title: Principality of Antioch

text: Bohemond convinced a guard in one of the towers, an Armenian and former Christian named Firouz, to let the Crusaders enter the city. Only four days later, a Muslim army from Mosul, led by Kerbogha, arrived to besiege the Crusaders themselves. Alexios I Komnenos, the Byzantine emperor, was on his way to assist the Crusaders; but upon hearing rumors that the city had fallen to the Muslims, Alexios turned back.


title: Principality of Antioch

text: The Crusaders withstood the siege, with help from a mystic named Peter Bartholomew. Peter claimed he had been visited by St. Andrew, who told him that the Holy Lance, which pierced Christ's side as he was on the cross, was located in the city. Excavations took place in the cathedral of St. Peter and the Lance was discovered by Peter himself. Although it is possible Peter planted it there himself (the papal legate Adhemar of Le Puy believed this to be the case), it raised the spirits of the Crusaders. With the relic at the head of the army, Bohemond marched out to meet the besieging Muslim force, which was defeated. According to the Crusaders, an army of saints appeared to help them on the battlefield.


title: Principality of Antioch

text: There was a lengthy dispute over who should control the city. Bohemond and the Italian Normans eventually won, and Bohemond named himself prince. Bohemond was already Prince (allodial lord) of Taranto in Italy. He desired to continue such independence in his new lordship, so he did not attempt to receive the title of Duke from the Byzantine Emperor (in whose name he had taken an oath to fight), nor any other title with deep feudal obligations. Meanwhile, an unknown epidemic spread throughout the Crusader camp; Adhemar of Le Puy was one of the victims.


title: Principality of Antioch

text: Following Bohemond's capture in battle with the Danishmends in 1100, his nephew Tancred became regent. Tancred expanded the borders of the Principality, seizing the cities of Tarsus and Latakia from the Byzantine Empire. However those newly captured cities along with other territory were lost after the Battle of Harran when Baldwin II of Edessa was captured. Bohemond was released in 1103 and went to Italy to raise more troops in 1104, during which time Tancred remained regent of Antioch. Bohemond used the troops he raised to attack the Byzantines in 1107. Bohemond was defeated at Dyrrhachium in 1108 and was forced by Alexius I to sign the Treaty of Devol, making Antioch a vassal state of the Byzantine Empire upon Bohemond's death. Bohemond had promised to return any land that was seized from the Muslims when the Crusaders passed through Constantinople in 1097. Bohemond also fought at Aleppo with Baldwin and Joscelin of the County of Edessa; when Baldwin and Joscelin were captured, Tancred became regent in Edessa as well. Bohemond left Tancred as regent once more and returned to Italy, where he died in 1111.


title: Principality of Antioch

text: Alexius wanted Tancred to return the Principality in its entirety to Byzantium, but Tancred was supported by the County of Tripoli and the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Tancred, in fact, had been the only Crusade leader who did not swear to return conquered land to Alexius (though none of the other leaders, save for Raymond IV of Toulouse, kept their oaths anyway). Tancred died in 1112 and was succeeded by Bohemond II, under the regency of Tancred's nephew Roger of Salerno, who defeated a Seljuk attack in 1113.


title: Principality of Antioch

text: On June 27, 1119, Roger was killed at the "Ager Sanguinis" (the Field of Blood), and Antioch became a vassal state of Jerusalem with King Baldwin II as regent until 1126 (although Baldwin spent much of this time in captivity in Aleppo). Bohemond II, who married Baldwin's daughter Alice, ruled for only four years, and the Principality was inherited by his young daughter Constance; Baldwin II acted as regent again until his death in 1131, when Fulk of Jerusalem took power. In 1136, Constance, still only 10 years old, married Raymond of Poitiers, who was 36.


title: Principality of Antioch

text: Raymond, like his predecessors, attacked the Byzantine province of Cilicia. This time, however, Emperor John II Komnenos fought back. He arrived in Antioch in 1138 and forced Raymond to swear fealty to him. There then followed a joint campaign as John led the armies of Byzantium, Antioch and Edessa against Muslim Syria. Aleppo proved too strong to attack, but the fortresses of Balat, Biza'a, Athereb, Maarat al-Numan and Kafartab were taken by assault. Although John fought hard for the Christian cause in the campaign in Syria, his allies, Prince Raymond of Poitiers and Count Joscelin II of Edessa, sat around playing dice instead of helping John to press the Siege of Shaizar. The city was taken, but the citadel defied assault. The Emir of Shaizar offered to pay a large indemnity, become John's vassal and pay yearly tribute; the offer was reluctantly accepted by the emperor. On the return of the army to Antioch, a riot instigated by Joscelin II of Edessa forced the emperor to leave without the citadel being surrendered to him. John had plans to reconquer Antioch and become an effective overlord of the remaining Crusader states, but he died in 1143.


title: Principality of Antioch

text: After the fall of Edessa in 1144, Antioch was attacked by Nur ad-Din during the Second Crusade. Much of the eastern part of the Principality was lost, and Raymond was killed at the battle of Inab in 1149. Baldwin III of Jerusalem was technically regent for Raymond's widow Constance until 1153 when she married Raynald of Châtillon. Raynald, too, immediately found himself in conflict with the Byzantines, this time in Cyprus; he made peace with Manuel I Comnenus in 1158, and the next year Manuel arrived to take personal control of the Principality. From thence the Principality of Antioch was to be a vassal of Byzantium until Manuel's death in 1180. Although this arrangement meant that the Principality had to provide a contingent for the Byzantine Army (troops from Antioch participated in an attack on the Seljuk Turks in 1176), it also safeguarded the City against Nur ad-Din at a time when it was in serious danger of being overrun.


title: Principality of Antioch

text: Raynald was taken prisoner by the Muslims in 1160, and the regency fell to the Patriarch of Antioch (Raynald was not released until 1176, and never returned to Antioch). Meanwhile, Manuel married Constance's daughter Maria, but as Constance was only nominally in charge of Antioch, she was deposed in 1163 and replaced by her son Bohemond III. Bohemond was taken captive by Nur ad-Din the following year at the Battle of Harim, and the Orontes River became the permanent boundary between Antioch and Aleppo. Bohemond returned to Antioch in 1165, and married one of Manuel's nieces; he was also convinced to install a Greek Orthodox patriarch in the city.


title: Principality of Antioch

text: The Byzantine alliance came to an end with the death of the Emperor Manuel in 1180. Antioch was deprived of the Empire's protection, which had been enough to frighten Nur ad-Din away from intervening in the area for the preceding twenty years. Nevertheless, with help from the fleets of the Italian city-states, Antioch survived Saladin's assault on the Kingdom of Jerusalem in 1187. Neither Antioch nor Tripoli participated in the Third Crusade, although the remnants of Frederick Barbarossa's army briefly stopped in Antioch in 1190 to bury their king. Bohemond III's son, also named Bohemond, had become count of Tripoli after the Battle of Hattin, and Bohemond III's eldest son Raymond married an Armenian princess in 1194. Bohemond III died in 1201.


title: Principality of Antioch

text: Bohemond's death resulted in a struggle for control between Antioch, represented by Bohemond of Tripoli, and Armenia, represented by Bohemond III's grandson Raymond-Roupen. Bohemond of Tripoli, as Bohemond IV, took control by 1207, but Raymond briefly ruled as a rival from 1216 to 1219. Bohemond died in 1233, and Antioch, ruled by his son Bohemond V, played no important role in the Fifth Crusade, Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II's struggles to take back Jerusalem in the Sixth Crusade, or Louis IX of France's Seventh Crusade.


title: Principality of Antioch

text: The Principality's relationship with other Latin settlements were based on two factors. The first factor was that the Princes of Antioch wanted to extend their power throughout the Latin east which led to conflict between the County of Edessa and the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Secondly, an alliance between the Latin rulers was secured through their shared situation in the East. This alliance was strengthened by feudal ties and marriage alliances among the eastern Latin rulers.


title: Principality of Antioch

text: Baldwin of Boulogne, Count of Edessa, and Bohemond I were said to have had a relationship based on equality and brotherhood. For example, they travelled to Jerusalem in 1099 to consolidate their pilgrimage vows together. They also consecrated the Latin clerics as bishops in Antioch, including the County of Edessa. Bohemon I and Baldwin of Le Bourcq also had a close relationship – Baldwin was made commander of Antioch's militia by Bohemond in 1100.


title: Principality of Antioch

text: A whole network of confraternities existed at this time. However, there were uneasy relations between the Principality and the region of Tripoli under Raymond, Count of Toulouse. Raymond allied with Emperor Alexius I Commnenus instead of Bohemond. In 1105, Bohemond left the east and he placed his nephew, Tancred, in charge of Antioch. In 1108, Bohemond also put Richard of Salerno in charge of Edessa, but Tancred was reluctant to hand it over because Tancred and Baldwin were fighting each other for possession of Edessa at the time. Tancred's resistance continued into 1109. At the same time, a conflict between Antioch and the Count of Tripoli, William-Jordan, was settled when the latter agreed to surrender Tripoli in exchange for confirmation of his possession of Toulouse. Bertrand of Toulouse then entered an alliance with Baldwin I of Jerusalem. In 1110, a council convened after William-Jordan was killed. After this, Antioch and Edessa appear to have reconciled.


title: Principality of Antioch

text: In 1111 when the Muslim army of Maudud of Mosul threatened the Principality, its Latin allies responded by bringing military aid. In 1112, Bertrand of Toulouse died and Roger Salerno took over Edessa. During this period, there was a better relationship between Antioch and Edessa as well as with the Kingdom of Jerusalem. For example, in 1115 in the lead-up to the battle of Tell Danith, the Edessene faction of the army was integral to Antioch's overall army. In 1118 the forces of Jerusalem, Antioch and Tripoli combined to meet an army from Egypt and Damascus that was threatening the Kingdom of Jerusalem.


title: Principality of Antioch

text: But in 1119 Roger of Salerno was killed, leaving no adult heir. This shifted the balance of power in northern Syria, as Baldwin II, King of Jerusalem, was appointed Regent. At this time, Joscelin of Courtenay enjoyed a stable rule in Edessa, further weakening Antioch's dominance in Northern Syria. In 1126, Bohemond II arrived in the east and because Baldwin wanted Antioch and Jerusalem to maintain a close relationship, he arranged a marriage between the Prince of Antioch and his daughter, Alice. In 1127, a dispute between Bohemond and Joscelin of Courtenay led to Joscelin conducting raids in the Principality. In 1130, a succession crisis followed Bohemond II's death, signifying the end of Antioch's dominance of northern Syria.


title: Principality of Antioch

text: In 1254 Bohemond VI married Sibylla of Armenia, ending the power struggle between the two states, although by this point Armenia was the more powerful of the two and Antioch was essentially a vassal state. Both were swept up by the conflict between the Mameluks and the Mongols. In 1260, under the influence of his father-in-law, the Armenian king Hetoum I, Bohemond VI submitted to the Mongols under Hulagu, making Antioch a tributary state of the Mongol Empire. Bohemond and Hetoum fought on the side of the Mongols during the conquests of Muslim Syria, taking together the city of Aleppo, and later Damascus.


title: Principality of Antioch

text: When the Mongols were defeated at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260, Baibars, the Mamluk sultan of Egypt, began to threaten Antioch, which (as a vassal of the Armenians) had supported the Mongols. Baibars finally took the city in 1268, and all of northern Syria was quickly lost; twenty-three years later, Acre was taken, and the Crusader states ceased to exist.


title: Principality of Antioch

text: In the colophons of the Malatia Gospel of 1268 (MS No. 10675), Armenian manuscript illuminator Toros Roslin described the brutal sacking of Antioch by Baibars: "...at this time great Antioch was captured by the wicked king of Egypt, and many were killed and became his prisoners, and a cause of anguish to the holy and famous temples, houses of God, which are in it; the wonderful elegance of the beauty of those that were destroyed by fire is beyond the power of words." The empty title of "Prince of Antioch" passed, with the extinction of the counts of Tripoli, to the kings of Cyprus, and was sometimes granted as a dignity to junior members of the royal house.


title: Principality of Antioch

text: The native population of the principality was rather diverse. A significant proportion were Miaphysite Armenians, who could be found in Antioch and other urban and rural areas. Based on the rich evidence available, it has even been proposed that they were the most numerous ethnic group. Also important were the so-called "suriani", who actually comprised two Christian peoples: the Aramaic-speaking Syriacs (also called "Jacobites") and the Arabic-speaking Melkites. Furthermore, there were also Muslims in the capital, in the south, and probably also the east of the principality. They appear only rarely in Antiochene charters, making an estimation of their numbers difficult. Other minorities were the Greeks ("graeci") and Jews.


title: Principality of Antioch

text: The Lordship of Saône was centered on the castle of Saône, but included the towns of Sarmada (lost in 1134) and Balatanos. Saône was captured by Saladin from the last lord, Matthew, in 1188.


title: Principality of Antioch

text: Like Jerusalem, Antioch had its share of great offices, including Constable, Marshal, Seneschal, Duc, Vicomte, Butler, Chamberlain, and Chancellor.


title: Bulawayo

text: Bulawayo (, ; Ndebele: "Bulawayo") is the second largest city in Zimbabwe, and the largest city in the country's Matabeleland region. The city's population is disputed; the 2022 census listed it at 665,940, while the Bulawayo City Council claimed it to be about 1.2 million. Bulawayo covers an area of about in the western part of the country, along the Matsheumhlope River. Along with the capital Harare, Bulawayo is one of two cities in Zimbabwe that is also a province.


title: Bulawayo

text: Bulawayo was founded by a group led by Gundwane Ndiweni around 1840 as the kraal of Mzilikazi, the Ndebele king and was known as Gibixhegu. His son, Lobengula, succeeded him in the 1860s, and changed the name to kobulawayo and ruled from Bulawayo until 1893, when the settlement was captured by British South Africa Company soldiers during the First Matabele War. That year, the first white settlers arrived and rebuilt the town. The town was besieged by Ndebele warriors during the Second Matabele War. Bulawayo attained municipality status in 1897, and city status in 1943.


title: Bulawayo

text: Historically, Bulawayo has been the principal industrial centre of Zimbabwe; its factories produce cars and car products, building materials, electronic products, textiles, furniture, and food products. Bulawayo is also the hub of Zimbabwe's rail network and the headquarters of the National Railways of Zimbabwe.


title: Bulawayo

text: Bulawayo's central business district (CBD) covers in the heart of the city, and is surrounded by numerous suburbs. The majority of the city's population belong to the Ndebele people, with minorities of Shona and other groups. Bulawayo is home to over a dozen colleges and universities, most notably the National University of Science and Technology, Bulawayo Polytechic College,Zimbabwe School of Mines, and the United College of Education. The Natural History Museum of Zimbabwe, formerly the National Museum, is located in Bulawayo. The city is close to tourist sites such as Matobo National Park and the Khami World Heritage Site.


title: Bulawayo

text: The city was founded by the Ndebele king Lobengula, the son of King Mzilikazi, born of Matshobana, who settled in modern-day Zimbabwe around the 1840s. This followed the Ndebele people's great trek from northern Kwazulu. The name "Bulawayo" comes from the Ndebele word "bulala" and it translates to "the one to be killed". It is thought that at the time of the formation of the city there was a civil war. Mbiko ka Madlenya Masuku, a trusted confidant of King Mzilikazi and leader of the Zwangendaba regiment, fought Prince Lobhengula as he did not believe that he was the legitimate heir to the throne. This was because Lobhengula was born to a Swazi mother, and Masuku felt that she was of a lesser class. He named his capital "the place of the one to be killed".


title: Bulawayo

text: At the time Lobengula was a prince fighting to ascend his father's throne. It was common at the time for people to refer to Bulawayo as "Bulawayo UmntwaneNkosi", "a place where they are fighting or rising against the prince". The city of Bulawayo coincidentally has a similar name to the capital of the great Zulu warrior king Shaka ka Senzangakhona in Kwazulu, where Mzilikazi and his Khumalo clan and other Nguni people came from.


title: Bulawayo

text: In the 1860s, the city was influenced by European intrigue. Many colonial powers cast covetous eyes on Bulawayo and the land surrounding it because of its strategic location. Britain made skillful use of private initiative in the shape of Cecil Rhodes and the Chartered Company to disarm the suspicion of her rivals. Lobengula once described Britain as a chameleon and himself as the fly.


title: Bulawayo

text: During the 1893 First Matabele War, British South Africa Company (BSAC) troops invaded and forced King Lobengula to evacuate his followers, after first detonating munitions and setting fire to the town. BSAC troops and white settlers occupied the ruins. On 4 November 1893, Leander Starr Jameson declared Bulawayo a settlement under the rule of the BSAC. Cecil Rhodes ordered the new settlement to be founded on the ruins of Lobengula's royal kraal, a typical action by a conquering power. This is where the State House stands today.


title: Bulawayo

text: In 1897, the new town of Bulawayo acquired the status of municipality in the British colonial system, and Lt. Col. Harry White was appointed as one of the first mayors.


title: Bulawayo

text: At the outbreak of the Second Matabele War, in March 1896, Bulawayo was besieged by Ndebele forces. The settlers established a laager here for defensive purposes. The Ndebele had experienced the brutal effectiveness of the Maxim guns employed by BSAC troops in the First Matabele War, so they never mounted a significant attack against Bulawayo, although over 10,000 Ndebele warriors gathered to surround the town. Rather than wait passively for attack, the settlers mounted patrols, called the Bulawayo Field Force, under Frederick Selous and Frederick Russell Burnham. These patrols rode out to rescue any surviving settlers in the countryside and attacked the Ndebele. In the first week of fighting, 20 men of the Bulawayo Field Force were killed and 50 were wounded. An unknown number of Ndebele were killed and wounded.


title: Bulawayo

text: During the siege, conditions in Bulawayo quickly deteriorated. By day, settlers could go to homes and buildings in the town, but at night they were forced to seek shelter in the much smaller laager. Nearly 1,000 women and children were crowded into the small area and false alarms of attacks were common. The Ndebele neglected to cut the telegraph lines connecting Bulawayo to Mafikeng. The settlers and forces appealed for relief, and the BSAC sent additional troops from Salisbury and Fort Victoria (now Harare and Masvingo respectively) to the north, and from Kimberley and Mafeking to the south. Once the relief forces arrived in late May 1896, the siege was broken. An estimated 50,000 Ndebele retreated into their stronghold of the Matobo Hills near Bulawayo. Not until October 1896 did the Ndebele finally surrender their arms to the invaders.


title: Bulawayo

text: By the late 1930s, Bulawayo was no longer the country's biggest city. Influence and activity moved eastwards to the other cities, especially Salisbury, a trend which continues up to the present day. Despite this, after the Second World War, prosperity and population growth revived, as the city became an industrial powerhouse, peaking during the Federal years as new markets opened in Malawi and Zambia. However, Bulawayo trailed the development of other cities notably, Johannesburg, Harare and Cape Town during the same period. In 1943, Bulawayo received city status.


title: Bulawayo

text: By 1992, population decline and slow growth were beginning to occur due to structural neoliberal reforms and underinvestment which disproportionately affected heavy industry. In response, Bulawayo sought to re-invent itself as a 'heritage city', with its wide main streets refurbished and its Victorian architecture and industrial heritage preserved. Institutions such as the Bulawayo Railway Museum and Nesbitt Castle were handsomely restored. The city was also recognised as a centre of excellence in tertiary education and research. The National University of Science and Technology, Zimbabwe was formed and expanded and other colleges growth also accelerated.


title: Bulawayo

text: Since the late 20th century, Bulawayo has suffered a sharp fall in living standards coinciding with the protracted economic crisis affecting the country. The main challenges the city faces, include underinvestment, declining infrastructure, de-industrialisation and the effects of corruption and nepotism. Much of the city's educated workers have migrated south to neighbouring South Africa or further afield to the United Kingdom, Canada and Australia. Public service concerns have become steadily more acute, with particular concern in the health sector from a growing shortage of experienced doctors and nurses. As a result, the city faced an avoidable cholera outbreak in 2008. Though the city is the centre of the southern population generally categorized as the Matebele, the population includes various ethnicities, as well as a small number of expats, mostly from neighbouring countries.


title: Bulawayo

text: The Central Business District has the widest roads. These were designed to accommodate the carts that were used as a primary means of transport when the town was planned and erected.


title: Bulawayo

text: Bulawayo is nicknamed the "City of Kings" or "kontuthu ziyathunqa"—a Ndebele phrase for "smoke arising". This name arose from the city's historically large industrial base. The large cooling towers of the coal-powered electricity generating plant situated in the city centre once used to exhaust steam and smoke over the city.


title: Bulawayo

text: Following Operation Murambatsvina (Operation Drive out filth) in 2005, squatters who had been forcibly evicted from their homes in the Killarney and Ngozi Mine informal settlements returned to their shacks and started rebuilding them.


title: Bulawayo

text: The population of Bulawayo, according to the 2012 national census, stood at 653,337; however, this figure has been rejected by the Bulawayo City Council authority with Councillor Martin Moyo claiming an anti-Bulawayo conspiracy to under-fund projects in the city.


title: Bulawayo

text: The vast majority of Bulawayo City residents were Black African with 97.96%. Other ethnic groups in the city were Coloured (0.9%), White (0.75%), Asian (0.22%). Members of other ethnic groups comprised 0.02%, and 0.14% of the city did not state their ethnic group. There were 4,926 White Zimbabweans living in Bulawayo in 2012.


title: Bulawayo

text: Bulawayo was known as the industrial hub of Zimbabwe. This has led to the Zimbabwe International Trade Fair being hosted in Bulawayo. It had a large manufacturing presence with large industries based here before Zimbabwe's economic decline. However, some of these companies have either moved operations to Harare or have closed down — which has crippled Bulawayo's economy. Most factories are deserted and the infrastructure has since been left to deteriorate. The reason for the de-industrialization has largely been political, with some factories like Goldstar Sugars removing machinery to open new factories in Harare. When the Zimbabwean government passed indigenisation laws, some successful businesses were taken over by ZANU–PF supporters, only to close down a few years later.


title: Bulawayo

text: Many locals argue that it is because of marginalisation they experience against the government due to political tensions with the ZANU PF government in Harare and the MDC run Bulawayo council, for instance, the National railways of Zimbabwe (headquarters in Bulawayo) is a government owned entity and, as such, should have been thriving had it not been for embezzlement of funds by company executives who are believed to be Shona. The water issue is not new and had brought about the "help a thirsty Matabele" initiative of the 1970s and the Matabeleland Zambezi Water Project which would put an end to the water issue in Matabeleland was drafted; however, this project was put on hold soon after independence.


title: Bulawayo

text: These allegations have all been refuted by national authorities. The city still contains the bulk of Zimbabwe's heavy industry and food processing capability.


title: Bulawayo

text: Like many parts of the country, Bulawayo has for the past ten years seen a huge drop in service delivery and an increase in unemployment, with many who can opting to seek better prospects abroad. Many people resorted to farming, mining, and the black market for sustenance, while others depended on the little foreign currency that would be sent by family in other countries. However, with inauguration of the Mnangagwa government, a new approach is seen by investors in the city who admire the already-available infrastructure; the huge workforce; and Bulawayo as a potential business hub. It is set to once again contribute greatly to the economy of Zimbabwe.


title: Bulawayo

text: Bulawayo has museums of national importance, including the Natural History Museum of Zimbabwe, National Gallery, Bulawayo and the Bulawayo Railway Museum.


title: Bulawayo

text: Bulawayo is located in the south west of Zimbabwe. It is in the middle of the savanna country. It has 4 seasons with rains starting in late October to about March. Coldest months being May and June with July being cold and windy.


title: Bulawayo

text: The city sits on a plain that marks the Highveld of Zimbabwe and is close to the watershed between the Zambezi and Limpopo drainage basins. The land slopes gently downwards to the north and northwest. The southern side is hillier, and the land becomes more broken in the direction of the Matobo Hills to the south.


title: Bulawayo

text: Due to its relatively high altitude, the city has a humid subtropical climate despite lying in the tropics. Under the Köppen climate classification, Bulawayo features a semiarid climate (BSh). The mean annual temperature is , similar to Pretoria at a similar altitude but almost 600 km (373 mi) further south. As with much of southern and eastern Zimbabwe, Bulawayo is cooled by a prevailing southeasterly airflow most of the year and experiences three broad seasons: a dry, cool winter season from May to August; a hot dry period in early summer from late August to early November; and a warm wet period in the rest of the summer, early November to April.


title: Bulawayo

text: The hottest month is October, which is usually the height of the dry season. The average maximum temperature ranges from in July to in October. During the rainy season, daytime maxima are around . Nights are always cool, ranging from in July to in January.


title: Bulawayo

text: The city's average annual rainfall is , which supports a natural vegetation of open woodland, dominated by Combretum and Terminalia trees. Most rain falls in the December to February period, while June to August is usually rainless. Being close to the Kalahari Desert, Bulawayo is vulnerable to droughts and rainfall tends to vary sharply from one year to another. In 1978, of rain fell in the three months up to February (February 1944 is the wettest month on record with 368mm) while in the three months ending February 1983, only fell.


title: Bulawayo

text: Bulawayo has good-quality tap water owing to the management of the water authorities, meeting international standards. Bulawayo does not recycle waste water but uses treated waste water for irrigation.


title: Bulawayo

text: Bulawayo experiences water shortages in drought seasons due to the overwhelming increase in population versus the static and sometimes decreasing capacity of the reserve dams. The geographical factors causing water scarcity are rising temperatures, the area's high elevation and the arid environment of Matabeleland.


title: Bulawayo

text: Environmental and sanitation circumstances have detrimental effects on water quality. Sources such as groundwater and tap water are subject to pollution due to waste from burst sewers contaminating them. Samples taken from well water from the Pumula and Robert Sinyoka suburbs show that well water maintain levels of coliform higher than the Standards Association of Zimbabwe and World Health Organization give.


title: Bulawayo

text: Bulawayo is home to the Queens Sports Club and Bulawayo Athletic Club, two of the three grounds in Zimbabwe where test match cricket has been played.


title: Bulawayo

text: Bulawayo Golf Club, the first golf club in the city and country was established in 1895. The Matsheumhlope Stream cuts through the 18 hole course in the suburbs.


title: Bulawayo

text: It is home to Hartsfield Rugby grounds where many international Test matches have been played. Hartsfield was developed by Reg Hart, after whom the grounds were named and on which field many of southern Africa's greatest rugby players have competed. It is home to two large football teams: Highlanders and Zimbabwe Saints. Other football teams include Bantu Rovers, Chicken Inn, How Mine, Quelaton, and Bulawayo City (R).


title: Bulawayo

text: The city has a total road network of about 2,100 kilometres; 70 percent was declared in 2017 in a poor condition. The R2 road links Bulawayo with the Capital Harare, and the Cape to Cairo Road links with the Gaborone and Lusaka.


title: Bulawayo

text: The Bulawayo railway station is the central point of the railway line that connects the cities of Lusaka and Gaborone (part of the Cape to Cairo Railway), as well as being the terminal of the Beira–Bulawayo railway, which connects with the cities of Gweru, Harare, Mutare and Beira. Through the station in the outskirts of Umzingwane, the city of Bulawayo is connected to the Beitbridge Bulawayo Railway.


title: Bulawayo

text: On the 1 November 2013, a new terminal of Joshua Mqabuko Nkomo International Airport, formerly known as Bulawayo Airport, was opened.


title: Bulawayo

text: Bulawayo is home to a large number of hospitals and other medical facilities. The United Bulawayo Hospitals, a public hospital network, operates Bulawayo Central Hospital, Richard Morris Hospital, Lady Rodwell Maternity Hospital, and Robbie Gibson Infectious Diseases Hospital. Mpilo Central Hospital, is the largest hospital in Bulawayo, and the second-largest in Zimbabwe, and features a nursing school and midwifery school on its campus. Bulawayo is also home to Ingutsheni Hospital, which at 700 beds is the largest psychiatric hospital in Zimbabwe. Other hospitals in Bulawayo include All Saints Children's Hospital, Hillside Hospital, Mater Dei Hospital, the Nervous Disorders Hospital, St Francis Hospital and Thorngrove Isolation Hospital.


title: Bulawayo

text: Bulawayo is home to a number of colleges and universities. The National University of Science and Technology, Zimbabwe, (NUST), the second largest university in Zimbabwe, was established in Bulawayo in 1991. Solusi University, a Seventh-day Adventist institution established in Bulawayo in 1894, gained university status in 1994.


title: Bulawayo

text: The Bulawayo Polytechnic College offers tertiary training for students who have completed GCE O Level and A Level education. It issues national certificates NC, Diplomas and higher national diplomas HND certificates. Bulawayo has two specialist teacher training colleges : Hillside Teachers College for secondary education and the United College of Education for primary education.


title: Bulawayo

text: Bulawayo is home to a number of institutes of technology and vocational colleges, including Zimbabwe School of Mines, Westgate Industrial Training College, and the Zimbabwe Theological College. In addition companies such as the National Railways of Zimbabwe NRZ and Zimbabwe Electricity and Supply Authority ZESA offer apprenticeship training for qualifying students who then become certified artisans upon completion.


title: Bulawayo

text: "The Chronicle", a state-owned daily newspaper, and its Sunday edition, "The Sunday News", are published in Bulawayo. "The Chronicle" is the second-oldest newspaper in Zimbabwe, and along with "The Herald", published in Harare, it is one of two major state-owned newspapers in the country. "UMthunywa", a state-owned Ndebele-language newspaper, is also published in Bulawayo, where the majority of the population belongs to the Ndebele people. Private online publications like Bulawayo24 News and B-Metro are also based in Bulawayo.


title: Bulawayo

text: The two radio stations, Skyz Metro FM, which is the first dedicated commercial radio station for the city and Khulumani FM, owned by the Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation are based in the city and offer their programming mainly in English and Ndebele and other languages spoken in the Matabeleland region. The other 6 radio stations, in which only two of those are privately owned, are also accessible in the city via FM transmission.


title: Bulawayo

text: The state owned ZBC TV is the only free to air TV channel in the city. The majority of the households rely on the South African based satellite television distributor, DStv and OVHD for better entertainment, news and sport across Africa and the world.


title: Bulawayo

text: There are a number of internet service providers in the city. The majority of the population in the city access the internet through their mobile phones mainly for news, entertainment and communication.


title: 1979 (song)

text: "1979" is a song by American alternative rock band the Smashing Pumpkins. It was released in 1996 as the second single from their third studio album, "Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness." "1979" was written by frontman Billy Corgan, and features loops and samples uncharacteristic of previous Smashing Pumpkins songs. The song was written as a nostalgic coming-of-age story by Corgan. In the year 1979, Corgan was twelve, and this is what he considered his transition into adolescence.


title: 1979 (song)

text: "1979" reached number two in Canada and Iceland, number six in Ireland, number nine in New Zealand, and number 12 in the United States. It charted within the top 20 in several other countries, including Australia and the United Kingdom. The song was nominated for the Record of the Year and Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal at the 39th Annual Grammy Awards, and won an MTV Video Music Award for Best Alternative Video. In 2012, it was voted the second-best Smashing Pumpkins song by "Rolling Stone" readers.


title: 1979 (song)

text: According to statements in interviews, Corgan worked nonstop after the "Siamese Dream" tour and wrote about 56 songs for "Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness", the last of which was "1979". As the "Mellon Collie" sessions came to a conclusion, "1979" (which evolved out of a demo called "Strolling") was just a couple of chord changes and a snippet of a melody without words. When the time came to choose the songs that were to appear on the album, producer Flood said that the song was "not good enough" and wanted to drop it from the record. Taking it as a challenge inspired Corgan, and he wrote "1979" that night in about four hours. The next day, Flood heard "1979" once and decided immediately to put it on the album. Corgan considers "1979" the most personally important song on "Mellon Collie".


title: 1979 (song)

text: The song features a sample of Corgan's voice repeated throughout. During recording, Corgan was singing "today" as the melody line, so he and Flood decided to record him singing to a tape. The pair electronically manipulated several samples and looped them against a drumbeat. "1979" is partly influenced by "Pleasure," an unreleased song by The Frogs, whom Corgan had liked after seeing them perform in Madison, WI, in 1993. Corgan later performed during the band's encore at Lollapalooza in the summer of 1994, and Dennis Flemion of The Frogs would replace recently deceased keyboard player Jonathan Melvoin during the Infinite Sadness tour.


title: 1979 (song)

text: "1979" is the Smashing Pumpkins' highest-charting single, reaching number 12 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and number one on the Mainstream Rock Tracks and on the Modern Rock Tracks charts. Virgin credited the inclusion of the single's bonus tracks for driving sales. The song was nominated for the Record of the Year and Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal at the 1997 Grammy Awards. Pitchfork Media included the song at number 21 on their "Top 200 Tracks of the 90s" and said "'1979' was Billy Corgan asking, 'You know this feeling?' and the second you heard that guitar line the immediate answer was, 'I do-- tell me more.'"


title: 1979 (song)

text: In a 1996 "Spin" interview, Corgan indicated that "1979" was probably the only indication he had for what the next Pumpkins album would sound like, "something that combines technology, and a rock sensibility, and pop, and whatever, and hopefully clicks. Between 'Bullet with Butterfly Wings' and '1979' you have the bookends of "Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness". You've literally [heard] the end of the rock thing, and the beginning of the new thing".


title: 1979 (song)

text: In Australia, the song was voted number 13 on Triple J Hottest 100 in 1996. It was later voted number 71 on the Hottest 100 of All Time in 1998, number 35 on the Triple J Hottest 100 of All Time in 2009, and number 21 on the Hottest 100 of the Past 20 Years in 2013.


title: 1979 (song)

text: The music video for "1979" was directed by the team of Jonathan Dayton and Valerie Faris, who had previously directed the music video for "Rocket". Originally, the band approached another director (possibly Spike Jonze) to film the video for "1979". His idea was that all the band members were residents in an alien hotel and they were all going to have specially made alien-elephant masks. This video would have cost over a million dollars.


title: 1979 (song)

text: The video follows a day in the life of disaffected suburban teenagers driving around in a 1972 Dodge Charger. It is based on a concept Corgan created, featuring an idealized version of teenage life, while also trying to capture the feeling of being bored in the Chicago suburbs, where Corgan grew up. In the video the Dodge Charger has Illinois license plates, although in the driving scenes the mountains of California are visible in the background shots. Originally, Corgan wanted a scene of violence, in which the convenience store was trashed by the teens at the end of the video, but Dayton and Faris convinced him to go for something tamer. Aside from Corgan appearing throughout the video in the backseat of a car, the other band members had small parts in the video; James Iha appears as a convenience store clerk, D'arcy Wretzky as an irate neighbor, Jimmy Chamberlin as a policeman, and all three of them appear together as the band in the party scene. Band manager "Gooch" plays Jimmy's partner.


title: 1979 (song)

text: Upon finishing the video shoot, the band flew to New York to perform. However, all tapes of the footage were accidentally left sitting on top of a car, and were lost as the driver departed. The group later flew back to re-shoot the party scene.


title: 1979 (song)

text: The "1979" video was highly acclaimed. It won the MTV Video Music Award for Best Alternative Video in 1996. It was one of Canadian cable television music channel MuchMusic's Countdown number-one videos of 1996. Billy Corgan considers it the Pumpkins' best video, calling it "the closest we've ever come to realizing everything we wanted."


title: 1979 (song)

text: The video for the 1998 song "Perfect" is a sequel to this one, and involves the same characters who are now older. The aforementioned incident with the loss of the original footage is parodied in one of the later video's final scenes, in which a cassette tape is left on top of a car and falls off as a character drives out of a parking lot at high speed, and is subsequently destroyed by another vehicle.


title: 1979 (song)

text: The song is used in "Clerks II" and during the credits of "Gran Turismo 5". It was also released as downloadable content for "Guitar Hero World Tour". It was also part of the soundtrack of "Grand Theft Auto IV" as part of the fictional Liberty Rock Radio station until April 2018 when Rockstar Games' ten-year license to the song expired. The song's guitar riff was also interpolated by American boy band Why Don't We in their song "Slow Down".


title: Farina (food)

text: Farina is a form of starch – flour – milled from a variety of vegetables such as potato and cassava. In the US, the term is associated with wheat middlings: the germ and endosperm of the grain, which are milled to a fine consistency and then sifted. It is a brand of hot breakfast cereal, or porridge, invented in 1893 in the United States by wheat millers in Grand Forks, North Dakota.


title: Farina (food)

text: Farina is often prepared as a hot porridge-like dish and served for breakfast. It may also be cooked like polenta and farofa, which are made with ground corn. Farina with milk and sugar is sometimes used for making creams for layered cakes. Farina can be used as a substitute for bread crumbs in sweet and meat pies (to absorb excess water). It can also be used to prevent dough from sticking to baking surfaces via the baking process, leaving residual farina on the bottom of the final product.


title: Farina (food)

text: Farina is a carbohydrate-rich food. When enriched with iron, it can be a significant source of dietary iron, especially for vegetarian diets. Popular brands offer up to 50% of the recommended daily value of iron in a single serving. In commercially available farina, the bran and most of the germ are removed. Cream of Wheat, Malt-O-Meal, and Farina Mills are popular brand names of breakfast cereal. To augment its mild taste, popular add-ins to cooked farina include brown or granular sugar, maple, honey, molasses, fruit, nuts, cinnamon, butter, grated chocolate, jams, milk, and salt.


title: Immortals (Achaemenid Empire)

text: Immortals () or Persian Immortals was the name given by Herodotus to an elite heavy infantry unit of 10,000 soldiers in the army of the Achaemenid Empire. The unit served in a dual capacity through its role as imperial guard alongside its contribution to the ranks of the Persian Empire's standing army. While it primarily consisted of Persians, the Immortals force also included Medes and Elamites. Essential questions regarding the historic unit remain unanswered because authoritative sources are missing.


title: Immortals (Achaemenid Empire)

text: Herodotus describes the Immortals as being heavy infantry led by Hydarnes the Younger; it provided the professional corps of the Persian armies and was kept constantly at a strength of exactly 10,000 men. He stated that the unit's name stemmed from the custom that every killed, seriously wounded, or sick member was immediately replaced with a new one, maintaining the corps as a cohesive entity with a constant strength.


title: Immortals (Achaemenid Empire)

text: The Persian denomination of the unit is uncertain. This elite force is only referred to as the "Immortals" in sources based on Herodotus. There is evidence of the existence of a permanent corps from Persian sources, which provided a backbone for the tribal levies who made up the bulk of the Achaemenid armies; however, these do not record the name of "Immortals". It is suggested that Herodotus' informant has confused the word () with (), but this theory has been criticized by Rüdiger Schmitt.


title: Immortals (Achaemenid Empire)

text: The Immortals played an important role in the Achaemenid conquest of Egypt under Cambyses II in 525 BCE, as well as in the Achaemenid conquest of northwestern ancient India (western Punjab and Sindh, now located in Pakistan) and European Scythia under Darius I in and 513 BCE, respectively. They also notably participated in the Battle of Thermopylae in 480 BCE during the Greco-Persian Wars and were amongst the Persian troops who occupied Greece in 479 BCE under Mardonius.


title: Immortals (Achaemenid Empire)

text: During the final decades of the Achaemenid Empire, the role expected of the Immortals' () was extended to include that of chief minister to the King of Kings. The provision of a bodyguard, in direct attendance of the monarch, had already been allocated to a select thousand-strong detachment of the unit.


title: Immortals (Achaemenid Empire)

text: Xenophon () describes the guard of Cyrus the Great as having bronze breastplates and helmets, while their horses wore chamfrons and peitrels of bronze together with shoulder pieces which also protected the rider's thighs. Herodotus instead describes their armament as follows: wicker shields covered in leather, short spears, quivers, swords or large daggers, slings, bows and arrows. They wore scale armour coats. The spear counterbalances of the common soldiery were of silver; to differentiate commanding ranks, the officers' spear butt-spikes were of gold. The regiment was followed by a caravan of covered carriages, camels, and mules that transported their supplies, along with concubines and attendants to serve them; this supply train carried special food that was reserved only for their consumption.


title: Immortals (Achaemenid Empire)

text: The headdress worn by the Immortals is believed to have been the Persian tiara. Its actual form is uncertain, but some sources describe it as a cloth or felt cap which could be pulled over the face to keep out wind and dust in the arid Persian plains. Surviving Achaemenid coloured glazed bricks and carved reliefs represent the Immortals as wearing elaborate robes, hoop earrings and gold jewellery, though these garments and accessories were most likely worn only for ceremonial occasions.


title: Immortals (Achaemenid Empire)

text: The first re-occurrence of the word "Immortals" is in Roman historians' description of an elite cavalry unit in the army of the Sasanian Empire. Primary sources suggest that they numbered around 10,000 men in accordance with tradition, with the main formational difference being that they were heavy cavalry. However, recent scholarship has doubted the Roman description of the force, including their name, their size, and that they were modeled on the Achaemenid Immortals, although there may have been one or more of such distinct elite cavalry units during the Sasanian period. Their task was mainly to secure any breakthroughs and to enter battles at crucial stages.


title: Immortals (Achaemenid Empire)

text: The designation "Immortal" to describe a military unit was used twice during the era of the Byzantine Empire: first as elite heavy cavalry under John I Tzimiskes () and then later under Nikephoritzes, the chief minister of Byzantine emperor Michael VII Doukas (), as the core of a new central field army following the disastrous Byzantine defeat at Manzikert to the Seljuk Turks in 1071.


title: Immortals (Achaemenid Empire)

text: During the 19th-century Napoleonic Wars, many French soldiers referred to Napoleon's Imperial Guard as "the Immortals".


title: Immortals (Achaemenid Empire)

text: Under Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the last Shah of Iran, the Imperial Iranian Army included an all-volunteer known as the Javidan Guard (, ), named after the ancient Persian royal guard. The Javidan Guard was based at the Lavizan Barracks in Tehran. By 1978, this elite force comprised a brigade of 4,000–5,000 men, including a battalion of Chieftain tanks. Following the 1979 Islamic Revolution that ended the Imperial State of Iran and the Pahlavi dynasty, the "Immortal Guard" was disbanded.


title: Immortals (Achaemenid Empire)

text: The signature shield of the Achaemenid Empire's Immortals has been adopted in the insignia of the 65th Airborne Special Forces Brigade and the 55th Airborne Brigade of the Islamic Republic of Iran Army.


title: Immortals (Achaemenid Empire)

text: Herodotus' account of two warrior elites—the hoplites of Sparta and the Immortals of Persia—facing each other in battle has inspired a set of rather colourful depictions of the battle, especially in regard of the Immortals:


title: AMC Eagle

text: The AMC Eagle is a compact four-wheel drive passenger vehicle manufactured and marketed in a single generation by American Motors Corporation (AMC) model years 1980 to 1987 and Chrysler Corporation, following its acquisition of AMC in 1987, for the 1988 model year.


title: AMC Eagle

text: Introduced in August 1979 for the 1980 model year, the coupe, sedan, and station wagon body styles were based on the AMC Concord. In 1981, the two-door subcompact-sized AMC Spirit-based models, the SX/4 and Kammback, joined the Eagle line aimed at both first-time buyers and fleet sales.


title: AMC Eagle

text: A Sundancer convertible conversion for the larger Eagle two-door model was available during 1981 and 1982. By 1984, only sedan and station wagon versions were available. For 1988, its final model year, only a station wagon was offered, which was marketed as the "Eagle Wagon". However, the name continued to be used by Chrysler Corporation as the Eagle brand of cars through 1998.


title: AMC Eagle

text: The AMC Eagles were the only four-wheel drive passenger cars produced in the U.S. at the time. All models featured "passenger-car comfort, plus 4WD security for all-weather security." Although the description was not in use at the time, the AMC Eagle is recognized as one of the first crossover vehicles.


title: AMC Eagle

text: Fuel-thirsty vehicles built for rugged off-road were on the market, but AMC "predicted that consumers would embrace a vehicle with the comfort of an automobile, but the ride height and foul-weather capabilities of a four-wheel drive utility vehicle." The objective was for affordable cars offering a comfortable ride and handling on the pavement together with superior traction in "light" off-road use through AMC's innovative engineering and packaging.


title: AMC Eagle

text: The initial proposal for production of what would become the AMC Eagle came from Roy Lunn, the chief design engineer for AMC Jeep. "Project 8001 plus Four" was Lunn's code name for a new "line of four-wheel drive vehicles with the ride and handling conventions of a standard rear-wheel drive car" built on a unibody platform. In February 1977, AMC contracted FF Developments to build a prototype vehicle based on a production V8-powered AMC Hornet with drive torque split 33% front and 66% rear. Testing and further development proved the feasibility of a vehicle with greater ground clearance, larger 15-inch wheels, and a torque split closer to 50% – 50%, with Lunn recommending using the AMC straight-six engine coupled to an automatic transmission.


title: AMC Eagle

text: Thus, the AMC Eagle came about when Jeep's chief engineer joined a Concord body with a four-wheel drive system. Such a vehicle was a logical step for AMC, according to the CEO Gerald C. Meyers, as a second energy crisis had hit in 1979, and sales of AMC's highly profitable truck-based Jeep line dropped, due in part to their low fuel efficiency, leaving AMC in a precarious financial position. The Eagle provided a low-cost way of bridging the gap between AMC's solid and economical, but aging, passenger-car line and its well-regarded, but decidedly off-road focused, Jeep line, as the Eagle used the existing Concord (and later, Spirit) automobile platform.


title: AMC Eagle

text: The Eagle also bridged the sizable price gap between the low-end imported four-wheel drive (4WD) Subaru and the large-sized domestic 4WD vehicles such as the Jeep Wagoneer. The Eagle models provided the biggest new boost to the automaker's profit mix. Sales were brisk since Day One, with the manufacturer's suggested retail price (MSRP) for the basic two-door model starting at $6,999 (US$ in dollars) and the 4-door station wagon at $7,549 (US$ in dollars). The Eagle represented a "burst of AMC's genetic creativity...quickly captured the attention of many American drivers who found its unique union of four-wheel drive safety and security with the comfort of an automobile."


title: AMC Eagle

text: A first in mass-production passenger cars, the early AMC Eagles came with a true full-time automatic system that operated only in permanent all-wheel drive (AWD). The drivetrain added about to the Eagle's curb weight. The AMC Eagles were also the first mass-produced U.S. 4WD vehicles with an independent front suspension.


title: AMC Eagle

text: The AMC Eagle's central differential behind its TorqueFlite automatic transmission was a single speed (without a low-range option) and used a viscous fluid coupling for the quiet and smooth transfer of power to the axle with the greatest traction, on wet or dry pavement. The central unit consisted of closely spaced, wavy clutch plates operating in a "honey-like silicone fluid" performing a "limited-slip function" between the front and rear drives, as well as under adverse driving conditions sending torque to the axle with the most traction.


title: AMC Eagle

text: Designed as "reasonably size[d] passenger cars" offering a comfortable ride and handling on pavement, the AMC Eagles "behave more like mountain goats" when off the road. The value of 4WD in the AMC Eagle was apparent when driving in slippery conditions, and they were used in America's first ice-driving school. The Eagle models provided the comfort and appointments expected of passenger models with off-road technology offering an extra margin of safety and traction. The Eagle was designed for customers who "must get through regardless of road or weather conditions (doctors, police, emergency personnel, and so on)" as well as those living areas of bad weather or roads, and adventurous hunters and fishermen. The AMC Eagle did not compete with traditional, rudimentary 4WD vehicles. The company did not design the Eagle as an off-pavement recreation vehicle, but rather as a passenger car that offers added benefits. Not built for off-road performance as a Chevrolet Blazer or a Jeep Cherokee, the Eagle "will overcome mud, sand, snow, and obstacles that would stop ordinary sedans cold."


title: AMC Eagle

text: The AMC Eagle was the first production car to use an AWD system. Other 4WD automobile-type vehicles – the Subaru DL/GL (1972 for the Japanese domestic market and two years later in the U.S.), and much later the Toyota Tercel SR5 Wagon (1983) - only had part-time 4WD systems that could not be engaged on dry pavement. The Eagle was also years ahead of Subaru's simplistic, part-time front-drive/4WD system, due to Roy Lunn's creativity and Jeep's experience producing 4WD vehicles. Another feature was the Eagle's independent front suspension, accomplished by mounting the front differential to the engine block with universal joints and half shafts to drive the front wheels.


title: AMC Eagle

text: As the first mass-produced American passenger car with 4WD of any type, automotive industry analysts were taken by surprise at the fact that AMC, a company most had deemed past its ability to produce competitive vehicles, turned the best of what they had into a revolutionary, novel, and all-around competent vehicle. In doing so, the small American manufacturer was seen as having cleverly pioneered a new market segment – one that would grow wildly over the next 25 years and beyond, as evinced by "Four Wheeler" magazine's conclusion in 1980 that the new AMC Eagle was, indeed, "The beginning of a new generation of cars." Even as the automaker was struggling financially, "AMC's reputation for developing vehicles on the cheap is only exceeded by its legacy of midwifing the SUV", including the Eagle to be the precursor to one of the most popular vehicle types on the market. Indeed, the Eagle's basic concept - that of a station wagon with AWD, raised ground clearance, full range of power options, and automatic transmissions, as well as rough-road capability - has inspired vehicles such as the Subaru Outback and Forester lines, the Audi Allroad, the Volkswagen Passat Alltrack, the Volvo XC range, and many others. Similarly, motoring journalist Marty Padgett described AMC's car-based 1980 Eagle, combining all-weather capability with better gas mileage, as "the first crossover," that was succeeded by whole generations of Subaru vehicles and other models.


title: AMC Eagle

text: In a road test of a 2009 crossover vehicle, the AMC Eagle "combined two disparate personalities – rugged, childlike playfulness and staunch paternal responsibility – in a way that few thought possible in 1980. And for all the Eagle's lowly heritage, it has set a lasting standard for utility and a friendly, innovative spirit that has eluded most of the compact crossovers on the market today." An article in a series about innovations and icons, the BBC wrote, "the Eagle was, in essence, the kind of segment-busting product that engineers and marketers spend entire careers trying to create."


title: AMC Eagle

text: Based on the AMC Concord, the 1980 AMC Eagle was introduced in August 1979 and available as a four-door sedan and station wagon, as well as a coupe. Standard equipment included power steering and power front disc and rear drum brakes, as well as 15-inch wheels with fiberglass-belted radial whitewall tires. The Eagle came base and upscale Limited trims, both of which carried the same features as the Concord DL and Limited, respectively. A sports package was available only on the two-door and wagon models featuring in addition to "Sport" emblems the following items: Durham Plaid fabric seat trim, leather-wrapped sport steering wheel, P195/75R15 Tiempo steel-belted radial tires, sport fog lamps, halogen high beam headlamps, dual black remote mirrors, 4X4 sport graphics, black bumpers with nerf strips, black lower body moldings, blackout grille, taillamp paint treatment, side tape stripes, and black moldings on the windshield, rear window, door frames, and B-pillar.


title: AMC Eagle

text: All Eagles came with "Ziebart Factory Rust Protection" that included a five-year "No Rust Thru" transferable warranty. The cars were built using aluminized trim screws, plastic inner fender liners, and galvanized steel in every exterior body panel, and the body went through an epoxy-based primer bath (up to the window line). Eagles were backed by the AMC Buyer Protection Plan, a 12-month/ warranty on everything except the tires.


title: AMC Eagle

text: The drivetrain consisted of one engine, the straight-six, in conjunction with a three-speed automatic transmission (a version of Chrysler's A998), with Dana 30 and Dana 35 differentials. All 1980 Eagles came standard with a permanent 4WD system that employed a New Process 119 transfer case that had a viscous fluid coupling that allowed the drive system to operate on wet or dry pavement without causing undue suspension and drivetrain wear. Due to its rugged undercarriage, two trailer-towing packages were available for handling trailers weighing up to . included a weight distributing (equalizing) tow hitch, seven-connector wiring harness, wiring, auxiliary transmission oil cooler, 3.54 axle ratio, and required the optional heavy-duty battery and automatic load-leveling air shocks.


title: AMC Eagle

text: The 1980 Eagle's appearance differed from the Concord's in that the bodies were raised further off their suspension to afford better ground clearance. To fill in the increased visual space between the tires and wheel wells, AMC used durable Kraton (polymer) plastic wheel arch flares that flowed into rocker panel extensions. The grille was similar to the 1980 Concord's, but with the horizontal bars spaced slightly further apart, and the Eagle graphic mounted to the driver's-side center. Because coupes and sedans carried Concord DL equipment as standard, they also carried the Concord DL coupe and sedan roof treatments, featuring vinyl coverings, and opera windows. However, bumpers were pulled closer to the body than those seen on Concords, due to the Eagle having been classified by the United States Environmental Protection Agency as a light truck, so was exempt from passenger-car regulations that required front and rear bumpers that could sustain a impact with no damage. However, as seen on the Concord, black plastic end caps were featured on the 1980 Eagle bumpers.


title: AMC Eagle

text: Demand for the innovative 4WD models caused AMC to discontinue the slow-selling Pacer in December 1979, to allow for increased Eagle production capacity at its assembly facility in Kenosha, Wisconsin. The 4WD components beneath a conventional car made the Eagle popular in regions with snow, and AMC made the Jeep connection explicit creating "an early crossover" vehicle. Production for the 1980 model was: 9,956 four-door sedans, 10,616 two-door sedans, and 25,807 station wagons with a grand total of 45,379 units. The Eagle models helped AMC increase total car production to 199,613 units, 18% over the previous year.


title: AMC Eagle

text: Changes to the standard (Series 30) Eagle lineup for 1981 were significant. The GM "Iron Duke" inline-four engine became standard equipment, as AMC's I6 became optional. The four was only available with the manual transmission in the Eagle sedans and wagons. The AMC inline-six was redesigned to produce more low-end torque, as well as made smoother running, more economical, and required less maintenance. The engineering improvements to the venerable AMC engine also reduced its weight by to , thus making it "the lightest in-line Six in the domestic industry".


title: AMC Eagle

text: All Eagles took on a new plastic eggcrate-style grille divided into 24 squares at the front. The Eagle emblem was moved to the grille header bar. Bumpers were updated so that their end caps flowed smoothly into the Kraton plastic wheel arches and rocker panel trim. The Sport package, carried over from 1980 on all three body styles, used the Spirit's hood and grille header bar trims starting in 1981. At , the Series 30 Eagle was also three inches (76 mm) shorter than the previous year.


title: AMC Eagle

text: Two smaller subcompact models, the AMC Eagle Kammback, based on the AMC Spirit sedan (née Gremlin), and the sporty Eagle SX/4, based on the Spirit liftback, debuted as "Eagle Series 50" models. The Kammback and SX/4 came standard with GM's "Iron Duke" four-cylinder engine, four-speed manual transmission, and power steering. The Series 50 Eagles reflected the styling updates that the larger Series 30 models showed for 1981. The SX/4 model was available with a Sport package, as well. "Billed as 'the sports car that doesn't always need a road' the SX/4 two-door hatchback had a sporty look, but hardly qualified as a sports car."


title: AMC Eagle

text: At the beginning of the model year, all Eagles carried over the new-for-1980 permanent all-wheel drive system with a viscous fluid coupling that protected the suspension or driveline components from wear during dry pavement use. A "Select Drive" option, which allowed the Eagle to run in two-wheel-drive (RWD) mode and be switched to four-wheel-drive via a dashboard switch, was offered as a fuel economy measure at midyear. Select Drive required the vehicle to be stationary when switching between two-wheel and four-wheel-drive.


title: AMC Eagle

text: Road tests by Gary Witzenburg in "Popular Mechanics" described the 1981 "Sport" model station wagon as "Snowbird Supreme" after driving it in Detroit's worst winter weather and noting the numerous improvements that were incorporated for the new model year building on the AMC Eagle's "soundness of design and originality of its concept."


title: AMC Eagle

text: A road test by "Car and Driver" of the new Eagle SX/4 Sport reported that since it goes where most cars find impossible, it "doesn't require pavement to be fun."


title: AMC Eagle

text: Production was: 5,603 Kammbacks, 17,340 Liftbacks, 2,378 two-door sedans, 1,737 four-door sedans, and 10,371 station wagons for a total of 37,429 units.


title: AMC Eagle

text: New low-drag disc brakes were featured as standard equipment. A five-speed manual transmission joined the options list. The optional automatic transmission received wider gear ratios for better fuel economy. All received as standard equipment the "Select Drive" system that could be changed between all-wheel drive and two-wheel drive for a potential increase in fuel economy. The system put the front axle and prop shaft into the gas-saving freewheeling mode from the driver's seat. The Series 30 sedan was no longer available with the Sport package.


title: AMC Eagle

text: Even with the choice of two wheelbase versions and five body styles, the most popular model was the wagon with 20,899 built out of total Eagle production of 37,923 for the 1982 model year. Other production was: 520 Kammbacks, 10,445 Liftbacks, 1,968 two-door sedans, and 4,091 four-door sedans.


title: AMC Eagle

text: Few changes were seen for 1983. The Series 50 Eagle Kammback and Series 30 Eagle 2-door sedans were both dropped from the line, due to slow sales. The Series 30 Eagle sedan was no longer available in the Limited trim, leaving only the base model in the Eagle sedan line. The Series 50 SX/4 and Series 30 wagon continued basically unchanged. All were measures to save production costs by pruning the slow-selling models from the line, thereby streamlining their processes by reducing production variations, and therefore, complexity.


title: AMC Eagle

text: Starting in February 1983, the AMC I4 theoretically replaced the GM Iron Duke 151 in the Eagle as the standard engine, though the installation rate is unknown. The I6 was improved for better performance by increasing the compression ratio to 9.2 to 1 (from the previous 8.2 to 1), as well as a fuel feedback system, a knock sensor, and the CEC; thus allowing the continuing use of regular-grade fuel.


title: AMC Eagle

text: A long-term road test by "Popular Mechanics" began with the editors describing that the "Eagle is best when working hard" and "you can feel the tremendous traction" of its big all-weather tires in four-wheel drive giving "a great feeling of security."


title: AMC Eagle

text: Production was: 2,259 Liftbacks, 3,093 four-door sedans, and 12,378 station wagons for a total of 17,730 units in 1983.


title: AMC Eagle

text: The Series 50 SX/4 was dropped for 1984. The lineup now consisted of the base Series 30 Eagle sedan and wagon as well as the Limited wagon. The base wagon was available with the Sport option trim package.


title: AMC Eagle

text: For 1984, the popular I6 was optional in place of the AMC I4. The four-cylinder engine was installed in only 147 Eagles, but this still allowed AMC to advertise its fuel economy of city and highway with the four-speed transmission and with the five-speed on the highway. The Select Drive system was redesigned to allow Shift on the Fly. (Prior model-year Eagles required two hands to operate the shifting switch, making it difficult, if not impossible, to change while the car was in motion.)


title: AMC Eagle

text: All Eagle models were now assembled in AMC's original factory in Brampton, Ontario, Canada because the automaker's main Kenosha plant was used for the Renault Alliance and Encore models.


title: AMC Eagle

text: Exterior styling was slightly revised as all models used the "power bulge" hood, seen previously on the 1981–83 Eagle Series 50 models. The grille header bar and hood ornament/trim strip were deleted in the process. "Shift-on-the-Fly" capability was added to the Select Drive 4-wheel-drive system as standard equipment. A new key-fob-activated infrared remote keyless system with power locks was newly available as an option. Radios with digital tuning were also introduced.


title: AMC Eagle

text: The standard powertrain was now the previously optional five-speed manual, with the wide-ratio three-speed automatic still available as a popular option. The AMC 258 I6 became standard. However, Eagle sales began to drop as AMC was no longer promoting the models.


title: AMC Eagle

text: Production was for the 1985 model year: 2,655 four-door sedans and 13,335 station wagons, for a total of 16,990 units.


title: AMC Eagle

text: American Motors introduced the open differential Model 128 transfer case for the Eagle. The automatic transmission no longer had a lockup torque converter. Eagle sales would drop beneath the 10,000 annual unit mark for the first time for 1986 (and would slide further for its remaining two seasons on the market), as the car was aging due to its seven-season life atop a platform that debuted for 1970.


title: AMC Eagle

text: Production was: 1,274 four-door sedans and 6,943 station wagons, for a total of 8,217 units. The Eagles were now built in AMC's Brampton Assembly in Canada alongside AMC's new Jeep Wrangler.


title: AMC Eagle

text: Though AMC debuted its new fuel-injected I6 engine for 1987, the new engine did not make it under the venerable Eagle's hood. The I6 remained the sole engine available in the eight-season-old Eagle sedan and wagon. No major changes were seen on the 1987 Eagle, as American Motors turned its attention to the debut of the imported Renault Medallion. The buyout of the company by Chrysler Corporation took effect officially on 5 August 1987.


title: AMC Eagle

text: Production for the 1987 model year was: 454 four-door sedans, and 5,468 or 4,564 (varies with source) station wagons, for a total of 5,018 to 5,922 (varies with source) units.


title: AMC Eagle

text: Chrysler took over AMC, but the production of the Eagles continued for the 1988 model year. The car's name was officially changed from AMC Eagle to Eagle Wagon. However, all of the AMC badges, build sheets, and door plaques were carried over. The VIN was no different under the new corporate owner, other than the digit for the year. Although the paperwork that came with the 1988 Eagles continued to indicate that American Motors Canada, Ltd. built them, the company as named ceased to exist, since it became a subsidiary of Chrysler in the buyout, as did all AMC properties. The final car rolled out of AMC's original Brampton Assembly Plant in Brampton, Ontario on 14 December 1987. In its place, production was increased of the Jeep Wrangler that was built there.


title: AMC Eagle

text: The sedan and Limited wagon model were dropped, leaving the wagon as the only available version in 1988, its final season and now under Chrysler's ownership. The standard and only I6 engine was rated at and came with either a 5-speed manual or automatic transmission with AMC's Select-Drive system. Standard equipment in 1988 that was previously optional included air conditioning system, rear window defroster, halogen headlamps, AM/FM stereo radio, light group (glove box, dome, and engine lights), and adjustable steering wheel. The following remained optional equipment for the 1988 production: power windows, power seats, power mirrors, radio with cassette player, cruise control, rear window wiper, wood grain side panels, floor mats, headlamp warning buzzer, intermittent wipers, wire wheel covers, and a cold climate group.


title: AMC Eagle

text: Not only is the AMC Eagle described as "the first-ever crossover," the model line included a convertible body style. In 1980, AMC entered into an agreement with the Griffith Company for a convertible version of its newly introduced Eagle and a prototype version was developed. The cars were marketed during the 1981 and 1982 model years as the Sundancer.


title: AMC Eagle

text: The Eagle's monocoque (unibody) body was reinforced and a steel targa roll bar was welded to the door pillars for passenger compartment protection. The front portion of the roof was a removable lightweight fiberglass hatch, while the rear section of polyvinyl material and the back window folded down and had a boot cover when in the down position. While the convertible versions used standard Eagle components the flexible back section of the top is a custom part.


title: AMC Eagle

text: The conversions were approved by AMC with the cars ordered through select AMC dealers in the customer's selection of options and exterior colors. They were available in the top "Limited" trim level that included leather upholstery. The conversion cost approximately $3,000 and the dealer's list price was $3,750. The conversion was performed by Griffith, which was originally established to build race cars based on the English TVR sports car. Headquartered in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, the cars were shipped from Kenosha for the conversion and then to the ordering AMC dealer. The model did not achieve significant sales and was dropped for the 1983 model year as AMC expanded the Eagle range with the introduction of the sub-compact SX/4 and Kammback versions.


title: AMC Eagle

text: Griffith was also responsible for the similar "Sunchaser" Toyota Celica convertible. These conversions are considered coach convertibles.


title: AMC Eagle

text: Another factory-approved conversion was the 1980 turbo-diesel. The engines producing and of torque were supplied by VM Motori. Only about seven are thought to have been manufactured. Two are accounted for in one of the AMC Eagle clubs.


title: AMC Eagle

text: The marketing literature for the conversions noted the cars are equipped with larger fuel tanks, which together with diesel economy and an optional overdrive transmission, would give the cars up to range. However, the $9,000 price tag for the conversion limited the car's market appeal and the turbo-diesel option was discontinued.


title: AMC Eagle

text: The AMC Eagle was campaigned in the SCCA ProRally racing series, organized by the Sports Car Club of America, a sanctioning body supporting road racing, rallying, and autocross events across the U.S.


title: AMC Eagle

text: Drivers Guy Light and Jim Brandt finished the 1981 Northern Lights rally just three minutes behind first place in the Production Class "in spite of nailing a tree dead center with their brand new AMC Eagle SX/4." Two weeks later at the Chisum Trail rally, the Light and Brandt SX/4 captured fifth place overall, as well as won first in the Production Class, "only the second rally for the Michigan team in their new Eagle." The next event was the Susquehannock Trail rally that saw the first-place winner face "a stiff challenge" from Light and Brandt's SX/4 that captured second less than a minute later. At the Centennial rally held in Monument, Colorado, the Light and Brandt team in their AMC Eagle SX/4 placed third in the Production class and seventh overall. There were three entries with AMC Eagle SX/4s in the Sunriser 400 rally. Light and Brandt won the Production Class and finished seventh overall, followed by drivers Gene Henderson and Jim Kloosterman placing fourth in Production and eleventh overall, but Steve Dorr and Bob Lyle did not complete the race. With only 33 cars finishing out of 71 that entered, the grueling Press-on-Regardless Rally held in Michigan. Light and Brandt placed their SX/4 just two minutes behind the winning team in the Production Class.


title: AMC Eagle

text: The AMC Eagle SX/4 cars captured both second and third place the 1981 Sno*Drift Production Class rally held on Michigan's snow-covered gravel surface roads in January. Second in the Production Class and sixth overall were Henderson and Kloosterman. "They were robbed of a nearly certain win in the class when the route was blocked on the 12th stage by John Woolf ... [who] was in second place when the car slid on the ice and went straight into a bank tearing off the right front strut and setting the car straight across the road. Henderson was blocked and had to help clear the car from the road before he could continue. They lost two minutes, two places and a win in the class." Third place Production and seventh overall in this two-day race in Grayling, Michigan, went to Guy Light and Jim Brandt. The finale of the 1981 SCCA ProRally season was held in Reno, Nevada. This is where Light and Brandt drove their AMC Eagle SX/4 to an eight-minute victory over the second-place finisher in the Production Class, as well as placing tenth overall.


title: AMC Eagle

text: The Light and Brandt team ended 1981 with second place in total points for both driver and co-driver, as well as helping put AMC third in the Production Manufacturer standings for the ProRally season.


title: AMC Eagle

text: The first event of 1982 was the Big Bend Bash rally in Alpine, Texas, with Gene Henderson and Jim Kloosterman taking Production Class in their AMC Eagle SX/4, "but even that car's four-wheel-drive couldn't save it from trouble in the deep water... They got stuck in the middle of a water-filled wash on stage four and had to be pushed and pulled out." The next event, the 100 Acre Wood rally saw "the Production Class battle was as exciting as the Overall warfare with four Production Class cars finishing in the top ten, all within a minute and a half, after a full night of rallying." The Henderson and Kloosterman team placed their SX/4 third in the Production Class and ninth overall. The AMC Eagle of Henderson and Kloosterman "in the lead ... but that didn't last... On stage 10 the car rolled, ending wheels up on the stage" at the Olympus rally in Tumwater, Washington. At the next event, the Northern Lights rally, the Henderson and Kloosterman SX/4 ended in sixth place in Production and tenth overall. The Budweiser Forest rally held in Circleville, Ohio, put the Henderson and Kloosterman SX/4 in second place for production cars and eighth overall. The Centennial rally was held in Colorado with of many of the rally's stages at a altitude, but the Henderson and Kloosterman AMC Eagle SX/4 was just a minute and a half behind the winner with a turbocharged engine in the Production Class and placed seventh overall. The next event, the Tour de Forest rally in Washington State saw the SX/4 of Henderson and Kloosterman finish in fourth place for Production and eighth overall. The SX/4 took second place driven by Henderson and Kloosterman in the 1982 Sno*Drift Production Class in Michigan. "Henderson and his AMC Eagle used the car's 4wd to good advantage and chipped away at [the] lead[er] after the rains started early Sunday morning. The rally ended, however, before Henderson could pull it off" just 24 seconds behind first place.


title: AMC Eagle

text: The 100 Acre Wood rally in Salem, Missouri, started the season with Gene Henderson and Jim Kloosterman placing their SX/4 second in the Production Class and seventh overall. At the Budweiser Forest rally in Chillicothe, Ohio, "Henderson was the leader in the class in his AMC Eagle SX/4 through the first two-thirds of the 12-hour rally... Some seven stages from the end, Henderson's Eagle began to have engine trouble and lost one cylinder". The Nor'wester rally held in Tumwater, Washington, had perfect weather (cold, rain, and 11 stages covered with more than six inches of snow) that "helped Production Class winners [and fourth place overall] Gene Henderson and Jim Kloosterman since, "It was perfect conditions for our 4wd (AMC) Eagle. We love that slop". At the next event, the Olympus International, Henderson and Kloosterman was an early leader, but retired with a blown engine in his AMC Eagle SX/4; however, Gene's son, Garry Henderson, in another SX/4 with co-driver Mike Van Leo, placed second in the Production Class and sixth overall. The inaugural three-day Michigan International rally should have been easy for the AMC Eagle SX/4, but "several of the very sandy stages that would have been to Henderson's advantage were cancelled" so with co-driver Jon Wickens, the team finished second in the Production Class and tenth overall. The next event with the SX/4 was the Manistee Trails rally in Michigan, where Henderson and Kloosterman won the Production class and finished fifth overall. At the November Press-on-Regardless rally, Henderson was "dominating things in the early going until a big rock took a bite out of the AMC Eagle's transfer case putting it out of the rally." The Henderson and Kloosterman team finished the 1983 Sno*Drift in third place for Production Class and sixth overall.


title: AMC Eagle

text: For the 1983 season, Henderson and Kloosterman ranked second as drivers, while AMC was third among the Production Manufacturers.


title: AMC Eagle

text: There were two AMC Eagle SX/4 entries in the 1984 Press-on-Regardless rally with Gene Henderson and Mike VanLoo's car finishing in third place. At the next event, the Oregon Trail rally in Beaverton, Oregon, also had two AMC Eagles with the SX/4 driven by Gene Henderson and Doug Foster finishing in tenth position.


title: AMC Eagle

text: The team of Daniel and Betty-Ann Gilliland took their SX/4 to tenth place, while Bob Lyle and Dan Way in an AMC Eagle finished 37th in the Susquehannock Trail rally held in Wellsboro, Pennsylvania. The Gillilands then went on to finish in seventh place, one of two AMC Eagles that were entered in the Dodge ProRally event in Battle Creek, Michigan. In the next event, the Sunriser 400 Forest rally in Chillicothe, Ohio, where the Gilliland's finished in eighth place.


title: AMC Eagle

text: The opening event of 1986, the Tulip 200 Forest rally, had four AMC Eagles racing, with Daniel and Betty-Ann Gilliland driving their SX/4 to fifth place overall, while Dave Sampson and Mike Puffenberger finished in 33rd. The Susquehannock Trail rally included three AMC Eagles, with Wayne and Karl Scheible finishing 32nd overall, while Bob Lyle and Dan Way completed the race in 43rd, both running in the Production Class. The Dave Sampson and Mike Puffenberger team drove their SX/4 to 34th finish in the Sunriser 400 Forest rally.


title: AMC Eagle

text: The Susquehannock Trail rally in 1988 saw Bob Lyle and Art Mendolia in their AMC Eagle finish in 29th place overall.


title: AMC Eagle

text: AMC Eagles were imported into Germany by Allrad Schmitt in Höchberg, Würzburg in Bavaria which had been the sole importer of AMC Jeeps since 1977. The company specialized in off-road vehicles and thus the Eagle was imported from 1980.


title: AMC Eagle

text: AMC Eagles were imported into Japan, in their original left-hand-drive, from 1985-1989 under the country's new "Action Plan of 1985" which was implemented to simplify Japan's importation processes including motor vehicles. Kintetsu Shibaura Automotive Maintenance Company Ltd. began importing the AMC Eagle Wagon and XJ-generation Jeep Cherokee. The company was absorbed into Kintetsu Motors in 1986 that continued to import the Eagle and the Cherokee until 1989.


title: AMC Eagle

text: The Eagle and other AMC models and Jeeps were imported to Switzerland by J.H. Keller in Zurich. During the 1970s until around 1986, AMC's International Operations exported Pacers, Javelins, Concords as well as Jeep CJs and Wagoneers that were built in the US or Canada.


title: AMC Eagle

text: The AMC Eagle "was arguably a decade ahead of its time." It was a passenger car that "pioneered the crossover SUV" category. Introduced in late 1979 for the 1980 model year, it "was unlike anything on the market" and in the 2000s "the somewhat traditional SUV has given way to the 'crossover utility vehicle' ... the market has become saturated with these new crossovers that provide a car-like driving experience with the security of a little more ground clearance and all-wheel drive" making the AMC Eagle "about 30 years ahead of the curve."


title: AMC Eagle

text: The Eagle had character and survival skills and gained a loyal following. They were a precursor to today's crossover models and the "vehicles worked well and sold well." Total production was 197,449 units in one generation.


title: AMC Eagle

text: Although the original AMC Eagle was not produced after 1988, the Eagle brand, as part of the newly formed Jeep-Eagle division of the Chrysler Corporation, would soldier on.


title: AMC Eagle

text: After buying out AMC, Chrysler gained the lucrative Jeep operation, but it was also "saddled with a largely unsuccessful assortment of cars AMC was bringing in from French affiliate and part owner" Renault. The new Jeep-Eagle division included a combination of the Renault-based vehicles, the imported Eagle Medallion and the North American built Eagle Premier, as well as re-trimmed Japanese Mitsubishi models: Eagle Summit, Eagle Summit Wagon, Eagle Talon, Eagle 2000GTX (Canada only), and Eagle Vista (Canada only). A Chrysler-designed vehicle, the Eagle Vision, was added in 1993.


title: AMC Eagle

text: After the AMC-based 4-wheel-drive Eagle wagon was dropped, Chrysler and Eagle officials were busy figuring out which type of vehicles would be best for the new division. The four-wheel-drive sporty Eagle concept would continue in spirit by offering all-wheel-drive optionally on the Mitsubishi-based 1990–98 Eagle Talon, the Canadian-market 1989–91 Eagle Vista wagon, and 1992–96 Eagle Summit Wagon. However, the "Eagle car lineup for '90 differed significantly from the one that bowed in 1987, on the heels of Chrysler's buyout of AMC."


title: AMC Eagle

text: The brand included vehicles from different companies with various characteristics that included economy, sportiness, and luxury. Due to poor marketing, sales never met expectations. Chrysler discontinued the Eagle brand after the 1998 model year.


title: AMC Eagle

text: Surviving cars "look like the 'early man' version of a CUV, sort of a missing link of the car world." As used cars, the AMC Eagles were "not intended for heavy-duty boulder bashing" and established a reputation as unique 4-wheel-drive passenger cars "with proven AMC bodyshells and running gear". AMC Eagles are collected for purposes of nostalgia, status, pleasure, investment as well as function. They also have the distinction of being "a historically significant car."


title: AMC Eagle

text: The Eagle shares many parts and components with other Jeep and AMC models. There are many active AMC car clubs and specialized vendors for service and reproduction parts. While surviving Eagles are no longer depreciating, they do not seem to be appreciating rapidly – except for the 1981–82 Sundancer convertible.


title: AMC Eagle

text: In some regions, including the Pacific Northwest United States, British Columbia, and Alaska, AMC Eagles are still abundant and in service and available for sale decades after production ceased.


title: AMC Eagle

text: Eagles that were built into SCCA Pro Rally cars have also been offered to collectors, such as a version powered by the AMC V8 engine. Well maintained examples from high-profile owners (such as Phoebe Hearst, William Randolph Hearst's granddaughter) have also been sold. Very rarely do well taken care of Sundancer convertible versions, that run as well as they look, come up for sale.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: Muncie ( ) is an incorporated city and the seat of Delaware County, Indiana. Previously known as Buckongahelas Town, named after the legendary Delaware Chief. It is located in East Central Indiana, about northeast of Indianapolis. The United States Census for 2020 reported the city's population was 65,194. It is the principal city of the Muncie metropolitan statistical area, which has a population of 117,671.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: The Lenape (Delaware) people, led by Buckongahelas arrived in the area in the 1790s, founding several villages, including one known as Munsee Town, along the White River. The trading post, renamed Muncietown, was selected as the Delaware County seat and platted in 1827. Its name was officially shortened to Muncie in 1845 and incorporated as a city in 1865. Muncie developed as a manufacturing and industrial center, especially after the Indiana gas boom of the 1880s. It is home to Ball State University. As a result of the Middletown studies, sociological research that was first conducted in the 1920s, Muncie is said to be one of the most studied United States cities of its size.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: The area was first settled in the 1790s by the Lenape (Delaware) people, who were forced west from their tribal lands in the Mid-Atlantic region (all of New Jersey, southeastern New York, eastern Pennsylvania, and northern Delaware) to new lands in present-day Ohio and eastern Indiana. The Lenape founded several towns along the White River, including Munsee Town, near the site of present-day Muncie.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: Contrary to popular legend, the city's early name of Munsee Town is derived from the "Munsee" clan of Lenape people, the white settlers' name for a group of Native Americans whose village was once situated along the White River. There is no evidence that a mythological Chief Munsee ever existed. ("Munsee" means a member of or one of their languages.)


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: In 1818 the area's native tribes ceded their lands to the federal government under the terms of the Treaty of St. Mary's and agreed to move farther west by 1821. New settlers began to arrive in what became Delaware County, Indiana, about 1820, shortly before the area's public lands were formally opened for purchase. The small trading village of Munsee Town, renamed Muncietown, was selected as the Delaware County seat and platted in 1827. On January 13, 1845, Indiana's governor signed legislation passed by the Indiana General Assembly to shorten the town's name to Muncie. Soon, a network of roads connected Muncie to nearby towns, adjacent counties, and to other parts of Indiana. The Indianapolis and Bellefontaine Railroad, the first to arrive in Muncie in 1852, provided the town and the surrounding area with access to larger markets for its agricultural production, as well as a faster means of transporting people and goods into and out of the area.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: Muncie incorporated as a town on December 6, 1854, and became an incorporated city in 1865. John Brady was elected as the city's first mayor. Muncie's early utility companies also date to the mid-1860s, including the city's waterworks, which was established in 1865.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: After the American Civil War, two factors helped Muncie attract new commercial and industrial development: the arrival of additional railroads from the late 1890s to the early 1900s and the discovery of abundant supplies of natural gas in the area. Prior to the discovery of nearby natural-gas wells and the beginning of the gas boom in Muncie in 1886, the region was primarily an agricultural area, with Muncie serving as the commercial trading center for local farmers.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: The Indiana gas boom of the 1880s ushered in a new era of prosperity to Muncie. Abundant supplies of natural gas attracted new businesses, industries, and additional residents to the city. Although agriculture continued to be an economic factor in the region, industry dominated the city's development for the next 100 years. One of the major manufacturers that arrived early in the city's gas-boom period was the Ball Brothers Glass Manufacturing Company, which was renamed the Ball Corporation in 1969. The Ball brothers, who were searching for a new site for their glass manufacturing business that was closer to an abundant natural-gas supply, built a new glass-making foundry in Muncie, beginning its glass production on March 1, 1888. In 1889 the company relocated its metal manufacturing operations to Muncie.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: In addition to several other glass factories, Muncie attracted iron and steel mills. Kitselman Steel & Wire Company was the largest employer in Indiana in 1900 with 11,000 employees; it later became Indiana Steel & Wire. Others included Republic Iron and Steel Company and the Midland Steel Company. (Midland became Inland Steel Company and later moved to Gary, Indiana.) Indiana Bridge Company was also a major employer. By the time the natural gas supply from the Trenton Gas Field had significantly declined and the gas boom ended in Indiana around 1910, Muncie was well established as an industrial town and a commercial center for east-central Indiana, especially with several railroad lines connecting it to larger cities and the arrival of automobile industry manufacturing after 1900.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: Numerous civic developments also occurred as a result of the city's growth during the 1870s, 1880s, and 1890s, when Muncie citizens built a new city hall, a new public library, and a new high school. The city's gasworks also began operations in the late 1870s. The "Muncie Star" was founded in 1899 and the "Muncie Evening Press" was founded in 1905. A new public library, which was a Carnegie library project, was dedicated on January 1, 1904, and served as the main branch of the city's public library system.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: The forerunner to Ball State University also arrived in the early twentieth century. Eastern Indiana Normal School opened 1899, but it closed after two years. Several subsequent efforts to establish a private college in Muncie during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries also failed, but one proved to be very successful. After the Ball brothers bought the school property and its vacant buildings and donated them to the State of Indiana, the Indiana State Normal School, Eastern Division, the forerunner to Ball State University, opened in 1918. It was named Ball Teachers College in 1922, Ball State Teachers College in 1929, and Ball State University in 1965.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: Beginning in the late nineteenth century, in tandem with the gas boom, Muncie developed an active cultural arts community, which included music and art clubs, women's clubs, self-improvements clubs, and other social clubs. Hoosier artist J. Ottis Adams, who came to Muncie in 1876, later formed an art school in the city with fellow artist, William Forsyth. Although their school closed with a year or two, other art groups were established, most notably the Art Students' League (1892) and the Muncie Art Association (1905).


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: By the early twentieth century several railroads served Muncie, which helped to establish the city as a transportation hub. The Cincinnati, Richmond and Muncie Railroad (later known as the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway) reached Muncie in 1903. The Chicago, Indiana, and Eastern Railroad (acquired by a subsidiary of the Pennsylvania Railroad system) and the Chicago and Southeastern (sometimes called the Central Indiana Railroad) also served the city. In addition to the railroads, Muncie's roads connected to nearby towns and an electric interurban system, which arrived in the early 1900s, linked it to smaller towns and larger cities, including Indianapolis and Fort Wayne, Indiana, and Dayton, Ohio.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: With the arrival of the auto manufacturing and the related auto parts industry after the turn of the twentieth century, Muncie's industrial and commercial development increased, along with its population growth. During World War I local manufacturers joined others around the county in converting their factories to production of war material. In the 1920s Muncie continued its rise as an automobile-manufacturing center, primarily due to its heavy industry and skilled labor force. During this time, the community also became a center of Ku Klux Klan activity. Muncie's Klan membership was estimated at 3,500 in the early 1920s. Scandals within the Klan's leadership, divisions among its members, and some violent confrontations with their opponents damaged the organization's reputation. Increasing hostility toward the Klan's political activities, beliefs, and values also divided the Muncie community, before its popularity and membership significantly declined by the end of the decade.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: Muncie residents also made it through the challenges of the Great Depression, with the Ball brothers continuing their role as major benefactors to the community by donating funds for construction of new facilities at Ball State and Ball Memorial Hospital. (The hospital, which opened in 1929, later affiliated with Indiana University Health.) The Works Progress Administration (WPA) also provided jobs such as road grading, city sewer improvements, and bridge construction.


title: Muncie, Indiana

text: In the 1920s, Robert and Helen Lynd led a team of sociologists in a study of a typical middle-American community. The Lynds chose Muncie as the locale for their field research, although they never specifically identified it as "Middletown" the fictional name of the town in their study. Muncie received national attention after the publication of their book, "Middletown: A Study in Contemporary American Culture" (1929). The Lynds returned to Muncie to re-observe the community during the Depression, which resulted in a sequel, "Middletown in Transition: A Study in Cultural Conflicts" (1937). The Lynds' Middletown study, which was funded by the Rockefeller Institute of Social and Religious Research, was intended to study "the interwoven trends that are the life of a small American city."