going to the island, and while the rest of the writing team were initially shocked, they embraced the idea and decided to foreshadow it by featuring the wheelchair in the background of that episode.


title: John Locke (Lost)

text: Both John Locke and his alias, Jeremy Bentham, are the names of British philosophers. However, the ideas of these philosophers are unrelated to and in some cases clash with the character on the show. Specifically, Locke's views on religion and the character's affinity for mysticism cannot be reconciled.


title: John Locke (Lost)

text: The term "Tabula Rasa" is used as the title of the third episode of the first season. It refers to philosopher John Locke's tabula rasa thesis, an empirical conception that states that all individuals are born with a blank slate and build their bank of knowledge and their identity solely from their experiences and perceptions.


title: John Locke (Lost)

text: O'Quinn's performance received critical acclaim. His portrayal of John Locke earned him the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series in 2007. IGN named him as the #1 character from the first three seasons of "Lost", and "Entertainment Weekly" called him the 63rd-greatest character of all time in a list about both television and film. Also, he was #1 on Television Without Pity's list of the show's "10 Best Backstories” as well. "TV Guide" ranked him the 32nd-greatest television character ever, being the second of five "Lost" characters on the list.


title: John Locke (Lost)

text: The writing for Locke in "Through the Looking Glass" was criticized, and one IGN writer said that "it seems irrational that he would go and [stab Naomi] in the back without explaining himself." Although not responding to the IGN comment, series co-creator, Damon Lindelof, has stated, "we might be willing to give [Locke] the benefit of the doubt for any action he took in response to [lying, gutshot, in a pit of Dharma corpses for two days and on the verge of taking his own life], even if considered slightly 'out of character'".


title: The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp

text: The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp is a 1632 oil painting on canvas by Rembrandt housed in the Mauritshuis museum in The Hague, the Netherlands. The painting is regarded as one of Rembrandt's early masterpieces.


title: The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp

text: In the work, Nicolaes Tulp is pictured explaining the musculature of the arm to a group of doctors. Some of the spectators are various doctors who paid commissions to be included in the painting. The painting is signed in the top-left hand corner "Rembrandt. f[ecit] 1632". This may be the first instance of Rembrandt signing a painting with his forename (in its original form) as opposed to the monogram "RHL" (Rembrandt Harmenszoon of Leiden), and is thus a sign of his growing artistic confidence.


title: The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp

text: The event can be dated to 31 January 1632: the Amsterdam Guild of Surgeons, of which Tulp was official City Anatomist, permitted only one public dissection a year, and the body would have to be that of an executed criminal.


title: The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp

text: Anatomy lessons were a social event in the 17th century, taking place in lecture rooms that were actual theatres, with students, colleagues and the general public being permitted to attend on payment of an entrance fee. The spectators are appropriately dressed for this social occasion. It is thought that the uppermost (not holding the paper) and farthest left figures were added to the picture later.


title: The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp

text: Every five to ten years, the Surgeon's Guild would commission a portrait by a leading portraitist of the period; Rembrandt was commissioned for this task when he was 25 years old, and newly arrived in Amsterdam. It was his first major commission in Amsterdam. Each of the men included in the portrait would have paid a certain amount of money to be included in the work, and the more central figures (in this case, Tulp) probably paid more, even twice as much. Rembrandt's anatomical portrait radically altered the conventions of the genre, by including a full-length corpse in the center of the image (using Christ-like iconography) and creating not just a portrait but a dramatic "mise-en-scène". Rembrandt's image is a fiction; in a typical anatomy lesson, the surgeon would begin by opening the chest cavity and thorax because the internal organs there decay most rapidly.


title: The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp

text: One person is missing: the Preparator, whose task was to prepare the body for the lesson. In the 17th century an important scientist such as Tulp would not be involved in menial and bloody work like dissection, and such tasks would be left to others. It is for this reason that the picture shows no cutting instruments. Instead we see in the lower right corner an enormous open textbook on anatomy, possibly the 1543 "De humani corporis fabrica" ("Fabric of the Human Body") by Andreas Vesalius.


title: The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp

text: The corpse is that of the criminal Aris Kindt (alias of Adriaan Adriaanszoon), who was convicted for armed robbery and sentenced to death by hanging. He was executed earlier on the same day of the scene. The face of the corpse is partially shaded, a suggestion of "umbra mortis" (shadow of death), a technique that Rembrandt was to use frequently.


title: The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp

text: The French art historian Jean-Marie Clarke suggests that the navel of the corpse has the shape of a capital R and connects this observation to the fact that Rembrandt worked intensively on his signatures in 1632, using three types consecutively before settling on the final, first name form in 1633.


title: The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp

text: Kindt was discussed in the 1999 novel "The Rings of Saturn" by W. G. Sebald, and plays a significant role in Laird Hunt's 2006 novel "The Exquisite". In her 2014 novel "The Anatomy Lesson", author and journalist Nina Siegal tells the life story of Aris Kindt, based on documents about his criminal history that she discovered in the Amsterdam city archives.


title: The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp

text: Medical specialists have commented on the accuracy of muscles and tendons painted by the 26-year-old Rembrandt. It is not known where he obtained such knowledge; it is possible that he copied the details from an anatomical textbook. However, in 2006 Dutch researchers recreated the scene with a male cadaver, revealing several discrepancies of the exposed left forearm compared to that of a real corpse.


title: The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp

text: In a 2007 study, the American artist and anatomist David J. Jackowe and his colleagues demonstrated that the mysterious white cord that courses along the ulnar aspect of the cadaver's carpus and little finger, long thought to be either an ulnar nerve variant or artistic error, is most likely the tendon of a variant forearm muscle, the accessory abductor digiti minimi.


title: The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp

text: "The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Deijman", painted by Rembrandt in 1656, was intended to be displayed in the Anatomical Hall in Amsterdam alongside "The anatomy lesson of Tulp".


title: The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp

text: Deijman was Tulp's immediate successor in the post of "praelector chirugic et anatomie". The painting was damaged by fire in 1723, and only a central fragment survives.


title: The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp

text: Around 1856 Édouard Manet visited The Hague and made a small oil on panel copy of "The Anatomy Lesson". Broadly painted in a limited palette, Manet gave the painting to his physician, François Siredey.


title: The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp

text: A less detailed copy of "The Anatomy Lesson of Dr Nicolaes Tulp" by an unknown artist hangs in Edinburgh as part of The University of Edinburgh Fine Art Collection.


title: The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp

text: "The Gross Clinic" of 1875 and "The Agnew Clinic" of 1889 are paintings by the American artist Thomas Eakins which treat a similar subject, operations on live patients in the presence of medical students.


title: The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp

text: In 2010, Yiull Damaso created a parody of the painting depicting prominent South Africans. Nelson Mandela was the cadaver, Nkosi Johnson was the instructor, and the students were Desmond Tutu, F. W. de Klerk, Thabo Mbeki, Jacob Zuma, Cyril Ramaphosa, Trevor Manuel, and Helen Zille. The African National Congress condemned the work as disrespectful to Mandela, racist, and culturally insensitive to African taboos on depiction of living people as dead.


title: The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp

text: The 2012 painting "The Anatomy Lesson of Dr Freeman" by Susan Dorothea White references the Rembrandt composition but renders each of the onlookers as an anatomical prosection and skeleton in a contemporary university laboratory; the enormous book is replaced by a computer screen and the background chart by a projection screen; the tendon orientation in the cadaver's left forearm is corrected.


title: The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp

text: "The Body Snatcher" (1945) quotes this scene when Dr. Macfarlane dissects a cadaver in front of his medical students.


title: The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp

text: In "Asterix and the Soothsayer" (1972), Uderzo and Goscinny referenced the painting at the bottom of page 10, where the characters observe the disembowelment of a fish.


title: The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp

text: The 2011 video game "" references the painting in both in-game portraits that can be found on the wall and in a certain cinematic trailer, featuring the main protagonist Adam Jensen as the cadaver as Dr. Nicolaes and his students study his charred and ruined arms, which in the actual story become amputated and replaced with mechanical limbs.


title: The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp

text: In the 2012 German film "Barbara", there is a scene in which a doctor offers his interpretation of the painting to a colleague (the protagonist) when she points out the inaccuracy of Aris Kindt's left hand.


title: The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp

text: The painting is discussed by the narrator (a young man) and his mother during a visit to the Met in "The Goldfinch", a 2013 novel by Donna Tartt.


title: The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp

text: 2014's "The Anatomy Lesson" by Nina Siegal is a fictionalized account of the painting's creation and backstory, based on six years of historical research and archival documents about Aris Kindt's life.


title: Smoking jacket

text: A smoking jacket is an informal men's style of lounge jacket originally intended for tobacco smoking, designed in the 1850s. A classic-styled smoking jacket comes in a shawl collar, turn-up cuffs, toggle or button fastenings, or simply be closed with a tie belt. It is usually made from velvet, silk, or both.


title: Smoking jacket

text: Originating in the 1850s, "The Gentleman's Magazine" of London, England, defined the smoking jacket as a "kind of short robe de chambre [i.e. a banyan], of velvet, cashmere, plush, merino or printed flannel, lined with bright colours, ornamented with brandebourgs [i.e. frogs], olives or large buttons."


title: Smoking jacket

text: The smoking jacket evolved out of the dinner jacket, essentially as a dress coat without tails, following an example set by the Prince of Wales (later King Edward VII) in 1865. It has existed in this form ever since and is most commonly worn when smoking pipes and cigars.


title: Smoking jacket

text: As a false friend, the name carried on to its derivation the dinner jacket in several non-English languages. In Bulgarian, Catalan, Czech, Danish, Dutch, Estonian, French, German, Greek, Hebrew, Hungarian, Icelandic, Italian, Lithuanian, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Russian, Spanish, Swedish, Turkish, and other European languages, the term "smoking" indicates a dinner jacket, or a tuxedo jacket.


title: Smoking jacket

text: In the 17th century, goods began flowing into Europe from Asia and the Americas, bringing in spices, tobacco, coffee, and silks. It became fashionable to be depicted in one's portrait wearing a silk "robe de chambre", or dressing gown. One of the earliest mentions of this garment comes from Samuel Pepys, who desired to be depicted in his portrait in a silk gown but could not afford one, so he rented one:


title: Smoking jacket

text: Thence home and eat one mouthful, and so to Hale's and there sat until almost quite dark upon working my gowne, which I hired to be drawn (in) it—an Indian gown, and I do see all the reason to expect a most excellent picture of it. —"Diary", 30 March 1666


title: Smoking jacket

text: In the 18th century, gentlemen often referred to a specific style of "night gown" called the banyan, a knee-length robe, a more comfortable in design than the justaucorps, onto which shawl collars became recurrent. The short smoking jacket soon evolved from these silk garments.


title: Smoking jacket

text: When the Crimean War during the 1850s popularised Turkish tobacco in Britain, smoking gained in popularity. After dinner, a gentleman might put on a smoking jacket and retreat to a smoking room. The jacket was intended to absorb the smoke from his cigar or pipe and protect his clothing from falling ash.


title: Smoking jacket

text: The smoking jacket remained a popular accessory into the 20th century. An editorial in "The Washington Post" in 1902 gave the opinion that the smoking jacket was "synonymous with comfort", while a Pennsylvania newspaper opined in 1908 that it would be "putting it mildly to say that a new House Coat or Smoking Jacket will give any man reason for elation". As it was comfortable, it could also be worn by men as a leisure garment unconnected with smoking. Famous wearers included Fred Astaire (who was buried in a smoking jacket), Cary Grant, Dean Martin, Jon Pertwee and Frank Sinatra.


title: Smoking jacket

text: While smoking jackets declined in popularity from the 1950s, a minority of wearers still persisted; "Playboy" mogul Hugh Hefner (1926–2017) was a notable example. In its January/February 1999 issue, "Cigar Aficionado" stated that it was time the smoking jacket be brought back, perhaps as an "alternative type of formalwear".


title: Spice (musician)

text: Grace Latoya Hamilton (born 6 August 1982), known professionally as Spice, is a Jamaican dancehall recording artist, singer, songwriter and businesswoman. Often cited as the "Queen of Dancehall", Spice is recognised as one of the most prominent dancehall artists in the world.


title: Spice (musician)

text: Beginning her career in the early 2000s, Spice had her first major success with the controversial single "Romping Shop" with Vybz Kartel in 2009. She subsequently signed with VP Records, and released her debut EP, "So Mi Like It" (2014), which was preceded by the single of the same name. In 2018, she joined the cast of VH1's reality television series "" in season seven, after appearing as a guest star in season six.


title: Spice (musician)

text: Spice's first full-length project, a mixtape titled "Captured" (2018), was released independently and debuted at number one on the "Billboard" Reggae Albums chart. Her long-delayed debut studio album, "10" (2021), was nominated for Best Reggae Album at the 64th Grammy Awards in 2022. Following her departure from VP, she independently released her second studio album, "Emancipated" (2022).


title: Spice (musician)

text: Grace Latoya Hamilton was born in Spanish Town, St. Catherine, Jamaica and raised in Portmore. Her father died when she was nine years old. As a child, she used to attend her church regularly and lead the choir. She spent part of her childhood living with her grandparents in Finsbury Park, London, where she also attended school before returning to Jamaica. While a student in St. Catherine High School, she frequently participated in the Jamaica Cultural Development Commission (JCDC) festival in the music category and earned several medals throughout the years. Although she wanted to become a chartered accountant, she decided to pursue a music career. Following that, she enrolled at the Edna Manley College of the Visual and Performing Arts to study music and drama. She then began experimenting with dancehall music and soon after generated interest in her community and its environs with her deejaying abilities at local stage shows.


title: Spice (musician)

text: Spice made her debut when she was given the opportunity to perform at the annual dancehall festival Sting in 2000. It was her first major appearance on a stage show, where she earned several encores from the crowd. During this early stage of her career, Spice went on to gain a reputation for her performing abilities, despite not having any hit record.


title: Spice (musician)

text: While on tour in the UK, Spice earned the attention of Baby Cham, who later introduced her to renowned record producer Dave Kelly. From there, she released her first single for Kelly's Madhouse Records label entitled "Complain", then followed by her singles on the Bad Gal riddim, "Right There" with Toi and "Hype". At that time, she was featured on Jimmy Cliff's "I Want I Do I Get" from his album "Black Magic" (2004) and on Beenie Man's "Hot" from his album "Concept of Life" (2006). For her first hit single, Spice used the popular Eighty Five riddim to create "Fight Over Man", which became popular in the dancehall scene. In 2007, she went on a hiatus due to the birth of her son but soon returned to performing.


title: Spice (musician)

text: In late 2008, Spice collaborated with fellow dancehall artist Vybz Kartel on the single "Romping Shop", which samples "Miss Independent" by Ne-Yo. The song quickly achieved international recognition, receiving immense rotation on mainstream urban stations in the US. "Romping Shop" spent 15 weeks on the "Billboard" Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart, peaking at number 76. Shortly after its release, the song was banned by the Jamaica Broadcasting Corporation due to its explicit lyrical content. "Romping Shop" was ranked number 9 on both "Pitchfork"'s list of the 50 Best Dancehall Songs of All Time and "Billboard"'s 12 Best Dancehall & Reggaeton Choruses of the 21st Century.


title: Spice (musician)

text: In July 2009, Spice signed a recording contract with VP Records. In 2010, she released the single "Jim Screechie". In 2011, she released a remix for her song "Fun" featuring rapper Missy Elliott and collaborated with Mýa on the single "Take Him Out" from Mýa's sixth album "K.I.S.S. (Keep It Sexy & Simple)". Spice also performed the song with Mýa at Reggae Sumfest that year. A music video for "Take Him Out" was released in 2012.


title: Spice (musician)

text: In April 2013, Spice released her first project as a producer, the Gal Click riddim, featuring some of her fellow female dancehall artists. She gained further recognition with her single "So Mi Like It", which was released later that year. The accompanying music video, released in January 2014, became the most viewed music video by a female Jamaican artist. A remix of "So Mi Like It" featuring rapper Busta Rhymes was later released on his mixtape "Catastrophic 2".


title: Spice (musician)

text: Spice starred as Candy in her first theatrical feature film "Destiny", which was released on 2 April 2014. She also recorded the song "No Push Over" for the film's soundtrack. Her debut EP "So Mi Like It", named after the single of the same name, was released on 2 December 2014. It debuted at number 14 on the "Billboard" Top Reggae Albums chart. The EP features five songs, including "So Mi Like It" and "Conjugal Visit" featuring Vybz Kartel. The music video for "Conjugal Visit" garnered over 2 million views on WorldStarHipHop within one day. The same month, she was featured along with soca artist Bunji Garlin on rapper ASAP Ferg's song "Jolly" from his mixtape "Ferg Forever".


title: Spice (musician)

text: In May 2015, Spice released "Needle Eye", a single inspired by Shabba Ranks's 1987 single of the same name. In May 2016, she was featured alongside Jeremih on Kid Ink's single "Nasty". The following month, she released the single "Indicator", based on a dance move of the same name. For 2016's Red Bull Culture Clash, she joined forces with Mixpak and won the clash over Wiz Khalifa & Taylor Gang and others. At the MOBO Awards, Spice was the only female nominated for Best Reggae Act and the first female dancehall artist ever nominated in this category.


title: Spice (musician)

text: In April 2017, Spice released the single "Sheet". In June, she appeared on a remix of Jax Jones's "You Don't Know Me". In August, she was featured alongside Sean Kingston and Lady Leshurr on Charlie Sloth's "I Can Do" from his album "The Plug". After making a guest appearance in season six of VH1's reality TV show "", Spice joined the show as a cast member in season seven.


title: Spice (musician)

text: After a brief social media hiatus, Spice posted a picture of herself with dramatically light skin on Instagram on 22 October 2018. The picture went viral, causing many to think she had whitened her skin. She eventually confirmed that she faked whitening her skin to raise awareness about the issue of colorism within the black community. Spice addressed the issue in her single "Black Hypocrisy", which was released the next day along with an accompanying music video. Serving as the lead single for her debut mixtape, "Black Hypocrisy" debuted at number one on the "Billboard" Reggae Digital Song Sales chart.


title: Spice (musician)

text: Spice's debut mixtape, "Captured", was released on 2 November 2018 under her own independent record label Spice Official Entertainment. The mixtape was released following a legal dispute with her record label over the release of her long-delayed debut album. "Captured" debuted at number one on the "Billboard" Reggae Albums chart. Besides "Black Hypocrisy", several tracks from the project such as "Romantic Mood", "Cool It" and "Genie", were also highlighted with accompanying music videos.


title: Spice (musician)

text: In October 2019, Spice appeared with Sean Paul on the remix of Stylo G's "Dumpling", which peaked at number three on the "Billboard" Reggae Digital Song Sales chart. The same month, she released the single "Tables Turn". In November, she was featured on Krept and Konan's track "First Time" alongside Tory Lanez. "First Time" became her first entry on the UK Singles Chart, where it debuted at number 63.


title: Spice (musician)

text: In March 2020, Spice announced the release of her debut studio album, which was executively produced by Shaggy. Its lead single, "Frenz", was released to streaming platforms on 18 December 2020. "Go Down Deh", featuring Shaggy and Sean Paul, was released as the album's second lead single on 30 April 2021. Its accompanying music video quickly amassed millions of views, with the song becoming a success on streaming platforms. "Go Down Deh" was ranked number 48 on NPR Music's list of the 100 Best Songs of 2021. Spice's debut studio album, "10", was eventually released on 6 August 2021, debuting at number six on the "Billboard" Reggae Albums chart. It was nominated for Best Reggae Album at the 64th Grammy Awards in 2022.


title: Spice (musician)

text: In November 2021, Shaggy confirmed Spice's departure from VP Records. Following that, she announced the release of her second studio album, "Emancipated". Its lead single, "Clap Clap", was released on 22 July 2022. On 25 August 2022, Spice shared via Twitter a short snippet of the uncensored music video for "Tape Measure", the album's second single, which quickly went viral. "Emancipated" was released on 26 August 2022, debuting at number seven on the "Billboard" Reggae Albums chart. The same month, she was featured alongside Capella Grey on Karlie Redd's single "Werk", and on Stefflon Don's "Clockwork". In September, she collaborated with Nigerian singer Yemi Alade on the single "Bubble It". In October, she appeared on Skeng and Nicki Minaj's remix of "Likkle Miss" called "THE FINE NINE REMIX".


title: Spice (musician)

text: In 2009, Spice launched her clothing boutique chain Spicey Couture in Jamaica. The chain had branches in Kingston, May Pen and Montego Bay. As of 2020, the chain is no longer active.


title: Spice (musician)

text: In 2010, Spice opened a beauty salon called Spicey Salon in Kingston. She also opened a sports bar and lounge called 8 Ball in her hometown of Portmore.


title: Spice (musician)

text: In May 2019, Spice launched Faces & Laces, an online beauty store that initially offered a line of wigs. Later that year, cosmetic products were added to the beauty line.


title: Spice (musician)

text: In 2016, Spice launched a back-to-school sponsorship competition via Instagram. Fans were asked to remix one of Spice's songs in an educational way for a chance to earn an all-expense-paid scholarship. The scholarship included fully paid tuition, fully covered book list, uniforms and school supplies. The winner was selected based on the highest number of likes for the remix.


title: Spice (musician)

text: In 2018, Spice founded the Grace Hamilton Women Empowerment Foundation (GHWEF), which aims to enrich women through education, business and entrepreneurship. In August 2019, Spice hosted a back-to-school giveaway in Kingston through the foundation, providing school supplies to more than 500 children.


title: Spice (musician)

text: In 2009, Spice became engaged to her boyfriend Nicholas Lall, whom she had been dating since 2006. The couple called off the engagement and ended their relationship in 2016. They have two children, a son born in 2007 and a daughter born in 2011.


title: Spice (musician)

text: In 2020, Spice began dating American cinematographer Justin Budd, whom she met in Atlanta. The couple ended their relationship in 2022.


title: Silence (climb)

text: Silence (also Project Hard), is a severely overhanging sport climbing route in the granite Hanshelleren Cave, in Flatanger, Norway. When it was first climbed by Czech climber Adam Ondra on 3 September 2017, it became the first rock climb in the world to have a proposed climbing grade of , and it is an important route in rock climbing history. To complete the route, Ondra undertook specialist physical and mental training to overcome its severely overhanging terrain. As of November 2022, "Silence" remains unrepeated.


title: Silence (climb)

text: Ondra bolted the route in 2012–2013the same period he climbed "Change" at Flatanger, the world's first 9b+but dropped the project for a period saying: "I could sort of imagine doing the individual moves, but I could see that linking the whole sequence, with its 8C boulder, all the way from the ground just looked way too ridiculous". After retrying it in 2015 and working through some of the technical challenges, Ondra began to commit more time to the project calling it "my lifetime goal", in a 2016 interview with "Climbing". Ondra undertook specialist physical and mental training techniques for the route, including muscle work for the various critical kneebar rest positions, and route visualization for the sustained disorientation of the overhanging terrain. After 40 days of climbing spread over 7 visits from 2016 to 2017, Ondra successfully free climbed the route on 3 September 2017.


title: Silence (climb)

text: On completion, Ondra said: "At the end of the route when I knew I did it, I had one of the strangest emotions ever", and "I clipped the anchor and I could not even scream. All I could do was just hang in the rope, feeling tears in my eyes. It was too much joy, relief, and excitement all mixed together". While the route was originally named "Project Hard" by Ondra, a few days after completion he renamed it "Silence", stating that when climbing it he felt a sense of inner quiet, and that on completion he felt unable to scream in exhilaration, his trademark reaction on completing a climb.


title: Silence (climb)

text: Ondra described it as "much harder than anything else" he had previously done, and cautiously suggested the rating, telling "The Guardian", "Everyone knows what it means to run 100-meters in a world record time. Because grades in climbing are subjective, I am a fan of making big gaps between climbing grades. Knowing it was so much harder gives me the courage to say it is the world’s first at this level (9c)". In a 2020 interview, Ondra was asked if the route could actually be higher than 9c, he responded: "No, certainly not. 9c + or even 10a would have to be much, much more difficult if we don't want to inflate the difficulty scale in the future either. Each step on the difficulty scale really has to be a noticeable step in the actual difficulty of the route".


title: Silence (climb)

text: In April 2022, French climber Sébastien Bouin – a frequent climbing partner of Ondra – established the world's second-ever route, called "DNA", in the La Ramirole cave, Verdon Gorge in France; it remains unrepeated.


title: Silence (climb)

text: "Silence" is circa long, curving up the granite cave wall and along part of the underside of its roof. Ondra estimated that the first is at about with good kneebar rests, and similar to the beginning of neighbouring routes "Nordic Flower", and "Change".


title: Silence (climb)

text: After this, "Silence" branches off into a 5-move problem, and then transitions into the crux, which is a sequence of three distinct boulder problems that Ondra estimatedusing bouldering gradesas a very hard , a "burly 4-move" , and finally a with unsecure friction and slippery feet.


title: Silence (climb)

text: The first crux boulder problem was described by Ondra as the hardest he had ever climbed consisting of 10 incredibly hard and very unusual moves, including single-finger locks, climbing upside down, and a variation of a figure four move, and finally ending with a poor kneebar rest where Ondra could hang upside-down for a minute to rest (having done specialist muscle training for this "bat-hang" rest). Ondra said the 8C boulder problem took the most time to solve. In a 2017 interview, Ondra added more color to the first boulder crux stating: "The strangest moves are on the V15 crux 1, which is very physical, but the most precision-demanding climbing I have ever seen in my life. It is very hard to turn upside down, “stab” my left foot super high into the crack, doing it 100-percent precisely, [and] finish the sequence with this foot jam, doing the last move while doing the most extreme drop-knee I have ever done, which feels like it would tear my knee and back apart."


title: Silence (climb)

text: After the third boulder crux, a large jug leads to the anchor through a relatively easy boulder consisting of five moves.


title: Silence (climb)

text: Ondra remains the only person to have climbed "Silence", and it awaits a repeat ascent. In 2020, Ondra said that there were very few climbers capable of climbing at , and that "Silence" suited his climbing preferences and style, but would not suit others. It was many years before famous test-pieces such as "Action Directe" at or "Realization/Biographie" at were repeated.


title: Silence (climb)

text: In 2020, English crack climbing specialist Pete Whittaker tried some alternative specialist crack techniques at the bouldering crux to see if a climber could avoid the intense pressure on the knee that Ondra's approach used (Whittaker did not attempt any other part of the route). While Ondra found his techniques to have merit, they would also have drawbacks (especially the type of climbing shoes needed), and that would not affect the grade of the route.


title: Silence (climb)

text: Italian climber Stefano Ghisolfi failed to complete the route during August/September 2022, but felt that it was probably at difficulty; he plans to return in 2023.


title: Louisville International Airport

text: Louisville Muhammad Ali International Airport , formerly known as simply Louisville International Airport, is a civil-military airport in Louisville in Jefferson County, Kentucky. The airport covers and has three runways. Its IATA airport code, SDF, is based on the airport's former name, Standiford Field. It has no regularly-scheduled international passenger flights, but it is a port of entry, as it handles numerous international cargo flights through the United Parcel Service's worldwide air hub through its airline, often referred to as UPS Worldport.


title: Louisville International Airport

text: Over 4.2 million passengers and over 5.7 billion pounds (2.89 million tons) of cargo passed through the airport in 2019. It is also the second-busiest in the United States in terms of cargo traffic, and fourth-busiest for such in the world. The National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems for 2011–2015 categorized it as a "primary commercial service" airport since it has over 10,000 passenger boardings (enplanements) per year. Federal Aviation Administration records show the airport had 1,877,861 revenue enplanements in 2018, an increase of 11.46% from 1,684,738 in 2017.


title: Louisville International Airport

text: Because of UPS Airlines' operations, Louisville International Airport is the second-busiest cargo airport in the United States, only falling short of FedEx's SuperHub at Memphis International Airport, and also the world's fourth-busiest airport by cargo traffic, behind Shanghai Pudong, Memphis and Hong Kong. The Kentucky Air National Guard's 123d Airlift Wing operates C-130 transport aircraft from the co-located Louisville Air National Guard Base.


title: Louisville International Airport

text: On January 16, 2019, the Regional Airport Authority voted to change the name of the airport to "Louisville Muhammad Ali International Airport" in honor of the boxer and Louisville native Muhammad Ali. On June 6, 2019, the airport unveiled its new logo, featuring "Ali's silhouette, arms up and victorious, against the background of a butterfly."


title: Louisville International Airport

text: Standiford Field was built by the Army Corps of Engineers in 1941 on a parcel of land south of Louisville that was found not to have flooded during the Ohio River flood of 1937. It was named for Dr. Elisha David Standiford, a local businessman and politician, who was active in transportation issues and owned part of the land. The field remained under Army control until 1947, when it was turned over to the Louisville Air Board for commercial operations.


title: Louisville International Airport

text: Until around 1947, Bowman Field was Louisville's main airport. For many years, passenger traffic went through the small brick Lee Terminal at Standiford Field. Today's more modern and much larger facilities were built in the 1980s. Most of the Lee Terminal was later torn down.


title: Louisville International Airport

text: When Standiford Field was built by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in 1941, it had one runway. The airfield opened to the public in 1947 and all commercial service from Bowman Field moved to Standiford Field. American, Eastern, and TWA were the first airlines and had 1,300 passengers a week. The airlines used World War II barracks on the east side of the field until May 25, 1950, when a proper terminal opened. Lee Terminal could handle 150,000 passengers annually and included 6 new gates, which increased terminal space to . The three runways (1, 6 and 11) were all 5000 ft.


title: Louisville International Airport

text: The April 1957 Official Airline Guide shows 45 weekday departures on Eastern Airlines, 19 American, 9 TWA, 4 Piedmont and 2 Ozark. Scheduled jet flights (Eastern 720s to Idlewild) began in January–February 1962.


title: Louisville International Airport

text: In 1970, the terminal again expanded; the main lobby was extended and the Delta Air Lines concourse was built.


title: Louisville International Airport

text: The 1980s brought plans for a new terminal, the Louisville Airport Improvement plan (LAIP). Construction of a new landside terminal designed by Bickel-Gibson Associated Architects Inc. began, costing $35 million with capacity for nearly 2 million passengers in 1985. Parallel runways, needed for expanded UPS operations, were part of the airport expansion. Most of the improvements were completed in the 1990s and the airport was totally renewed.


title: Louisville International Airport

text: During the 1990s, Southwest Airlines began service to the airport which helped passenger boardings increase 97.3 percent. In 1995, the airport's name was changed from Standiford Field to Louisville International Airport. Around that time SDF opened the two new parallel runways: runway 17L/35R, long and runway 17R/35L, ; both are wide. The Kentucky Air National Guard moved its base to SDF with 8 military aircraft; a new UPS air mail facility, new corporate hangars, a four-level parking garage and a new control tower were also added. A new FBO was added, run by Atlantic Aviation and managed by Michael Perry.


title: Louisville International Airport

text: On January 16, 2019, the Louisville Regional Airport Authority voted to rename the airport Louisville Muhammad Ali International Airport, after boxing legend Muhammad Ali, a Louisville native.


title: Louisville International Airport

text: It also marks another major milestone of the SDF NEXT Programme, that will see a $400 million investment in improvements to the airfield and terminal in the coming years.


title: Louisville International Airport

text: The Jerry E. Abramson Terminal is the airport's main commercial terminal. It consists of two floors with ground transportation and baggage claim services on the first floor and ticketing, passenger drop off, and concourse access on the second floor. There are 24 gates in the two concourses. These concourses are connected by a rotunda and connector that contains a unified security checkpoint located in the main section of the terminal.


title: Louisville International Airport

text: Louisville Muhammad Ali International Airport has three concrete runways, two of which are parallel with one crosswind. The westernmost runway (17R/35L) is the longest of the three at and was extended in 2007 to accommodate larger aircraft flying nonstop to destinations as far away as the Pacific Rim and Asia.


title: Louisville International Airport

text: Worldport is the worldwide air hub for UPS (United Parcel Service) located at Louisville Muhammad Ali International Airport. Because of UPS, Louisville is the fourth-busiest cargo airport in the world, and the second busiest in the United States. Although UPS has had a hub at Louisville since 1980, the term was not used officially by the company until 2002, after a $1billion, five-year expansion. Previously, the project was named Hub 2000. The facility is currently the size of 5.2million square feet (48 ha; 80 football fields) and capable of handling 115 packages per second, or 416,000 per hour. With more than 20,000 employees, UPS is one of the largest employers in both the city of Louisville and Kentucky as a whole. The facility, which serves all of the company's major international and domestic hubs, mainly handles express and international packages and letters.


title: Louisville International Airport

text: A expansion was completed in spring 2006 to integrate heavy freight into the UPS system. The expansion was prefaced by the purchase of Menlo Worldwide Forwarding, formerly Emery Worldwide. The new facility, designated Worldport Freight Facility (HWP), went online in April 2006 and was the first of the company's regional hubs to begin integrating the Menlo volume into the system. Menlo's facility in Dayton, Ohio, was taken offline in June 2006.


title: Louisville International Airport

text: In May 2006, UPS announced that for the third time in seven years it would significantly expand its Worldport hub, with a second investment of $1billion. The second expansion was completed in April 2010, with the facility now measuring , with a perimeter of . The plan was for more than to be added to its existing facility, with another of space to be renovated with new technology and equipment. Worldport sorting capacity was to expand from 300,000 packages per hour to 416,000 packages per hour. Additionally, several ramps at the Louisville Muhammad Ali International Airport were to be built or altered bringing a total increase of just over .


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: Louis Antoine Léon de Saint-Just (; 25 August 17679 Thermidor, Year II [28 July 1794]), was a French revolutionary, political philosopher, member and president of the French National Convention, a Jacobin club leader, and a major figure of the French Revolution. He was a close friend of Maximilien Robespierre and served as his most trusted ally during the period of Jacobin rule (1793–94) in the French First Republic. Saint-Just worked as a legislator and a military commissar, but he achieved a lasting reputation as the face of the Reign of Terror where he was named the Archangel of the Terror. He publicly delivered the condemnatory reports that emanated from Robespierre and the Committee of Public Safety and defended the use of violence against opponents of the government. He supervised the arrests of some of the most famous figures of the Revolution, many of whom ended up at the guillotine.


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: From its beginning in 1789, the Revolution enthralled the young Saint-Just, who strove to take a leading role. Early on, he became a commander in his local National Guard unit. Shortly after reaching the minimum legal age of 25 in August 1792, he won election as a deputy to the National Convention in Paris. Despite his lack of record or influence, Saint-Just boldly denounced King Louis XVI from the speaker's rostrum and spearheaded a successful movement to have him executed. His audacity brought him political recognition and the lasting favor of Robespierre. Saint-Just joined him on the Committee of Public Safety and served two weeks as President of the Convention. Along the way he was a primary draftsman of radical Jacobin legislation such as the Ventôse Decrees and the Constitution of 1793.


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: Dispatched as an overseer to the army during its rocky start in the French Revolutionary Wars, Saint-Just imposed severe discipline. At the same time, he ensured that the troops were protected by the new anti-aristocratic order promised by the Revolution. He was credited by many for the army's revival at the front. This success as a "représentant en mission" led to two more visits to the front, including acclaimed participation in the major Battle of Fleurus.


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: Throughout all his legislative and military work, Saint-Just remained dedicated to his role as one of the Committee of Public Safety's political defenders. He publicly denounced enemies of the Jacobin government as conspirators, criminals, and traitors, and he was ruthless in his application of violence. He prepared death sentences for the centrist deputy Jacques Pierre Brissot and his fellow Girondins; for the extremist demagogue Jacques Hébert and his militant supporters; and for his own former colleague Georges Danton and other Jacobin critics of the Terror. As the death toll mounted, opponents ultimately found their footing. Saint-Just and Robespierre were arrested in the coup of 9 Thermidor (27 July 1794) and executed the next day along with many of their allies from the Commune. In many histories of the Revolution, their deaths at the guillotine mark the end of the Reign of Terror and the beginning of a new phase, the Thermidorian Reaction.


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just was born at Decize in the former Nivernais province of central France. He was the eldest child of Louis Jean de Saint-Just de Richebourg (1716–1777), a retired French cavalry officer (and knight of the Order of Saint Louis), and Marie-Anne Robinot (1736–1811), the daughter of a notary. He had two younger sisters, born in 1768 and 1769. The family later moved north and in 1776 settled in the village of Blérancourt in the former Picardy province, establishing themselves as a countryside noble family living off the rents from their land. A year after the move, Louis Antoine's father died leaving his mother with their three children. She saved diligently for her only son's education, and in 1779 he was sent to the Oratorian school at Soissons. After a promising start, his teachers soon viewed Saint-Just as a troublemaker—a reputation later compounded by infamous stories (almost certainly apocryphal) of how he led a students' rebellion and tried to burn down the school. Nonetheless, he graduated in 1786.


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: His restive nature, however, did not diminish. As a young man, Saint-Just was "wild, handsome [and] transgressive". Well-connected and popular, he showed a special affection toward a young woman of Blérancourt, Thérèse Gellé. She was the daughter of a wealthy notary, a powerful and autocratic figure in the town; he was still an undistinguished adolescent. He is said to have proposed marriage to her, which she is said to have desired. Though no evidence of their relationship exists, official records show that on 25 July 1786, Thérèse was married to Emmanuel Thorin, the scion of a prominent local family. Saint-Just was out of town and unaware of the event, and tradition portrays him as brokenhearted. Whatever his true state, it is known that a few weeks after the marriage he abruptly left home for Paris unannounced having gathered up a pair of pistols and a good quantity of his mother's silver. His venture ended when his mother had him seized by police and sent to a reformatory ("maison de correction") where he stayed from September 1786 to March 1787. Chastened, Saint-Just attempted to begin anew: he enrolled as a student at Reims University's School of Law. After a year, however, he drifted away from law school and returned to his mother's home in Blérancourt penniless, without any occupational prospects.


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: At a young age Saint-Just had shown a fascination with literature, and he wrote works of his own including a one-act play "Arlequin Diogène". During his stay at the reformatory, he began writing a lengthy poem that he published anonymously more than two years later in May 1789 at the very outbreak of the Revolution. The 21-year-old Saint-Just thereby added his own touch to the social tumult of the times with "Organt, poem in twenty cantos". The poem, a medieval epic fantasy relaying the quest of young Antoine Organt, extols the virtues of primitive man, praising his libertinism and independence while blaming all present-day troubles on modern inequalities of wealth and power. Written in a style mimicking Ariosto, the work foreshadowed its author's future political extremism. Spiked with brutal satire and scandalous pornographic episodes, it also unmistakably attacked the monarchy, the nobility, and the Church.


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: Contemporaries regarded "Organt" as a salacious novelty and it was quickly banned. Nevertheless, censors who tried to confiscate copies discovered that few were available anywhere. It did not sell well and resulted in a financial loss for its author. The public's taste for literature had shifted in the prelude to the Revolution, and Saint-Just's taste shifted along with it: he devoted his future writing almost entirely to unadorned essays of sociopolitical theory, aside from a few pages of an unfinished novel found amidst his papers at the end of his life. With his previous ambitions of literary and lawyerly fame unfulfilled, Saint-Just directed his focus on the single goal of revolutionary command.


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: The rapid development of the Revolution in 1789 upended Blérancourt's traditional power structure. The notary Gellé, previously an undisputed town leader, was challenged by a group of reformists who were led by several of Saint-Just's friends, including the husband of his sister Louise. Their attempts were unsuccessful until 1790 when Blérancourt held its first open municipal elections. Mandated by the National Constituent Assembly, the new electoral structure allowed Saint-Just's friends to assume authority in the village as mayor, secretary, and, in the case of his brother-in-law, head of the local National Guard. Despite not meeting the legal age and tax qualifications, the jobless Saint-Just was allowed to join the Guard.


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: He immediately exhibited the ruthless discipline for which he would be famous. Within a few months he was the commanding officer, with the rank of lieutenant-colonel. At local meetings he moved attendees with his patriotic zeal and flair: in one much-repeated story, Saint-Just brought the town council to tears by thrusting his hand into the flame of a burning anti-revolutionary pamphlet, swearing his devotion to the Republic. He had powerful allies when he sought to become a member of his district’s electoral assembly. He initiated correspondence with well-known leaders of the Revolution like Camille Desmoulins. In late 1790, he wrote to Robespierre for the first time, asking him to consider a local petition. The letter was filled with the highest of praise, beginning: "You, who uphold our tottering country against the torrent of despotism and intrigue; you whom I know, as I know God, only through his miracles..."


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: While Saint-Just waited for the next election, he composed an extensive work, "L'Esprit de la Revolution et de la constitution de France", published in the spring of 1791. His writing style had shed all satire and now reflected the stern and moralizing tone of classical Romans so adored by French revolutionaries. It presented a set of principles deeply influenced by Montesquieu, and remained fully confined to a paradigm of constitutional monarchy. He expressed abhorrence at the violence in the Revolution thus far, and he disdained the character of those who partook in it as little more than "riotous slaves." Instead, he heaped his praise upon the people's representatives in the Legislative Assembly, whose sober virtue would guide the Revolution best. Spread out over five books, "L'Esprit de la Revolution" is inconsistent in many of its assertions but still shows clearly that Saint-Just no longer saw government as oppressive to man's nature but necessary to its success: its ultimate object was to "edge society in the direction of the distant ideal."


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: The new work, like its predecessor, attracted minimal readership. On 21 June 1791, just days after it was published, all attention became focused on King Louis XVI's ill-fated flight to Varennes. Saint-Just's theories about constitutional monarchy were suddenly outdated. The episode fostered public anger toward the King which simmered all year until a Parisian mob finally attacked the Tuileries Palace on 10 August 1792. In response, the Assembly declared itself ready to step down ahead of schedule and called for a new election, this one under universal male suffrage. The timing was excellent for Saint-Just, who turned the legal age of 25 before the end of the month. The fear inspired by the invasion of the Tuileries made most of his opponents retire from the scene. Guard commander Saint-Just was able to win election as one of the deputies for the "département" of Aisne. He left for Paris to join the National Convention as the youngest of its 749 members.


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: Among the deputies, Saint-Just was watchful but interacted little at first. He joined the Parisian Jacobin Club, but he remained aloof from Girondins and Montagnards alike. He waited until 13 November 1792 to give his first speech to the Convention, but when he did the effect was spectacular. What brought him to the lectern was the discussion over how to treat the deposed King. In dramatic contrast to the earlier speakers, Saint-Just delivered a blazing condemnation of him. He demanded "Louis Capet" should be judged not as a king or even a citizen, but as a traitor, an enemy who deserves death. "As for me," he declared, "I see no middle ground: this man must reign or die! He oppressed a free nation; he declared himself its enemy; he abused the laws: he must die to assure the repose of the people, since it was in his mind to crush the people to assure his own." Towards the end of his speech, he uttered an ominous observation: "No one can reign innocently."


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: The young deputy's speech electrified the Convention. Saint-Just was interrupted frequently by bursts of applause. Robespierre was particularly impressed—he spoke from the lectern the next day in terms almost identical to those of Saint-Just, and their views became the official position of the Jacobins. By December, that position had become law: the King was taken to a trial before the Convention, sentenced to death, and executed by guillotine on 21 January 1793.


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: On 29/30 May 1793 Saint-Just was added to the Committee of Public Safety; Couthon became secretary, which was one day before the Insurrection of 31 May – 2 June.


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: Because the first French Constitution had included a role for the king, it was long since invalid and needed to be updated for the Republic. Many drafts had circulated within the Convention since Louis XVI's execution, and Saint-Just submitted his own lengthy proposal on 24 April 1793. His draft incorporated the most common assertions of the others: the right to vote, the right to petition, and equal eligibility for employment were among the basic principles that made his draft tenable. He stood out from the pack, however, on the issue of elections: Saint-Just argued against all complex voting systems, and supported only the classical style of a simple majority of citizens in a nationwide vote. Amid a flurry of proposals by other deputies, Saint-Just held inflexibly to his "one man one vote" plan, and this conspicuous homage to Greco-Roman traditions (which were particularly prized and idealized in French culture during the Revolution) enhanced his political cachet. When no plan gained enough votes to pass, a compromise was made which tasked a small body of deputies as official constitutional draftsmen. Saint-Just was among the five elected members. In recognition of the importance of their mission, the draftsmen were all added to the powerful new Committee of Public Safety.


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: The Convention had given the Committee extraordinary authority to provide for state security since the outbreak of the French Revolutionary War in early 1793. Committee members were originally intended to serve for periods of only thirty days before replacements were elected, so they needed to work quickly. Saint-Just took charge of the issue and led the development of the French Constitution of 1793. Before the end of his first term the new document was completed, submitted to the Convention, and ratified as law on 24 June 1793.


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: The new constitution was never implemented. Emergency measures for wartime were in effect, and those measures called for (or provided cover for) a moratorium on constitutional democracy. Wartime gave supreme power to the sitting Convention, with the Committee of Public Safety at the top of its administrative pyramid. Robespierre, with Saint-Just's assistance, fought vigorously to ensure that the government would remain under emergency measures—"revolutionary"—until victory.


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: During the time that Saint-Just was working on the constitution, dramatic political warfare was taking place. The "sans-culottes"—deemed "the people" by many radicals, and represented by the Paris Commune—had grown antipathetic to the moderate Girondins. On 2 June 1793, in a mass action supported by National Guardsmen, they surrounded the Convention and arrested the Girondin deputies. The other deputies—even the Montagnards, who had long enjoyed an informal alliance with the "sans-culottes"—resented the action but felt compelled politically to permit it. The Girondin leader, Jacques Pierre Brissot, was indicted for treason and scheduled for trial, but the other "Brissotins" were imprisoned (or pursued) without formal charges. The Convention debated their fate and the political disorder lasted for weeks. Saint-Just had previously remained silent about the Girondins, but now clearly stood with Robespierre who had been thoroughly opposed to most of them for a long time. When the initial indictment by the Committee was served, it was Saint-Just who delivered the report to the Convention.


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: In its secret negotiations, the Committee of Public Safety was initially unable to form a consensus concerning the jailed deputies, but as some Girondins fled to the provinces and attempted to incite an insurrection, its opinion hardened. By early July, Saint-Just was able to address the Convention with a lengthy report in the name of the Committee. His damning attack left no room for any further conciliation. The Girondins' trials must proceed, he said, and any verdicts must be severe. The proceedings dragged on for months, but Brissot and twenty of his allies were eventually condemned and sent to the guillotine on 31 October 1793. Saint-Just used their situation to gain approval for intimidating new laws, culminating in the Law of Suspects (17 September 1793) which gave the Committee vast new powers of arrest and punishment.


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: On 10 October the Convention decreed to recognize the Committee of Public Safety as the supreme "Revolutionary Government", (which was consolidated on 4 December). The provisional government would be revolutionary until peace according to Saint-Just. Saint-Just proposed that deputies from the Convention should directly oversee all military efforts, a proposal which was approved on 10 October 1793. Amid worsening conditions at the front in the fall of that year, several deputies were designated "représentant en mission" and sent to the critical area of Alsace to shore up the disintegrating Army of the Rhine. Results were not sufficiently forthcoming, so at the end of the month Saint-Just was sent there along with an ally from the Convention, Philippe-François-Joseph Le Bas. The mission lasted from November through December 1793. The two men were charged with "extraordinary powers" to impose discipline and reorganize the troops.


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: From the start, Saint-Just dominated the mission. He was relentless in demanding results from the commanders as well as sympathetic to the complaints of common soldiers. On his first day at the front, he issued a proclamation promising "examples of justice and severity as the Army has not yet witnessed." The entire army was placed immediately under the harshest discipline. Within a short time, many officers were dismissed and many more, including at least one general, were executed by firing squad.


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: Among soldiers and civilians alike, Saint-Just repressed opponents of the Revolution, but he did not agree to the mass executions ordered by some of the other deputies on the mission. He vetoed much of the deputies' work and had many of them recalled to Paris. Local politicians were just as vulnerable to him: even Eulogius Schneider, the powerful leader of Alsace's largest city, Strasbourg, was arrested on Saint-Just's order, and much equipment was commandeered for the army. Saint-Just worked closely only with General Charles Pichegru, a reliable Jacobin whom he respected. Under Saint-Just's unblinking surveillance, Pichegru and General Lazare Hoche ably secured the frontier and began an invasion of the German Rhineland.


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: With the army revitalized, Saint-Just returned briefly to Paris where his success was applauded. However, there was little time to celebrate. He was quickly sent back to the front lines, this time in Belgium where the Army of the North was experiencing the same problems of discipline and organization. During January and February 1794, he again delivered results ruthlessly and effectively, but after less than a month the mission was cut short. As Paris convulsed in political violence, Robespierre required his assistance.


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: With the republican army advancing and the Girondins destroyed, the left-wing Montagnards, led by the Jacobins and Robespierre, controlled the Convention. In these circumstances, on the first day of Ventôse in Year II of the Revolution (19 February 1794), Saint-Just was elected President of the National Convention for the next two weeks.


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: With this new power he persuaded the chamber to pass the radical Ventôse Decrees, under which the régime would confiscate aristocratic "émigré" property and distribute it to needy "sans-culottes" (commoners). But these acts of wealth redistribution, arguably the most revolutionary of the French Revolution, never went into operation. The Committee faltered in creating procedures for their enforcement, and the frantic pace of unfolding political events left them behind.


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: Opponents of the Jacobins saw the Ventôse Decrees as a cynical ploy to appeal to the militant extreme left. Sincere or not, Saint-Just made impassioned arguments for them. One week after their adoption, he urged that the Decrees be exercised vigorously and hailed them for ushering in a new era: "Eliminate the poverty that dishonors a free state; the property of patriots is sacred but the goods of conspirators are there for the wretched. The wretched are the powerful of the earth; they have the right to speak as masters to the governments who neglect them."


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: As the spring of 1794 approached, the Committee of Public Safety, led by Robespierre, Saint-Just, and Georges Couthon, exercised near complete control over the government. Despite the vast reach of their powers, however, rivals and enemies remained. One of the thorniest problems, at least to Robespierre, was populist agitator Jacques Hébert, who discharged torrents of criticism against perceived bourgeois Jacobinism in his newspaper, "Le Père Duchesne". Ultra-radical Hébertists in the Cordeliers Club undermined Jacobin efforts to court and manage the "sans-culottes", and the most extreme Hébertists even called openly for insurrection.


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: Saint-Just, in his role as president of the Convention, announced unequivocally that "whoever vilified or attacked the dignity of the revolutionary government should be condemned to death". The Convention agreed in a vote on 13 Ventôse Year II (3 March 1794). Robespierre joined Saint-Just in his attacks on Hébert. Hébert and his closest associates were arrested the following day. A little over a week later, Saint-Just told the Convention that the Hébertists' activities were part of a foreign plot against the government. The accused were sent to face the Revolutionary Tribunal. Saint-Just vowed, "No more pity, no weakness towards the guilty... Henceforth the government will pardon no more crimes." On 4 Germinal (24 March 1794), the Tribunal sent Hébert, Charles-Philippe Ronsin, François-Nicolas Vincent, and most other prominent Hébertists to the guillotine.


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: The ongoing political combat—bloody enough since at least the time of the arrest of the Girondins to be known as the Reign of Terror— spread inexorably. After the Hébertists fell, attention turned on the Indulgents, starting with Fabre d'Églantine and Robespierre's once-close friend Georges Danton. Danton was among the most vocal of the moderates who opposed the Committee. He was especially opposed to Saint Just’s fanaticism and "extravagant" use of violence. On 30 March the two committees decided to arrest Danton and the Indulgents after Saint-Just became uncharacteristically angry. On 31 March Saint-Just publicly attacked both. In the Convention criticism was voiced against the arrests, which Robespierre silenced with "...whoever trembles at this moment is guilty."


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: Danton’s criticism of the Terror won him some support, but a financial scandal involving the French East India Company provided a "convenient pretext" for his downfall. Robespierre again sent Saint-Just to the Convention to deliver a Committee report (31 March 1794) in which he announced the arrest of Danton and "the last partisans of royalism". In addition to charges of corruption related to the trading company, Saint-Just accused Danton of conspiring to restore the monarchy. He denounced him as a "bad citizen", a "false friend", and a "wicked man". After a tumultuous show-trial, Fabre, Desmoulins, and other top supporters of Danton went to the scaffold with their leader on 16 Germinal (5 April 1794). In his report, Saint-Just had promised that this would be a "final cleansing" of the Republic's enemies. However, there is evidence to suggest that Saint-Just was becoming uneasy about the progressions of these events. He privately wrote that “The Revolution is frozen; all principles are weakened."


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: The violent removal of the Hébertists and Dantonists provided only a mirage of stability. Their deaths caused deep resentment in the Convention, and their absence only made it more difficult for the Jacobins to influence the dangerously unpredictable masses of "sans-culottes". The elimination of popular demagogues and the consequent loss of support in the streets would prove disastrous for Saint-Just, Robespierre, and other Jacobins during the events of Thermidor.


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: As the deliverer of Committee reports, Saint-Just served as the public face of the Terror, and later writers dubbed him the "Angel of Death". After the events of Germinal, the triumvirate intensified its control over the state-security apparatus. On 23 April Saint-Just created a new bureau of "general police" for the Committee of Public Safety which matched—and usurped—the powers that had been given officially to the Committee of General Security. Shortly after its establishment, however, administration of the new bureau passed to Robespierre when Saint-Just left Paris once more for the front lines.


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: The Revolutionary army was still in a defensive posture, and Saint-Just was sent back to Belgium to help prepare for the coming conflict. From April through June 1794, he again took supreme oversight of the Army of the North and contributed to the victory at Fleurus. This hotly contested battle on 26 June 1794 saw Saint-Just apply his most draconian measures, ordering all French soldiers who turned away from the enemy to be summarily shot. He felt vindicated when the victory sent the Austrians and their allies into a full retreat from all the Southern Netherlands. Fleurus marked the turning point in the War of the First Coalition: France remained on the offensive until its eventual victory in 1797. After his return from the battle, Saint-Just was treated as a hero and "cheered from all sides".


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: After returning to Paris, Saint-Just discovered that Robespierre's political position had degraded significantly. As the Terror reached its apogee—the so-called "Great Terror"—the danger of a counter strike by his enemies became almost inevitable. Carnot described Saint-Just and Robespierre as "ridiculous dictators." Saint-Just, however, remained unshakable in his alliance with Robespierre. The French victory at Fleurus and others which followed, reduced the need for national security during the war, which originally had been predicated as a justification for the Terror. "The excuse for the Terror was at an end." Opponents of the Terror used Saint-Just's own words against him by demanding a full implementation of the constitution of 1793.


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: With political combat reaching a fever pitch, the Committee introduced a bill to establish a newer version of the "Law of Suspects"—the Law of 22 Prairial. The law established a new category of "enemies of the people" in terms so vague that virtually anyone could be accused and convicted. Defendants were not permitted legal counsel, and the Revolutionary Tribunal was instructed to impose no sentence other than death. Robespierre swiftly shepherded the bill into law, and although Saint-Just was not directly involved in its composition, he was almost certainly supportive. Vastly expanding the Tribunal’s power, the new statutes catalyzed the Great Terror: in the first month they were in effect, the number of executions in Paris rose from an average of five daily to seventeen daily, soaring in the following month to twenty-six.


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: The Law of Prairial was the breaking point for opponents of the Committee. For the second time, Carnot described Saint-Just and Robespierre as "ridiculous dictators". Carnot and Cambon proposed to end the terror. On 22 and 23 July, the two committees met in a plenary session. The Commune published a new maximum, limiting the wages of employees (in some cases halving them) which provoked a sharp protest in the sections. Almost all the workers in Paris were on strike.


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: Resistance to the Terror spread throughout the Convention, and Saint-Just was compelled to address the division. Saint-Just declared in negotiations with Barère that he was prepared to make concessions on the subordinate position of the Committee of General Security. Bertrand Barère and other Thermidorians claimed that he was trying to propose that Robespierre and those aligned with him have dictatorial authority. In return, Saint-Just supported Carnot's decision to send companies of gunners out of Paris. However, for a time some of the Thermidorians nevertheless considered Saint-Just to be redeemable, or at the very least useful for their own ambitions. Their attitude toward him shifted later when he delivered an uncompromising public defense of Robespierre on 9 Thermidor (27 July 1794).


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: They set off to the Committee of Public Safety, where they found Saint-Just working. They asked him if he was drawing up their bill of indictment. Saint-Just promised to show them his speech before the session began. He replied he sent the beginning to a friend and refused to show them his notes. Collot d'Herbois, who chaired the Convention, decided not to let him speak and to make sure he could not be heard on the next day. According to Barère: "We never deceived ourselves that Saint-Just, cut out as a more dictatorial boss, would have ended up overthrowing him to put himself in his place; we also knew that we stood in the way of his projects and that he would have us guillotined; we had him stopped."


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: At noon, Saint-Just went straight to the convention, prepared to place blame on Billaud, Collot d'Herbois and Carnot. He began: "I am from no faction; I will contend against them all." Billaud-Varennes complained about how he was treated in the Jacobin club on the evening before and that Saint-Just had not kept his promise to show his speech before the meeting. As the accusations began to pile up, Saint-Just remained silent. During the ensuing debate he was accused by his fellow deputy Fréron of forming a triumvirate with Robespierre and Couthon, a reference to the first triumvirate of Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus which led to the end of the Roman Republic. Finally, several of them physically shoved him away from the lectern, and each started his own address in which they called for the removal of Robespierre and all his supporters. Amid the uproar, recalled Barras, Saint-Just "did not leave the platform, in spite of the interruptions which would have driven any one else away. He only came down a few steps, then mounted again, to continue his discourse proudly... Motionless, unmoved, he seemed to defy everyone with his calm."


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: Saint-Just saved his dignity at the lectern but not his life. Rising in his support, Robespierre sputtered and lost his voice; his brother Augustin, Philippe Lebas, and other key allies all tried swaying the deputies, but failed. The meeting ended with an order for their arrest. Saint-Just was taken to the "Écossais". After several hours, however, the five were invited to take refuge in the Hôtel de Ville by the mayor. At around 11 p.m., Saint-Just was delivered. At around 2 a.m., Barras and Bourdon, accompanied by several members of the Convention, arrived in two columns. When Grenadiers broke inside, a number of the defeated Jacobins tried to commit suicide. The unperturbed Saint-Just gave himself up without a word. Among the captured, "only St. Just, his hands bound but his head held high, was able to walk." Robespierre, Saint-Just, and twenty of their associates were guillotined the next day, and Saint-Just reputedly accepted his death with coolness and pride. As a last formality of identification, he gestured to a copy of the Constitution of 1793 and said, "I am the one who made that."


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: Throughout his political career, Saint-Just continued to work on books and essays about the meaning of the Revolution, but he did not survive to see any of them published. In later years, these drafts and notes were put together in various collections along with "Organt", "Arlequin Diogène", "L'Esprit de la Revolution", public speeches, military orders, and private correspondence.


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: Many of Saint-Just's legislative proposals were compiled after his death to form an outline for a communal and egalitarian society. They were published as a single volume, "Fragments sur les institutions républicaines." The proposals were far more radical than the Constitution of 1793, and identify closely with the legendarily fearsome traditions of ancient Sparta. Many of them are interpreted as proto-socialist precepts: the overarching theme is equality, which Saint-Just at one point summarizes as: "Man must be independent... There should be neither rich nor poor".


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: Saint-Just also composed a lengthy draft of his philosophical views, "De la Nature", which remained hidden in obscurity until its transcription by Albert Soboul in 1951. He first published this work in 1951 under the title "Un manuscrit oublié de Saint-Just" in the "Annales historiques de la révolution française", No. 124. Alain Liénard's "Saint-Just, théorie politique" and later collections include an expanded version. "De la Nature" outlines Saint-Just's ideas on the nature of society; the actual date it was written is disputed, but the most agreed upon range is between 1791 and 1792.


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: Based on the assumption that man is a social animal, Saint-Just argues that in nature there is no need for contracts, legislation, or acts of force. These constructs only become necessary when a society is in need of moral regeneration and serve merely as unsatisfactory substitutes for the natural bonds of free people. Such constructs permit small groups to assume unwarranted powers which, according to Saint-Just, leads to corruption within society. Because a return to the natural state is impossible, Saint-Just argues for a government composed of the most educated members of society, who could be expected to share an understanding of the larger social good. Outside the government itself, Saint-Just asserts there must be full equality between all men, including equal security in material possessions and personal independence. Property must be protected by the state but, to secure universal independence, all citizens (including women) must own property.


title: Louis Antoine de Saint-Just

text: Ambitious and active-minded, Saint-Just worked urgently and tirelessly towards his goals: "For Revolutionists there is no rest but in the tomb". He was repeatedly described by contemporaries as arrogant, believing himself to be a skilled leader and orator as well as having proper revolutionary character. Detractors claimed he had a superiority complex and always "made it clear… that he considered himself to be in charge and that his will was law". Camille Desmoulins wrote of Saint-Just, "He carries his head like a sacred host".